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Practical Research II
Quarter 2 – Module 4:
Understanding Data and Ways to

Systematically Collect Data
Practical Research 2
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter – Module 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
First Edition, 2020
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Practical Research II
Quarter – Module 4:
Understanding Data and Ways to
Systematically Collect Data
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:
Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data!
This module was collaboratively designed, developed, and reviewed by educators both from
public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher, or facilitator in helping the
learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal,
social, and economic constraints in schooling.
This learning resource hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent learning
activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help learners acquire
the needed 21st-century skills while taking into consideration their needs and
circumstances.
In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of the
module:
Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies
that will help you in guiding the learners.
As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You also
need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their learning.
Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they do the tasks
included in the module.
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For the learner:
Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data!
The hand is one of the most symbolized parts of the human body. It is often used to depict
skill, action, and purpose. Through our hands, we may learn, create, and accomplish.
Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner is capable and
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This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided
and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the
contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.
This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:
What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.
What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to check

what you already know about the lesson to take.
If you get all the answers correct (100%), you
may decide to skip this module.
What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the

current lesson with the previous one.
What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced

to you in various ways such as a story, a song, a
poem, a problem opener, an activity, or a
situation.
What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the

lesson. This aims to help you discover and
understand new concepts and skills.
What’s More This comprises activities for independent

practice to solidify your understanding and skills
of the topic. You may check the answers to the
exercises using the Answer Key at the end of the
module.
What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

sentences/paragraphs to be filled in to process
what you learned from the lesson.
What I Can Do This section provides an activity that will help

you transfer your new knowledge or skill in real-
life situations or concerns.
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Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level
of mastery in achieving the learning competency.
Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given to

you to enrich your knowledge or skill of the
lesson learned. This also tends to the retention of
learned concepts.
Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

module.
At the end of this module you will also find:
References This is a list of all sources used in developing

this module.
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities included
in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to
consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain a
deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
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What I Need to Know
This module was intended to help you understand the research methodology as well
as the processes and techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information
about a topic. The module also talks about data and ways to systematically collect data
with an end view that you will be able to plan and apply appropriate research design,
sampling technique, data gathering procedures, and data analysis using the data in your
research paper.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are
arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read
them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into eight lessons, namely:

Lesson 1: The Quantitative Research Design
Lesson 2: The Sample and Sampling Procedures
Lesson 3: Construct an Instrument and Establishes its Validity and Reliability
Lesson 4: Describe an Intervention
Lesson 5: Data Collection Procedures
Lesson 6: Data Analysis
Lesson 7: Present Written Research Methodology
Lesson 8: Research Design Principles and Ethical Standards in Conducting A Study
After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. chooses appropriate quantitative research design
2. describes the sampling procedure and the sample
3. constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability
4. describes intervention (if applicable)
5. plans data collection procedure
6. plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate)
7. presents the written research methodology
8. implements design principles to produce creative work
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What I Know
Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided.
_____1. Which research design is exemplified by the research entitled, Attitudes of

SHS Learners towards General Community Quarantine (GCQ)?
a. correlational research c. descriptive research

b. causal- comparative research d. experimental research
_____2. Which among the given quantitative research design attempts to establish
cause and effect relationships among the variables?
a. correlational research c. descriptive research

b. causal- comparative research d. experimental research
_____ 3. What do you call the process of measuring a small portion of something
and then making a general statement about the whole thing?
a. Sampling c. Probability sampling
b. Sample d. Non- probability sampling
_____ 4. Which type of non-probability sampling uses no system of selection but
only includes those samples that the researcher or interviewer meet by
chance?
a. Accidental sampling c. Pure random sampling
b. Systematic sampling d. Quota sampling
_____5. What do you call those data that are gathered from primary sources?
a. variables c. primary data
b. numerical data d. secondary data
_____6. What do you call the data that are gathered from books, magazines, and
newspapers?
a. variables c. primary data
b. numerical data d. secondary data
_____7. Which statistical treatment will you use for the situation below?
Teacher A conducted a research to identify if there is a significant difference
between low-fat food and high-fat food intake among children. In the study, a
sample of children was provided with a breakfast of low-fat foods on one day
and high-fat foods on another.
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a. paired T-test c. two- sample T-test
b. ANOVA d. repeated-measures ANOVA
_____8. Which of the following could be described like the steps you will undergo to
collect data of your study?
a. research locale c. research design
b. research instrument d. collection procedure
_____9. Which section outlines the instruments you will use in the study such as
interview questions, interview protocols, observation, guide, survey form,
focus group discussion questions, and others?
a. research locale c. research design
b. research instrument d. data
_____10. Which type of validity concerned with the font size, spacing, the size of the
paper used, and other necessary details that will not distract respondents
from answering the questionnaire?
a. face validity c. construct validity

b. content validity d. criterion-related validity
_____ 11. Which refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in

repeated trials?
a. validity b. reliability c. stability d. specificity
_____12. This research is used for improving practice. It involves action,

evaluation, and critical reflection and – based on the evidence gathered –
changes in practice are then implemented.
a. action research c. developmental research

b. experimental research d. case study
_____13. Which of the following pertains to ethical consideration?

a. making sure you research does not cause harm or offense
b. when people are of different colors
c. making sure your research causes harm or offense
d. when you are polite to people
_____14. What is informed consent?

a. when people involved in research are told of the details of the study
b. when people involved in your research are not told of the details of the
study
c. when people involved in your research are paid for their participation
d. when people involved in your research are not paid for their participation
_____15. What is confidentiality in research?

a. not putting someone’s name on their research
b. need for researchers to tell people that they are being studied
c. need for researchers not to publish personal details of respondents
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d. to only research people that you know
Lesson
The Quantitative Research
1 Design
The research design will guide you in choosing the strategy, data collection,
measurement, and data analysis that you will use in your research to answer your
research problem. In this lesson, the focus is on the quantitative research design,
its types, and its strengths and weaknesses.
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. choose an appropriate quantitative research design

2. identify the different kinds of quantitative research design
3. differentiate the kinds of variables; and
4. write a draft discussion of your chosen quantitative design
What’s In
Write your research topic. Identify the key issues that you want to know
from your topic. Use the form below as a scaffolding to clearly articulate your
answer.
Research Topic: _________________________________________________________
Write the aim of your study below: Identify the key issues that you want to
find out. Write them in question form:
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________

Ensure that the objectives of the learners’ research are clear to
them. By this time, the learners should have an approved set of
research question.
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What’s New
The quantitative research design focuses on gathering numerical data. Its

methods highlight objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or
numerical analysis of data. In this design, data are collected through polls,
questionnaires, and surveys(LeTourneau University, 2020).
Table 1. The Quantitative Research Design
Evaluative
research
Sources: Johnson & Christensen (2017), www. wssu.edu, and www.esrpc.com
What is It
Quantitative research can be experimental or nonexperimental. In

experimental research, an independent variable is manipulated to see the effects on
the dependent variables while in non-experimental research, the independent
variable is not manipulated and there is no random assignment to groups. With the
given examples categorized as experimental and nonexperimental, it can be said
that in descriptive research, causal-comparative research, and correlation research
there is no manipulation of independent variables, thus they are classified as
nonexperimental researches.
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Quantitative research usually finds answers using variables. It also
demonstrates the relationships among the variables.
A variable is a condition or characteristic that can take on different values
or categories. It is an independent variable (IV) when it is being manipulated by
the researcher while the dependent variable (DV) is the one being observed and
measured by the researcher (www.scribbr.com.n.d.).
According to de Belen and Feliciano (2015) variables can also be discrete or
continuous. A discrete variable implies that the numbers are whole numbers that
are separate, individual, and indivisible and do not contain fractions. Examples:
Grade level of students, the number of cars in a parking lot, baby’s age in months.
Continuous variables are those that can be gathered through measurement and
have an infinite number of possible values such as person’s weight/age/height;
travel time from Sariaya to Pagbilao, price of commodities, family income, etc.
Types of Quantitative Research
1. Experimental research
In experimental research, an independent variable is manipulated to
determine the effects on the dependent variables (www.scribber.com). An
independent variable (IV) is a variable that is presumed to cause a change to
occur in another variable. A dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is
presumed to be influenced by one or more independent variables (Johnson &
Christensen,2014).
Example:
A teacher wants to test the effectiveness of a new technique of teaching how
to solve problems in mathematics. Before the start of the experiment, the group to
be used is given an achievement test about the problems to be covered. After the
experimental period, the same test in another form is given to the group as a post-
test.
a. Pre-experimental research design

In this research design, a single group is usually studied but no
comparison between the same non-treatment group is made
(www.esrpc.com,2009).
a.1. Type of Pre- Experimental Design
a.1.1. One-shot case study design

 One group is exposed to treatment and measured
subsequently to determine if there were any effects.
 There is no control group for comparison
(AlleyDog.com, 2020)
Example:
A teacher is using a new instructional method for his

class. The class will be measured at the end of the
semester to see if the new instructional method is
effective.
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a.1.2. One Group Pretest Posttest Study
 In this design, a single case is observed one (1) before

the treatment and one (1) after the treatment.
 Changes in the outcome are supposed to be the result
of the intervention or treatment.
 No control or comparison group is employed
Example:
A teacher compares the performance of SHS in the work
immersion subject before gaining work experience and
after completing the work immersion.
a.1.3. Static-group comparison
 In this design, a group that has been exposed to

treatment is compared with one that has not.
 Observed differences between the two groups are
presumed to be a result of the treatment
(Researchconnections.org, 2020).
Example:
A teacher wants to determine the effectiveness of an

intervention. He uses two (2) groups as subjects, one (1)
is exposed to the intervention, the other is not. He
compares the posttest scores of the exposed group
against the score of the non-exposed group.
b. Quasi-experimental research design
In a quasi-experimental research design, the independent variable is

manipulated and the subjects are not randomly assigned to
conditions or orders of conditions (Cook & Campbell, 1979).
Example:
A researcher wants to evaluate a new method of teaching fractions to

fourth graders. He conducts the study with a treatment group
consisting of one class of grade 4 pupils and a control group
consisting of another class of grade 4 pupils. In this study, the pupils
are not randomly assigned to classes by the teacher (Price, Jhangiani,
& Chiang,n.d).
c. True experiment
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 In this design, the researcher has to manipulate the variable that
is hypothesized to affect the dependent variable that is being
studied.
 In this design, research subjects have to be randomly assigned to
the sample groups.
Example:
A pharmacist has come up with a hypothesis as to what the
relationship between Drug B and anxiety are. He hypothesizes that
Drug X causes a reduction in anxiety. His independent variable is
Drug X while his dependent variable is anxiety. He will manipulate
the dose of Drug X to see if it causes a decrease in anxiety
(Study.com, 2003).
2. Non-experimental research
In non-experimental research, the independent variable is not manipulated
and there is no random assignment to groups. Non-experimental research can be
descriptive, causal-comparative, or correlational research.
a. Descriptive research
It describes the current status of an identified variable. Descriptive
research projects are designed to provide information about a phenomenon
without doing any comparison or findings of the relationship between
variables. It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist,
practices that prevail, beliefs, processes that are going on, effects that are
being felt, or trends that are developing. The most common descriptive
research method is the survey, which includes questionnaires, personal
interviews, phone surveys, and normative surveys (Koh & Owen, 2020).
Example:
Teacher A wants to determine the beliefs of the SHS students about
the Alternative Delivery Mode.
b. Correlational research
Correlational research tries to determine the extent of a relationship
between two or more variables using statistical data. It also seeks to figure
out if two or more variables are connected and in what way (Study.com,
2003).
b.1. Types of Correlational Research

b.1.1. Positive correlational research
A type of correlational research comprising two (2) variables that
are statistically parallel where an increase or decrease in one (1)
variable causes a like change in the other (formplus, 2020).
Example:
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A researcher wants to find out if an increase in workers' salaries will
increase the prices of commodities and services and vice versa.
b.1.2. Negative correlational research
A type of correlational research involving two (2) variables that are

statistically opposite where an increase in one of the variables
causes another effect or decrease in the other variable.
Example:
Researcher E is researching to determine if the rise in goods and

services will cause a reduction in demand and vice versa.
b.1.3. Negligible or zero correlational research
This correlational research includes two (2) variables that are not
statistically related. This means that a change in one of the
variables may not cause a corresponding or alternate change in the
other variable. Also, negligible or zero correlational research caters
for variables with unclear statistical relationships.
Example:
A researcher is researching the patience of the affluent families.
c. Causal-comparative
It attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the

variables. This type of design is very similar to true experiments, but with
some key differences because an independent variable is identified but
not manipulated by the experimenter.
Example:
Teacher E wants to know the effects of corporal punishment on
students’ absences. He measured the frequency of student’s absences at
schools that use corporal punishment and compared that to schools that
did not use corporal punishment.
d. Evaluative research
 The methodical assessment of the worth of time, money, effort, and

resources spent to achieve a goal.
 The process of evaluative research consists of data analysis and that

involves collecting data about organizations, processes, projects,
services, and/or resources (Baht, 2020).
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 Evaluative research enhances knowledge and decision-making and
leads to practical applications.
Example:
A company launches a new program. It wants to see if the program

produces the intended outcomes.
Strengths of Quantitative Research

1. Fast speed data collection (sampling methods)
2. Findings can be generalized (if the sample is from a population)
3. Easy to analyze data (use of statistical data)
4. Consistent and reliable data (use of research manipulations—
experiment, surveys, etc)
5. Can be anonymous (for a sensitive topic)
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

1. Requires a large number of respondents
2. Costly and expensive
3. Secondary data may be unavailable
4. Many information is difficult to answer (sensitive topic)
5. More structured research instruments
Writing the Research Design in your Research
In writing the research design, you need to discuss the specific research
design you have selected. You need to argue for the appropriateness of the
research design to answer the research questions. Research designs can be
experimental, descriptive, correlational, or causal-comparative. Remember that in
writing the research design, the procedural part of the design, its appropriateness
to the study, and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be
well discussed.
Example:
A descriptive research design was used in this study. A descriptive research

design is a fact-finding study with an adequate and accurate interpretation of the
findings. It describes the current conditions, practices, situations, or phenomena.
Since the present study was concerned with the present status of teaching in high
school province A, the descriptive research design was the most appropriate
method to use (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993).
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What’s More
Activity 1. Finding Variables
Identify the variables in the research topics that you presented from the previous
activity (What’s In). Use the proper columns for your answer.
Research Topic Variables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Activity 2. Independent or Dependent?

Choose the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) in the given
research topics. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. The effect of temperature on plant growth
IV __________________________ DV ___________________________
2. Effects of fertilizer on plant growth
IV _________________________ DV ____________________________
3. Effects of light brightness on moth attraction to light

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
4. Time spent studying and its effects the test scores of students
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
5. Relationship between educational attainment and work-life balance

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
6. Salary and job satisfaction among residents
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
7. Effects of preschool attendance on social maturity of Grade 1 pupils

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
8. The relationship between punctuality and promotion

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
9. The relationship between smoking and lung disease

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
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10. The effect of positive reinforcement on the attitude toward school
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
Activity 3. Different Folks, Different Strokes

Identify the research design is being described. Write your answer in the proper
column.
Research Design Description

1. In this research design, an independent
variable is manipulated to determine the
effects on the dependent variables.
2. This research design describes the current
status of an identified variable.
3. This research design attempts to establish
cause-effect relationships among the
variables.
4. This research design tries to determine the
extent of a relationship between two or more
variables using statistical data.
5. In this research design, the independent
variable is not manipulated and there is no
random assignment to groups.
Activity 4. Design the Questions

Determine the quantitative research design for each research question.
Research Questions Research Design

1. What are the teachers’ perceptions towards the
newly implemented reading assessment program?
2. What are the pretest and posttest scores of the
grade 4 learners before and after the intervention?
3. What are the attitudes towards online banking of
Millennial adults and older people?
4. What is the relationship between gender and exam
results of Grade 12 students?
5. What is the relationship between job satisfaction
and salary?
6. What is the effect of using technology on millennial
and non-millennial learners?
7. What are the cellular phone brand preferences of
SHS learners?
8. What is the relationship between the age and
learning performance of SHS learners?
9. What are the causes of job satisfaction among the
employees?
10. What is the relationship between the quality of
sleep and fitness level?
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Activity 5. Tell Me Why!
Given the research topics below, identify which quantitative research design will be
used. Use the appropriate columns for your answer.
Topics Research Design

1. Relationship between an aptitude
test and success in calculus
subject.
2. The perceptions of virologists to
malaria
3. Student’s hours of study and their
stress level
4. Solar purification for water
potability
5. Level of acceptance of students to
ADM
Activity 1.6. It’s Your Turn

This activity will help you draft a narrative about your research design.
Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you in your
writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
The research entitled (the title of research) will use the quantitative research
design particularly the (type of quantitative research design). The (type of quantitative research design)
(description of the research design). Relatively, the current study (reasons for choosing the design and describe the
appropriateness to the present study).
Rubrics
1 point 2 points 3 points 4 points 5 points

The research The research The research The research The purpose,
design is design is design is design has been questions, and
inappropriate. confusing or described using identified and design are
incomplete. standard described mutually
terminology. The sufficiently. supportive and
reasons and Appropriateness coherent.
appropriateness of the design has Appropriates has
of the present been identified. been clearly
study are not stated.
included.
BEST. Writing a high- quality research proposal. Sydney Australia. UNSW, 2019.
Lesson The Sample and Sampling
13
2 Procedures
Lesson 2 of this module talks about sample and sampling procedures. In

this lesson, the general types of sampling and the steps to compute for the sample
were highlighted. It is deemed important that researchers are familiar with the
basic sampling techniques as this will save time and effort while doing the
research.
1. describe the sampling procedure and the sample;

2. differentiate sampling procedures;
3. perform sampling technique;
4. compute the size of the sample; and
5. decide and discuss the sampling technique to be used in your study.
What’s In
Determine the quantitative research design illustrated in each situation.
Research Design Situation

1. A researcher wants to know the perceptions of teachers on
the newly implemented mathematics intervention program.
2. A researcher uses a pretest and posttest to know if a
program intervention is effective.
3. A company wants to know the attitudes of the middle class
towards a cashless transaction.
4. Researcher B is trying to find out the relationship between
socio-economic status and school performance of Grade 12
students?
5. A Gender and Development advocate is trying to determine
the relationship between work-life balance and job
satisfaction.
What’s New
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In a quantitative research study, information is collected from various
sources. Most often than not, the source of data includes persons or a group of
individuals. You must be able to differentiate the terminology used to refer to these
persons. Using the proper terminology constitutes to a better understanding of
your research. Participants, respondents, and subjects are the people who the
researcher selects for their study.
Subjects are the people in the researcher's experiment - usually quantitative

research. The subject is a term used more in science (quizlet.com.,2020)
Respondents answer (respond/reply) to questionnaires - usually quantitative

research. Respondents generally answer (respond/reply to) the questions asked by
the researcher - no more, no less (quizlet.com.,2020).
Participants participate and answer questions in qualitative studies (eg. interviews

and focus groups). Because qualitative studies are more in-depth than quantitative,
the participant in qualitative studies contributes more (is more active) than
respondents to a survey or subjects in an experiment. The participant generally
gives much more detailed answers than a respondent would in a survey
(quizlet.com.,2020).
Sample and Sampling Technique

The research participants are the individuals who participate in a research
study. Sometimes there can be so many research participants which may not be so
practical during the data gathering process. Hence, researchers use samples of a
population.
Table 1. General Types of Sampling Technique
S
ources: Johnson & Christensen (2017) and Calderon & Gonzales, (1993)
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What is It
What are sampling and samples?

Sampling may be defined as measuring a small portion of something
and then making a general statement about the whole thing. It produces
samples that are a part or portion of the whole population.
What is Population?
Population refers to the total number of people, objects, or things
under study. It is the totality of individuals that possesses some observable
characteristics also known as variables. The population can be finite or
infinite. It is a finite population when the universe from which the numbers
of a population are to be taken can be determined or counted immediately. It
is an infinite population when the universe from which the numbers of a
population are to be taken cannot be determined or counted immediately.
General Types of Sampling
There are two (2) general types of sampling: probability sampling and
nonprobability sampling.
1. Probability sampling means that a sample is taken as a proportion
from the population, every individual in the population has an equal
chance to be included in the sample. The types of probability sampling
are pure random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random
sampling, and cluster sampling (Fleetwood, 2020; de Belen & Feliciano,
2015).
Types of Probability Sampling

Sampling Description Example
Technique
Pure random  is one in which Suppose there are 200 persons in
sampling everyone in the the population and 20 percent is
population of the the population to be chosen.
inquiry has an equal Hence, 20 percent of 200 is 40. The
chance of being names of all the 200 persons are
selected to be written each on a piece of paper.
included in the The pieces of paper will then be
sample (McCombes, S. placed in a container. 40 pieces of
n.d). the papers will be drawn by
 This is also called chance. Those whose names are
the lottery or raffle drawn are included in the sample.
type of sampling.
Systematic a technique of If a listed population is 1000,
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sampling sampling in which and the sample size is 100, the
every nth name in a research will select every 10th (1000
list may be selected divided by 100) person from the list
to be included in a where the selection of a number
sample. between 1 and 10 is at random as
 This is used when the starting point.
the subjects or
respondents in the
study are arrayed or
arranged in some
systematic or logical
manner such as
alphabetical
arrangement,
residential or house
arrays, geographical
placement from
north to south, etc.
Stratified random  The process of Suppose the students of a college

sampling selecting randomly, are respondents in a study. The
samples from the students are stratified according to
different strata the courses they are taking, their
(groups) of the sex, and the curricular years they
population used in are in. The sample of 20% is taken
the study. from every stratum based on
 This is used when course, sex, and curricular year.
the population of the For instance, there are 50 male
inquiry has class students in the first year taking
stratifications or education. The sample is 20% of 50
groupings. is 10. There are 380 female
 This method is used students in the second year taking
when the population up marketing. The sample is 20%
is heterogeneous, of 380 is 76%.
where certain
homogenous groups,
or of similar
characteristics can
be isolated to form
strata
 A stratified sample is
obtained by taking
samples from each
stratum or group of
population.
Cluster sampling  it is usually used In a survey of nurse- applicants

when the population in various employment agencies,
is unknown or the the researcher selects several
researcher cannot agencies at random and conducts
complete the total an interview of very 10th nurse
list of the members applicants in the agencies.
of the population he
17
wishes to study but
he can only complete
the list of groups or
clusters of the
population.
Source: Calderon & Gonzales, (1993)
2. Nonprobability Sampling takes place when the sample is not a

proportion of the population. Among the common nonprobability
sampling techniques are accidental, quota, convenience, and
purposive (Fleetwood, 2020; de Belen & Feliciano, 2015).
Nonprobability Sampling
Sampling Description Example
Technique
Accidental  A method of selecting An interviewer stands in a street
sampling the subjects who corner and interviews everyone
happen to be who passes by.
available at that time
or volunteered
themselves to be the
subjects of the
study.
 This is said to be the
weakest of all
sampling procedures
because it is
impossible to
estimate the error
from the sampling in
the process of
selection.
Quota sampling  In this method, a Suppose the reactions of the people

specified number of towards a certain issue is to be
persons of certain determined. It might be decided
types are included in that ten doctors, eight lawyers, 15
the sample. businessmen, 20 vendors, and 25
 This is the most farmers constitute the sample.
commonly used in
opinion polling
surveys and market
research.
 It is also called a
street-based market
research survey
because the
researcher interviews
members of the
public up to a given
quota.
18
Convenience  It is the process of In an instance that there is a hot
sampling picking out people in and controversial issue about the
the most convenient raising of the price of gasoline, the
and fastest way to most convenient and fastest way of
immediately get their reaching people is by social media
reactions to a certain to get their opinion.
hot and controversial
issue.
Purposive • This is also called If research is to be conducted on
sampling judgment sampling the history of a place, the old
because sample people of the place must be
groups are judged to consulted.
be typical of the If methods and techniques of
chosen population. teaching are the subjects of an
• This method simply inquiry, teachers are the ones to be
means choosing the contacted.
sample with a
specific purpose or
objective in mind.
Thus, you must
decide the criteria
for choosing your
samples.
• It determines the
target population,
those to be involved
in the study.
• In this technique,
the respondents are
chosen based on
their knowledge of
the information
desired.
Source: Calderon & Gonzales, (1993)
Steps in Computing the Size of a Sample (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993; and
wikihow.com)
The steps in computing the size of a sample:
1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined by the
scope and delimitation of the study.
2. Decide on the margin of error. As much as possible the margin of error
should be not higher than 5%.
3. Use the Slovin’s formula,
19
n= the size of the sample
N= the size of the
population
4. If the sampling is clustered, or if the population is stratified, compute the
e= the margin of error
sample proportion (percent) by dividing the result in No. 3 by the population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling stratum by the
rate (percent) to find the sample from each final sampling stratum.
6. Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total sample.
Note: If the population (N) is not given but the sample size (n) and the percentage/
proportion (%) are identified, we can use n/% to get the N.
Example: A study of the teaching of science in the high schools of the
division will be conducted, and science teachers will be the respondents. There are
245 teachers of biology, 245 teachers of chemistry, and 123 teachers of physics.
There is a total of 613 respondents.
The sampling procedure follows:
Step 1: The population is 613 (N)

Step 2: The margin of error to be used is 5% (e2)
Step 3: Using the formula
n= 613
1+ 613 (.05)2
n= 613
1+ 613 (.0025)
n= 613
1 + 1.5325
n= 613
2.5325
n= 242.05 (this may be rounded to 242 since there is no 0.05

individual). This is the sample which is always a whole number.
IF the researcher will use stratified sampling, the process will involve:
Step 4. The teachers are grouped into three categories according to the branch of
science they are teaching, so we use stratified sampling.
Step 5: Get the sample proportion or the percentage per group using the formula:
20
Sample proportion/ percentage (%)= n = 242 = 0.394 or 39%
N 613
Step 6
Subject Number of Teachers Percentage Sample
Biology 245 39 96
Chemistry 245 39 96
Physics 123 39 48
Total 613 240
Writing the Sampling Technique in Your Research Paper
In writing the sampling technique, you need to specify how do you select
your samples. You need to reason for the benefits and limitations of your selected
sampling design. You need also to include the strength of the sample design or its
practicality. Always consider the practicality and plausibility of your sampling
design.
You may also consider these questions: - Who are the samples of your
study? - Why choose these samples? - How many? - How will you select them?
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Complete the diagram below by providing the necessary details.
Sampling
1. _______ 6.________
2. ______ 9. _______
4. _______ 7. _______
Activity 2. Say Something!
Identify the 10. ______
types of sampling being described in the second column
3. _______
Concept/ terminology Description/ Hint
8. _______
5. _______
21
Example: Sampling It is measuring a small portion of something and
then making a general statement about the
whole thing.
1. A sample is taken as a proportion of the
population.
2. Everyone in the population of the inquiry has an
equal chance of being selected.
3. Every nth name in a list may be selected to be
included in a sample.
4. Selecting randomly, samples from the different
strata
5. This can only be completed through the list of
groups or clusters of the population.
6. It takes place when the sample is not a
proportion of the population.
7. The subjects are available at that time or
volunteered to be the subjects of the study.
8. A specified number of persons of certain types
are included in the sample.
9. Picking out people in the fastest way to be the
respondents
10. Another term for judgment sampling
Activity 3. First Things First!

Arrange the steps by writing 1-5 on the space before the number.
_________Use the Slovin’s formula.
_________Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total
sample. _________Determine the size of the study population.
_________Compute the sample proportion (percent), if the sampling is clustered.
_________Decide on the margin of error.
Activity 4. Do Your Math

Using Slovin’s Formula, compute for the sample size by identifying the population
size, and margin for error based on the given data.
Situation Population (N) Margin of Sample Size (n)
Error (e)
An urban planner plans to
conduct a survey. If the
population of the City of Manila
is 1,000,000, find the sample
size if the margin of error is 3%.
Suppose that you have a group
of 1,000 government employees
and you want to survey them to
find out which tools are best
suited to their jobs. You decide
that you are happy with a
margin of error of 0.05.
Calculate the necessary survey
size for a population of 240,
22
allowing for a 4% margin of
error.
In your research, if the
population is 9,000 and the
margin of error is 2%, what will
be the sample size?
Suppose that there are 2,243
English teachers, 1,406 Filipino
teachers, and 992 Science
teachers in a school to be
included in a study, what will be
the sample size at 3% margin of
error?
Activity 5. Sample! Sample!

Identify the sampling technique to be used in the given situations. Write your
answer on the space before the number.
___________1. In a school with 500 teachers, if the HR team decides on conducting
team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of
a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being
selected.
___________2. A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a
population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000
and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total
population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
___________3. A researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people
belonging to different annual income divisions, will create strata (groups) according
to annual family income such as – Less than P20,000, P21,000 – P30,000, P31,000
to P40,000, P41,000 to P50,000.
___________4. A newly established company distributes leaflets of its products in a
mall. They do that by standing at the entrance of the mall and giving out pamphlets
randomly.
___________5. Researcher A is conducting research about people who are interested
in studying for their master’s degree. He uses questions like: “Are you interested in
studying for Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be excluded
from the sample.
_____________6. Researcher B already completed his target sample of 50
cheerleaders for his research.
_____________7. You assign a number to every employee in the company database
from 1 to 1000 and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
_____________8. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected
(6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
_____________9. From the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how
many people should be sampled from each subgroup.
23
___________10. You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select several students
with different support needs to gather a varied range of data on their experiences
with student services.
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your sampling technique.
Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you in your
writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
The researcher will use (sampling technique) to determine the samples of the
study. The (sampling technique) (description of the sampling technique) .
Since the samples of the study are the (who are the samples?) (why choose these
samples?). A total of (how many samples?) will be included in the study which was
selected through the (formula to compute the sample) where: discuss the parts of the formula. .
Rubrics:
1 2 3 4 5
The context, The sampling The description of The context, The description of
population, or strategy is the context, population, and the context and
sample is not inappropriate. population, or sampling strategy population is
identified or sampling strategy are adequately meaningful,
described. is confusing, identified and including both
lacked relevance described. The quantitative
to the purpose, is size of the descriptions. The
incomplete. population, sampling process
sample, and is reasonable to
comparison recruit a
groups are representative
identified. sample of the
population.
Attention is given
to controlling for
extraneous
factors and
sampling error.
Lesson Construct an Instrument and

Establishes its Validity and Reliability
24
3
This lesson talks about the essentials of validity and reliability of the
instrument to be used in researches. In doing so, research topics that have
qualitative themes utilize quantitative methods in establishing the credibility of its
results. This enables you to constructs an instrument and establishes its validity
and reliability. It is expected that in this lesson that learners can recognize both
reliability and validity in the instrument to be utilized in the research study.
1. differentiate validity from reliability;

2. establish the validity and reliability of an instrument; and
3. construct a research questionnaire or instrument based on the research
study.
What’s In
Let us recall your knowledge of sampling in research. Identify the sampling

techniques used in the given examples. Write the answer on the space provided.
A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students.
The researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior levels.
1. _______________________________
In the study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students
and chooses the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other
students.
2.__________________________________
A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding their

thoughts on the company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have
representatives from all departments in his sample, but one department is so
small that doing a random sampling might result in that department not being
represented. The researcher then set a quota of respondents from the department
to ensure their inclusion in the sample.
3. _________________________________
25
This lesson contains activities that will help the learners
understand the importance of instrument validity and reliability.
Guarantee that the objectives of the learners’ research are clear to
them. With this lesson, see to it that the learners will be able to
produce their draft research instrument which are aligned to their
research’s objectives.
What’s New
Read the vignette below. Then, answer the following guide questions.
A Christmas party on December 15 was scheduled for Grade 11 students at

Saint Maura academy. One of the highlights of the said celebration is the
Christmas dance contest. The four sections of the grade level prepared for the
contest. As early as December 1, the students started planning their steps,
costumes, props, and schedule for the practices. The parents of the students also
assisted in designing and making their costumes and props. The class advisers
supervised the practice of the students after class hours.
During the contest proper, the friends of the PE teacher serve as the panel
of the judges. The presentations were exemplary and the section of Cathriona
became the crowd’s favorite due to the polished execution of the steps,
synchronization of the costume, and the props. However, another group that
performed rather poorly became the winner.
Because of this, the section Cathriona and other sections wanted to know
the bases for the judging and raised their concerns to the Vice Principal for
Students’ Activities. After conducting an investigation, it turned out no judging
criteria were set and no judging sheets were used.
Cristobal, Amadeo, and Maura Consolacion D. Cristobal. Practical Research. Diwa Learning System, 2017
Guide Questions:
1. What are the facts of the story?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
2. How did the students prepare for the event?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
26
3. What was the overall quality of the presentation witnessed by the students?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________
4. Were the students satisfied with the result of the contest? Why?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
5. What do you think are the things that must be done to avoid said concern?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
6. How can you determine if the result of the contest was valid and reliable?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
7. What do you think are the criteria used in assessing the dance contest?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
The activity you have answered will give you the opportunities to develop your
ability to evaluate and to make judgments about your performance and improve
upon it. Thus, this lesson highlights how you can construct and establish validity
and reliability in the instrument that you will be using in your research study. As a
learner, you will understand that both validity and reliability are to consider when
you are creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing up your
results.
What is It
In research, the concern of a researcher is how to minimize possible errors

and biases by maximizing the reliability and validity of data. This then requires
that the tool for the collection of data is valid and reliable. This lesson explains the
technical meaning of these two concepts. The types of and methods of reliability as
well as validity. This also provides examples and the research instrument as well as
relating validity and reliability that can be helpful to the researchers.
Validity refers to the quality of the instrument being functionally only when
it’s a specific purpose. That is when an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure. Since the instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the
methodology to obtain the data, the validity of each one should be established
beforehand. This is to set the credibility of the findings and the correctness and
accuracy of the following data analysis. For instance, when a study investigates the
27
common causes of absences, the content of the instrument must focus on these
variables and indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about
the behavior of the students during school assemblies, the instrument must
consist of the indicators or measures of the behavior of students during such time.
Types of Validity
In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice,
Kubiszyn and Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.
1. Face Validity. This is also known as logical validity. It involves whether the
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment
just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It
includes the font, size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary
details that will not distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.
2. Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions
to see whether they’re able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with
high content validity has to meet the objective of the research. This type of validity
is not measured by the numerical index but instead relies on logical judgment as to
whether the test measures its intended subject.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by
a group of field experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the
subject. Three to five experts would suffice. The expert assesses the items of the
questionnaire and determines if the items measure the variables being studied.
Then, the experts’ criticism will be considered in the revision of the instrument.
3. Construct Validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds
with its theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular
measure relates to other measures and to which it is consistent with the
theoretically – derived hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is
theory-laden. Factor analysis, a relevant technique to construct validity, is a
refined statistical procedure that is used to analyze the interrelationship of
behavior data.
4. Criterion-related Validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an
expression of how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion.
There are two types of this kind of validity.
a. Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be administered
and validated at the same time. It is determined by administering both the new test
and the established test to a group of respondents, then finding a correlation
between the two sets of the scores. Validity established with an accepted and
availed the second test that measures what the researcher is trying to measure.
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to
determine the IQ of nursing students. The researcher published a design for a
short screening test that measures the same. The scores on the Standard- Binet V
and the short screening test are compared to assess the relationship between
scores.
28
b. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the future
behavior of the examinees. This particularly useful in aptitude tests, which are
tests to predict how well test-takers in some future settings will perform in some
future settings.
It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for
validation, a rating sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for
the experts to mark and give his judgment. The markings and comments for the
experts that validated the proposed questionnaire will be the basis of the revision of
the proposed instrument or questionnaire.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in
repeated trials. A reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the
subject if the latter yield the same results in several tests. However, this is only
true if the instrument used is valid. It is important to note that, while a valid
instrument is always reliable, a reliable instrument is not always necessarily valid.
This is most especially true when the subjects are human, who are governed by
judgment and prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of an instrument
is very crucial in research studies that deal with a lot of samples.
For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale.
She weighed herself in the morning, afternoon, and evening and recorded the
results afterward. Her recorded weights are 65 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The
weighing scale can be considered reliable since the deviation of the results is small
and negligible.
Methods in Establishing Reliability
1. Test-retest or stability. In this method, the same test is given to a group of
respondents twice. The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores with
the second test. When there is a high correlation index, it means that there is also
high reliability of the test. Some of the problems here are the observations that
some subjects may be able to recall certain items given during the first
administration of the test, and that the scores may differ because the students
have adapted to the test.
Carmines and Zeller (1979), in the book Reliability and Validity Assessment,
list the weaknesses identified using the test-retest method:
a. Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its
interpretation is not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation may
not indicate that the reliability of the test is low but rather signify instead that the
underlying theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time interval
between measurements, the more likely that the concept change.
b. Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done
logically and that phenomenon can induce a change in itself.
c. Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-retest
method. The person’s mental recollection of his or her responses which he or she
gives during the first measurement is quite likely to influence the responses which
he or she gives during the second measurement. Memory effects that may influence
reliability estimates.
29
2. Internal Consistency. If the test question is designed to measure a single basic
concept, it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right is
likely to be right in another similar item. In other words, items should be correlated
with each other and the test ought to be internally consistent.
Relating Reliability and Validity
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several
important principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid.
Consider the SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high
scores relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due
to the lack of structured environment-class attendance, parent-regulated study,
and sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example,
college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid
measure of other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism,
and civic involvement. The combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a
more valid measure of the applicant’s potential for graduation, later social
involvement, and generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of
the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success
and a moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical
Reading, and Writing.
There are other criteria in assessing validity and reliability that can be used
in assessing the literature. (Polt& Beck, 2004). These are sensitivity; specificity’
comprehensibility; precision; speed; range; linearity and reactivity.
Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case study correctly, i.e.,
to screen or diagnose a condition correctly.
Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly, i.e. to
screen out those without the conditions correctly.
Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the
behavior required for accurate and valid measurements.
Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying
degrees of an attribute as precisely as possible.
Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she
can obtain a reliable measurement.
Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value
of the variable to the largest, to obtain meaningful measurements.
Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally
accurate and sensitive over the entire range of values.
Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the
attribute being measured.
30
The following are examples of establishing the validity and reliability of an
instrument.
Example 1
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High

school Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija ( Valenton, 2009)
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students
and the teachers. This was developed by the researcher of the approval of the
advisory committee. Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaires
for the students of Dońa Juana Chico National High School and the teachers of
Rizal National High School. They did not serve as respondents.
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine
whether they could yield data needed in the study. The pre-test results showed a
Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient of 0.923 indicating good reliability of the
instrument. As a rule, Cronbach Alpha must be at least .80 to be considered
reliable.
Example 2
Staff Nurses’ Role on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected

Government and Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work
Performace (Reyes,2007)
The instrument underwent validation. It was pre-tested at Dr. Gloria D.

Lacson General Hospital in San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, which is not included in
the study.
A group of seven staff nurses and two nurse supervisors were requested to
answer the questionnaires upon approval of the permit addressed to the hospital
director. The results were checked and analyzed. After 15 days, the corrected
questionnaire was administered to the same respondents. The reliability
coefficient of 80% and above indicated that the instrument is already valid,
reliable, and ready to use.
Cristobal, Amadeo, and Maura Consolacion D. Cristobal. Practical Research. Diwa Learning System, 2017
Adopting or Adapting an Instrument
Adopting an Instrument
Adopting an instrument is quite simple and requires very little effort. Even
when an instrument is adopted, though, there still might be a few necessary
modifications. For example, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory that measures
intrinsic motivation, which can be found here, needs to be slightly modified to
reflect the specific situation that the researcher is interested in. Intrinsic motivation
is not a general variable but is directed at a specific activity: intrinsic motivation in
Mathematics, intrinsic motivation in social studies, intrinsic motivation in playing a
sport, intrinsic motivation in reading a book, etc. Therefore, the items on the
31
Intrinsic Motivation inventory should reference that specific activity. For example,
an item on the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory reads, "I enjoyed doing this activity
very much." How will the participants know what "this activity" is? Therefore, the
researcher should modify the item to read "I enjoyed the math’s computer program
very much." Note that the substance of the item was not changed, only the
reference of "this activity."
Even though adopting an instrument requires little effort on behalf of the

researcher, the questionnaire still must be appropriately designed so you must
know how to develop a questionnaire.
When an instrument is adopted, it is important to appropriately describe the

instrument in the Instruments section of Chapter 3. In the description, include
 Who developed the instrument?

 Who validated the instrument?
 Other studies that have used the instrument
Here is an example portion of the Instruments section from an instrument that was
adopted:
Positive and negative affect were assessed using the Positive and Negative
Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegren, 1988)...Watson and colleagues
report reliability coefficient alphas as .89 for positive and .85 for negative affect.
Validity evidence for the instrument as a measure of state effect was found by
correlating the instrument with situations that should influence positive and
negative affect. Positive affect is related to social activity and negative affect is
related to fluctuations in stress (Watson et al., 1988). The PANAS has been used to
assess the effect in other studies with SDT (e.g., Elliot and Sheldon, 1999; Sheldon
& Kasser, 2001; Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004).
Adapting an Instrument
Adapting an instrument requires more substantial changes than adopting an

instrument. In this situation, the researcher follows the general design of another
instrument but adds items, removes items, and/or substantially changes the
content of each item. Because adapting an instrument is similar to developing a
new instrument, a researcher must understand the key principles of developing an
instrument which will be described in the next step.
When adapting an instrument, the researcher should report the same

information in the Instruments section as when adopting the instrument, but
should also include what changes were made to the instrument and why. Below is
a sample description of an instrument that was adapted in Korb (2009).
32
This study adapted the Factors Influencing Teaching Choice (FIT-Choice)
scale. This instrument was developed by Watt and Richardson (2007). Validity
evidence was provided by factor analysis and the longitudinal relationship of the
factors influencing teaching to subsequent engagement in the teaching profession.
The purpose of the FIT-Choice is to determine the factors that preservice teachers
identify as being most influential in their choice of the teaching profession. The FIT-
Choice scale was only slightly modified to fit the Nigerian context. All factors were
identical to the original FIT-Choice instrument except for two. Watt and Richardson
identified a job transferability factor that included items such as "Teaching will be a
useful job for me to have when traveling." This factor was judged as not applicable
to Nigerian pre-service teachers. Additionally, an exploitation factor was added to
the instrument to represent choosing teaching as a lazy, easy career with items
such as "Teaching will allow me to work other jobs," "Teaching will allow me to
collect a salary by doing little work," and "When teaching, I can use the students
for gaining money."
Research Instrument
These research instruments or tools are ways of gathering data. Without

them, data would be impossible to put in hand. The most common instrument or
tool of research for obtaining the data beyond the physical reach of the observer
may be sent to human beings who are thousands of miles away or just around the
corner.
We often require information on a range of subjects and to obtain that

information may be acquired tom ask peoples’ questions. Questionnaires can be
designed and used to collect a vast quantity of data from a variety of respondents.
They have many benefits over other forms of data collection when they are usually
inexpensive to administer; very little training is needed to develop them, and they
can be easily and quickly analyzed once completed.
Two Forms of Questionnaire

1. Closed-form / Closed-ended are questions that allow someone to give a free-form
answer.
2. Open form / Open-ended can be answered with “Yes” or “No,” or they have a
limited set of possible answers (such as A, B, C, or All of the Above). Closed-ended
questions are often good for surveys because you get higher response rates when
users don’t have to type so much. Also, answers to closed-ended questions can
easily be analyzed statistically, which is what you usually want to do with survey
data.
Guidelines in Using the Questionnaire
1. Clarity of language
2. Singleness of purpose
3. Relevant to the objective of the study
4. Correct grammar
33
Principles to consider in constructing a questionnaire
1. Define or qualify terms that could easily be misinterpreted

2. Be careful in using descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have no agreed-upon
meaning
3. Be careful of inadequate alternatives
4. Beware of a double negative
5. Avoid the double-barreled question
6. Underline the word if you wish to indicate special emphasis
7. When asking for rating or comparisons a point of reference is necessary
8. Avoid unwarranted assumptions
9. Phrase questions so that they are appropriate for all respondents
10. Design question that will give a complete answer
11. Provide for the systematic qualification of response
12. Consider the possibility of classifying the respondents yourself rather than
having the respondents choose categories
Characteristics of a good research instrument
 Valid and reliable

 Based on a conceptual framework, or the researcher's understanding of how
the particular variables in the study connect
 Must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic
 Able to test hypothesis and/or answer proposed research questions under
investigation
 Free of bias and appropriate for the context, culture, and diversity of the
study site
● Contains clear and definite instructions to use the instrument
www.tc.columbia.edu/media/administration/institutional..
Quantitative Research Tools. The most used quantitative research technique is

the survey. In a quantitative survey, you may use short-answer responses or
dichotomous questions, multiple choice answers, paragraphs, checkboxes, drop-
down, linear scale, multiple choice grid, and more. As you can see various
question formats can be adapted to your research needs.
Here are some examples of dichotomous, multiple-choice, ranch ordering
scaling, rating scale, staple scale
Likert scale, rating system, used in questionnaires, that is designed to
measure people’s attitudes, opinions, or perceptions. Subjects choose from a range
of possible responses to a specific question or statement; responses typically
include “strongly agree,” “agree,” “neutral,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree.”
Often, the categories of response are coded numerically, in which case the
numerical values must be defined for that specific study, such as 1 = strongly
agree, 2 = agree, and so on. The Likert scale is named for American social scientist
Rensis Likert, who devised the approach in 1932.
Likert scales are widely used in social and educational research. When using
Likert scales, the researcher must consider issues such as categories of response
(values in the scale), size of the scale, the direction of the scale, the ordinal nature
of Likert-derived data, and appropriate statistical analysis of such data.
34
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
Rating Scale is defined as a closed-ended survey question used to represent

respondent feedback in a comparative form for specific particular
features/products/services. It is one of the most established question types for
online and offline surveys where survey respondents are expected to rate an
attribute or feature. A rating scale is a variant of the popular multiple-choice
question which is widely used to gather the information that provides relative
information about a specific topic.
Researchers use a rating scale in research when they intend to associate a
qualitative measure with the various aspects of a product or feature. Generally, this
scale is used to evaluate the performance of a product or service, employee skills,
customer service performances, processes followed for a particular goal, etc. Rating
scale survey question can be compared to a checkbox question but rating scale
provides more information than merely Yes/No.
35
The Multiple Choice Questions

Where do you get the news from?
Television Radio
Newspaper Magazine
Word-of-mouth Internet
Other: Please Specify _______________ “For this type of question it is important to
consider including an "other" category because there may be other avenues by
which the person first heard about your site that you might have overlooked”
(Question Pro Survey Software, 2017).
The Staple Scale The staple scale asks a person to rate a brand, product, or service
according to a certain characteristic on a scale from +5 to -5, indicating how
36
well the characteristic describes the product or service. The following is an example
of a staple scale question:
When thinking about Data Mining Technologies, Inc. (DMT), do you believe that the
word "innovative" aptly describes or poorly describes the company? On a scale of
+5 to -5 with +5 being "a very good description of DMT" and -5 being "poor
description of DMT," how do you rank DMT according to the word "innovative"?
(+5) Describes very well
(+4)
(+3)
(+2)
(+1)
Innovative
(-1)
(-2)
(-3)
(-4)
(-5) Poorly describes
Checklist A checklist is also known as a tick list or chart works as an

inventory of behaviors or skills where the researcher checks indicators that are
being observed (Hodder Education & Hachette UK Company, 2017). A checklist
can be a quantitative or qualitative tool. If you look for specific criteria with a
yes/no answer it becomes a quantitative tool. On the other hand, if you look for
specific criteria or indicators and you want to deeply or briefly describe what you
observe, it becomes a qualitative tool. A checklist is a list of aspects to observe as
content, abilities, and behavior. It is a mechanism to verify if certain indicators or
symptoms are present in a phenomenon. A checklist provides more information if
the researcher records additional comments on the context (Hodder Education &
Hachette UK Company, 2017)
37
38
What’s More
Activity 1: Do it Right!
Read carefully and analyze the table. Below, in the first column, enumerated are
the types of validity/reliability and on the second column, it indicates what does it
assess. On the last column identify the given examples below as to the type of
validity/reliability. Write only the letter of the answer.
A- There is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can measure
directly. But based on existing psychological research and theory, we can measure
depression based on a collection of symptoms and indicators, such as low self-
confidence and low energy levels.
B- You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You
review the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of the day and
snacks eaten in between for every day of the week. On its surface, the survey seems
like a good representation of what you want to test.
C- A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class.
The test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some
types of algebra are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of
students’ understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she includes questions that are
not related to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra
knowledge.
D - A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English writing
ability. To assess how well the test does measure students’ writing ability, she finds
an existing test that is considered a valid measurement of English writing ability
and compares the results when the same group of students takes both tests.
E- A group of participants complete a questionnaire designed to measure
personality traits. If they repeat the questionnaire days, weeks, or months apart
and give the same answers, this indicates high test-retest reliability.
F- You design a questionnaire to measure self-esteem. If you randomly split the
results into two halves, there should be a strong correlation between the two sets of
results. If the two results are very different, this indicates low internal consistency.
Types of Validity What does it assess? Example

1. Face validity It considers how suitable the
content of a test seems to be
on the surface.
2. Content It assesses whether a test is
Validity representative of all aspects of
the construct.
3. Construct It refers to a concept or
characteristic that can’t be
directly observed but can be
measured by observing other
39
indicators that are associated
with it.
4. Criterion It evaluates how closely the
results of your test correspond
to the results of a different
test.
Methods in Reliability What does it assess? Example
5. Test-retest The consistency of a
measure across time: do you
get the same results when you
repeat the measurement?
6. Internal The consistency of the
consistency measurement itself: do you get
the same results from different
parts of a test that are
designed to measure the same
thing?
Activity 2 Think well!

For other criteria in assessing validity and reliability, the following are used in
assessing. Think for the appropriate criteria define or describe below. Choose from
the words given and write your answer on the space before the number. You may
use your reference in exploring the activity.
Reactivity Sensitivity Specificity Speed
Comprehensibility Precision Range Linearity
__________________1. It is a measure of the variation among survey estimates, over
repeated application of the same sampling procedures.
__________________2. It is known as the recall rate, is a measurement that
determines the probability of actual positives.
__________________3. The focus of this measurement is to find out the sample
members who are negative towards the tested property
specificity
_________________4. It refers to whether or not inner and outer stimuli make sense
to us in terms of being coherent, ordered, cohesive, structured,
and clear.
_________________5. In these criteria the researcher doesn’t rush measuring process
to obtain the most reliable measurement.
_________________6. The range is the size of the smallest interval (statistics) which

contains all the data and provides an indication of statistical
dispersion.
_________________7. It is an indicator of the consistency of measurements over the
entire range of measurements.
_________________8. It is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their
performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are
40
being observed. The change may be positive or negative and
depends on the situation.
Activity 3. Time to write!
 Your first task is to produce a write- up of your research

instrument.
 Then, you are about to draft the research instrument based on
your research study.
 Remember to integrate all the things highlighted in this lesson
to help you in your writing.
 The steps listed below are the elements in your research
instrument that can help you or guide you in accomplishing
your write up.
Step 1 Identify what you want to cover in a research questionnaire:

Step 2 Keep words simple and straightforward:
Step 3 Ask only one question at a time:
Step 4 Be flexible with your options:
Step 5 The open-ended or closed-ended question, it’s a tough choice:
Step 6 It is important to know your audience:
Step 7 7. Choosing the right tool is important
emgo.nl/kc . “Development measurement instruments”. Accessed June 19,2020.
https://www.emgo.nl/kc/developing-measurement-instruments-questionnaires
 Below is an example of a research instrument. You may use

this as a guide in crafting your research instrument.
41
42
Lesson
4 Describe an Intervention
This module describes an intervention in research. It discusses the specific

intervention content that is designed to measure how much better a situation is
after modification that is systematic and to measure or has been imposed. Though
this talks on finding solutions or alternatives in a research paper, you should also
note that not all quantitative research has or necessitates an intervention. But let
us also describe intervention as part of a research which generates findings that
are useful and applicable in different situations. This also focuses on writing a
discussion highlighting intervention in a research study.
1. describe intervention;
2. recognize the essentials of intervention in research;
3. cite related traditions that are particularly useful in conducting research
with intervention; and
4. write a discussion about an intervention applied in research.
What’s In
For this activity, supply the correct letters to complete the word being
defined or described.
1. It refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure
L I D Y
2. It is about the consistency of a measure.
L A B I Y
3. A research method in collecting data.
S R Y
4. This is also known as logical validity.
A C V L D Y
43
5. It refers to measurement tools (for example, questionnaires or scales) designed to
obtain data on a topic of interest.
E E R C I S T U N T
This contains activities that will help the learners understand the
topic. The activities were designed to highlight in an intervention
in the research. It also intends to note that not all researches
need an intervention. It is also vital to further discuss on the
essentials in describing an intervention and how probably this
applies to the learners’ research study.
What’s New
The following issues listed on the table need some solutions. Complete the
table by writing words/ phrases that will help resolve the problems.
Reading Program Feeding Program Attendance success plans
Teach the Anti-Bullying Tricks Online Platform in learning modalities
Problems Solution
1. malnutrition
2. poor in reading
3. bullying
4. online games
5. absenteeism
From this activity, you can discover a solution to the given problems. Now,
what is emphasized here is that we can seek a transformational change through
the process of intervention in our research undertakings. We also should note that
44
intervention in research is not another type of research. It pertains to the program
in a research study to create change, improvement, and development.
What is It
An intervention n is a combination of program elements or strategies

designed to produce behavior change or improve health status among individuals
or an entire population. Interventions may include educational programs, new
stronger policies, improvements in the environment, or a health promotion
campaign, interventions that include multiple strategies are typically the most
effective in producing desired and lasting change.
Interventions may be implemented in different settings including
communities, worksite, schools, and health care organizations or the home.
Interventions implemented in multiple settings and using multiple strategies may
be the most effective because of the potential to reach a large number of people in a
variety of ways.
Intervention in research is the systematic study of purposive change
strategies. It is characterized by both the design and development of interventions.
Design involves the specification of an intervention. This includes determining the
extent to which an intervention is defined by explicit practice principles, goals, and
activities.
The term intervention in this module pertains to the independent variable or
the treatment variable in the research study. Moreover, intervention pertains also
to the program that will be introduced during the study to create change and
development or improvement. Some of the action research interventions are
reading programs to enhance the reading competence, numeracy program which
improves the mathematical skills, feeding program, and the like.
Some interventions are highly responsive to dialogue and the hermeneutics
of exchange between intervention agents and participants. For example, some
psychodynamic interventions tend to be less distinct and more dialogical. In
contrast, prescriptive interventions tend to be based on manuals that specify
practice activities and guide the exchange between intervention agents and
participants.
One important aim of intervention in research is to create a means for
improving community life, health, and well-being. Intervention researchers attempt
as much as possible to fuse the dual purposes of applied science in the same
endeavor promoting understanding of individual and community conditions and
contributing to their improvement.
Book.google.com. Intervention Research”. Accessed May 23, 2020.
https;//www.books.google.com/books/about/Intervention_Research.html?id =
45
The following are some of the researches that need intervention.
Experimental Social Innovation- this is design to evaluate the effects of
treatment programs and other interventions designed to address social programs.
Social Research and development- this applies to an engineering model
from physical sciences to characterize the process of developing an intervention
program relevant to human services.
Developmental Research- this incorporates applied research method s
empirically oriented practice and other action research strategies to design
interventions for helping professions.
Model development Research- this examines how human services proceed
from innovation and standard practice.
Behavioral Community Research -this uses the methods of behavior
analysis and psychology to design and implement interventions relevant to
community change.
Action Research- This focuses of this research is to initiate and solve an
immediate problem.
Core Components of an Intervention:

This provides support for describing core components in writing and
developing an intervention project or research.
1. Identify the problem/goal. This includes goals, objectives, and specific
behaviors that need to change.
2. Assess the level of the problem or goal. Some types of assessments include
direct observation, survey interviews, and reviewing existing records.
3. Groups to benefit. This includes targets of change or prioritized groups for
whom behaviors or outcomes should change and an agent of change or those
implementing the intervention
4. Obtain clients' input. This considers how you will use: Personal contacts - Who
will you speak with about what? Interviews - What questions will you ask of
whom about the problem or goal and possible interventions? Focus groups -
From what groups will you seek what kinds of information? Community forums
- What public situations would present an opportunity for you to discuss the
problem or goal, and how will you use the opportunity? Concerns surveys -
What questions of whom will you ask about the problem or goal and potential
solutions?
5. Analyze the problem or goal. This uses client input to specify the current
situation, the negative (positive) consequences for those directly affected and
the broader community, personal and environmental factors to be influenced
(i.e., people's experience and history; knowledge and skills; barriers and
opportunities; social support and caring relationships; living conditions that
46
put them at risk for or protect them from experiencing certain problems, the
behavior or lack of behavior that causes or maintains the problem.
6. Set goals and objectives. A description of what success would look like. How
will the community or group be different if the intervention is successful?
Those goals the intervention is targeted to accomplish. How will you know if
your intervention is successful? The specific objectives the intervention will
achieve. What will change by how much and by when?
7. Evidence-based interventions. This indicates: Potential or promising “best
practices” for your situation (consider various available databases and lists of
“best” or evidence-based practices) How strong is the evidence that each
potential “best practice” caused the observed improvement? (Rather than other
associated conditions or potential influences) Whether the “best practice” could
achieve the desired results in your community whether the conditions (e.g.,
time, money, people, and technical assistance) that affect success for the “best
practice” are present
8. Assessment. This provides information and enhancing, modifying access,
barriers, exposures, and opportunities, enhancing services and supports,
changing the consequences, and modifying policies and the broader system.
9. Develop an action plan for the intervention. This includes specific change or
aspects of the intervention, who to carry it out, when the intervention will be
implemented, the resources availability, and persons who know about it.
10. Pilot-test the intervention. This determines how to test the intervention and
with whom, assess the quality of implementation of the intervention, assess
results and consequences or side effects, and collect and use feedback to adapt
and improve the intervention.
11. Implementation. This includes the quality of implementation, satisfaction and
outcomes, and attainment of objectives.
Phases in an Intervention Research
Importance
Phases
Phase 1  Identifying and Each operation involves
involving clients collaboration between
Problem Analysis  Gaining entry and researchers and clients,
and Project cooperation of the from helping gain the cooperation
Planning setting and support necessary for
 Identifying concerns of conducting intervention
the population research.
 Analyzing identified
concerns
 Setting goals and
objectives
Once information is
Phase 2  Using existing gathered, researchers
information sources analyze the critical features
Information  Studying natural of the programs and
47
gathering and examples practices that have
synthesis  Identifying functional previously addressed the
elements of successful problem of interest. Some
models questions to ask are: Is
there a model program,
policy, or practice that has
been successful in changing
targeted behaviors or
outcomes.
This outlines the operation
Phase 3  Designing as in the particularly
Design observational system interrelated phases of design
 Specifying procedural and early development of
elements of the pilot testing.
intervention
During the development and
Phase 4  Developing prototype pilot testing phase, the
or preliminary primitive design is evolving
Early interventions into a form that can be
Development and  Conducting a pilot test evaluated under the field
Pilot Testing  Applying design condition. This phase
criteria to the includes the most important
preliminary phase and operation of
intervention concept developing a prototype or
preliminary intervention,
conducting a pilot test, and
applying design criteria to
the preliminary intervention
concept.
The results of full-field
Phase 5  Selecting experimental testing are used to resolve
design problems with the
Evaluation and  Collecting and measurement system and
advanced analyzing data intervention. Adaptation in
Development  Replicating the the language, content, and
intervention under intervention methods may
field conditions produce desired behavior
 Refining the changes and outcomes for
intervention the full range of intended
beneficiaries.
 Preparing the product Once a community
Phase 6 for dissemination intervention has been field-
 Identifying potential tested and evaluated, it is
Dissemination markets for the ready to be disseminated to
intervention community or organizations
 Creating a demand for and other target audiences.
the intervention Several operations help to
 Encouraging make the process of
appropriate adaptation dissemination and
 Providing technical adaptation more successful;
support for adopters preparing the product for
dissemination; identifying
potential markets for
48
intervention, creating a
demand for intervention,
encouraging appropriate
adaptation, and providing
technical support for
adopters.
What’s More
Research Questions. It helps to focus your attention on a specific problem.

When thinking about the purpose of the research. It is important to consider which
stakeholders will be using the research findings or how they will be using them.
The research question should be capable of being developed into plausible research
design. Choosing the most appropriate design and methods can enhance prospects
for obtaining meaningful results. You also need to consider the practicality of the
overall research design: whether, for example, you have access to the proposed
research setting and data.
The following are examples of research questions in an intervention project or
study. In a research study, it is important how research questions can be
formulated and help you distinguish if the research study is applying an
intervention.
 What impact does collaborative learning have on elementary school students’

conflict resolution skills?
 Can student handwriting improve without the use of rote instruction?
 Are portfolios effective forms of annotated research for building strong
positive relationships with students, parents, other teachers, and principals
for elementary school students?
 Does Writer’s Workshop strengthen students’ writing and will it affect the
students’ enjoyment in the writing process?
 Will inquiry-based instruction help students make learning gains?
 Does best-practice teaching improve student outcomes and attitudes toward
science?
 How do read aloud motivate students to read independently?
 Do students learn classroom material better through student-led teaching?
 Could the motivating power of choice and emphasis on the development of
deeper meaning provided by literature circles improve attitudes toward
reading?
 The effects of physical education and health on students.
 How can teachers better develop relationships with English Language
Learners?
 Will the Good Student Game, a positive reinforcement strategy, improve on-
task behavior in a second-grade classroom?
49
 Will incorporating multisensory ways (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic
approaches) increase the recognition of high-frequency words at the
kindergarten level?
 How do the arts increase reading comprehension? Will students remember
math facts better if they draw pictures of the answers and drill with a friend?
 Will access to a nutritious morning snack reduce behavioral problems in the
classroom that are caused by children’s hunger?
 Will integrating art into a seventh-grade middle school science classroom
help students understand their internal body systems more easily?
Based on the research questions presented above, in intervention applied

in research it is to consider the level of needs, the impact or effectiveness in the
intervention, the how or the process which details the explanation, the
implementation level.
Another way of thinking about these research questions is to consider the
purpose of the research concerning an argument or theory, is it to generate,
test, or explore this argument theory.
Purpose Characteristics
To generate theory  Aims to advance understanding concepts
and theories emerge from the data
 The theory is the product
To test theory  Aims to inform the choice of interventions
concepts and theories pre-specified
 The theory is the starting point
To explore theory  Aims to inform development and
implementation of interventions
 Some concepts/theories pre-specified some
emerge
 Theory guides research
Written below is an example (abstract) of intervention in a research study.
Example 1
Use of SIM (Strategic Intervention Material) As Strategy And The Academic

Achievement Of Grade 7 Students On Selected Topic In Earth Science
This research endeavor aimed to find out whether the use of SIM (Strategic
Intervention Material) would improve the academic achievement of grade seven
students on a selected topic in earth science. The study made use of quasi-
experimental design which is non- equivalent control group pretest and posttest
design. About 120 participants were used as subjects of the study. Mean and t-
tests were used as tools in the analysis of data. The result of the study revealed
that there was a significant difference in the pretest and posttest mean scores of
the experimental and control group in the topic eclipse. The experimental group
achieved a better mean gain score than the control group. This points out that
the use of strategic intervention material (SIM) in the experimental group
significantly improved the performance of the students. It can be concluded that
the performance of students in the experimental group was greatly enhanced
50
after SIM was employed in teaching the lesson. Therefore, the employment of SIM
was better and effective than the use of the traditional method in teaching some
topics in science. Furthermore, it was recommended that SIM be adopted as
instructional material or strategy in teaching science lessons as well as other
subjects.
What’s More
Activity 1. Match it!
Carefully read the statements. Identify the type of intervention in research

that describes the given statements. Choose from the box and write only the letter
of the correct answer on the space provided.
A. Experimental Social Innovation D. Action Research
B. Social Research Development E. Model development
C. Developmental Research F. Behavioral community research
_____1. This focuses on behavior change is also seen as valuable

to community members and that generates a pull effect that grows
the community and normalizes the new behavior.
_____2. The focus of this research is to initiate and solve an immediate problem.
_____3. This focuses on the progressive changes that occur.
_____4. This focuses on the need to “put people” first in the development process.
_____5. This is to evaluate the effects of the treatment program.
_____6. This examines how human services proceed from innovation to standard
practice.
Activity 2. Core Components

Identify which component is being described in writing an intervention. Write the
answer on the space provided.
____________1. This component describes the appropriate level at which the
problem or goal should be addressed (e.g., by individuals, families,
neighborhoods, city, or county government), and whether the
organization can influence such changes).
____________2. This component answers when the intervention will be implemented

or how long it will be maintained.
____________3. It assesses the quality of implementation of the intervention.
____________4. Some types of assessment include direct observation, survey

interview and reviewing of existing records.
51
____________5. This considers questions of whom will you ask about the problem or
goal and potential solutions?
____________6. This provides information and enhancing skills (e.g., conduct a

public information campaign to educate people about the problem or
goal and how to address it)
____________7. Which component describes whether the “best practice” could

achieve the desired results in your community whether the
conditions (e.g., time, money, people, and technical assistance) that
affect success for the “best practice” are present?
____________8. This includes goals, objectives and specific behaviors that need to
change.
____________9. This includes the quality of implementation, satisfaction and

outcomes and attainment of objectives.
____________10. This includes targets of change or prioritized groups for whom

behaviors or outcomes should change and an agent of change or
those implementing the intervention.
Activity 3. Time to write!
 Now, your task is to write a discussion about an intervention applied

in your research study.
 Remember to integrate all the things highlighted in this lesson to help
you in your writing. A guide is given as well to assist you with the
content of your output.
 Use the pattern or template below in accomplishing the task.
 Use the following format: computerized, font 12, Times New Roman,
and 1.5 spacing.
 The sample abstract below is an intervention in research that would
guide you on how it is to be discussed or applied in your research
study.
The Effects of a Plyometric Versus a Traditional Weight Training Program on
Power, Strength, and Jumping Ability in Female Collegiate Dancers.
Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a plyometric versus
a traditional weight training program on jumping ability, lower body strength,
and power in female collegiate dancers.
Methods: Subjects were 18 female dancers who were recruited from advanced
technique classes. Subjects were placed by quasi-random design into one of three
groups: plyometric training (PLY, n=6), weight training (WT, n=6), and control
(CON, n=6). The PLY group performed 4 plyometric jump exercises twice a week.
The WT group performed 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions of 4 lower-body isotonic
exercises twice a week. The CON group refrained from strength training. All
subjects continued their normal dance classes throughout the study. Subjects
were tested pre and post-training for lower body strength (1 repetition
maximum), anaerobic power (Wingate Anaerobic Cycle Test), and vertical jump.
52
Additionally, dance faculty evaluated subjects for technique and aesthetic quality
of dance jumps on a scale from 1-5. A paired t-test was performed to detect
statistical differences from pre to post-testing. Significance was accepted at
p<0.05.
Results: Both the PLY and WT groups increased their leg strength (37% and
32%, respectively)and aesthetic jump height (13%). The PLY group increased
vertical jump (8.3%). The WT group increased anaerobic power (6%), hamstring
strength (23%), and the ability to point feet while jumping (20%). There were no
significant changes in any variables in the CON group.
Conclusions: Both types of strength training (PLY and WT) improve leg strength
and jumping ability in dancers. While there may be a greater benefit in actual
jump height from PLY training, perceived aesthetic dance quality in jumping is
improved with traditional WT training. Therefore, female dancers can benefit from
either type of training and should be aware that dance training alone is not
sufficient to increase dance jumping ability.
cdn.ymaws.com/.../Sample_Abstract--Intervention_Research_1.pdf
Title
Purpose
Methods
Results
Conclusion
s
53
RUBRIC
4 3 2 1
Knowledge Comprehensive, in- Relevant but Limited Little
depth and wide- comprehensive superficial relevance/
ranging knowledge/ some accuracy
response
Understanding High Level of ability Some ability to Limited to draw Minimal
to conceptualize conceptualize out concepts awareness that
essential ideas and essential ideas and relate to external
relate theory to and relate theory to concepts exist
practice theory to practice
practice
Writing skills Significant Some Poor grammar, Lack of clarity,
mechanics grammatical weak poor
structure and lapses use communication presentation of
organization emotional thinking
response
regarding
relevant points
Application/Analysis Demonstrate good Informed Some Lack of
ability to analyze commentary observations, evidence of
and synthesize with some some supportive critical
independent evidence of evidence used. analysis, poor
analysis, good use genuine use of
of range supportive analysis and supportive
materials supportive evidence.
materials.
Total
Reviewer’s
Comments
54
Lesson
5 Data Collection Procedures
Lesson 5 of this module talks about data collection procedures in which data
and data collection methods were highlighted. This notion lies in the idea that data
is a critical aspect of research. As a budding researcher, you must be able to plan a
data collection procedure appropriate to the research that you are conducting.
1. identify the different methods in data collection;

2. differentiate the different data collection methods;
3. plan data collection procedure;
4. express reasons for choosing the data collection procedure; and
5. discuss the data collection procedure of your research.
What’s In
Identify the kind of quantitative research described below. Write your answer on
the space before the number.
1. The _____________ can be experimental or nonexperimental.
2. The ___________________ is a type of quantitative research that seeks to
describe the present status of an identified variable.
3. A ____________________ is a type of quantitative research that tries to define
the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical
data.
4. The _________________ is a quantitative research that attempts to establish
cause and effect relationships among the variables.
5. In __________________, the independent variable is not manipulated and there
is no random assignment to groups.
Nonexperimental research
Causal- comparative research
Correlational research
Descriptive research
Quantitative Research Design
55
What’s New
Box the words related to quantitative research that you will find in the puzzle
In the table
below, write the words that you found in the puzzle which are related to data
collection. Give the meaning of each word. You may use a dictionary or any
Word Definition
1. A collection of numbers, quantities, facts,
records, used as a basis for drawing conclusions
or making inferences.
2. Recollections, observations, and perceptions of
respondents about themselves and of other
people.
3. This involves the presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and replies in terms of oral-verbal
responses.
4. Data that include the respondent’s ideas or
opinions about, or his actual behavior, in a
situation.
5. A way of collecting data through observing.
6. Data that is collected by a researcher from first-
hand sources
7. Data that can be measured and not simply
observed.
8. A method that uses a set of standardized
questions, often called items.
9. This method refers to the continuous, permanent,
56
compulsory recording of the occurrence of vital
events.
10. Described an instrument if the instrument
collects the data which are intended for it to
collect.
What is It
What are the types of data?
Data may be qualitative or quantitative.
 Qualitative Data represent some characteristics or attributes. They

depict descriptions that may be observed but cannot be computed or
calculated. For example, data on attributes such
as intelligence, honesty, wisdom, cleanliness, and creativity. They are
more exploratory than conclusive.
 Quantitative data can be measured and not simply observed. They
can be numerically represented and calculations can be performed on
them. For example, data on the number of students playing
different sports from your class gives an estimate of how many of the
total students play which sport. This information is numerical and can
be classified as quantitative (toppr.com, n.d.).
What are primary and secondary data?
 Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-

hand sources, using methods like surveys, interviews, or
experiments. It is collected with the research project in mind, directly
from primary sources. The primary sources are individual persons,
organized groups, established practices (e.g. marriage, religious rites,
legal system), documents in their original forms (e.g. Constitutions,
laws, orders, etc), living organisms, man-made material things
(buildings, machines, weapons, etc), natural objects and phenomena
(rain, wind, mountains).
 Secondary data is data gathered from studies, surveys, or
experiments that have been run by other people or for other research.
Secondary data are verbal (written) data such as books (including
dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanac, etc), published articles,
monographs, and other second-hand sources (StatisticsHowto.com.
2020; Calderon & Gonzales, 1993; Valcheva,2020).
What are the categories of data gathered from the respondents?
57
 Facts. These are memories, observations, and insights of respondents
about themselves and of other people.
 Attitudes and Feelings. These are the respondent’s notions and
thoughts about the research topic, and his personal feelings about the
worth of the item being investigated.
 Judgments. These data include the respondent’s ideas or opinions
about, or his actual behavior, in a given situation.
 Psychomotor skills. These data refer to the manipulative skills of the
individual and his activities that involve his five (5) senses.
 Results of tests and experimentation. The results of tests and
experimentation are very important data especially in psychology and
in the physical, chemical, and biological sciences.
 All other data from the primary and secondary
 sources of data
 All other data from the primary and secondary sources of data
(Calderon & Gonzales, 1993).
Methods of Collecting Data

There are several ways of collecting data among which are the following:
1. Questionnaire method
2. Interview method
3. Empirical observation method
4. Registration method
5. Testing method
Data Collection Description Research Sample

Method Application Scenario
Questionnaire The questionnaire is the main Survey and A
Method instrument for collecting data in Descriptive questionnaire
survey research. It is a set of Research is mailed to a
standardized questions, often large number
called items, which follow a of people, and
fixed scheme to collect willing
individual data about one or respondents
more specific topics. Paper- who can
pencil-questionnaires can be complete the
sent to a large number of people survey at their
and saves the researcher time convenience
and money. People are more and return it
truthful while responding to the in postage-
questionnaires regarding prepaid
controversial issues in envelopes.
particular because their
responses are anonymous. But
they also have drawbacks. The
majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don't
return them and those who do
might not be representative of
58
the originally selected sample
(Lavrakas, 2008).
Interview The interview method of Survey and A researcher
Method collecting data involves the Descriptive collects
presentation of oral-verbal research, information
stimuli and reply in terms of qualitative by calling the
oral-verbal responses. This research respondents
method can be used through on a
personal interviews and, if telephone.
possible, through telephone
interviews.
In a personal interview, a
person known as the interviewer
is asking questions generally in
face-to-face contact with the
other person or persons.
Interviews can be structured or
unstructured interviews.
Structured interviews involve
the use of a set of
predetermined questions and
highly standardized techniques
of recording. It can also be
unstructured interviews that do
not follow a system of pre-
determined questions and
standardized techniques of
recording information.
Quantitative interviews are
sometimes referred to as survey
interviews because they
resemble survey-style question-
and-answer formats. They might
also be called standardized
interviews (Wisdomjobs.com).
Observation Observation, as the name Qualitative A principal
method implies, is a way of collecting research, watches a
data through observing. The survey, and teacher
observation data collection descriptive deliver a
method is classified as a research lesson to her
participatory study because the class to
researcher has to immerse assess her
herself in the setting where her effectiveness
respondents are while taking as an
notes and/or recording. educator.
Observation as a data collection
method can be structured or
unstructured. In structured
observation, data collection is
conducted using specific
variables and according to a
pre-defined schedule.
Unstructured observation, on
59
the other hand, is conducted in
an open and free manner in a
sense that there would be no
pre-determined variables or
objectives.
Observational research typically

provides qualitative data as the
researcher is observing the
subject in their natural setting
while quantitative observation is
an objective collection of data
which is primarily focused on
numbers and values – it
suggests “associated with, of or
depicted in terms of a quantity”.
A quantitative observation is
usually conducted by sending
out surveys, questionnaires, or
polls (Dudovski, 2019).
Testing The testing method is used in Experimenta A teacher

Method both experimental and quasi- l and quasi- wants to test
experimental research designs. experimental the
In quasi-experimental research research effectiveness
design, participants are studied of a new
before and after the technique of
experimental manipulation teaching how
(Levitas, J. 2003). to solve verbal
problems in
For experimental research mathematics.
design, pretest-posttest designs Before the
are the preferred method to start of the
compare participant groups and experiment,
measure the degree of change the group to
occurring as a result of be used is
treatments or interventions. In given an
this design, which uses two achievement
groups, one group is given the test about the
treatment and the results are problems to
gathered at the end. The control be covered.
group receives no treatment, After the
over the same time, but experimental
undergoes the same tests. period, the
same test in
another form
is given to the
group as a
post-test
Registration Registration method refers to Survey A researcher

Method the continuous, permanent, research and is working on
compulsory recording of the descriptive a study about
60
occurrence of vital events research the best
together with certain identifying practices of
or descriptive characteristics LET passers
concerning them, as provided for the last 3
through the civil code, laws, or years. He
regulations of each country. went to the
Professional
The vital events may be live Regulation
births, fetal deaths, deaths, Commission
marriages, divorces, judicial (PRC) to
separations, annulments of determine the
marriage, adoptions, passers for
recognitions (acknowledgments the last 3
of natural children), years.
legitimations.
Calderon and Gonzales, (1993); Uwec.edu.; de Belen & Feliciano (2015)
Writing the Data Collection Method in your Research Paper

In writing the data collection method in your research paper, you need to
identify how do you collect your data. Then, justify why the chosen data
collection method will answer your research questions. This answers the
question, what data collection method will best help you collect the data to
answer your research questions. For quantitative research, argue why would
you use experiments, surveys, tests, or secondary data. A good argument
relates the definition of the data collection method to the research questions or
objectives of the research (BEST, 2019).
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Complete the diagram by giving examples of sources of primary and

secondary data. You may choose your answers from the box. Answers for items 1-8
and items 9 to 15 can be in no particular order.
Data
Primary Secondary
Data Data
1. 5. 13.
9.
2. 10. 14.
6.
4. 11.
7.
Individual persons books 15.
associations dictionaries
law 3. 8. encyclopedias
12.
treaties 61 magazines
contracts newspapers
family thesis
living organisms almanac
Activity 2. True or False
Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not. Write your answer
on the space before the number.
__________1. The questionnaire is used to collect data in survey research.
__________2. An interview sheet is a set of standardized questions, often called
items, which follow a fixed scheme to collect individual data about one
or more specific topics.
__________3. The interview method of collecting data involves the presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
__________4. A person known as the interviewer is the one asking questions in an
interview.
__________5. Face-to-face contact with the other person or persons is called a
personal interview.
__________6. Structured interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined
questions and highly standardized techniques of recording.
__________7. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined
questions and standardized techniques of recording information.
__________8. Quantitative interviews are sometimes referred to as survey interviews
because they resemble survey-style question-and-answer formats.
__________9. Observation is a way of collecting data through prediction.
__________10. In observation, a researcher has to immerse himself in the setting
where his respondents are while taking notes and/or recording.
__________11. In a structured observation, data collection is conducted using

specific variables and according to a pre-defined schedule.
__________12. Unstructured observation is conducted in an open and free manner

in the sense that there would be no pre-determined variables or
objectives.
__________13. The use of a pretest or posttest or both is crucial in the testing

method.
__________14. The testing method could be used in experimental research.
__________15. The registration method is in accordance to civil code, laws or

regulations of each country.
62
Activity 3. Tell me the Story
Identify the data collection method described in each scenario. Write your
answer to the proper column.
Scenario Data Collection Method

1. Researcher A is doing experimental research. Which
data collection method will he use?
2. Researcher B is using observation as his data
collection method. He practices open and free
manner data collection. What particular observation
method is illustrated by the scenario?
3. A pharmaceutical company is using pretest and
posttest in his research. Which method of data
collection is being used by the company?
4. The subjects in the research are studied before and
after the experimental manipulation, this is an
example of which data collection?
5. The researcher conducts a census to know who will
be included in the school-age population for the
next five years. He uses the birth certificate to
counter check the data he gathered. What method is
he using?
Activity 4. Decision Point
Decide which data collection method will be most appropriate for the
situations given below. Write your answer on the space before the number.
____________1. What data collection method are you using if you have a
questionnaire as your data gathering instrument?
____________2. You will use a data collection method that involves the presentation
of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
____________3. In this method, there is an interviewer who is asking questions.
____________4. The researchers in this method are using paper-pencil-
questionnaires then send them to a large number of people to save
time and money.
____________5. There is a face-to- face contact to the other person or persons in this
method.
____________6. This method involves the use of a set of predetermined questions
and highly standardized technique of recording.
____________7. This method does not employ a system of pre-determined questions
and standardized techniques of recording information.
____________8. In this method, the researcher gathers data through observing.
63
____________9. In this type of observation method, data collection is conducted
using specific variables and according to a pre-defined schedule.
____________10. This design uses two groups, one group is given the treatment and
the results are gathered at the end.
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your data collection
method. In writing this part, discuss why would you use experiments, surveys,
tests, or secondary data. A good argument tells the definition of the data collection
method to the research questions. Remember, do not simply include a long
definition of the data collection method. If you will use a questionnaire, test,
interview guide, observation checklist, etc. you need to attach them in the
appendix. A clear description of the tool and its properties should also be included.
Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you
in your writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
The research entitled (the title of research) will use (data collection method)
in the collection of data. The (data collection method) is (description of the method)
The (data collection method) (reasons for choosing the data collection method and its appropriateness to the study).
Rubrics
1 2 3 4 5
Data gathering Procedures for Procedures are Procedures for Procedures are
Procedures for gathering data confusing, or implementing thorough,
gathering data are incomplete lacked the study are manageable,
are missing. relevance to identified and coherent, and
purpose, described. powerful for
research generating valid
questions, or and reliable
sampling data.
strategy.
64
Lesson
6 Data Analysis
Lesson 6 of this module is about planning the data analysis using statistics
and hypothesis testing. In this lesson, the statistical analysis of bivariate data will
be discussed. The lesson will also talk about the considerations on how to choose
the statistical treatment which is useful in determining the research hypothesis.
Sample problems are also included to acquaint the learners with data analysis. You
are expected to develop the competency to plan data analysis using statistics and
hypothesis testing after this module.
1. differentiate the types of variables;

2. determine the types of bivariate analysis;
3. choose statistical treatment for research inquiry;
4. decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis; and
5. write a journal entry
What’s In
Write the null hypothesis for the following research questions:

1. Is there a significant relationship between age and math performance?
H0 :
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Is there a significant relationship between caffeine intake and school

performance?
H0 :
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Is there a significant difference between students’ level of acceptance to ADM

when grouped according to gender?
H0 :
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
65
4. Is there a significant difference in the performance of teachers, principals,
and supervisors when grouped according to experience?
H0 :
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Is there a significant relationship between the frequency of gadget utilization

and the attention span of students?
H 0:
___________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Statistics and Probability subject is the prerequisite of this lesson.

It will be helpful to revisit the notes as springboard for discussion
of this module.
What’s New
Given below are research topics and their variables. Study the table then try to
answer the questions below.
Research topics Variables
The relationship between marriage Marriage, hours of sleep

and hours of sleep
Differences in the hours of travel and Traveling time, community type
type of community
The tobacco use habits of teenagers Tobacco use, age of teens
The correlation between the number Number of years of education,
of years of education and salary salary
66
The relationship between body type Body type, gender
and gender
1. How many variables are there in each research topic?

2. What kind of data is marriage? hours of sleep?
3. What kind of data is traveling time, community type?
4. What kind of data is tobacco use, age of teens?
5. The number of years of education, salary?
6. What kind of data is body type, gender?
7. What combination of variables is there in each sample?
There are two (2) variables in the given research topics. Marriage,
community type, tobacco use, movie preferences, body type, and gender are
categorical variables. Categorical variables take on values that are names or labels
and they are not numerical. The color of a ball (e.g., red, green, blue) or the breed
of a dog (e.g., collie, shepherd, terrier) would be examples of categorical variables.
On the other hand, hours of sleep, traveling time, age of teens, number of years of
education, and salary denote numbers, hence, they are numerical variables.
Numerical variables have a value and they can be added, subtracted, divided, or
multiplied (Statisticshowto.com).
Variables Types of Variable

Marriage, hours of sleep Categorical, numerical
Traveling time, community type Numerical, categorical
Tobacco use, age of teens Categorical, numerical
Number of years of education, salary Numerical, numerical
Body type, gender Categorical, categorical
What is It
There are two (2) variables in each of the given examples. When there are
two variables it is called bivariate data which employs bivariate analysis. Bivariate
analysis is the simultaneous analysis of two variables (attributes). It explores the
concept of the relationship between two (2) variables, whether there exists an
association and the strength of this association, or whether there are differences
between two variables and the significance of these differences.
Simply put, the bivariate analysis looks at how the changes in X variables
affect the Y variables. It also uses the X variables to predict some changes in Y
variables
There are three (3) types of bivariate analysis:
a. Categorical and numerical
b. Categorical and categorical
c. Numerical and numerical
67
Each type of bivariate analysis uses statistical treatment which is shown below:
Type of Bivariate analysis Statistical Treatment
Categorical and numerical  Two- sample T-Test
 One way analysis of variance
(ANOVA)
 Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Categorical and categorical  Chi-Square
 Fisher's exact test of
independence
Numerical and numerical  Pearson's correlation coefficient
 Simple linear regression
Saedsayad.com; MarinStatsLectures. “Bivariate Analysis for Categorical & Numerical
Further, to decide on a method of analysis. The following should be considered:

a. How many groups are we comparing?
b. Are the groups independent or dependent?
Paired Samples (also called dependent samples) are samples in which
natural or matched couplings occur.
Types of Paired Description Research Questions Procedure
Sample
pre-test/post-test a factor is measured What is the the dependent
samples before and after an effectiveness of small variable or
intervention. It also group instruction on variables are
measures the effects students’ reading measured before
on the same people comprehension the intervention
before and after scores? (i.e., the pretest)
treatment. and after the
intervention
(i.e., the
posttest).
cross-over trials Individuals are What are the effects of Studies
randomized to two drug A on reducing comparing two
treatments and then systolic and diastolic or more
the same blood pressure in treatments or
individuals are participants diagnosed interventions in
crossed-over to the with high blood which the
alternative pressure? subjects or
treatment patients, upon
completion of
the course of
68
one treatment,
are switched to
another.
Matched samples in which individuals What is the In matched
are matched on effectiveness of samples, it will
personal hypnotism in reducing assign one
characteristics such pain? individual to
as age, sex, socio-
a treatment
economic status, etc.
group and
another to
a control
group. This
process, called
“matching” is
used
in matched
pairs design.
Left/ right It compares the left or What is the Application of
right treatment. effectiveness of using the treatment to
gluta soap? a left face or
right face of the
same individual.
MarinStatsLectures. Bivariate Analysis Meaning Statistics Tutorial #19
Independent samples are different people in the group. For example, there
are different people in treatment A and different people in treatment B such
as smokers and non-smokers, exposed and non-exposed, males and females,
teachers and non- teaching staff, learners and parents, etc.
In terms of the approaches, it can be parametric or nonparametric.
Parametric data
 rely on larger samples
 have a higher power that nonparametric
Nonparametric data
 work with a smaller sample size
 lower power that parametric
Statistical Methods
69
Approaches 2 paired/ 3 or more 2 independent 3 or more
dependent paired/ independent
(there are 2
dependent
(1 group with 2 different groups (there are 3 or
treatments) (1 group with 3 of people in the more groups of
or more study) people in the
treatments) study)
Parametric Paired T-Test Repeated Two- sample One- way
measures T-Test ANOVA
ANOVA
Nonparametric Wilcoxon Friedman Rank sum test Kruskal–Wallis

signed-rank Test
test
Condition Example
If we apply two (2) treatments to one (1) Suppose you are interested in
group we use paired t-test if it is evaluating the effectiveness of a
parametric, and Wilcoxon signed-rank company training program. One
test if it is nonparametric. approach you might consider would be
to measure the performance of a
sample of employees before and after
completing the program and analyze
the differences.
If we apply three (3) or more treatments You might get the same subjects to eat
to one (1) group we use repeated different types of cake (chocolate,
measures ANOVA if it is parametric, caramel, and lemon) and rate each one
and Friedman Test if it is for taste, rather than having different
nonparametric. people taste each different cake.
If there are two (2) groups in the study Suppose that a school has one building
we will use the two-sample T-Test if it is for boys and one for girls. The principal
parametric, and Rank sum test for its wants to know if the pupils of the two
nonparametric counterpart. buildings are working equally hard, in
the sense that they put in an equal
number of hours in studies on the
average.
If there are three (3) or more groups in You would like to test which of the
the study, we will use one- way ANOVA three (3) leading (brand A, B, C) battery
if it is parametric, and Kruskal–Wallis if products for cellphones has the longest
it is nonparametric. standby-time in days.
StatisticsSolutions.com.
Sample Computations
Paired T-Test
70
 (also called a correlated pairs t-test, a paired-samples t-
test or dependent samples t-test) is where you run a t-test on
dependent samples.
 Dependent samples are essentially connected — they are tests on the
same person or thing (Santarosa.edu, n.d.; StatisticsSolutions).
Example:
 Two tests on the same person before and after training,
 Two blood pressure measurements on the same person
using different equipment.
Sample question: Is there a significant difference in the scores of students under a

new intervention?
HO there is no significant difference in the scores of students under the

intervention
Ha there is a significant difference on the scores of students under the

intervention
Student Score 1 Score 2

# (X) (Y)
1 3 20
2 3 13
3 3 13
4 12 20
5 15 29
6 16 32
7 17 23
8 19 20
9 23 25
10 24 15
11 32 30
Step 1: Subtract each Y score from each X score. (X-Y)
Score 1 Score 2 X-Y

(X) (Y)
Student
#
1 3 20 -17
2 3 13 -10
3 3 13 -10
4 12 20 -8
5 15 29 -14
6 16 32 -16
7 17 23 -6
8 19 20 -1
9 23 25 -2
10 24 15 9
71
11 32 30 2
Step 2: Add up all the values of (X-Y).

Student Score 1 Score 2 X-Y
# (X) (Y)
1 3 20 -17
2 3 13 -10
3 3 13 -10
4 12 20 -8
5 15 29 -14
6 16 32 -16
7 17 23 -6
8 19 20 -1
9 23 25 -2
10 24 15 9
11 32 30 2
Sum -73
Step 3: Square the differences of (X-Y) then add the differences.

Student Score 1 Score 2 X-Y (X-Y)2
# (X) (Y)
1 3 20 -17 289
2 3 13 -10 100
3 3 13 -10 100
4 12 20 -8 64
5 15 29 -14 196
6 16 32 -16 256
7 17 23 -6 36
8 19 20 -1 1
9 23 25 -2 4
10 24 15 9 81
11 32 30 2 4
Sum -73 1,131
Step 4: Use the formula to calculate the t- score:

Where:
∑D: Sum of the differences
(sum of X-Y or -73)
(∑D)2: means (-73)2
∑D2: Sum of the
squared differences ((X-
Y)2)or 1,131
N= the number of students
72
Step 5. Subtract 1 from the sample size to get the
degrees of freedom. We have 11 items, so 11-1 = 10.
Step 6: Find the p-value in the t-table, using the degrees of freedom in Step 5. If
you don’t have a specified alpha level, use 0.05 (5%). For this sample problem, with
df= 10, the t-value is 2.228.
Step 7. Compare your t-table value (or critical value) from Step 6 (2.228) to your
calculated t-value (-2.74). The calculated t-value (-2.74) is greater than the table
value (2.228) at an alpha level of .05.
Decision: We can reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in
the scores of students under the intervention and accept the alternative hypothesis
that there is a significant difference in the scores of students under the
intervention.
Note: The larger the absolute value of the t- value, the smaller the p-value. The
absolute value means removing any negative sign in front of a number, hence the
absolute value of -2.74 is 2.74 which is greater than 2.228. Thus, we reject the null
hypothesis.
Important reminder:
If the calculated value is less than the critical value (t-table value), accept
the null hypothesis.
If the calculated value is greater than or equal to the critical value, reject the
null hypothesis, and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Independent Samples t-Test
The independent samples t-test, sometimes called the simple t-test, tests the

null hypothesis that there is no difference between two independent samples
(Graziano & Raulin. 2013).
Sample Question:
Is there a significant relationship in the number of absences of males and
females when grouped according to age?
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the number of absences of
male and female learners when grouped according to age.
73
Ha: There is a significant relationship between the number of absences of
male and female learners when grouped according to age.
Step 1: To compute the independent samples t-test, we start by setting up two

columns, one for each group. In our example, we have labeled the columns
Male (X1) and Females (X2).
Age Male (X1) Female (X2)

6-7 5 3
Step 2: Look for the 8-9 8 5 sum of column (X1)
and (X2) 10-11 7 2
12-13 8 3
14-15
Age 7 (X1)
Male 0 (X2)
Female
6-7 5 3
8-9 8 5
10-11 7 2
12-13 8 3
14-15 7 0
35 13
Step 3: Look for the sum of the squared
values of the column (square each score and then sum it).
Age Male (X1) Female (X2) (X1)2 (X2)2

6-7 5 3 25 9
8-9 8 5 64 25
10-11 7 2 49 4
12-13 8 3 64 9
14-15 7 0 49 0
35 13
Step 4: Look for the
sample size (N) for the column. For X1 the N is 5, for X2 the N is 4.
Step 5: Look for the mean (X) of the columns (sum divided by the sample size).

6-7 5 3 25 9
8-9 8 5 64 25
10-11 7 2 49 4
12-13 8 3 64 9
14-15 7 0 49 0
35 13 251 47
N 5 4
(X) 7 3.25 50.2 11.75
Step 6: Compute for the sum of squares (SS) for the column. The formula for the
sum of squares (SS) is
74
For this problem, the SS for X1 is 6, for X2 is 4.75

6-7 5 3 25 9
8-9 8 5 64 25
10-11 7 2 49 4
12-13 8 3 64 9
14-15 7 0 49 0
35 13 251 47
N 5 4
Step 7: Compute
(X) 7 3.25 50.2 11.75
the value of t using
SS 6 4.75
the equation
below.
Step 8: Compute for the degree of freedom(df). To compute for the degree of freedom
(df) the formula N1 + N2 – 2 is used.
Having 5 as the N1 and 4 as the N2, the df for the problem is 7.
Step 9: Compare the computed t to the critical value of t. The critical value
of t (obtained from the Student's t Table) is 2.365 (alpha = 0.05 and df = N1 + N2 - 2
= 7).
Decision: Because the computed value of t (4.52) exceeds the critical value (2.365),
we reject the null hypothesis which means that there is a significant relationship
between the number of absences of male and female learners when grouped
according to age.
Important reminder:
If the calculated value is less than the critical value (t-table value), we failed
to reject the null hypothesis.
If the calculated value is greater than or equal to the critical value, we reject
the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
75
You may revisit your notes on statistical methods of your statistics and
probability class for other statistical treatments.
Calculated value Critical value Failed to reject the null
< hypothesis
Calculated value Critical value Reject the null hypothesis
>
Remember that the statistical treatments presented are used to test the
hypothesis. If there is no hypothesis in the study, you might consider using other
statistical treatments. Presented below are other statistical treatments to be used
in a study.
Statistical When to use? Sample Questions Procedure/ Formula

Treatment/
Operation
Mean Finding the The following Add up all the values of
arithmetic average numbers represent data given and divide by
the ages of people the number of data
on a bus: 3, 6, 27, provided.
13, 6, 8, 12, 20, 5,
10. Calculate the
mean of their ages.
Median This is used in Find the median of First arrange the
finding the middle the set of numbers: numbers in a numerical
value. Median 100, 200, 450, 29, sequence: 29,100, 200,
refers to the 1029, 300, and 300, 450, 1029, 2001.
middle value 2001. Next, find the middle
among a set or number. The median is
series of values 300
after they have
been arranged in
numerical order.
Mode This is used to Find the mode from Simply find the most
find the value with these test results: recurring number. The
the highest 17, 19, 18, 17, 18, most occurring number
frequency. 19, 11, 17, 16, 19, in the series is 17.
Mode refers to the 15, 15, 15, 17, 13,
most frequently 11.
occurring number
or value among a
set of values. Note
that it is possible
not to have a most
occurring number
and then the
answer is ‘No
Mode’.
Frequency To find the If 10 students score
frequency is to 80 in statistics,
find the number of then the score of 80
times a data value has a frequency of
76
occurs. 10.
Weighted Is used when we Alex worked: Multiply each weight w
mean consider some by its matching value x,
data values to be on 2 weeks: 1 day sum that all up, and
more important each week divide by the sum of
than other values on 14 weeks: 2 weights:
and so we want days each week
them to contribute on 8 weeks: 5 days
more to the final each week
"average". on 32 weeks: 7
days each week
What is the mean

number of days
Alex works per
week?
Calderon & Gonzales, (1993); de Belen & Feliciano (2015); mathisfun.com;
test.preparation.ca
Writing the Data Analysis in your Research Paper

In writing the data analysis, for quantitative data, it requires you to justify the
chosen statistical tool and how it will generate results to answer your research
questions. Remember that the statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the
problem, especially the specific problems, and the nature of the data gathered. The
explicit hypotheses particularly determine the kind of statistics to be used.
What’s More
Activity 1.The Right Combination
Given are sample research questions. In column 2, identify the combination

of variables as numerical or categorical. In column 3, determine a statistical
method applicable for each combination.
Research questions Combination of Variables Methods

1. What are the teachers’
perceptions of the newly
implemented reading
assessment program?
2. Are there differences in
students’ grades by gender?
3. Are there differences in job
level by gender?
4. Is there a relationship
between gender and fitness
level?
between age and fitness
77
level?
between ice cream sales and
temperature at noon?
7. What is the difference in
the daily calorie intake
between men and women?
8. What are the differences in
attitudes towards online
banking between Millennial
adults and older people?
9. What is the relationship
between gender and exam
results of Grade 12
students?
10. What is the relationship
between job satisfaction and
salary?
Activity 2. True or False
Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is wrong.
______________1. If we apply two (2) treatments to one (1) group, we use paired t-
test if it is parametric.
______________2. If we apply three (3) or more treatments to one (1) group, we use
repeated measures ANOVA.
______________3. If there are two (2) groups in the study, we will use the two-
sample T-Test if it is parametric.
______________4. If there are three (3) or more groups in the study, we will use one-
way ANOVA if it is parametric.
______________5. All researches will use T-test and ANOVA as their statistical
treatment.
Activity 3. Pairings
Given are sample research questions. In column 2, determine the condition

whether it is 2 paired, 3 or more paired, 2 independent, or 3 or more independent.
In column 3, determine the parametric statistical method that can be used for
each.
Situations Condition Statistical method

1. A sample of children was provided
with a breakfast of low fat foods on
one day and high-fat foods on
another.
2. A group of 10 people performed four
78
(4) different memory tasks.
3. Teacher Amie has balloons from two

different brands. She wants to test the
durability of each brand by measuring
the volume of water that can be
pumped into the balloons before they
burst.
4. Teacher Max experimented to
determine whether intensive tutoring
is more effective than paced tutoring.
Two randomly chosen groups are
tutored separately and then
administered proficiency tests.
5. Teacher Mark recruited 30 students
to participate in a study and split
them into three groups. The students
in each group are randomly assigned
to use one of the three exam prep
programs for the next three weeks to
prepare for an exam. At the end of the
three weeks, all of the students take
the same exam.
Activity 4. Do Your Math
Decide whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis. Guide questions are
provided to help you find the answers.
1. Consider the actual temperature of the day and the temperature in

the forecast:
Actual Low Temperature Forecast Low Temperature

1 16
-5 16
-5 20
23 22
9 15
Research Question: Is the forecast low temperature significantly different

from the actual low temperature (at the 0.05 level)?
HO There is no significant difference in the forecast low temperature and the
actual low temperature.
a. How many groups/ sample is being studied?
b. How many treatments are there?
c. What is the statistical method to be used?
d. What is the degree of freedom (df)?
e. What is the computed t- value?
f. What is the decision, to reject or accept the null hypothesis?
Activity 5. It’s Your Turn
79
This activity will help you draft a narrative about the statistical treatment of
data. Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you
in your writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
Having the (state your research problems) as the main research problem, the study will
use the (statistical treatment) as the statistical treatment of the study. The
(statistical treatment) is (description of the statistical treatment) . Since the present study
(reasons for choosing the statistical treatment, you may discuss the groups involved or the conditions of the study)
thus, the (statistical treatment) is deemed to be the most appropriate statistical treatment for
the research study.
Rubrics
1 2 3 4 5
Analytical Analytical Descriptive or Both Analytical
methods are methods are inferential descriptive methods are
missing. inappropriately methods are and sufficiently
aligned with confusing, inferential specific, clear,
data and incomplete, or methods are and
research lacked identified. The appropriate
design. relevance to level of given the
the research significance is research
questions, stated. questions,
data, or research
research design, and
design. scale of
measurement,
and type of
distribution.
80
Lesson
Present Written Research
7 Methodology
This module discusses the research methodology which is an essential
chapter in any research undertaking. This involves a set of instruments and
procedures in dealing with research problems. This is in line with the learning
competency that you need to achieve at the end of the lesson, presenting written
research methodology. It is expected that at the end of the lesson you can identify
and describe the components in research methodology for you to utilize materials
and techniques to produce creative work.
1. identify and describe the components involved in writing your research

methodology;
2. prepare materials and techniques to produce creative work; and
3. write the methodology of your research.
What’s In
True or False. Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the
statement is incorrect. Write your answer to the space provided.
_________1. The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain usable and useful

information.
_________2. The analysis, irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or
quantitative, may only describe and summarize the data.
_________3. Data analysis includes techniques like looking for patterns, themes,
statistics, identifying key events, and making visual representations.
_________4. Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to the data.
81
_________5. Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure, and meaning
to the mass of collected data.
This lesson provides activities and strategies that will help

learners in their research undertakings. It is necessary that the
learners understand the concepts of research methodology. The
learners need ample time to finish the activities and assist them
in their queries.
What’s New
Enumerated on the first column are the components of your research

methodology; the second column is the key item used in the component and the
last column is the reason for the key item. Complete the table of your research
methodology by writing the necessary information for each component. The first
component sets an example.
Part of the Research Key Item Reason for the Key Item
Methodology
Research Design Quasi-Experimental Because it shares
similarities with the
traditional experimental
design or randomized
controlled trial, but it
specifically lacks the
element of random
assignment to treatment
or control.
Research Design
Instrument
82
Research Locale
Population and Sample
Data Collection
Procedure
Data Analysis Procedure
Statistical Treatment
What is It
The research methodology section of any academic research paper allows

you to convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to
your field of study. An effective research methodology is grounded in your overall
approach – whether qualitative or quantitative – and adequately describes the
methods you used. This gives an idea of the information required in writing.
This includes explaining the type of research technique you will adopt in the
study, how you will get the data for the study whom or where you will get the data
from, and how you will analyze the data you will
The following are the components of the section on research methods:
1. Research Design. This section describes the specific research approach
you will use in the study. This can be ethnography, case study,
historical, phenomenological, and the like. The research design is
independent of the purpose of the study and the set of specific research
questions you have formulated.
Quantitative research designs for cases where statistical conclusions to

collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better
perspective to make critical business decisions. Quantitative research
design methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights
drawn from hard numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective
when making decisions related to the future of the business.
83
Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a
researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under
their research study. It is a theory-based design method which is created
by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a
researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.
Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the
research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct
exploratory research.
Experimental research design: Experimental research design

establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It
is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one
monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a
dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty.
It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to
solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are
manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It
is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing
two groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions and
study how the people around them react to gain a better understanding
of social psychology.
Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-

experimental research design technique that helps researchers establish
a relationship between two closely connected variables. This type of
research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while
evaluating a relationship between two different variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them.
A quasi-experimental research design is a research design in

which a treatment or stimulus is administered to only one of two groups
whose members were randomly assigned – are considered the gold
standard in assessing causal hypotheses. True experiments require
researchers to exert a great deal of control over all aspects of the design,
which in turn allows strong statements to be made about causal
relationships. In many situations, especially those involving human
subjects, it is simply not possible for researchers to exert the level of
control necessary for a true experiment. For example, it may be
unethical to expose subjects to a stimulus that the researcher knows
may cause harm. Also, researchers are often interested in processes that
are too complex or lengthy to be administered in an experimental
setting.
2. Research Locale. This section describes the setting or location of your

study. The specific description of the setting is very important in
qualitative research since the setting or context may have an effect or
impact on the behavior of the respondents.
3. Sample or the Respondent. This section describes the respondents of

the study. The description may include the demographic profile of the
84
respondents such as age, educational background, occupation and other
information that may be relevant in understanding the (behavior of the)
respondents.5
4. Research Instrument. This section outlines the instruments you will
use in the study such as interview questions, interview protocols,
observation, guide, survey form, focus group discussion questions, and
others.
5. Data Collection Procedure. This section describes the steps you will
undergo to collect data from your study. In some types of researches
particularly ethnographic and case studies, the specific date (and
sometimes, exact time) of doing the steps (i.e., observing the participant)
are important. The instruments used to record data (eg., pen and paper,
audio, and /or video recorder) may also be mentioned.
6. Data Analysis Procedure. This section describes how you will analyze
the data you will gather.
7. Also, surveys and questionnaires are more often used in

qualitative research; they may also design to apply to qualitative
data.
Ruel A. Avilla, Practical Research. Diwa Learning System, 2016
What’s More
Activity 1. You complete me!

The research methodology discusses the steps and procedures that you will
use in conducting your research. The following are the components or sections in
the research methodology. Choose the most appropriate term/ words to describe
the sections in the research methodology. Write the letter of the answer on the
space provided before the number.
Components Words/ Phrases

_______1.Research Design
A. Setting or location of the study
_______2.Research Locale
B. Specific Steps of the study
_______3. Sample or Respondents

C. Research Approach
_______4. Research Instrument
85
D. Interview questions and survey
forms
______5. Data Gathering Procedure E. Organizing data
______6. Data Analysis Procedure F. Statistical tools
______7. Statistical Treatment G. Demographic Profile
Activity 2. Stay Focused!
Identify what is being defined or described. Choose from the box below and
write only the letter on the space provided.
A. Research Design B. Research Locale C. Sample or

Respondents
D. Research E. Data Collection F. Data Analysis
Instrument Procedure Procedure
1. This term refers to a specified area and/or subject that is being

studied in a research project.
2. This section describes how research is designed in terms of the
techniques used for data collection, sampling strategy, and data
analysis for a quantitative method. Before going into the strategies
of data collection and analysis, a set of hypotheses were
developed.
3. This component describes the respondent of the study. The
description may include the profile of the respondent such as age,
educational background occupation, and other information.
4. This section includes the sampling method used to collect the
number of respondents needed to provide information which is
then analyzed after collection.
5. This component can include interviews, tests, surveys, or
checklists.
6. This section is a process of collecting, transforming, cleaning,
and modeling data to discover the required information. The
results so obtained are communicated, suggesting conclusions,
and supporting decision-making.
Activity 3: You can write!

You have now reached the end of the tasks for this lesson on the research
methodology chapter. You can now apply the ideas from this lesson in drafting or
revising your research study. A guide is given to help you with the content of your
output. You may use the pattern/template below in doing this methodology section.
86
Introduction
Research Design
Research Locale
Sample or Respondents
Research Instrument
Data Gathering Procedure
Data Analysis Procedure
Statistical Treatment
Rubric
Introductory matter
The introduction summarizes the research purpose and 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
major areas of the chapter.
Research design is described. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
The research design follows logically from the problem 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
statement and is defended as such.
Data collection and instrumentation
The population is defined and defended. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
The sampling procedure and data collection procedure is 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
described.
Participant eligibility requirements and measures for 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
participants’ rights are described.
Weaknesses and scope of sampling procedure and/or data 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
collection procedures are described.
Instrument and/or intervention is described and 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
defended.
Weaknesses in the instrument are described. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
Methodology
Statistical or qualitative methodology is (correctly) 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
described.
87
Statistical or qualitative methodology is (logically) 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
defended.
Assumptions (correct ones) behind methodology are 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
described and defended.
Statistical hypotheses are clearly described, explained 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
how it relates to a big question.
Other
The tone is consistently professional, sentences are well 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
phrased and flow smoothly, word choice is appropriate
and accurate, and writing is free of errors.
Ideas flow smoothly, ideas are not unnecessarily repeated, 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
all ideas relate to the thesis statement (no unnecessary
ideas)
murraylax.org. “Research Methodology Rubric”. https://www. murray.org./irpja/rubric_chapter3.pdf
Activity 4. Do it!
After revising your research study be ready to present your manuscript/
research study. You can choose one of the learning modalities in your presentation.
 Oral Presentation
 PowerPoint Presentation
 Poster Presentation.
 Online Presentation
Guidelines in Oral Presentation
 Know your topic well.

 Learn as much about the topic as you can to boost your self-confidence
 Have an idea what the background is of your audience is so you will know
how much detail to go into and what kinds of things you may have to define
 Prepare an outline of the topic. Bullet or number the main points
 An 8-minute talk is roughly equivalent to 4 double spaced pages in 12-pt.
font and 1 margin.
 However, never read a presentation. Write out your presentation if you need
to organize your thoughts, but then outline this text for the actual
presentation.
Guidelines in PowerPoint Presentation
 10-12 slides for a ten-minute presentation.

 Your slides should be visually appealing, but “clean.”
 Use a minimum font size of 22.
 Do not overburden slides with text
 Includes acknowledgments, your name and Grade Level /Strand/ Section
Guidelines in Poster Presentation
 Important information should be readable from about 10 feet away

 Word count of about 300 to 800 words
 Text is clear and to the point
 Use of bullets, numbering, and headlines make it easy to read
88
 Effective use of graphics, color, and fonts
 Consistent and clean layout
 Includes acknowledgments, your name and Grade Level /Strand/ Section
Guidelines on an Online Discussion
 When presenting online, the main goal is to keep your audience’s attention.
 Lighting: The best flattering lighting comes from a soft and diffuse natural
source, so always face a window (avoid direct sunlight) or a large light
source, the larger the better.
 Camera angles: Avoid having the camera too low or too high. A bit above eye
level is the best.
 Sound: Good sound quality is essential.
 Clothing: Do not wear plain white or black, the best are neutral colors.
 Background: Pay attention to the background. Do not have it too crowded
with objects that will distract the viewer’s attention.
 Bandwith: Internet bandwidth is crucial to a flawless presentation, If you are
streaming from home, make sure that nobody is gaming or watching videos
online as this will slow your connection and affect the flow of your
presentation.
References
Explorable.net. “Research Methodology”. Accessed May 25, 2020.

https//:www.explorable.com/research-methodology
https://www.researchgate.net/search.Search.html?
type=question&query=Characteristics%20of%20the%20Good
%20Researcher&tabViewId=58553252eeae39ddb71b4896&previous=researc
her
https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/?
_ga=2.247697287.1867778098.1590687129-1153431186.1590687129
Research methodology.net. “Research –Methodology”. Accessed May 27, 2020.

httpsw://research-methodology.net/research-methodology
scribbr.com.” Research Methodology”. Accessed May 27, 2020.

https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/
murraylax.org. “Research Methodology Rubric”. https://www.

murray.org./irpja/rubric_chapter3.pdf
89
Lesson Research Design Principles and
8 Ethical Standards in Conducting

A Study
You have already learned all about conducting research, now is your time to
consider doing the research, the past lessons will help you a lot in crafting every detail of
your research study, but before that please take your time to study this particular lesson
about principles and ethical standards in Conducting a research study.
Several ethical principles should be taken into account when performing

undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles
stress the need to (a) do good (known as beneficence) and (b) do no harm (known as non-
malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a researcher, you need to:
(a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; (b) minimize the risk of
harm to participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using
deceptive practices; and (e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research.
When you look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your
research study should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not
possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. Similarly, there
may be instances where you seek permission from participants not to protect their
anonymity. More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you
adopt to guide your dissertation
The research process is a bit like an eye exam. The doctor makes the best guess for
the most appropriate lens strength and then adjusts the lenses from there. Sometimes the
first option is the best and most appropriate; sometimes it takes a few tries with several
different options before finding the best one for you and your situation.

1. determine the ethical principles and standards in conducting research;
2. discuss the rudiments (before, during and after) of research; and
3. prepare the necessary documents (permits, letters) in conducting research.
90
What’s In
Define the following words and use them in a sentence.
1.Ethics
2. Morality
3. Honesty
4. Integrity
5. Confidentiality
Discussion
In doing research, how can we say that we have done the right thing? Can
we strike a balance between what is right and what is moral? Are things we have
done widely accepted by the community? Ethics is anchored on the moral
standards that we follow. Morality is a set of “unwritten” rules that guides us on
the things that we should or should not do to attain harmony and orderliness in
any undertaking.
Ethics is important in research because it keeps the researcher from
committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth. It promotes essential values
that help researchers working on a topic to have a common understanding of how
things should go about. Since research may involve experts coming from different
fields of expertise, ethics bind them together by considering the important values
such as accountability, cooperation, coordination, mutual respect, and fairness
among others.
Research studies and scientific research are being conducted to provide
results that will help with social, professional, and scientific evolution. Gathering
data and information and analyzing them is the only way for a researcher to
conclude. The process of conducting a research study starts by focusing on tested
hunches and ideas. With the collection of all the necessary information, the results
can come fast. Either positive or negative.
91
Conducting a research study has certain very, important steps that need to
be taken for the research to be successful. Here are the 8 most important steps
that you are going to take to conduct your research study:
Step 1: Identifying the Subject
There is always a problem, subject, and issue or thematic that is being
analyzed in a research study. Do you have a clear view of what yours is?
Unless you have identified the subject of your research study, you cannot
move on to the next step.
Step 2: Find the literature
What is the current information on the topic? Surely some research has
already been conducted at some point. That research gave results, maybe
answers to some of the questions. You need to find that research and those
results. You need the current literature to create your own.
Step 3: Clarify the Subject
Once the literature has been reviewed and the details of the
initial Subject have been identified it is time to clarify the subject. What is
the scope of the study? If it is too big then it has to be broken down into
categories and studied separately. Many factors can affect a subject and
many variables. All of that needs to be taken into account.
Step 4: Definition of Terms and Concepts
Every subject has terms and Concepts. Either scientific, cultural, or social.
These words and phrases are going to be used in the study constantly. You
need to know exactly what they mean and how you should use them.
Research studies are not simple papers. The words you use will affect the
outcome of the paper itself and the way that people will understand the
results and your ideas. So always define the terms and concepts before you
start using them.
Step 5: Who is your audience?
Your research study always has to do with an audience. Either directly or
indirectly. It is your responsibility to define that audience. In the beginning,
it can be rather confusing. Separating those that are immediately affected by
the results of your study, from those that are not so connected with your
results can help you clarify your audience and of course, focus on the most
important parts of the research study. After all, working with a very large
audience is not going to give you the results that you are looking for. The
bigger the audience, the harder it will be for the study to be conducted.
Step 6: Instrumentation Plan
Consider this to be the roadmap for your entire study. It will specify some of
the most important parts of the study like the participants, the main
literature focus, the how, when, and where the data is going to be collected
and of course analyzed. Everything you will do will be based on this
particular plan. You can choose when you are going to create it of course.
However, the sooner you do it the better the process of the research study
and the faster the results.
Step 7: Collecting the Data
92
After you have gathered the literature, found your audience, and collected
the original data of the subject, you will conduct your own ‘’experiments’’ to
make sure that your results are the right ones. Those ‘’experiments’’ will give
you data of their own. Collecting that data and analyzing it is a very
important part of the process. You need to make sure that all that data will
be safely stored and properly analyzed. This will happen after the completion
of the instrumentation plan and during the start if the sturdy.
One important thing that you need to note here is where you are going to get
the data. Questionnaires and observation are always good places to start.
Step 8: Analyzing the Data
Finally is the analysis of the data itself. That will be the last step that will
give you the results and help you bind your research together. Take your
time with it. Double or even triple check your analysis. Compare it over and
over again. If a mistake is made here you will have to start over with the
analysis. That can take a long time and it is certainly not something that you
will want to do. This is the last step to make sure that you will do it
correctly.
By following these 8 steps, you will find that conducting a research study
can be a lot easier than you think. But certainly not easy. Take your time to
familiarize yourself with these steps. Do not rush into anything. Proper research
studies require time to bring accurate and proper results. Always remember that
these studies can affect your future as a scientist or research either positively or
negatively. The more attention you pay to them, while you conduct them, the more
useful they will be for you and the future of your career!
PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH ETHICS
PRINCIPLE ONE
Minimizing the risk of harm
Research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that
participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be
strong justifications for this. Such scenarios will also require (a) additional
planning to illustrate how participant harm (or discomfort) will be
reduced, (b) informed consent, and (c) detailed debriefing.
There are several types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These
include:
 Physical harm to participants.

 Psychological distress and discomfort.
 Social disadvantage.
 Harm to participants? financial status.
93
 An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity.
Typically, it does not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does
not intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you
should try to minimize. To minimize the risk of harm you should think about:
 Obtaining informed consent from participants.

 Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.
 Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
 Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any
time.
We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow,

explaining (a) what they mean, and (b) instances where they should (and should
not) be followed.
PRINCIPLE TWO
Obtaining informed consent
One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent.

Simply put, informed consent means that participants should understand
that (a) they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them.
Such information may include the purpose of the research, the methods being
used, the possible outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands,
discomforts, inconveniences, and risks that the participants may face. Whilst is it
not possible to know exactly what information a potential participant would (or
would not) want to know, you should aim not to leave out any material information;
that is, information that you feel would influence whether consent would (or would
not) be granted.
Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants

should be volunteers, taking part without having been coerced and deceived.
Where informed consent cannot be obtained from participants, you must explain
why this is the case. You should also be aware that there are instances informed
consent is not necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed. These include
certain educational, organizational, and naturalistic research settings. We discuss
these in more detail under the section: Avoiding deceptive practices.
PRINCIPLE THREE
Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is

another practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will typically
only be willing to volunteer information, especially information of a private or
sensitive nature, if the researcher agrees to hold such information in confidence.
Whilst it is possible that research participants may be hurt in some way if the data
94
collection methods used are somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger
that harm can be caused once data has been collected. This occurs when data is
not treated confidentially, whether in terms of the storage of data, its analysis, or
during the publication process (i.e., when submitting your dissertation to be
marked). However, this does not mean that all data collected from research
participants need to be kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to
disclose the identity and views of individuals at various stages of the research
process (from data collection through to publication of your dissertation).
Nonetheless, permissions should be sought before such confidential information is
disclosed.
An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names,

geographical cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However, such
stripping of identifiable information may not always be possible to anticipate at the
outset of your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is
not only a consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design
but also a quantitative research design.
For example:
Imagine that your thesis used a quantitative research design and
a survey as your main research method. In the process of analyzing your
data, it is possible that when examining relationships between variables (i.e.,
questions in your survey), a person's identity and responses could be
inferred. For instance, imagine that you were comparing responses amongst
employees within an organization based on specific age groups. There may
only be a small group (or just one employee) within a particular age group
(e.g., over 70 years old), which could enable others to identify the responses
of this individual (or small group of employees). Therefore, you need to
consider ways of overcoming such problems, such as (a) aggregating data in
tables and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number of units are
present before data/information can be presented.
A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to

be restricted to the published material, perhaps only allowing it to be viewed by
those individuals marking your work. If the work is later published, adjustments
would then need to be made to protect the confidentiality of participants.
There is also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what
research you can and cannot perform, how you must treat the data of research
participants, and so forth. In other words, you don't simply have a duty to protect
the data you collect from participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal
responsibility to do so. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask
your dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice (or a legal
professional).
PRINCIPLE FOUR
Avoiding deceptive practices
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At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all,
how can participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what
the research requires of them if they are being deceived? This is part of what makes
the use of deceptive practices controversial. For this reason, in most
circumstances, research should avoid any kind of deceptive practice. However, this
is not always the case.
Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be

justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of
the observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants.
Cases, where you may choose to engage in covert research, may include instances
where:
 It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what

you are doing.
 Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the
particular phenomenon that is being studied.
Let's take each of these in turn:
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing
By feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean
that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting
know what you are doing. This is most likely to be the case where research
involves observation, rather than direct contact with participants, especially in
a public or online setting. There are several obvious instances where this may be
the case:
 Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.

 Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to
work, etc.).
Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply
be impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You
may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices, but participants
are not giving you their informed consent.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the

particular phenomenon that is being studied
Where observations or participants? knowledge of the true purpose of the research

has the potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are interested in,
this is a major concern in terms of the quality of your findings.
96
Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and
possibly deceptive practices, you should think about the extent to which this could
be beneficial in your dissertation, not research in general; that is, everything from
the research paradigm that guides your dissertation through to the data analysis
techniques you choose affect issues of research ethics in your dissertation.
Imagine some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered
justifiable:
 Scenario A
You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Whilst

participants are given a questionnaire to complete that measures their
prejudice, it is not obvious from the questions that this is the case.
Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is
about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. After
all, few people would be happy if other people thought they were prejudice.
As a result, if participants knew that this is the purpose of the study, they
may well provide responses that they think will make them
appear less prejudice.
 Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organizational culture of a single

firm. You feel that observation would be an appropriate research method in
such a naturalistic setting. However, you feel that if employees knew that
you were monitoring them, they may behave differently. Therefore, you may
have received permission to go undercover or provide a story to explain why
you are there, which is not the truth.
Whilst such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where

used intentionally, can be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they have
a place in research.
PRINCIPLE FIVE
Providing the right to withdraw
Except for those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let every
one that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should
always have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore,
participants should have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research
process. When a participant chooses to withdraw from the research process, they
should not be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop them from
withdrawing.
If your supervisor and/or Ethics Committee expect you to complete an Ethics

Consent Form, you will likely have to let participants know that they have the right
to withdraw at any time.
97
Now that you have read these basic principles of research ethics, you may
want to understand how the research strategy you have chosen affects
your approach to research. You will need to understand the impact of your
research strategy on your approach to research ethics when writing up
the Research Ethics section of your Research Strategy chapter (usually Chapter
Three: Research Strategy).
ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR DATA COLLECTION/ NORMS IN RESEARCH
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in

research.
First, norms promote the aims of the research, such as knowledge, truth, and
avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid the error.
Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination
among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical
standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as
trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical
norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting
policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed
to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most
researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have
their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.
People more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and
integrity of research.
Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral
and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare,
compliance with the law, and health and safety.
Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal

subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data
in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to
abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may
jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.
Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no
surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and
universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research
ethics.
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical behavior to be

observed in conducting research.
1. Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report

data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not
98
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting
agencies, or the public.
2. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or
required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or
financial interests that may affect research.
3. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.
4. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically
examine your work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities, such as data collection, research design, and
correspondence with agencies or journals.
5. Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism
and new ideas.
6. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms
of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results
without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper
acknowledgment or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
7. Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or
grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military
secrets, and patient records.
8. Responsible Publication: Publish to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
9. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.
Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
10.Respect for Colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
11.Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate
social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
12.Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students
based on sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their
scientific competence and integrity.
13.Competence: Maintain and improve your professional competence and

expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
14.Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental
policies.
15.Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in
research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal
experiments.
99
What’s New
Research Exercise:
A. Read an article about how four Mexican immigrants and their cheap robot
beat MIT in a robotics competition, and now you are interested in the topic
of immigration and STEM education or employment. After reading the
article, Explain the following terms in your understanding:
1. Illegal aliens
2. Hispanics
3. Plagiarism
4. Education
5. Employment
6. Immigrants
7. Ethics
8. Protocol
9. Principles
10. Artwork
What is It
Identification. Write the correct term being discussed in the following

statements.
1. _______________ Strive for truthfulness and integrity in all scientific

communications. Genuine report data, results, methods and procedures,
and publication status.
.
2. ________________ Avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or
required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or
financial interests that may affect research.
3. ________________Keep your promises and agreements; act with authenticity;

strive for consistency of thought and action.
100
4. ____________Avoid careless errors and negligence; prudently and critically
examine your work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities, such as data collection, research design, and
correspondence with agencies or journals.
5. ____________Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources by being open to

criticism and new ideas.
6. _____________ Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual

property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgment or
credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
7. __________________Protect private communications, such as papers or grants
submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and
patient records.
8. ___________________ Publish in order to advance research and scholarship,

not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative
publication.
9. ___________________ Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote

their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
10.____________________ Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
What’s More
Activity 1.1
Explain the Five (5) Principles of Research Ethics.
101
PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimising the risk of harm
PRINCIPLE TWO: Obtaining informed consent
PRINCIPLE THREE: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
PRINCIPLE FOUR: Avoiding deceptive practices
PRINCIPLE FIVE: Providing the right to withdraw
Activity 1.2
Principle 1 of Research Ethics says that the researchers should minimize

the risk of harm, and there are different types of harm that participants
can be subjected to, in your understanding explain all of them and give
examples.
1. Physical harm to participants-
102
2. Psychological distress and discomfort-
3. Social disadvantage-
4. Harm to participants? financial status-
5. An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity-
References
Pouspourika, K. (2018). How to Conduct a Research Study. Retrieved from

https://ied.eu/project-updates/how-to-conduct-a-research-study/
Zainudin, A. (2016), Simple Guidelines in Conducting Research. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia Johor, Malaysia.
https://www.upv.es/laboluz/master/seminario/textos/Visualizing_Research.pdf
https://www.ndnu.edu/academics/research/permission-to-conduct-study/
http://dissertation.laerd.com/principles-of-research-ethics.php
What I Have Learned
Given the options on the box, identify the terms being described below. Write
your answer on the space provided.
1. _______________ is a type of research that depends on the collection and analysis
of numerical data.
2. _______________ is a type of quantitative research that seeks to describe the
present status of an identified variable.
3. The _______________ is a part or proportion of the whole.
4. The _______________ is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population
size (N) and a margin of error (e).
103
5. In _______________, the questionnaire is the main instrument for collecting data
in survey research.
6. _______________ of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
7. The _______________ is the simultaneous analysis of two variables (attributes).
8. _______________ can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money.
9. _______________ is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
10. In phases and operations of intervention research we consider the following;
Problem Analysis and Project Planning; Information gathering and synthesis;
Design; Early development and pilot testing; _______________ and
Dissemination.
11. _______________ are conducted to document and analyzed the behaviors and
social phenomenon as they occur in a natural context, and may be useful in
identifying, for example, discrepancies between what people say ( such as an
interview ) and what they do.
12. The _______________ section of any academic research paper allows you to
convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your
field of study.
13. _______________ is a part of the thesis that uses many common formats of
listing down the citations such as APA (American Psychological Association)
and the MLA Thesis Writing Format.
14. _______________ based on the findings, ONLY the researcher should offer
endorsements – for betterment, improvement, modifications, future
researchers and alike, it happens in many occasions the researcher offer
approbation which normally away from the context of the study – this is too
‘ambitious’ to try to offer something not being studied by the researcher.
15. _______________ pertains to the list of documents (reports, data analysis,
tables, or other related artifacts) that have been referred or cited in the
discussion of the report.
bibliography/references triangulation sample paper- pencil

questionnaires
Slovin’s formula observations descriptive interview method

research
data collection evaluation & quantitative bivariate analysis

advanced research design
development
appendices recommendations research questionnaire
104
methodology method
What I Can Do
Using your research, fill the blanks with the necessary information. Remember to
consider all the things you learned from this module to guide you in giving your
answers.
Paragraph 1. Research design

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2. Research population and sampling procedure

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________
Paragraph 3. Research instrument and data collection procedure

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 4. Data analysis

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Assessment
Write the letter of your answer on the space before the number.
_______1. A group of researchers wants to find out the tobacco habits of teenagers.
They intend it to be a survey and to use a questionnaire as a data-
gathering tool. Which research design should they use?
105
a. descriptive c. correlational
b. causal-comparative d. experimental
_______2. Which research design should be employed if the research is about the
differences on competencies due to demographic profile?
a. descriptive c. correlational
b. causal- comparative d. experimental
_______3. In a school with 500 teachers, the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities. It is more likely that they would prefer picking chits
out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected. What sampling technique is described in
this situation?
a. random sampling c. accidental sampling
b. systematic sampling d. purposive sampling
_______4. A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a

population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered
from 1-5000 and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the
sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10). Which
sampling technique is being illustrated by the situation?
a. random sampling c. accidental sampling
b. systematic sampling d. purposive sampling
_______5. If you are using the questionnaire as your data gathering instrument,
which method of data collection are you using which?
a. observation method c. questionnaire method
b. registration method d. interview method
_______6. You will use a data collection method that involves the presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. If you are
the researcher, what method are you using?
a. observation method c. questionnaire method

b. registration method d. interview method
_______7. Which combination of data does the research question “Is there a
significant relationship between age and fitness level?” show?
a. numerical, numerical c. numerical, categorical
b. categorical, categorical d. none of the above
_______8. This kind of validity deals with data that can be measured and validated
at the same time.
a. concurrent validity c. construct validity
b. content validity d. criterion related validity
106
_______9. Which type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its
theoretical construct?
a. concurrent validity c. construct validity
b. content validity d. criterion related validity
_______10. This phase identifies potential markets for intervention

a. design c. information gathering
b. dissemination d. problem analysis and
project planning
_______11. Which section describes the respondents of the study?

a. sample or respondents c. research instrument
a. data collection d. research locale
_______12. Which of the following is included in the methodology of the study?

a. the chosen research method
b. theoretical concepts used in the study
c. explanations of methods and concepts
d. all of the above
_______13. Which of the following must be told to the research participants when
obtaining written informed consent?
a. the aim and hypothesis c. nature and purpose

b. the method and pay rate d. method and outcome
_______14. What is an ethical consideration?
a. making sure your research does not cause harm or offense

b. when people are of different colors
c. making sure your research causes harm or offense
d. when you are polite to people
_______15. It represents principles prescribing a behavioral code that explains what

is good and right or bad and wrong.
a. research c. data analysis

b. ethics d. none of the above
Additional Activities
For more learnings on how to prepare the methodology part of your research
manuscript, you may visit and try the following materials by accessing the links:
Lesson 1: The Quantitative Research Design
107
Additional lecture on quantitative research design can be accessed at:
Brooke Miller, “Comparing Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental
Studies”,YouTube video, 10:44, June 6, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=lsbK6g10a-c
Lesson 2: The Sample and Sampling Procedures

Additional lecture on sampling methods can be accessed at:
Simple Learning Pro, “Types of Sampling Methods” YouTube video, 4:49, November
25, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTuj57uXWlk
Lesson 3: Construct an Instrument and Establishes its Validity and Reliability

Additional lectures on the development of research instruments can be
accessed at:
Frances Chumney, “Surveys, Instruments, Questionnaires”, YouTube video, 6:10,
August 11, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhFLr9i2uw0\
Frances Chumney, “Instrument Development: A Step-By-Step Approach”, YouTube
video, 5:45, September 5, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I6I5UaVILfM
Lesson 4: Describe an Intervention

Additional lecture about research interventions can be accessed at:
Mark Vermillion, “Research methods & interventions”, YouTube video, 28:48, June
25, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfVM5uhksS8
Lesson 5: Data Collection Procedures

Additional lecture on data collection can be accessed at:
Scott Crombie, “Data Collection Methods”, YouTube video, 2:09, January 9, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJ-YX_AcomU
Lesson 6: Data Analysis

Additional lecture on bivariate data analysis can be accessed at:
MarinStatsLectures-R Programming & Statistics, “Bivariate Analysis Meaning |
Statistics Tutorial #19 | MarinStatsLectures”, YouTube video, 9:56, September 19,
2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_m8v77qbkBA&t=373s
108
Lesson 7: Present Written Research Methodology
Additional lecture on research methodology can be accessed at:
Karen Pinney, “Basic Research Methodology Overview”, YouTube video, 3:47,
October 18, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b64Zz6f4nb4
Lesson 8: Research Design Principles and Ethical Standards in Conducting a

Study
Additional lecture on research ethics can be accessed at:
ACFID, “Principles and Guidelines for Ethical Research and Evaluation in
Development”, YouTube video, 3:35, April 20, 2017,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylkKCgEIMws
109
References
AlleyDog.com. 2020. “ Pre-Experimental Design”. Accessed May 27, 2020.
Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pre-
Experimental+Design
Baht, A. 2020. “Evaluation Research: Definition, Methods and Examples. Accessed May 27,
2020. ”https://www.questionpro.com/blog/evaluation-research-definition-methods-
and-examples/
Book.google.com. “Intervention Research”. Accessed May 23, 2020.

https;//www.books.google.com/books/about/Intervention_Research.html?
id=
Calderon, Jose, and Expectacion Gonzales. Methods of Research and Thesis

Writing. National Bookstore, 1993
cdn.ymaws.com/.../Sample_Abstract--Intervention_Research_1.pdf
Classroom.synonym.com. “Tips on Writing Intervention Process Paper “.Accessed

May 21, 2020.https://classroom.synonym.com/tips-writing-intervention-
process….
Cook, Thomas, and D.T. Campbell. “Quasi- Experimentation: Design and Analysis Issues
for Field Settings. Accessed on May 27, 2020. https://www.scholars.northwestern.
edu /en/ publications/quasi-experimentation-design-and-analysis-issues-for-field-
settin
Cristobal, Amadeo, and Maura Consolacion D. Cristobal. Practical Research. Diwa

Learning System, 2017
cw.routledge.com/.../docs/Chap-2-Sample-Initial-Critical-Questions.doc
De Belen, Rustico, and Joel Feliciano. Basic Statistics for Research. Jobal
Publishing House, 2015
Dudovski, J. 2019. “Observation”. Research Methodology. Accessed May 7, 2020.
https://research-methodology.net/research-methods/qualitative-
research/observation/
Edu.ku.edu.“Core Components of an Intervention”. Accessed June 20,2020.

https://www.edu.ku.edu/en/developing-intervention
Explorable.net. “Research Methodology”. Accessed May 25, 2020.

https//:www.explorable.com/research-methodology
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Practical Research II

Understanding Data and Ways to

Published by the Department of Education

Development Team of the Module

Printed in the Philippines by ________________________

Department of Education – Region IV-A CALABARZON – Schools Division of Quezon

Office Address: ____________________________________________

Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Notes to the Teacher

Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to check

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the

What’s More This comprises activities for independent

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

What I Can Do This section provides an activity that will help

Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given to

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing

The following are some reminders in using this module:

The module is divided into eight lessons, namely:

After going through this module, you are expected to:

Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided.

_____1. Which research design is exemplified by the research entitled, Attitudes of

a. correlational research c. descriptive research

a. correlational research c. descriptive research

a. face validity c. construct validity

_____ 11. Which refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in

a. validity b. reliability c. stability d. specificity

_____12. This research is used for improving practice. It involves action,

a. action research c. developmental research

_____13. Which of the following pertains to ethical consideration?

_____14. What is informed consent?

_____15. What is confidentiality in research?

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. choose an appropriate quantitative research design

Research Topic: _________________________________________________________

Notes to the Teacher

The quantitative research design focuses on gathering numerical data. Its

Table 1. The Quantitative Research Design

Sources: Johnson & Christensen (2017), www. wssu.edu, and www.esrpc.com

Quantitative research can be experimental or nonexperimental. In

a. Pre-experimental research design

a.1. Type of Pre- Experimental Design

a.1.1. One-shot case study design

A teacher is using a new instructional method for his

 In this design, a single case is observed one (1) before

 In this design, a group that has been exposed to

A teacher wants to determine the effectiveness of an

b. Quasi-experimental research design

In a quasi-experimental research design, the independent variable is

A researcher wants to evaluate a new method of teaching fractions to

b.1. Types of Correlational Research

b.1.2. Negative correlational research

A type of correlational research involving two (2) variables that are

Researcher E is researching to determine if the rise in goods and