School of Chemical and Process Engineering

CAPE5411M
Renewable Technologies

2021/2022
Semesters 1 & 2

Name:……………………………
 CAPE5411M Renewable Technologies
Laboratory Schedule and Report Deadlines 2021/22

General Information
The practicals will be run in two semesters and eight weights each semester. The
practicals are compulsory, and attendance will be recorded. If you are unable to attend
a practical for an acceptable reason, then it is essential that you apply for mitigating
circumstances to avoid penalty.

You will work in teams of three maximum and you will be allocated in one of the groups
G1–G11 (see the table below). Each student will perform two experiments each
semester. In semester 1, you will perform wind energy and solar cells, and in semester
2, wave energy and fuel cells. The practical sessions are on Mondays and Fridays, as
shown in the table below.

Each student will submit a total of two (2) written reports for assessment using the
VLE: 1 full report and 1 lab book. Important dates for your lab sessions, report
submission and feedback are shown in the tables below.

You must come to the laboratory prepared, having studied the laboratory
instructions available on the VLE. Demonstrators are asked to probe students’
familiarity with handouts and any lack of preparation will result in exclusion from further
lab proceedings and loss of marks. Printed copies of the lab hand out will be given to
you at the beginning of the first lab session. You must bring some note book or paper
with you to record your data/observations although you may record your data in Excel.
You must wear shoes that cover the whole foot, bring your lab coats and tie
back long hair when coming to the lab. Also, due to COVID-19, you must wear
face covering and obey social distancing rules when in the lab. Details on health
and safety, report format and presentation, submission and assessment are provided
in the next pages.

Semester 1 – Laboratory Schedule (Location: G.13 SCAPE Bldg.)

Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10
13-Oct 20-Oct 27-Oct 03-Nov 10-Nov 17-Nov 24-Nov 01-Dec
Wednesday
G1/L1 G2/L1 G3/L1 G4/L1 G1/L2 G2/L2 G3/L2 G4/L2
11 – 1 pm
14-Oct 21-Oct 28-Oct 04-Nov 11-Nov 18-Nov 25-Nov 02-Dec
Thursday
1 – 3 pm G5/L1 G6/L1 G7/L1 G8/L1 G5/L2 G6/L2 G7/L2 G8/L2

Thursday
G9/L1 G10/L1 G11/L1 G9/L2 G10/L2 G11/L2
3 – 5 pm

G = Group (See group lists on Minerva).

Laboratory 1 (L1): Wind Energy (No report or assessment)
Laboratory 2 (L2): Solar Energy (Full report for summative assessment)

i
Semester 1 – Summative Report Submission and Feedback
Lab Report 1 – Full Lab Report (Solar Cells)

Group REPORT FEEDBACK GIVEN

EXPERIMENT SUBMISSION
Week Date Set Week Date Week Date
G1, G5, G9 7 10/11-Nov 9 25-Nov C1 16-Dec
G2, G6, G10 8 17/18-Nov 10 02-Dec C4 07-Jan
G3, G7, G11 9 24/25-Nov 11 09-Dec 12 17-Jan
G4, G8 10 01/02-Dec 12 13-Jan 15 03-Feb

Note: All coursework must be submitted through the VLE by

14:00 hours on the above deadlines.

Feedback will be provided within 3 University weeks after the

submission date.

No paper submission is required!!!

Semester 2 – Laboratory Schedule (Location: G.13 SCAPE Bldg.)
Week 14 Week 15 Week 16 Week 17 Week 18 Week 19 Week 20 Week 21
26-Jan 02-Feb 09-Feb 16-Feb 23-Feb 02-Mar 09-Mar 16-Mar
Wednesday
G1/L3 G2/L3 G3/L3 G4/L3 G1/L4 G2/L4 G3/L4 G4/L4
11 – 1 pm
27-Jan 03-Feb 10-Feb 17-Feb 24-Feb 03-Mar 10-Mar 17-Mar
Thursday
1 – 3 pm G5/L3 G6/L3 G7/L3 G8/L3 G5/L4 G6/L4 G7/L4 G8/L4

Thursday
G9/L3 G10/L3 G11/L3 G9/L4 G10/L4 G11/L4
3 – 5 pm

Laboratory 3 (L3): Wave Energy

Laboratory 4 (L4): Fuel Cell Combine lab book

Semester 2 – Summative Report Submission and Feedback

Lab Report 2 – Lab Book (Wave Energy and Fuel Cell)

Group EXPERIMENT REPORT SUBMISSION FEEDBACK GIVEN

Week Date Set Week Date Week Date
G1, G5, G9 14/18 26/27-Jan; 23/24-Feb 20 10-Mar E1 31-Mar
G2, G6, G10 15/19 02/03-Feb; 02/03-Mar 21 17-Mar E2 07-Apr
G3, G7, G11 16/20 09/10-Feb; 09/10-Mar 22 24-Mar 22 20-Apr
G4, G8 17/21 16/17-Feb; 16/17-Mar 23 28-Apr 26 20-May

Note: All coursework must be submitted through the VLE by

14:00 hours on the above deadlines.
No paper submission is required!
 Report Guidelines

1. The reports count for 30% of module mark. There are two laboratory reports.
Each of the remaining two reports are worth 15%.

2. Submission of reports is two weeks after the laboratory session, e.g., a laboratory
taken on a Monday requires report submission by 14:00 hrs on a Monday two
weeks later.

3. There are four laboratory sessions. L1 – Wind Energy does not required any lab
report. Each of the remaining two reports are worth 15%.

4. The Solar Cell labs require a standard-length report, while the Wave Energy and
Fuel Cell require a combined short report (referred to as a lab book). For details
of both reports see below.

5. Reports do not require “cover sheets”. Any cover sheets added will be using up
the page limit resulting in any excess pages beyond prescribed limit being
disregarded for marks.

6. The reports must be submitted through VLE/MINERVA ONLY. Please do not

waste paper and SSO staff time to submit paper copies that by default go straight
to the waste paper bin!

7. Reports will only be accepted as Word files. Any other format (e.g., PDF) will
result in the mark of zero (0).

8. The layout of reports is: A4 page, single column, pages numbered starting from
“1”, minimum margin 2 cm around, minimum font 10pt Times New Roman, font
spacing normal, text at least single spaced. Text within figures must be legible.
Trying to overcome page limits by violating any of these will result in the mark of
zero (0).

9. Page limit for standard-length reports (Solar Cell) is 5 pages. Page limit for the
short report (lab book) is 4 pages (i.e., 2 pages for Wave experiment and 2 pages
for Fuel Cell experiment).
 Suggested structure/layout of reports for Solar Cell lab: Remember to
include your name and the title of the laboratory at the top of the first page.

Abstract: Include a 5-6 line summary (abstract) of what the lab is about, methods
used and main findings/conclusion from your work.
Introduction: Describe the laboratory aims and objectives including the
theoretical background as required.
Methodology:
Apparatus – Provide the description of experimental apparatus, its main
components and measurement techniques/devices used. The use of pictures
copied/pasted from handouts is banned (mark of zero will be returned). Your own
computer drawings or clear hand sketches scanned into the report are perfectly
fine.
Experimental methodology – Outline the experimental procedures and describe
how the experimental outputs are processed to obtain quantitative results.
Results: Provide your results in an appropriate format (e.g., tables vs. graphs)
including an explanation of what the data represents.
Discussion: Provide the discussion of results. Note that discussion is not a
description of how graphs look like, but “why” certain quantities behave in a certain
way based on the underlying physical principles, equations etc.
Conclusion: Provide the main conclusions arising from your work.
References/Citations: Cite appropriate references as you see necessary. Note
that citing the laboratory instructions/lecture notes as the only reference will not
earn you any points.

Marking scheme
The marking scheme for the standard-length reports will be (out of 100%) as follows:
General structure/logic of the report including quality of English, graphs, use of 10%
subsections etc.
Title/abstract 5%
Introduction: Aims & objectives including the theoretical concepts 15%
Methodology: Experimental setup and measurement techniques 15%
Presentation of results. Note the need for complying with university guidelines 20%
regarding graph construction, tables etc.
Discussion of results. Remember about in-depth explanations as to “why” the 20%
results are as they are and be able to hypothesis “why” things happen, back up
your arguments with facts and fundamental knowledge.
Conclusions. The most important things that you found out from the lab. 10%
List of references. Note, using just the laboratory instructions and lecture notes 5%
as references will give you a mark of 0%.
 Suggested structure/layout of Wave Energy and Fuel Cell “lab book”
Devote approximately 2 pages to each part of this combined laboratory exercise.
Within the 2 pages include the following:
Sketch the relevant rig and show in your own way what is measured and how
(use of pictures copied from handouts is banned, clear hand sketches scanned
into the report, or your own figures drawn using computer are fine).
Show sample measured quantities and describe how these are processed to
obtain the quantities of interest.
Present your data using appropriate graphs and/or tables and provide short
discussion of results.

Marking scheme
The marking scheme for the “lab book” (out of 100%) is as follows:

Wave Energy
Apparatus: Representation and description of experimental apparatus. 12%
Methodology: Representation of measurement equipment/sensors, 13%
quantities measured and processing methods.
Results and Calculations: Graphs/plots, their quality 10%
Discussion: Explanation/discussion of results 15%

Fuel Cell
Apparatus: Representation and description of apparatus. 12%
Methodology: Representation of measurement equipment/sensors, 13%
quantities measured and processing methods.
Results and Calculations: Graphs/plots, their quality 10%
Discussion: Explanation/discussion of results 15%
 Health and Safety Procedures
Introduction
All of the experiments in this module involve some degree of risk, so the following
health and safety guidelines are provided to ensure that all students work in a safe
and responsible manner. Please read these and make sure that you are familiar with
them before starting work. You are expected to follow these safety procedures and to
ask instructors if you are unsure about appropriate actions.

You must wear a laboratory coat and safety glasses during the experimental sessions,
as well as any other equipment provided (such as gloves). Every experiment has been
assessed for potential risks and hazards, so make sure that you are aware of these
before starting each experiment. Risk assessment forms for each experiment are kept
in the laboratory.

Although you will be guided through each experiment by a trained instructor, it is your
responsibility to read the relevant experimental procedure before starting. The
instructor will ask you about the experiment and associated risks at the start of the
session; if they consider that you are not sufficiently familiar with these, they are
authorized to prevent you from performing the experiment (and, hence, submitting a
report), resulting in a mark of zero being recorded for that session. If you fail to obey
specific instructions, you will be excluded from the session and a mark of zero
will be recorded for that experiment.

Legislation and terminology

The legislation governing health and safety in the workplace is the Health and Safety
at Work Act, 1974. This act represents a framework setting out the scope of the
legislation. It is called an enabling act, as it does not contain detailed procedures and
regulations. Any relevant procedures and regulations are written under the act and are
legally binding. Another important and relevant piece of legislation is the Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health, 2002 (known as COSHH), which sets out the
duties and responsibilities of employers to their employees as well as the duties of
people handling the substances. The COSHH guidelines apply to virtually all
substances, except asbestos, lead, substances which are radioactive or have
flammable properties, and biological agents. For the vast majority of chemicals
(including those used in these experiments), the presence of a warning label will
indicate whether COSHH is relevant.

Complying with COSHH involves a number of important actions, including:

Assessing the risks to health arising from your work;
Deciding what precautions are necessary;
Preventing or controlling exposure to any hazardous materials or substances;
Ensuring that control measures are used and maintained properly;
Monitoring exposure of workers to hazardous substances and carrying out
appropriate health surveillance;
Ensuring that employees are properly informed and trained.
Hazard and risk
These two words are used in a very specific way. The HAZARD presented by a substance
or action is its potential to cause harm. The RISK from a substance or action is the
likelihood that it will harm someone. For substances, this depends on a number of factors,
including its use, how exposure to it is controlled, how much someone is exposed to and
for how long.

Fire hazard of solvents

Some chemicals can pose a fire hazard, particularly organic solvents. In addition to their
flammability, most solvents form combustible mixtures with air which can ignite at fairly
low temperatures (known as the flash point). Therefore, it is important that organic
solvents are never handled near a naked flame. Since solvents are used in some
experiments, the following rules strictly apply:
Never use solvents on the bench in open containers, such as beakers or conical flasks;
Never have an open flame near a source of solvent;
Always keep solvent bottles closed, unless you are dispensing from them;
Minimise the use of solvents.

Personal safety
For your own personal safety, there are several common-sense rules which are enforced
when working in the laboratory:
Eating and drinking – Both of these are strictly forbidden at all times.
Smoking – This is strictly forbidden anywhere on University premises.
Sitting on benches – This is also forbidden.
Eye protection – This must be worn at all times, as normal spectacles do not offer
sufficient protection. Use the pair of safety goggles provided. If you wear contact
lenses, please inform the instructor, so that appropriate action can be taken in case of
an emergency.
Protective clothing – Wearing a laboratory coat is compulsory and you will be
excluded from the session if you do not have one.
COVID-19 precautions – You must wear face covering in when entering the lab and
obey social distancing rule (i.e., at least 1 m apart).
Exposure to chemicals – Protect yourself by minimising your exposure to chemicals.
Use the fume cupboard for volatile materials. Always label chemicals and keep their
containers closed. Keep your work area clean and tidy and never smell or taste
chemicals.
Disposal of chemicals – Do not pour waste chemicals down the drain. Always
dispose of chemicals in co-operation with an instructor.
Hand washing – Always wash your hands at the end of each laboratory session.
Spillages – If you spill or splash any chemicals, inform the instructor immediately.

Protecting those around you

As well as being responsible for your own personal safety, you have a responsibility to
practise safe laboratory procedures to minimise hazards to others. In particular:
Carry materials with care; if you drop or break anything, inform the instructor
immediately.
If you observe anyone who has an accident, is misbehaving, or is engaging in an
unsafe procedure, you should report this immediately.
Once you have finished your experiment, please leave the laboratory quietly and do
not disturb other students still doing their work.
School of Chemical and
Process Engineering

Experiment 1
Wind Energy
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 Wind Energy
Objective

In this experiment, the wind generator's circuit is loaded with a continuously variable
resistor. This investigates how the electrical power depends on the speed of the wind
generator.

Introduction
Wind energy has been used for mechanical drives for a very long time. Besides
irrigation and drainage systems, mills are the most widely used application. Various
designs were used. In addition to wind wheels with horizontal shafts, various types of
system were also realised with vertical shafts.

By now comprehensive statistical calculation methods have been developed for wind
turbine yield forecasts. These draw on weather data from previous years to determine,
for example, suitable system properties for planned locations.
One important criterion is the increase in wind velocity with height. A common
approach for describing the vertical profile of the wind speed increase is the
logarithmic height formula:

(1)
Where:

Measurements from a known height are needed for forecasts using this formula. This
height is the reference height href. The roughness length z0 is used to characterise the
interference to the wind due to obstacles in the environment of a site.

Low roughness length (z0) leads to a much flatter velocity profile curve. Thus, in a flat
environment (z0 = 0.01) wind speeds that can only be reached at greater heights in a
less favourable environment can be expected at lower heights. The principal
advantage of offshore wind turbines is therefore easy to demonstrate using this
formula.

1
Energy balance of a wind turbine
Several different steps can be distinguished during the conversion of wind energy by
a wind turbine to generate electrical energy. The first step involves the conversion of
the kinetic energy of the moving air mass into mechanical rotational energy.

The efficiency of the conversion of kinetic energy into rotational energy is described
by the dimensionless power coefficient cp.

(2)

This is based on the quotients of the output rotor power PR divided by the total kinetic
power PW contained in the wind based on the swept area.

To determine the output rotor power from the air flow, a simplified schematic of the
flow conditions on the rotor is considered:

As a result of the removal of kinetic energy, the wind speed v2 downstream of the rotor
is less than the velocity of approaching flow v1. At constant air density, the volume of
the flow tube is increased. Therefore, the diameter of the flow tube increases with
decreasing flow velocity
.
According to the continuity equation, for the mass flow 𝑚̇:

(3)
Taking the general relation for kinetic energy

(4)

and the continuity equation, it is possible to calculate the output power in the rotor
plane as follows:

2
 (5)

In order to determine the mass flow m· in the rotor plane, the wind speed in the rotor
plane is determined as the mean of v1 and v2.

(6)

Using Equation (3), Page 50 the output power in the rotor plane can now be written
as:

(7)

The total wind power in the rotor plane can be determined by making v2 = 0. Taking
Equation (3) and (4) we then get:

(8)

Using Equations (7) and (8) we can calculate the following statement for the power
coefficient cp from Equation (2):

(9)
With the simplification

(10)
we get

(11)

The electrical power coefficient is given by the quotients of the electrical power and
the wind power:

(12)

The chain effect of a wind turbine starts with the rotor. The aerodynamic and dynamic
properties are therefore crucial for the ability to convert the highest possible proportion
of wind energy into mechanical work.
.

3
Methodology
Apparatus
Control panel
Wind generator

The apparatus consists of the wind tunnel (i.e., wind generator) and the control panel.
The wind tunnel contains the axial fan, deflector plates and a flow straightener in order
to achieve an even and low-turbulence flow. The axial fan generates the air flow
required in order to set the wind turbine's rotor into rotational motion. The wind velocity
can be varied by changing the rotational speed of the fan. Measuring sensors for the
wind velocity are attached upstream and downstream of the rotor.

The wind turbine's output is passed to the control panel via a cable connection. The
rotor speed is detected by an optical sensor and transmitted to the control panel
through the measuring cable. The control panel allows you to control the axial fan and
provides components and measuring points to enable the generated electricity to be
used in a stand-alone system.

The variable load resistor is also needed. The load resistor is connected directly to the
wind turbine's output, as shown in the figure below. This requires a connection from
the load resistor to the sockets at measuring point EI1 with two laboratory cables. The
plugin bridges at all other measurement points should be removed when conducting
the experiment. This ensures that only the load resistor is connected as electrical
consumer.

4
Experimental Method
To conduct the experiment, first the axial fan is started and a fixed wind speed v1 (e.g.,
8,5 m/s) is set.
Then the load resistance can be changed by sliding the control knob. The first
measured value is obtained for the short-circuit of the load resistor (control knob at the
front).
The xy mode of the ET 220 software can be used for recording the measuring values.
The rotor speed should be selected as the x-axis. Current I1 and voltage V1 can be
selected for the y-axis. Before recording the measurement points, the speed on the
ET 220 control panel display should be constant for about 1 minute.
The load resistance is changed after the first measurement point has been measured
by the software. In order to obtain a proper distribution of the other measurement
points, the slide resistor should be adjusted for each of the subsequent measuring
points until the speed has changed by a fixed value (e.g., 100 min-1).

Provide a of the results of a measurement that includes the rotor speed R1 measuring
values for the current I1 and voltage V1 at the measuring point EI1, the respective
calculated resistance of the slide resistor, the calculated electric generator power P1,
etc.

Results Analysis and Discussion

Plot the following graphs at the different fixed wind speed: (i) generator power vs
rotational speed; (ii) electrical power coefficient vs tip speed ratio; (iii) Electrical power
and electrical power coefficient vs wind speed.

Explain the relationship between the generators maximum output and wind speed at
the various rotational speeds.

Explain the relationship between electrical power coefficient as a function of the tip
speed ratio.

Explain the relationship between electrical power coefficient as a function of wind

speeds.

NOTE: No report is needed for this practical!

5
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School of Chemical and
Process Engineering

Experiment 2
Solar Cell
This page has been left intentionally blank
 Solar Cell
Objective

The aim of this practical is to study the physical behaviour of solar cells under varying
illuminance and temperature. The objectives are study the current-voltage
characteristic curves; calculating the current rating and achievable output based on
the single diode model; study how illuminance and temperature affect the
characteristic curves; the interconnection of solar cells in parallel and series
connection.

Introduction
The amount of solar energy that shines on the Earth annually is 1,08 x 1018kWh. This
corresponds to roughly 10.000 times the global demand for primary energy. Making
technical use of this solar energy supply seems obvious.

For the conversion of solar energy, various technical possibilities can be used. Up to
now, the most commonly used methods include solar thermal conversion and
photovoltaic conversion. Photovoltaic conversion creates electrical energy directly,
whereas in solar thermal conversion, heat is generated first. This can then be used
directly or is converted to electrical energy by means of a heat engine (Stirling motor,
steam power plant, etc.). Both types of conversion compete with each other in the
range of a few MW of electric power. It is possible to build large photovoltaic
installations consisting of several thousand solar modules, but it is equally conceivable
to provide the same power with a thermal parabolic trough power plant.
The technology to choose is largely dependent on the planned site and its integration
into the supply grid.
For smaller electric outputs of a few kW, there are not many alternatives to
photovoltaics. Unlike solar thermal power plants, photovoltaics can also be used to
build very small systems with good efficiencies. In order to promote the use of this
environmentally friendly method of energy generation and to reduce production costs,
the use of solar energy is supported by funding programmes in many countries.

Illuminance, temperature and electrical load are the key variables affecting
photovoltaic solar cells. The illuminance R is typically measured in W/m2. In order to
determine the incident radiant power Psol, the illuminance is multiplied with the
absorbing surface area A.

(1)

However, it is necessary to note the direction in which the illuminance is being

measured. If you are measuring in the direction of the radiation source, you get the
maximum possible illuminance.

The electrical power Pel of the solar cell corresponds to the product of the number of
charge carriers provided and the diffusion voltage. If the generated electrical power

1
Pel is set in relation to the incident radiant power Psol (cf. Equation (4.1), the efficiency
of the solar cell can be determined.

(2)

Modern silicon solar cells from series production achieve typical efficiencies of around
25%.

The fill factor

The fill factor is a characteristic value for the electrical quality of a solar cell. The fill
factor FF is defined as the quotient of the maximum power and the product of open-
circuit voltage and short-circuit current:

(3)

Using the fill factor we can see what proportion below the I-U characteristic curve
contributes to the maximum achievable power.

For crystalline silicon solar cells, the fill factor is about 0.75 to 0.85. For amorphous
cells it is between 0.5 and 0.7.

The MPP (maximum power point) is reached when the power P (red curve) is
maximised.

(4)

The short-circuit current Isc ("short-circuit") is achieved when the solar cell is short-
circuited. The open-circuit voltage UOC ("open-circuit") can be observed at the open
contacts of the solar cell.

2
Methodology
Apparatus

Four solar cells are illuminated by means of a lighting unit with an adjustable
illuminance. They can be precisely maintained at a selectable set temperature thanks
to a regulated Peltier module. Using the set of cables provided, the cells can be
interconnected in a number of ways via a patch panel. A variable electrical resistor is
integrated in the patch panel to manually record current-voltage characteristic curves.
A bypass diode can be integrated parallel to each cell in order to examine the effect
of shading.

Automated characteristic curve measurements can be taken by the integrated

electronic current sink. The current sink is controlled by software and enables the
electrical load to be continuously changed. Illuminance, current, voltage and
temperature are all detected by corresponding sensors and can be displayed and
logged in the software program. The software also includes a comprehensive tutorial
feature. This feature allows individual learning objectives to be reviewed by an
automatically generated selection of various test questions and exercises.

The halogen lamps:

The lighting unit contains 16 individual halogen lamps for lighting the solar cells. The
illuminance can be adjusted in the ET 252 software by entering the set value in W/m2.
After the set value has been entered, the lamp current is adjusted via the power supply
of the lighting unit until the desired illuminance is reached. Illuminance levels of 200 –
800W/m2 can be set. If the selected value cannot be reached, an error message is
output. In this case, check the following points:

• Is the entered value within the permitted range?

• Is the reference solar cell freely accessible?
• Are all 16 halogen lamps in operation?

3
Patch panel:
The patch panel allows different electrical interconnections to be made using the set
of cables provided.

Blue and red cables in two lengths and shorting plugs are available for making the
electrical connections. For each solar cell, the front and back contacts are routed to a
socket on the patch panel. The bypass diodes can be integrated in the current circuit
using the shorting plugs.

Experimental Method
Experiment 1: Recording of a I-U characteristic curve

Learning objectives
Factors affecting the I-U characteristic curve.
Comparison of measured and simulated I-U characteristic curves

Preparation for the experiment

Plug in the cables as shown in the animation/figure. The current is measured in series
to the cell and consumer; the voltage in parallel. Instead of the potentiometer, now use
the sockets of the current sink.

4
Activate the lighting on the switch cabinet of the device. In the input field in the ET 252
software, enter a value of 300 W/m² for the illuminance.

Using the software

You are now in the multimeter view again. Here you can set the temperature and the
illuminance of your cells. Activate the control on the switch cabinet as shown in the
figure below, and enter 300 W/m².

The I-U characteristic curve view appears afterwards. A I-U characteristic curve is then
recorded by adjusting the current at short intervals. This offers the advantage that if
you change the conditions, you will be able to see the effect on the characteristic curve
shortly afterwards. To avoid having to switch between this view and the multimeter
view, the control elements for temperature and illuminance are located on the right
again.

In the next step in the software introduction, you go to the simulation view. Here, the
characteristic curve of a solar cell is calculated based on an enhanced model. Adjust
the values until you see a curve similar to the real one. Which values did you have to
adapt, and why?

Using the tutorial feature you have now familiarised yourself with all parts of the
programme. These programme parts can be accessed directly via the buttons on the
left edge. The following provides instructions on plugging series and parallel
connections.

Experiment 2: Parallel connection

Objective of the experiment
This experiment examines the current-voltage characteristic curve for two parallel-
connected solar cells.

5
Conducting the experiment
1. Make all the cable connections as shown in the figure below.

2. Select an illuminance of 300W/m2 and a temperature of 25°C.

3. Observe the current-voltage characteristic curve and save the data under a
suitable file name (refer to the software help).
4. Disconnect the cable connection to one of the two solar cells and save the now
measurable characteristic curve under a new file name.

Experiment 3: Series connection

Objective of the experiment

This experiment examines the current-voltage characteristic curve for series
connected solar cells.

Conducting the experiment

1. Make all the cable connections as shown in the adjacent figure.

2. Select an illuminance of 300W/m2 and a temperature of 25°C.

3. Observe the current-voltage characteristic curve and save the data under a suitable
file name (refer to the software help).

4. Then repeat the measurement for only one cell and also for 3 and 4 series-
connected cells.
6
Experiment 4: Illuminance
Objective of the experiment
This experiment examines the current-voltage characteristic curves for 4 series-
connected solar cells subject to illuminance.

Conducting the experiment

1. Make all the cable connections for an automated measurement of 4 series-
connected solar cells.

2. First select an illuminance of 200 W/m2 and a temperature of 25°C.

3. Save the current-voltage characteristic curve and repeat the measurement for 400
W/m2 and 600 W/m2.

Experiment 5: Temperature dependence

Objective of the experiment
Investigating the influence of temperature on the characteristics of a solar cell

Preparation for the experiment

First connect the cables for the automated measurement of a solar cell with the current
sink and also for current and voltage measurements (Experiment 1) in the usual way.

Select an illuminance of 250 W/m2 and a temperature of 60°C. Wait until the desired
temperature has been reached.

Conducting the experiment

1. Save the first I-U characteristic curve after the solar cell has been exposed to the
temperature of 60°C for about 5 minutes.

2. Then reduce the setpoint for the cell temperature by 5°C.

3. Save another I-U characteristic curve after the setpoint has been reached for at
least 2 minutes.

4. Repeat steps 2 & 3 until the lowest possible temperature is reached.

7
Results Analysis and Discussion
Provide a table for experiments 2 to 5 and present open-circuit voltage (V), short-circuit
current (A), maximum power (W), and fill factor (%).

Plot the current-voltage characteristics curves for all the experiments are discuss the
influence of series connections, parallel connections on the I-V curves.

Discuss the influence of temperature on the characteristics of the solar cell.

Discuss the effect of illuminance on the current-voltage characteristic curves for the 4
series-connected solar cells.

8
School of Chemical and
Process Engineering

Experiment 3
Wave Energy

1
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1
 Wave Energy

Objective
A characteristic describes a general graphical representation of the typical operating
behaviour of a technical system. For this purpose, numerical values of two of the
system's variables are combined in a chart.

In this experiment, the generated mechanical power is plotted over a speed range of
the Wells turbine. Plotting a power characteristic is an important experiment for
determining the general operating behaviour of power plants.

The following experiment is intended to show in which speed range the Wells turbine
generates power.
The aim is to plot a characteristic of the power plant by continuously increasing the
setpoints.

Introduction
Wave energy is used in many different ways. One common form is to use the potential
energy of the wave. In the case of waves this means the height difference between
the peak and trough of the wave. Wave power plants can supply electrical energy
along the coast, in particular to remote locations. Structurally they are easy to integrate
into moles, harbour walls and coastal protection systems.

The ET 270 unit is a laboratory-scale Oscillating Water Column (OWC) power plant.
In other words, an oscillating water column with fluctuating height, resulting from the
force of the waves.

The wave energy describes the ability of the wave to perform work. The theoretical
consideration of wave energy distinguishes between the kinetic and potential energy
of waves.

1
Several wave theories can be used to calculate the activity and the amount of energy
of sea waves. One widely used theory is Airy's linear wave theory. It provides a very
simple model for the calculation of sea waves, but is subject to the following
assumptions:

The wave height H is substantially less than the wavelength L

The wave height H is substantially less than the water depth d
Free of friction and eddies
Incompressible flow
Constant water depth d

Although this theory is only applicable to the deep-water region, it also provides decent
approximation solutions outside its actual range of validity and is therefore very
commonly used in general.

Waves can be viewed from two different angles:

1. From the perspective of a system at rest relative to the sea floor
2. From the perspective of an observer located on the moving wave.

The phase velocity c describes the relative velocities of the two systems to each other.

The potential energy of a water wave is based on the pressure difference between the
wave crest and trough. The potential energy can be described analogous to the
generally known formula from mechanics.

2
 Epot = m . g . h (1)

The figure above shows a simplified representation of the profile of a sea wave in
sinusoidal form. The sea level at rest is at height z = 0. The height of the wave crest
corresponds to the amplitude A and in the wave trough -A. Transferring the variables
of the model into the general formula for the potential energy gives the following
equation:

Epot = M . g . A (2)

Where
Epot Potential energy
M Mass of a raised object
h Height of a raised object
g Gravitational acceleration
M Mass the of the quantity of water at the highest point of the wave
A Amplitude of the wave

The water particles in the wave crest therefore have a higher potential energy than in
the troughs. As a result, after running down into the wave troughs the water particles
have a higher velocity than the particles on the crests. The potential energy of the
water particles is converted into kinetic energy.

The kinetic energy is calculated according to the generally accepted formula as

follows:

(3)
Where
m Mass of the moving object
w Velocity of the moving object

The increase in kinetic energy results from the difference in height between wave crest
and trough.

(4)

(5)

(6)
Where
Ekin, d Difference in kinetic energy from wave crest to wave trough
Ekin1 Kinetic energy on the wave crest
Ekin2 Kinetic energy in the wave trough
M Mass of the water
v Velocity of a water molecule in a wave or orbital velocity
c Phase velocity or wave forward velocity

3
The increase in energy, Ekin, d corresponds to the potential energy at the wave crest.
Compared to the wave trough, its height is twice the wave amplitude. Therefore the
following relationship applies:

(7)

(8)

(9)

Methodology

Water waves are generated in a flume by a wave generator. The wave generator
directs these waves to a chamber via the wave flume. The wave flowing into the
chamber displaces the air in the chamber. The displaced air is directed through a
turbine and then to the outside. When the wave runs back out, pressure in the chamber
drops, causing the ambient air to be sucked through the turbine into the chamber. This
oscillating air flow drives the turbine, which is a Wells turbine. Wells turbines work
independently of the direction with respect to the inflow: the flow energy is converted
during both the upward and downward movement of the air. A generator converts the
mechanically generated power into electrical energy.

To generate waves in the wave flume, a displacer is moved up and down by a gear
motor via an adjustable linkage. The height of the waves is varied by changing the
stroke. The speed of the motor sets the frequency of the waves. The water level, and
thus the wave height, can be measured along the wave flume with a movable
ultrasonic sensor. At the end of the wave flume a baffle plate guides the waves into
the wave power plant, which consists of a chamber and the turbine unit. The initiated,
continuous wave motion produces an oscillating water column within the chamber,
which causes the air mass above it to move. The air flow generated in this way drives
the Wells turbine. Wells turbines work independently of the direction with respect to
the inflow: the flow energy is converted during both the upward and downward
movement of the air.

4
An electric motor is connected to the turbine and is used to start the turbine up. Upon
reaching a set speed, this then acts as a generator and produces electricity. Inside the
chamber there is another ultrasonic sensor used to measure the movement of the
oscillating water column. Pressure measuring points in the turbine housing are used
to determine the flow velocity of the air movement. The measured values can be read
on digital displays. At the same time, the measured values can also be transmitted
directly to a PC via USB. The data acquisition software is included.

Experiment method
1. Make sure that the water level is at least 60 mm.
3. Set the operating mode on the turbine switch box to "PC".
4. In the software, select the following axes:
• y-axis: mechanical power and air velocity
• x-axis: rotational speed
5. Using the software, create a file in which the characteristic curve measurement
data will be saved.
6. Start the wave generator and select a wave frequency between 0.62 and 0.65 Hz.
7. When the system is ready for operation, set the setpoint for the turbine speed to
2500min-1.
8. Wait until the turbine has reached the target speed and record the measured
values in the first operating point.
9. Now increase the target rotational speed by 100min-1.
10. As soon as the turbine has reached the target speed, record the measured values
in this operating point.
11. Continue with the measurement/recording by increasing the target speed in
100min-1 increments and recording the measured values at each operating point.
12. Continue increasing the setpoint up to a maximum value of 4200min-1.
13. Stop the measurement/recording.

Results Analysis and Discussion

Provide a table of your experimental results.
Provide the power characteristic plot and discuss the results commenting on the
influence of rotational speed on power generation.

5
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School of Chemical and
Process Engineering

Experiment 4
Fuel Cell
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2
 Fuel Cell

Objective

The overall objective of this practical is to understand conversion of chemical energy

into electrical and thermal energy.

Introduction
Modern fuel cell systems could play an important part in making the desire for small
plants close to consumers become a reality. Local energy supply has the advantage
of reducing transport losses to a significant extent. In addition, combined heat and
power (cogeneration) provides excellent efficiency overall due to using both thermal
and electrical energy. The requirements for fuel systems to become established in the
liberalised energy market do not just include the matter of energy efficiency, but
equally the economic potential. A future determined by the hydrogen energy economy
is inconceivable without the use of fuel cells for energy conversion.

In conventional power generation via combustion processes, the chemical energy of

the fuel is first converted into thermal energy. In the heat power plant, a part of this
internal energy is transferred to a working medium to then pass through a
thermodynamic cycle. The resulting useful work is then converted to electrical energy
in the generator. This process is limited by the Carnot efficiency ȠC. This is a function
of system temperature TS and ambient temperature Tambient.

(1)
This limitation is circumvented in the fuel cell, because the energy conversion does
not need to detour via heat energy but rather the conversion is from chemical energy
directly to electrical energy.

The various types of fuel cells are generally classified by the type of electrolyte and by
their operating temperature. This fuel cell used in this practical is a solid polymer fuel
cell, also known as a proton exchange membrane fuel cell or polymer electrolyte
1
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Because of its high power density and the relatively low
operating temperatures, the PEMFC has a wide field of application.

Each fuel cell contains two electrodes; the anode, to which the fuel is supplied and the
cathode, to which pure oxygen or air is supplied. The reactants are separated spatially
by an electrolyte, so that a controlled reaction can take place. The electrons are
exchanged through an external circuit. The fuel gas is oxidized at the anode, the
resulting H+ protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode. At the same time,
the electrons in the external circuit flow to the anode. The cathode is continuously
supplied with oxygen, which is reduced by absorbing electrons and results in water as
the product. Electricity and heat are generated in this electrochemical process. The
fuel cell is commonly referred to as a stack because anode, cathode and electrolyte
are stacked together. In doing so, the generated voltages of the individual cells add
up.
Anodic reaction (oxidation):
H2 → 2H+ + 2e– (2)

Cathodic reaction (reduction):

2H+ + 0.5O2 + 2e– → H2O (3)

Overall reaction:
H2 + 0.5O2 → H2O (4)

The reaction-induced energy change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy of

reaction, H. A measure of the maximum useful work of a reversible, isobarically and
isothermally regulated chemical reaction is the free enthalpy of reaction, G.

G = H – Qrev = H - T S = W rev (5)

Where
S Reaction-induced change in entropy (J/mol K)
Qrev Energy reversibly transferred to environment (J/mol)
Wrev Work reversibly done by the system (J/mol)
H Enthalpy of reaction (J/mol)
G Free enthalpy of reaction (J/mol)

̇ that can be determined via the mole

This results in the reversible thermal output, 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣
flow 𝑛̇ .

(6)
Where
𝑛̇ Converted fuel quantity per time unit (mol/s)
Z Number of electrons involved in the reaction (-)
F Faraday constant F = 96487 (As/mol)
Icell Cell current (A)
Ncell Number of cells in the stack (-)
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣̇ Reversible thermal output (W)

2
 ̇ describes the electrical power loss of the current
The irreversible thermal output 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣
source converted into heat and can be calculated as follows.

(7)
Where
US Stack voltage (V)
U0 Equilibrium cell voltage (V)

The total thermal output is formed from the sum of the reversible and irreversible
portion.

(8)

Due to the fact that thermal output and electrical power together comprise the supplied
energy of the fuel, the equation below can be developed with Ƞel + Ƞth = 1.

(9)
The dependence of the thermal output on the electrical power makes it easy to
determine the electrical characteristic variables via the current/voltage characteristic.

For fuel cells, one of the basic calculation variables is the equilibrium voltage, U0. It is
also called positive potential difference between the electrodes of an electrochemical
cell in the equilibrium state at I = 0. It describes the theoretical maximum possible cell
voltage of the fuel cell and is a function of temperature and pressure.

(10)
Another important index for fuel cell calculations is the current density, j. This specific
variable provides information about the generated current, I per active area unit, Az
and is calculated as follows:

(11)
If a current flows through the electrochemical cell, the stack voltage deviates, US from
the equilibrium voltage U0. The decisive factor is the loss mechanisms caused by the
sum of the polarisation overvoltage, the inhibition of mass transport in the electrode
and the ohmic voltage drop due to the internal resistance of the cell. As current draw
increases, the losses increase to different extents. The -loss component can be
determined by the circuit breaker method.

3
The electrical efficiency of a fuel cell results from the ratio of generated electrical
energy to the released enthalpy of reaction. Equation (2) shows that in a reversible
reaction the fuel cell is able to fully convert the free enthalpy of reaction into electrical
energy. This results in a theoretical electrical efficiency (Gibbs efficiency) of Ƞel, rev.

(12)

Since enthalpy of reaction and entropy of reaction are only weakly dependent on
temperature, the Gibbs efficiency has a linear relationship with the temperature.
Compared to the Carnot efficiency it can be seen that, particularly in the range of low
and medium operating temperatures, an ideal fuel cell is much more efficient than an
ideal heat engine.

In practice, the Gibbs efficiency is not achieved due to the irreversibility in terms of
energy of the fuel cell process. As a measure of the efficiency of the electrochemical
energy conversion of the real process, the voltage efficiency, ȠU is used. At
comparable current densities it is a measure of the quality of the catalysts and of the
electrodes.

(13)

Since not all of the hydrogen is reacted in the fuel cell, the conversion of consumed
hydrogen is relevant for the energy balance. In systems with high purge intervals in
particular, a significant portion of the fuel remains unused. The conversion efficiency,
Ƞtrans results from the ratio of consumed hydrogen, 𝑉̇𝑒𝑓𝑓 to input hydrogen, 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 .

(14)
When auxiliary units are used to operate the fuel cell, their energy consumption must
be taken into account when determining the electrical efficiency.

Ƞel = Ƞrev . ȠU . Ƞtrans (15)

4
The thermal efficiency, Ƞth describes the ratio between thermally usable energy, 𝑄̇𝑒𝑓𝑓
and total energy supplied.

(16)

The energy hydrogen use rate is also called overall efficiency and represents the most
important variable for determining the quality of the cell. It provides information about
the ratio of usable energy and supplied energy.

(17)

The Fuel Cell Apparatus

5
The fuel cell system is operated in combined heat and power generation. The
components of the fuel cell system are mounted on a panel. The fuel cell is charged
via an electronic load and operated based on voltage, current or power as desired.
The user sets the respective setpoints via the GUNT software provided with the unit.
The characteristics are displayed in the GUNT software. In addition, all relevant
measuring values are recorded, displayed in the software and the data set saved.
The thermally usable power of the fuel cell is dissipated to the cooling water and
transferred to the ambient air via a heat exchanger. Temperature sensors for feed and
return temperature are located directly on the fuel cell for thermal balancing.

The thermal energy that is dissipated to the ambient air directly from the stack due to
radiation and convection is not detected by the instrumentation. The fuel cell uses
oxygen and high purity hydrogen as working media. The oxygen is fed into the fuel
cell via the ambient air by means of an integrated blower. The hydrogen is provided
by a compressed gas cylinder and expanded to the fuel cell's system pressure through
a multi-stage pressure reduction.

Operating the fuel cell

Operation of the fuel cell is divided into various phases. The various control options
are described in the sections below.

Start up:
Starting the system causes an internal start-up cycle. During the start-up cycle, all
steps that are necessary to put the fuel cell into an operational state are automatically
executed:

First, open the valve on the hydrogen pressure vessel and set the high-pressure
reducing valve (V1) to an outlet pressure of 4 bar.

Then, turn the system on at the main switch and open the purge valve.
-> purging the anode with hydrogen
Purge valve closed after 2 s
Pressure check (if insufficient hydrogen pressure -> shutdown routine)
Turn on cooling water pump
Turn on cathode air blower -> media supply established
Open circuit voltage test
Throttling cooling water pump and cathode air blower
Time-delayed switch-on of the cooler fan
Initialise system parameters
Connect fuel cell voltage to the output
Transition to normal mode

6
Normal mode:
The fuel cell is fully started up in normal mode. Electrical energy can be extracted from
the system at any time.
The fuel cell's nominal operating point is 24V/15A. In certain circumstances, the full
electrical power may not be available immediately after starting up. It is always
recommended to ramp up the extracted electrical power to the nominal operating point
and to continuously monitor voltage and current while doing so.
The stack state is not regulated to a good operating point or a good moisture level.
There are only a few tools available to facilitate operation of the stack:
Temperature control
Automated and configurable hydrogen purge
Automated control of the air quantity
You must coordinate temperature, purge interval, air quantity and extracted electrical
power to each other. When correctly coordinated, this gives a good working point /
moisture state for the fuel cell.
During normal operation, monitoring functions continuously run in the background that
ensure safe operation of the stack. If one of these absolute limits is breached, the
stack is switched off immediately.

Temperature control:
The temperature control keeps the stack at a target temperature set by the user
(default value: 45°C). Possible setpoints range from 0°C to 54°C (where the actual
temperature cannot be lowered below the ambient temperature). If the actual
temperature is greater than 55°C, the system will shut down with an excess
temperature fault.
In order not to overload the cooling at full load, the system should not be operated at
an ambient temperature of more than 30°C. At higher temperatures a reduction of the
maximum extracted electric power may be necessary in order to maintain operational
safety.
The cooling circuit is operated as follows:
Cooling water pump always running at constant power
Cooler fan always running; the speed is regulated.

Hydrogen purge:
Regular purging is necessary in order to discharge condensate occurring in the anode
side. This is done by briefly opening the purge valve. To facilitate operation of the
system for the user, this process is automatically performed at regular intervals. Once
the fuel cell has started up, the purge valve is regularly activated by a timer control.
The timing is dependent on the circulating current (and thus also on the amount of
process water produced). The greater the current, the more frequently the system is
purged and the longer the valve remains open during a purge.

The timing of purge interval and purge duration can be configured within certain limits.
The limits for the current are determined by the stack itself and cannot be amended:
Min. current: 3 A (20% rated current)

7
 Max. current: 15 A (100% rated current)
The timing of the purge can be affected by the following variables:
t3 OFF time in s at minimum current
t4 OFF time in s at maximum current
t1 ON time in ms at minimum current
t2 ON time in ms at maximum current

When changing the timing it should be noted that only adherence with the absolute
limits is checked. Whether the gradient is sensible or not is not checked.

Air quantity control:

In the started-up state, the fuel cell's cathode air requirement fluctuates greatly. Firstly,
the reaction air consumption is directly dependent on the flowing current and secondly
the quantity of air directly affects the moisture balance of the cell. For a good moisture
level, typically an over-stoichiometric supply to the cell with an air ratio of 2...4 is
necessary.
By default, the air quantity is kept at a constant, since there is no risk of accidental
under-supply of the fuel cell with reaction air under increasing current.
In principle there is no adaptation of the control system to the stack's moisture level.
Recognising when the stack is too moist or too dry, and the responses:
too moist? -> more air
too dry? -> less air.

Shut down:
To turn off the running fuel cell the following variables must be set. During shutdown
the fuel cell is transitioned to a safe state of rest. To do this, the following steps are
automatically taken:
Disconnect the electric load
Switch off the fan in the water cooler
Close the inlet valve
Open the purge valve for 1s -> the fuel cell is now depressurised on the anode
side
Switch the short-circuit resistance until the BSZ is discharged to about 5V
Overrun cathode blower and cooling water pump -> system cooling and partial
discharge of residual condensate
Switch off any still active components after 2min
Transition to sleep mode

The system can be turned off at any time at the main switch if it has been shut down.

8
Operation
The system is only operated via the GUNT software provided shown below.
The software contains four different user interfaces:
B1 System diagram
At user level B1 is the system process schematic with display of all measured
values at the respective positions.
B2 Settings
All settings are made on the user interface B2. This is where the system and
load are switched on and off and the setpoints specified.
B3 Time elapsed
The recorded measured values can be plotted over time elapsed and visualised
on the user interface B3.
B4 Graph measurements
On user interface B4 the user can visualise selected measured values
depending on other measurements and record series of measurements.

9
As a first step, the fuel cell system must be placed in the operational ready state as
explained previously. To operate, observe the following sequence:
1. Set the main switch (5) to "On". The system starts the start-up procedure.
During this procedure, the cooling water pump starts up, the cathode blower is
started and a hydrogen leak test is performed in the system. After the start-up
procedure has been completed, the system switches to normal mode. You can
see what mode the system is currently in at any time via the status indicator (4).
2. As soon as the status indicator (4) indicates readiness for operation, set the
operating mode of the electronic load (3) to current regulated and enter a
setpoint of 7A. Set the main switch of the electronic load (2) to "On". The fuel
cell is charged straight away and generates electricity.
3. Wait for the first hydrogen purge before increasing the electronic load setpoint.
The hydrogen purge produces a noticeable sound due to the flow. Increase up
the load setpoint by ramping up in 3 A steps up to the rated operating point of
15 A. If the system is being operated in voltage-regulated or power-regulated
mode, it is always important to ensure that the overvoltage and undervoltage or
over-current limits are not exceeded. The setpoints should therefore always be
increased carefully in a ramp-like manner.
4. To switch off the system, turn the main switch (5) to "Off". The system now starts
the shutdown routine. Once the system is in standby mode, you can disconnect
the mains power supply.

Experimental Method
Experiment 1: Characteristic curve and power curve of the fuel cell
Objective of the experiment
In this experiment, the characteristic curve of the fuel cell stack is plotted at an
operating temperature of 42°C. A characteristic curve describes a general graphical
representation of the typical operating characteristics of a technical system. For this
purpose, numerical values of two of the system's variables are combined in a chart.
Plotting a characteristic is the most important experiment for determining the
general operating behaviour of fuel cells. The following experiment is designed to
show how to voltage and power change when the different current strengths are
applied to the fuel cell.

The aim is to plot a characteristic of the fuel cell by continuously increasing the
setpoints.

Experimental procedure
1. The fuel cell system must be prepared for operation and then operated as
explained above.
2. To plot the characteristic curve, the electronic load must be operated current-
regulated.
3. In the software, select the following axes:
y-axis: voltage, electrical power and hydrogen flow
x-axis: current.
10
 4. Using the software, create a file in which the characteristic curve measurement
data will be saved.
5. When the system is ready for operation, set the setpoint for the load current to
0 A and record the readings in the operating point.
6. Now switch back to the settings page, set the setpoint for the load current to
0.5 A and record the readings in the second operating point.
7. Continue plotting the chart by increasing the setpoint of the load current in 0.5A
increments and recording the readings in the operating point each time.
Continue increasing the setpoint up to a load current of 16.5 A.
8. After recording all data in the respective operating points, turn off the system
thereby prompting the automatic shutdown.

Results Analysis and Discussion

Provide the U-I characteristics plot, and plot the hydrogen flow rate and electrical
power on the same graph, and discuss the trends obtained.

Experiment 2: Energy balance

Objective of the experiment
To create a largely complete energy balance of the fuel cell system. Creating an
energy balance helps students to learn about the relationships of
the processes in a fuel cell. The sequence of the processes is illustrated by drawing
up an energy balance. The aim is to develop an energy balance of the fuel cell system
by calculations, using a concrete example.

Conducting the experiment

1. Before you start calculating the energy balance, draw all flowing energies
schematically in a flow diagram.
2. Which energy is required for the process, how large are auxiliary energies, which
energy is lost as heat and which energy is technically usable?

11
 3. Operate the fuel cell system current-regulated. Set the setpoint for the load
current to 6 A.
4. Increase the setpoint for the load current by 3 A after each purge until the
system reaches the nominal operating point of 24 V/15 A.
5. Set the setpoint for the load current to 16 A and the setpoint for the
temperature to 45°C.
6. Wait until the air outlet temperature at TI02 exceeds the target temperature
and the temperature control is engaged.
7. Once the measurements of the recorded temperatures have stabilised, the
fuel cell is nearly at steady-state operation.
8. Note down the recorded values for this operating point.

Calculate the input energy

The energy supplied to the system is composed of the energy of the hydrogen flow
rate and the input energy for fan and pump.
1. Determine the chemical energy of the input fuel.
To determine the hydrogen mass flow, we first calculate the volume flow of
the hydrogen.
In normal conditions (273.15 K / 1.013 bar) the volume flow is output as a
measured value to FI01. In addition, the software converts the measured value
directly to the volume flow in the operating state FH2.
In the operating state the hydrogen has a temperature of and a positive
pressure at the sensor of TI05. In the following example calculation, the
ambient temperature is given the value of 20°C and the positive pressure at
sensor PI01 is given a value of 265 mbar.

The conversion formula can be found in the literature:

(18)
Where
𝑉̇𝐻2 Hydrogen volume flow
𝑉̇𝐻2 ,𝑛 Hydrogen volume flow at normal conditions
P Hydrogen pressure
Pn Hydrogen pressure at normal conditions
T Hydrogen temperature
Tn Hydrogen temperature at normal conditions

Make sure to convert the measured value of the volume flow 𝑉̇𝐻2 into the unit m³/s in
order to subsequently calculate the input energy 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝐻2 .
The hydrogen mass flow is calculated using the general gas equation based on the
time unit.
12
 (19)

The specific gas constant of hydrogen has a value of R = 4124 J/kg.K.

(20)

The total energy supplied through the fuel cell results from the product of the lower
calorific value of hydrogen and the fuel mass flow. Added to this is a non-measurable
portion due to the hydrogen purge process, which at rated power has an influence of
approx. 2%. The flow rate during the purge is above the maximum limit of the flow rate
sensor and is not measured by instrumentation in this trainer.

The energy supplied via the hydrogen is obtained as follows:

(21)

Where
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝐻2 Input energy of the hydrogen
𝑚̇𝐻2 Mass flow of hydrogen
𝐻̇𝑈,𝐻2 Lower calorific value of hydrogen

At the operating point shown an energy of 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝐻2 is added to the system via the
hydrogen.

2. The parasitic loads to supply the peripheral components are externally supplied
with sinusoidal voltage from the public grid. The power demand of cathode blower
and cooler depends on the operating state. In the nominal operating point, the
power demand of the parasitic loads is approximately 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝑒𝑙 = 60W.

3. The total input energy, 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 results from the sum of input fuel, 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝐻2 and the
power demand of the peripheral components, 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛,𝑒𝑙 .

(21)

4. The generated electric power is produced directly at the terminals of the fuel cell
and is calculated from the product of voltage and current. It can be differentiated
between terminal power (directly on the stack) and load power (on the electronic
load). Due to conduction losses, the power at the electronic load is lower than
directly at the stack.

The measured terminal power at setpoint of IL = 16A is as follows:

Pel = U . I (22)

13
5. The thermally usable power of the fuel cell system is equal to the thermal energy
dissipated via the cooler. To create the energy balance, the temperature sensors
are located in the feed and return of the cooling water line.
To calculate the thermally usable power, we first calculate the mass flow.
The mass flow of the cooling water, 𝑚̇𝐶𝑊 is calculated from the volume flow of the
cooling water, 𝑉̇𝐶𝑊 and the associated density, 𝜌𝐶𝑊 .

(23)
Where
𝑚̇𝐶𝑊 Cooling water mass flow
𝑉̇𝐶𝑊 Cooling water volume flow
𝜌𝐶𝑊 Cooling water density

We get the thermally usable energy according to the following calculation:

(24)
Where
cp,cw Specific thermal capacity of the cooling water
T4 Cooling water outlet temperature
T3 Cooling water inlet temperature

6. The energy balance is created according to the diagram drawn up at the start.

The total efficiency of the system is calculated as follows:

(25)

Comment of the effect of ambient conditions on the performance of the fuel cell.

14
15