1

Fundamental
Concepts

For several centuroes geometry and algebra developed slowly, bit by bit, as distinct
mathematical discipline. In 1637, however, a French mathematical and philosopher, Renė
Descartes, published his La Gėomėtrie, which introduce a device for unifying these two
branches of mathematics. The basic feature of this new process, now called analytic
geometry, is the use of a coordinate system. By means of coordinate system algebraic
method can be applied powerfully in the study of geometry, and perhaps of still greater
importance is the adventage accuring to algebra by the graphical representation of algebraic
equation. Indeed, Descartes’ remarkable contribution paved the way for rapid and far-
reaching developments in mathematics, because it privided the very frmework for the
creation of calculus.
Many concepts discussed in this book are of ancient origin. Do no be misled into
thinking that they are studied only for historical value. On the contrary, these ideas have
withstood the test of time and are studied today because of their usefulness in dealing with
today’s ( and probably tomorrow’s ) problems. The topics that are of historical interest only,
those that are not fruitful today, have mostly disappeared from active study.
The topics that follow in this book have meaningful application in various
mathematical investigation and is such diserve disciplines as astronomy, the natural sciences,
engineering, business, medicine, the social sciences, psychology, statiscis, and aconimics.
1.1
BASIC CONCEPTS
A line on which one direction is chosen as positive and the opposite direction as negative is
called a directed line. A segment of the line, consisting of any two points and the part
between, is called a directed line segment. In Fig. 1.1, the positive direction is indicated by
the arrowhead. The point A and B determine a.
2 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

B
A

A
FIGURE 1.1

Segment, which we denote by AB or BA. We specify that the distance from A to B, meansured
in the positive direction, is positive; and distance from B to A, measured in the negative
direction, is negative. These two distance, which we denote by⃗ AB and ⃗
BA, are called
directed distances. If the lenght of the line segment is 3, then AB= 3, and ⃗
⃗ BA=−3 .
distances, therefor, on a directed lin segment satisfy the equation.

AB=−⃗
⃗ BA

Another concept with respect to distance on the segment AB is that of the undirected
distances between A and B. The undirected distance is the lenght of the segment, which we
take as positive. We will use the notation
´ | AB|=|BA |=3 ,
AB=
´
BA=−|AB|=−|BA|=−3.
Frequently the concept of the absolute value of a number is of particular significance.
Relative to this concept, we have the following definition.

DEFINITION 1.1 ●The absolute value of real number a, denoted by |a|, is the real
number such that

|a|=a whena is positive∨zero ,

|a|=−whenais negative .
According to this definition, the absolute value of every nonzero number is positive
and the absolute value of zero is zero. Thus,

|5|=5 , |−5|=−(−5 )=5 ,|0|=0

We see then, that

|a|= √ a 2

For any real number a , since the square root of any nonnegative number is
 1.1 BASIC CONCEPT 3

A B C
FIGURE 1.2

THEOREM 1.1 ● If A, B, and C are three points of a directed line, then the directed distances
determined by these points satisfy the equations
´ BC
AB+ ´ = AC
´ , ´ + CB=
AC ´ AB
´ , ´ AC=
BA+ ´ BC
´ .

Proof. If B is between A and C, the distance AB ´ , BC

´ , and AC´ all have the same
sign, and AC´ is obvisously equal to the sum of the other two ( Fig. 1.2 ). The second and
third equation follow readly from the first. To establish the second equation, we add− BC ´ to
´ CB
both sides of the first equation and then use the condition that − BC= ´ . Thus ,

´ AC−
AB= ´ BC
´ = AC
´ + CB
´ .

The Real Number Line

A basic concept of analytic geometry is the representation of all real numbers, we note,
consist of the positive numbers, the negative numbers and zero.

To establish the desired representation, we firts choose a direction on a line as

positive ( to the right in Fig. 1.3 ) nd select a point O of the line, which we call the origin, to
represent the number zero. Next we mark point at distances 1,2,3, and so on, units to the right
of the origin. We let the point thus located represent the number 1,2,3, and so on. In the same
way we locate point to the lef of the origin to represent the number -1,-2,-3, and so on. We
now have point hasigned to the positive integers, the negative integers, and the integer zero.
Numbers whose values are between to consecutive integers have their corresponding points
1
between the points assosiated with those integers, thus the number 2 corresponds to the
4
1
point 2 units to the right of the origin. And, in general, any positive number p is represented
4
by the point p unit to the right of the origin, and a negative number –n is represented by the
point n unit to the left of the origin. Futher, we assume that every real number corresponds to
one.
4 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT

Point on the line and, conversely, every point on the line correspondent to one real number.
This relation of the set of real numbers and the set of point on a directed line is called a one-
to-one correspondence.
The directed line of Fig.1.3, with ist points corresponding to real numbers, is called a
real number line. The number corresponding to a point on the line is called the coordinate
of the point. Since the positive number correspond to points in the chosen positive direction
from the origin and the negative numbers correspond to point in the opposite or negative
direction on origin, we shall consider the coordinate of points on a number line to be directed
distances fro the origin. For convenience, we shall sometimes speak of a point as being a
number, and vice versa. For example, we may say “the point 5” when we mean “the number
5” and “ the number 5 when we mean “the point 5”.

Rectangular Coordinates
Having obtained a one-to-one corespondence between the point on a line and the system of
real number, we next develop a scheme for putting the point of a plane into a one-to-one
correspondence with a set of order pairs of real numbers.
DEFINITION 1.2 ● A pair of number( x,y ) in which the order of occurence of the numbers is
distinguished is an ordered pair of numbers. Two order pairs, ( x,y ) and (x’y’) are equal if
and only if x = x’ and y = y’.
Note that ( 3,2 ) ≠ (2,3), and (1,1)= (x,y) if and only if x = 1 and y = 1.
We draw a horizontal line and a vertical line metting at the origin O ( Fig.1.4 ). The
horizontal line OX is called the x axis and the vertical line OY, the y axis. The x axis and the
y axis, taken together, are called the coordinate axes, and the plane determinated by the
coordinate axes is called the coordinate plane. The x axis, usually drawn horizontally, is
called the horizontal axis and the y axis the vertical axis. With a confenient unit of lenght,
we make a real number scale on each coordinate axis, letting the origin be the zero point. The
positive direction is choosen to the right on the x axis and upwar on the y axis, as indcated by
the arrowheads in the figures.
It is extremely important that coordinate axes be labeled. The student should from this
habit immediately. A simple arrow in the positive direction of each coordinate axis will
suffice, but the name of each coordinate, x or y in our present situation, must also be
indicated, just as they are in Fig. 1.4 and troughout the remainder of the text.
If P is an point on the coordinate plane, we define the distances of the point from the
coordinate axes to be directed distance. That is, the distance from the y axis is positive if p
is to the right of the y axis and the negetive if p is to the left, and the distance from the x
axis. Each point p of the plane has assosiated with it a pair of
 1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS 5

FIGURE 1.4

Number called coordinate. The coordinates are defined in terms of the perpendicular
distance from the axes to the point.

DIFINITION 1.3 ● The x coordinate, or abscissa, of a point P is the directed distance from
the y axis to the point. The y coordinate, or ordinate, of a point P is the directed distance
from the axis to the point.

A point whose abscissa is s and whose ordinate is y is disignated by ( x,y ),

in that order , the abscissa always coming first. Hence the coordinate of a point are an ordered
pair of number. Although a pair of coordinates determines a point, the coordinates
themeselves are offten referred to as a point.
We assume that to any pair of real numbers ( coordinates ) there corresponds one
defined point. Conversely, we assume that to each point of the plane there corresponds one
definite pair of coordinates. This relation points on a plane and pairs of reals number is called
a one-to-one correspondence. The device we have described for obtaining this
correspondence is called a rectangular coordinate system.
A point of given coordinates is plotted by measuring the proper distances from the
axes and marking the point thus located. For example, if the coordinates of a point are
(−4,3 ), the abscissa −4 means the point is 4 units to the left of the y axis and the ordinate 3
(plus sign understood) means the point is 3 unit above the x axis. Consequently, we locate
the point by going from the origin 4 units to the left along the x left along the x axis and then
3 units upward parallel to the y axis ( Fig.1.5).

6 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT

Similarly, if we wish to plot the point (5,−3), we move 5 units to the right of the
origin along the x axis and units downward (since the ordinate is negative) parallel to the y
axis. We have now located the desired point.
Some coordinates and their corresponding points are plotted in Fig. 1.6.
The coordinates axes divide the plane into four parts, called quadrants, which are
numbered I to IV in Fig. 1.4. The coordinates of a point in the first quadrant

FIGURE 1.6

( 3,4 )

0
 1.1 BASIC CONCEPT 7

Are both positive, which is indicated in the in the figure by (+,+). The signs of the
coordinates in each of the other quadrans are similarly indicated.
Distance Between Two Points
In many problem the distance between two points of the coordinate plane is reguired. The
distance between any two points, or the length of the line segment connecting them, can be
determinated from the coordinates of the points. We shall classify a line segment (or line) as
horizontal, vertical, or slant, depending on whether the segment is parallel to the x axis, to
the y axis, or to neither axis. In deriving appropriate formulas for the lengths of these kinds
of segment, we shall use the idea of directed segments.
Let P1( x 1 , y )and P2(x2,y) be two points on a horizontal line, and let A be the point
where the line cuts the y axis (Fig.1.7). we have, by Theorem 1.1,
AP´ 1+ P1´P2= AP
´ 2
P1´P2 = AP
´ 2− AP
´ 1
¿ X 2 −X 1.
Similarly, for the vertical distance, Q 1´Q 2, we have
Q 1´Q 2, =Q ´1 B+ B ´Q 2
´ 2 − BQ
¿ BQ ´ 1
¿ y 2−¿ y ¿.1

Hence the directed distance from a first point to a second point on a horizontal line is equal to
the abscissa ot the second point minus the abscissa of the first point. The distance is positive
or negative depending on whether the second point is to the right or left of the first point. A
corresponding statement can be made relative to avertical segment.
FIGURE 1.7

0
8 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

In as much as the lengths of segments, without regard to direction, are often desired,
we state a rule that gives results in positive quantities.

The length of a horizontal line segment joining two points is the abscissa of the point
on the minus the abscissa of the point on the left.
The length of a vertical line segment joining two point two points is the ordinate of
the upper point minus the ordinate of the lower point.

If it is not know which point is to the right of the other, we may use the equivalent
expression

|P1 P 2|=|x 1−x 2|= √( x1−x 2 ¿2

For the undirected distance between P1 ( x1 , y ) and P2 ( x2 , y ) . similarly,

|Q1 Q2|=| y 1 − y 2|=√ ( y 1 −¿ y 2 ¿ 2 ¿

Is the distance between Q1 ( x , y 1 ) and Q2 ( x , y 2 ).
We apply these to find the lengths of the line segments in Fig. 1.8:
| AB|=5−1=4 , |CD|=6−(−2 )=6+2=8 ,

|EF|=1 — 4=1+4=5 , |GH |=−2 — 5=−2+5=3.

y

x
0
We next consider the points P1 (x1,y1) and P2 (x2,y2), which determine a slant line. Draw a line
through P1 parallel to the x axis and a line through P2 parallel to the y axis (Fig.1.9). these
two lines intersect at the point R, whose abscissa is x2 and whose ordinate is y1. Hence
P´1 R=x 2−x 1 and R´P2 ¿ y 2− y 1.
1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS 9

X
0
FIGURE 1.9

By the Pythagorean theorem,*

2 2 2
d = |P1 P 2 │ =( x 2 −x 1 ¿ + ( y 2 − y 1 ¿ .

Denoting the lenght of the segment P1 P2 by d , we have the formula

2 2
d= √( x −x ¿ +( y − y ¿
2 1 2 1
(1.2)

To fine the distance two points, add the square of the difference of the anscissas to the
square of the difference ot the ordinates and take the square root of the sum.

In employing the distance formula, we may designate either poitn by ( x 1 , y 1 ) and the
other by ( x 2 , y 2 ). This result from the fact the two differences involved are squared. The
square of the difference of the two numbers is unchanged when the order of substraction is
reserved.

EXAMPLE 1 ● Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle (Fig 1.10) whit the vertices A
(−2,−3), B (6,1), and C (−2,5).

SOLUTION. The abscissas of A and C are the same, and therefore side AC is vertical. The
length of the vertical side is the differece of the ordinates. The other sides are slant segments,
and the general distance fomula yields their lengths.
* The Pythagorean theorem states that the sum of the squares on the perpendiculas
sides of a right triangle is equal to the square on the pypotenues. That is, if a and b are the
lengths of the perpindicular sides and c is the length of the hypotenuse, then a 2+b 2=c 2.

10 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Hence we get

| AC|=5−(−3 )=5+3=8 ,

| AB|= √ ( 6 +2 ¿2 + ( 1 +3 ¿2=√ 80=¿ √4 5 ¿

|BC|=√ ( 6+2 ¿2 + ( 1−5 ¿2= √80 ¿ √4 5

The length of the sides show that the triangle is isosceles.●

Exercises

1. Plot the points A (−1,0 ) , B ( 2,0 ) , and C ( 5,0 ) . Then find the directed distances
´ , AC
AB ´ , BC
´ , CB ´ , and BA
´ , CA ´ .
2. Plot the points A (−3,2 ) , B ( 0,2 ) , and C ( 4,2 ). Then fin the directed distances
´ , BA
AB ´ , AC
´ , CA ´ , and CB
´ , BC ´ .
3. Plot the points A (−2 ,−3 ) , B (−2,0 ) , and C (−2,4 ). And verify the following equation
by numerical substitutions:
´ = AB
Á C+ CB ´ , ´ AC=
BA+ ´ BC ´ , ´ BC
AB+ ´ = AC´ ,

In each of exercises 4 through 12, plot the pairs of points and find the distance between them.

4. (3,1), (7,4) 7. (12, −5), (0,0)

5. (4.137, −2.394), (−8.419, 2.843) 8. (0,4), (−3,0)
6. (2,3), (−1,0) 9. (−1,4), (2,−1)
 10. (6,3), (-1, -1) 11. (5,5), (-5,1)

12. (-3, -3), (2,2)

1.1 BASIC CONCEPT 11

In each of Exercises 13 through 16, draw the triangle with the given vertices and find the
lengths of the sides.
13. A(-1,1), B(-1,4), C(3,4) 14. A(2, -1), B(4,2), C(5,0)

15. A(0,0), B(5, -2), C(-3,3) 16. A(0,-3), B(3,0), C(0,-4)

In each of Exercises 17 through 20, draw the triangle having the given vertices and show
that the triangle is isosceles.
17. A(6,2), B(2,-3), C(-2,2) 18. A(5,4), B(2,0), C(-2,3)
19. A(2.107, -1.549), B(2.107, 6.743), C(9.167, 2.597)
20. A(-2,-3), B(4,3), C(-3,4)
In each of Exercises 21 through 24, draw the triangle with the given vertices and show
that the triangle is a right triangle. That is, the square on the longest side is equal to the
sum of the squares on the remaining sides.

21. A(1,3), B(10,5), C(2,1) 22. A(-1,1), B(6,-2), C(4,3)

23. A(0,3), B(-3,-3), C(2,2) 24. A(5,-2), B(1,1), C(7,9)

25. show that the points A(-2,0), B(2,0), C(0, 2√ 3 ) are vertices of an equilateral triangle.

26. Show that the points ( A (−√ 3,1), B ( 2 √ 3 ,−2 ), and C ( 2 √ 3 , 4 ) are vertices of an
equilateral triangle.

27. Show that the points A ( 1 ,−1 ), B (5,2 ) , C ( 2,6 ) , D (−2,3 ) are equal sides of the
quadrilateral ABCD.

28. Determine whether the points (−5,6), (2,5), and (1,−2) are the same distances from
(−2,2).

29. Prove that the points A (−2,7 ) , B ( 5,4 ) ,C (−1 ,−10 ) ,∧D (−8 ,−7 ) are vertices of the
rectangle ABCD .

Determine, using the distance formula, whether the points in each of Exercises 30 through 33
lie on a rectagle line.
30. (3,3), (0,1), (9,7) 31. (8.104, 0.478), (−2.502, 3.766), (2.801, 2.122)
32. (−3,1), (1,3) , (10,8) 33. (−2,−2), (5,−2) ,(−11,2)
34. If (x,4) is equidistant from (5,−2 ) and (3,4), find x.
35. If (−3,y) is equidistan from (2,6) and (7,−2). Find y.
36. Find the point on the y axis that is equidistant from (−4,−2) and (3,1)
12 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT

37. Find the point on the x axis that is equidistant from (−2,5) and (4,1).
38. (for student who know doterminants.) we may find the area of the triangle ABC
By adding the areas of trapezoids DECA and EFBC and then substracting the area of
DFBA, as in Fig, 1.11. Recall that area of a trapezoid is equal to onehalf the sum of
the parallel sides times the altitude. Show that the are S of the triangle ABC is :
1
2 |[ 1 2 3
S═ x ( y − y )− y 1 ( x 2−x 3 ) + ( x 2 y 3−x 3 y 2 ) ]|

And that this equal one-half the absolute value of the determinant
x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1
x3 y3 1

X
0 D E F

FIGURE 1.11
1.2

INCLINATION AND SLOPE OF A LINE

The inclination of a line is a concept used extensively in calculus and other areas of
mathematics. Relative to this concept, we have the following definition.

DEFINITION 1.4 ● Theinclination of a line intersects the x axis is the smallest angel,
greater than or equal to 00 , that the line makes with the positive direction of the axis. The
inclination of a horizontal line is 0.

According to this definition, the inclination θ of a line is such that

 00 ≤ θ < 1800, or , in radian measure, 0 ≤ θ < π.

In Fig.1.12 the inclination of the line L is indicated by the curved arrows.

MX is the initial side and ML is the terminal side.

1.2 INCLINATION AND SLOPE OF A LINE 13

Y Y
L

θ
X
0 M 0
X
0 M

FIGURE 1.12
DEFINITION 1.5 ● The slope of a line is tangent of the inclinatin.
A line that leans to the right ha s positive slope because the inclination is an acute
angle. The slope of a line that leans to the left is negtive. Vertical lines do not have a slope,
however, since 900 has no tangent.
If the inclination of a nonvertical line is known, the slope can e determined by the use
of table of trigonometric fungtions. Conversely, if the slpoe of a line is known, its inclination
can be found. In most problems, however, it is more conveinent to dea with the slope of a line
rather than with its inclination.
EXAMPLE 1 ● Draw a line through P(2,2) with inclination 350.
SOLUTION. We draw a line trough P making an angle of 350 with the positive x direction, as
shown in Fig.1.1.3. The figure also shows a line through (−4,0) with inclination
1350. ●
FIGURE 1.13

350

1350 P(2,2
)
350
X
(−4,0) 0
14 CHAPTER / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

−2
EXAMPLE ● Draw a line through the point P(−2,2) with slope .
3
SOLUTION. We move 3 units to the left of P and then 2 units upward. The line through the
point thu located and the given point P clearly has the required slope (Fig.1.14). ●

-5,4

2 P(−2,2
)
−3

FIGURE 1.14

The definitions of inclination and slope lead immediately to a theorem concerning

parallel lines. If two lines have the same slope, their inclanations are equal. Hence we know
from geometry that they are parallel. Conversely, if two nonvertical lines are parallel, they
have equal inclinations and thus equal slopes.

THEOREM 1.2 ● Two non-vertical lines are parallel if , and only if, their slopes are equal.

If the coordinates of two points on a line are know, we may fine the slope of the line
from the given coordinates, we noq drive a formula for this purpose.

Let P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) be the given points, and indicate the slope by m. Then,
referring to Fig.1.15, we have
 RP´ 2 y 2− y 1
m=tan θ= =
P´1 R x 2−x 1.

1.2 INCLINATION AND SLOPE OF A LINE 15

P2 ( x2,Y2)

Y2−y1
θ
R(x2,y1)
θ P1(x1,y1)
x
0

FIGURE 1.15

In Fig. 1.16 the line slants to be left. The quantities y1−y2 and x2−x1 are both positive and the
angles θ and ф are supplementary. Consequently

y 1− y 2
=tan θ=−tan θ
x 2−x 1

y
FIGURE 1.16
P1(x1,y1)

Y1−y2
X2−x1 P2(x1,x2)

R(x1,y2)

ф θ
X
0
16 CHAPTER / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Therefore

− y 1− y 2 y 2− y 1
m=tan θ= ═ .
x 2−x 1 x 2−x 1

Hence the slope is determined in the same way for lines slanting either to the left or right.

THEOREM 1.3 ● The slope m of a line passing through two given points P1(x1,y1) and
P2(x2,y2) is equal to the difference of the ordinates divided by the difference of the abscissas
taken in the same order: that is,

y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1

This formulas yields the slope if the two points are on a slant or a horizontal line. If
the line is vertical, the denominator of the formula bocomes zero, a result in kepping with the
fact that is not defined for a vertical line. We obsserve further that either of the points may be
designated as P1(x1,y1) and the other as P2(x2,y2), since

y 2− y 1 y 1− y 2
=
x 2−x 1 x1−x 2

EXAMPLE 3● Given the points A(−1,−1), B(5,0),C(4,3), and D(−2,2), show that ABCD is a
parallelogram.

SOLUTION. We determine from the slopes of the sides if the figure is a parallelogram.

0−(−1 ) 1 3−0
slope of AB= = slope of BC = =−3
5−(−1 ) 6 4−5

2−3 1 2−(−1 )
slope of CD= = slope of DA = =−3
−2−4 6 −2−(−1 )

The opposite sides have equal slopes, and therefore ABCD is a parallelogram.●
Agle between Two Lines

Two intersecting lines from two pairs of equal angles, and an angle of one pair is the
supplement of an angle of the other pair. We shall show how to find a measure of each angle
in terms of the slopes of the lines. Noting Fig. 1.17 and recalling that an exterior angle of a
triangle is equal to the sum of the remote.

1.2 INCLINATION AND SLOPE OF A LINE 17

θ θ2
11 X
0

FIGURE .1.17

Interior angles, we see that

ϕ + θ1═ θ2 or ϕ ═ θ2 – θ1.

Using the formula for the tangent of the difference of two angles, we find

tan θ2−tanθ 1
tan ϕ=tan ( θ2−θ1 ) =
1+ tanθ 2 tan θ1

If we let m2 ═ tan θ2 and m1 ═ tan θ1, then we have

m2−m1
Tan ϕ ═
1+m 1 m2

Where m2 is the slope of the terminal side and m1 is the slope of the initial side, and ϕ
is measured in a counterclockwise direction.

The angle ѱ is the supplement of ϕ, and therefor

 m 1−m 2
tanѱ ═−tan ϕ ═
1+m 1 m2

This formulas for tan ѱ is the same as the one for tan ϕ except that the terms in the numerator
are reversed. We observe from the diagram, however, that the terminal side of ѱ is the initial
side of ϕ and the initial side of ѱ is the terminal side of ϕ, as indicated by the
counterclockwise arrows. Hence the numerator for tan ѱ is equal to the slope of the terminal
side of ѱ minus the slope of the initial side of ѱ. The same wording hold for tanϕ; that is, the
numerator for tan ϕ is equal to the slope of the terminal side of ϕ minus the slope of the initial
side of ϕ. Accordingly, in terms of the slopes of the initial and terminal sides, the tangent of
either angle may be found by the same rule; We state this conclusion as a theorem.

18 CHAPTER / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

THEOREM 1.4 ● If ϕ is an angle, measured counterclockwise, between two lines, then

m2−m1
tan ϕ ═
1+ m1 m2

Where m2 is the slope of the termial side and m1 is the slope of the initial side.

This formula will not apply if either of the lines is vertical, since a vertical line does
not possess slope. For this case the problem would be that of finding the angle, or a
trigonometric fungtion of the angle, that a line of know slope makes with the vertical. Hence
no new formulas needed.
For any to slant lines that are not perpendicular, Eq.(1.3) will yield a definite number
as the value of tan∅. Conversely, if the slopes of the lines are such that the formula yields a
definite value, the lines could not be perpendicular, because the tangent of a right angle does
not exist. Since the formulafails to yield a value only when the denominator is equal to zero,
it appears that the lines are perpendicular when and only when 1+ m1m2 ═ 0 or.

−1
m 2= .
m1

We note, additionallity, that if α2 and α1 are the inclinations of slant lines that are
perpendicular, then

α2 ═ α1 + 90 0 or α2 ═ α1−90 0

In either case, tan α2 ═ −cot α1 and m═ −1/ m1.

THEOREM 1.5 ● Two slant lines are perpendicular if, and only if, the slope of one is the
negative reciprocal of the slope of the other.
 Perpendicularity of two lines occurs, if one line is parallel to the x axis and the other
parallel to the y axis. The slope of the line parallel to the x axis is zero, but the line parallel to
the y axis does not possess slope.

EXAMPLE 4 ● Find the tangents of the angles of the triangle whose vertices are A (3, −2) ,
B (−5,8) , and C (4,5). Then refer to table II in the appendix or use calculator to express each
angle to the nearest degree.

SOLUTION. We first find the slope of each side. Thus, from Fig.1.18.
−2−8 5
Slope of AB ═ ═−
3 – (−5) 4
8−5 1
Slope of BC ═ ═−
−5−4 3
−2−5
Slope of AC ═ ═ 7.
3–4

1.2 INCLINATION AND SLOPE OF A LINE 19

B(−5,8) Y

m═

C(4,5)
m═

m ═7

X
0

A(3,−2)

FIGURE 1.18

We now substitute in Eq. (1.3) and get

−5
−7
4 33
tan A ═ ═ =1.60 , A═ 47 0
−5 31
1+ ( )
4
(7)

−1 −5
–( )
3 4
tan B ═
1+¿ ¿
 −1
7–( )
3 −22
tanC ═ = =−5,5 ,C ═ 1000
−1 4
1+7( )
3

EXAMPLE 5 ● The cross section of an A-frame cottange is an isosceles triangle. If the slope
of one of the sides is 1.8 it is 19 ft high at the peak, what is the width of the cottage?
Y
SOLUTION. If the axes are set as in Fig. 1.19
(0,19)

FIGURE 1.18

(m═1.8)
19

X
(x,0) 0

20 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Then
19−0
=1.8
0−x
19
=1.8
−x

−19 −95
x= =
1.8 9

95 1
Hence the width of the cottage is 2( ) ═ 21 ft
9 9

EXAMPLE 6 ● A television camera is located along the 40-yd line at a football game. If the
camera is 20 yds back from the sideline, through what angle should it be able to pan in order
to cover the entire field of play, including end zones ?
SOLUTION. Locte the camera at the origin so that it is able to cover all action from the line
through (70, 20) to the line through (−50, 20). If ϕ is the angle in question, measured
counterclockwise, then see from Fig. 1.20.that
 −2 2
−
5 7 −24
tan ϕ ═ =
2 2 31
1− .
5 7

ϕ=1420 .

FIGURE 1.20
Y

(−50,2) (−50,20)
0 ф
X

The camera should be able to sweep through an angle of 1420

1.2 INCLINATION AND SLOPE OF A LINE 21

Exercises

Draw a line through the given point with the indicated inclination θ in each of Exercises 1
through 6.
1. ( 2,3), θ = 300 2. (−2,1), θ = 450 3. (4,−3), θ = 1500
0 0
4. (−3,−1), θ = 60 5. (5,−4), θ = 0 6. (0,0), θ = 750
Draw a line through the given point the given slope m in each of excercise 7 through 12.
7. (2,2), m = 3 8. (−1,3), m = 1 9. (3,1), m = −1
1 2 3
10. (2,−2), m = 11.( 4,0), m = 12.(−3,3), m = −
2 3 4
13. A flat board leans against a wall, the upper edge is 6 ft above the floor and the lower
edge is 2 ft out from the wall. What is the slope of the board ?
14. A ladder 10 ft long leans against a wall, touching it 8 ft above the ground. What is the
slope of the ladder? Can a person 6 ft tell pass under the ladder 1 ft away from the wall?
Can the same person pass under the ladder 2 ft away from the wall?
 15. A cross section of a cottage, 18 ft wide, is an isosceles triangle. If the slope of a side is
1.5, find the height of the cottage.
In Ecercises 16 through 21, find the slope of the line passing through the two points. Find
also the inclination to the nearest degree by using a hand calculator or by using Table in the
appendix.
16. (2,3), (3,7) 17. (−13,6), (4,0) 18. (3,−7), (4,8)
19. (−9,0), (3,20) 20. (11.7142, 40015),(−3.8014, −2.8117)
21. ( −2,8), (4,−3)
Show that each of the four points in exercises 22 through 25 are vertices of the parallelogram
ABCD.
22. A ( 3,0 ) , B ( 7,0 ) , C ( 5,3 ) , D ( 1,3 )
23. A (−2,3 ) , B ( 6,1 ) , C ( 5 ,−2 ) , D (−3,0 )
24. A (−1 ,−2 ) , B ( 3 ,−6 ) ,C ( 11,−1 ) , D ( 7,3 )
25. A ( 0,0 ) , B ( 6,3 ) , C ( 9,9 ) , D ( 3,6 )
Verify that each triangel with the given points as vertices in Exercises 26 through 31 is a right
triangle since the slope of one side is the negative reciprocal of the slope af another side.
26. (4,−4), (4,4), (0,0) 27. (−1,2), (3,−6), (3,4)
28. (7,1), (0,−2), (5,−4) 29. (2,5), (−5,7), (−2,−9)
30. (1,1), (4,−1), (3,4) 31. (−1,−1), (16,−1), (0,3)
Show that the four points in each of exercises 32 through 35 are vertices of the rectangle
ABCD.
32. A (−4,3 ) , B ( 0 ,−2 ) , C ( 5,2 ) , D ( 1,7 )
33. A ( 2,2 ) , B ( 7 ,−3 ) , C ( 10,0 ) , D ( 5,5 )
34. A ( 5 ,−1 ) , B ( 7,6 ) , C ( 0,8 ) , D (−2,1 )
35. A ( 5,7 ) , B ( 1,1 ) ,C ( 4 ,−1 ) , D ( 8,5 )

22 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Using slopes, determine which of the sets of three points in exercises 3 through 39 lie on a
straight line.
36. (0,−2), (3,0), (9,4) 37. (−1,2), (2,1), (5,0)
38. (0,1),(9,6), (−4,−1) 39. (−10,2), (1,−2), (6,−5)
In Exercises 40 through 43,find the tangents of the angles in each triangle ABC. Then use a
hand calculator or table II in the Appendix to find each angle to teh nearest degree.

40. A ( 1,1 ) , B ( 5,2 ) , C ( 3,5 ) 41. A (−1,1 ) , B ( 2 ,−1 ) ,C ( 3,5 )

42. A ( 2,2 ) , B (−4 ,−1 ) , C ( 6 ,−5 ) 43. A ( 3,8 ) , B (−4 ,−3 ) , C ( 6 ,−1 )
44. The line through the points (3,4) and (−5,0) intersects the line through (0,0) and (−5,0).
Find the angles of intersection.
45. Two lines passing through (3,2) make an angle og 45 0. If the lope of one of the lines is 1,
find the slope of the other line (two solutions).
3
46. What acute angle does a line of slope − make with a vertical line ?
2
In each of Exercises 47 through 52, find the slopes of the lines passing through the two pairs
of points. Then decide wheter the lines are paralle, perpendicular, or intersect obliquely.

47. (1,−1), (−5,−5); (1,−2), (7,2) 48. (1,−1), (−4,−4); (1,1), (4,−4)
49. (1,8), (−3,−4); (−1,8), (0,10) 50. (2,−3), (0,2); (−5,7), (6,2)
51. (6,5), (11,9); (2,5), (12,9) 52. (−6,−4), (22,8); (−5,7), (7,−8)
53. A cross section of a cottage, 18 ft wide, is an isosceles triangle. If the slope of a side is
1.75 and there is a second floor 8 ft above the ground floor, what is the widht of the
secon floor ?
54. A bridge is trussed as in Fig. 1.21. Find the slopes and inclinations of the sections AB and
BC.
55. A television camera is 30 fr from ste sideline of a basketball court 94 ft long. The camera
is located 7 ft from midcourt. Through what angle must is sweep in order to cover all
action on the court?

1.3 DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT 23

A B
C

1 1
1 1 1 6 2
2 6 8
1 1 1 12 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
X

FIGURE 1.21
1.3

DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT

In this section we will show to find the coordinates of a point which divides a line segment
into two parts that have a specified relation. We first find formulas for the coordinates of a
point that is midway between two points of given coordiantes.

Let A (x1.y1) and B (x2,y2) be the extremities of a line segment, and let P (x,y) be the
midpoint of AB. From similar triangles (Fig.1.22), we have
´
AP ´
AM ´
MP 1
═ = = .
AB
´ AN
´ NB
´ 2

Hence
´
AM x−x 1 1 ḾP y− y 2 1
= = and = = .
AN
´ x 2−x 1 2 NB
´ y 2− y 1 2

B(x2,y2)

P(x,y)

A(x1,y1) M(x,y1) N(x2,y1)

X
24 CHAPTER
0
1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Solving for x and y gives

x 1+ x 2 y +y
x= and y= 1 2 (1.4)
2 2

THEOREM 1.6 ● The Abscissa of teh midpoint of a line segment is halft the sum of the
abscissas of the endpoints; the ordinate is half the sum of the ordinates.

This theorem may be generalized by letting p (x,y) be any division point of the line
´ is a number r instead of 1 , then
´ to AB
through A and B. If the ratio of AP
2

´
AP x−x 1 ´
AP y− y 1
= =r ∧ = =r
AB
´ x 2−x 1 AB
´ y 2− y 1

These equations, when solved for x and y give

x=x 1 +r ( x2 −x1 ) , y= y 1 +r ( y 2− y 1 ) (1.5)

1
It should be clear that formulas (1.5) reduce to the midpoint formulas (1.4), if r = .
2

It is probably better that the student remember how to derive formulas (1.5)

By using similar triangles than that the student memorize them. The student may have many
opportunities in this and in subsequent mathematics courses to use similar triangles to solve a
problem. There are comparatively occasions to use formulas (1.5)

EXAMPLE 1 ● One endpoint of a line segment is A(6,4), and the midpoint of the segment is
P (−2,9). Find the coordinates of the other endpoint.

SOLUTION. We let (x2,y2) stand for the unknowm coordinates. Then in fomulas (1.4), we
replace x by −2, y by 9, x1 by 6, and y1 by 4, and have

6+ x 2 4+ y 2
−2 ═ ∧9= .
2 2

These equation yield x2 = −10 and y2 = 14. Hence the desire coordinates are (−10,14).●

1.3 DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT 25

EXAMPLE 3● Find the two trisection points of the line segment joining A (-3,-4) and B
(6,11).

1
SOLUTION. We let P1 ( x 1 y ) and P2 (x , y ) stand for trisection points. Then we use r in
3
formulas (1.5) to find P1, and have

1
x=x 1 +r ( x2 −x1 ) =−3+ ( 6+3 )=0
3

1
y= y1 +r ( y 2− y 1) =−4+ ( 11+ 4 )=1.
3

2
Next we use r = in formulas (1.5) to find P2, and have
3
 2
x=x 1 +r ( x2 −x1 ) =−3+ ( 6+3 )=3.
3

2
y= y1 +r ( y 2− y 1) =−4+ ( 11+ 4 )=6
3

Hance the coordinates of the trisection points are (0,1) and (3,6), as shown in Fig.1.23.
Y
6,11

P2

P1
X

A(−3 ,−4 )

In formulas (1.5), the point P is between A and B if and only if 0 < r < 1. However, if
is a point on the segment AB ´ extended through B, then the length of the segment AP ´ is
greater then 1, formulas (1.5) yield the coordinates of a point on the extended in the other
direction (through A), we may either use formulas (1.5) with r negative or we may use a
similar triangles argument similar to that used in the derivation of (1.5)

EXAMPLE 4 ● A point P (x,y) is on the line through A (-4,4) and B (5,2). Find (a) the
´ is extended through B to P
coordinates of P given that the segment AB

26 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

A (−4,4)

B (5,2)

P(x,y)
X
o
 ´ is
so that P is twice as far from A as from B, and (b) the coordinates of P given that AB
extended through A to P so that P is three times as far from B as from A.
SOLUTION. (a) Since AP ´ = 2 BP ´ ═ AB
´ , it follows that BP ´ (Fig 1.24). Hence the ratio of to
AP´ to AB´ is 2. Accordingly, we use r = 2 in formulas (1.5) and write
x=−4+2 ( 5+ 4 )=14 , y=4 +2 ( 2−4 )=0
The desire coordinates are (14,0).
SOLUTION. (b) First we sketch a graph (Fig 1.25) so that we may use similar triangles. From
the figure, we see that
´ −4−x 1
PA
= =
PB´ 5−x 3

3 ( 4 + x )=x−5

x=−8.5 ,

A(-4,4)

P(x,y B(5,2
) )

1.3 DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT 27

And
´
PA 4− y 1
= =
PB 2− y 3
´
3 ( 4− y ) =2− y
y=5.
1
On the other hand, we could use formulas (1.5) with r = − , to get
2
−1
x=−4+ ( )2
(5+ 4 )=−8.5
And
−1
y=4+ ( )2
( 2−4 )=5.
Either way, we see that the coordinate of P are (−8.5,5).●
EXAMPLE 5 ● The line segment joining a vertex of triangle and midpoint of the opposite
side is called a median of the triangle. Fig. 1.26 shows a triangle with bertices A (4,-4), B
(10,4) C (2,6), and the respective midpoints of the opposite sides D(6,5), E (3,1), F (7,0).
Find the point on each median that is two-thirds of the distance from the vertex to the
midpoint of the opposite side.
2
SOLUTION. Using r = in the point of division formulas (1.5), we get, for th medians
3
AD,BE and CF, respectively.
2 16 2
x=4+ ( 6−4 )= , y =−4 + ( 5+ 4 )=2,
3 3 3
2 16 2
x=10+ ( 3−10 )= , y =4 + ( 1−4 ) =2,
3 3 3
2 16 2
x=2+ ( 7−2 )= , y =6+ ( 0+6 )=2 ,
3 3 3
16
These result tell use that the medians are concurrent at the point ( , 2)
3

28 CHAPTER / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Exercise
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of each pair of points in Exercise 1 through 6.
1. (4,3), (-4,-3) 2. (3,2), (1,6) 3. (2,3), (3,4)
4. (7,-4), (-9,6) 5. (-7,-11), (5,15) 6. (5,7), (-3,3)
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the sides of each triangle whose vertices are given in
Exercises 7 through 10.
7. (1,2), (2,5), (6,3) 8. (4,4), (2,3), (5,1)
9. (8,3), (2,-4), (7,-6) 10.(-1,-6), (-3,-5), (-2,-2)
11. The line segment connecting (x1,6) and (9,y2) is bisected by the point (7,3). Find the
values of x1 and y2 .
 12. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the hypotenuse of the right triangle whose
vertices are (2,2), (6,3), and (5,7), and show that the midpoint is equidistant from the
three vertices.
In exercise 13 through 24, find the point P(x,y) so that the ratio of AP ´ to AB
´ is equal to r.
1 2
13. A ( 4,3 ) , B ( 5,1 ) , r= 14. A ( 2 ,−4 ) , B (−3,3 ) , r=
3 3
4 2
15. A (−1,0 ) , B ( 3,2 ) , r= 16. A ( 5,6 ) , B ( 0 ,−5 ) ,r =
3 5
5
17. A ( 6 ,−2 ) , B (−1,7 ) ,r =2 18. A (−5,1 ) , B ( 3,3 ) , r=
2
1
19. A ( 0,0 ) , B ( 6,2 ) , r=3 20. A ( 4.1001 , 1.092 ) , B (−2.8763 ,0.0018 ) , r=
3
1 4
21. A (−5 ,−5 ) , B (1,1 ) , r= 22. A ( 1,5 ) , B ( 6,5 ) , r=
5 5
−1 3
23. A ( 2,9 ) , B (−4 ,−3 ) , r = 24. A ( 2,5 ) , B ( 5 ,−2 ) , r=
3 4
25. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment from (-1,4) to (2,-3) in
the ratio 3 to 4 (two solution).
26. Find the coordinates of P if it divides the line segment joining A (2,-5) and B (6,3) so
that AP´ / PB ´ = ¾.
27. The line segment joining A ( 2,4 ) , and B (−3 ,−5 ) , is the extended through each end by a
distance equal to twice its original length. Find the coordinates of the new endpoints.
28. A line passes through A ( 2,3 ) , and B (5,7 ) , find (a) the coordinates of the point P on AB ´
extended through B to P so that P is twice far from A as from B; (b) the coordintes if P
´ extended through A so that P is twice as far from B as from A.
is on AB
29. A line passes throug A (−2 ,−1 ) and A ( 3,4 ) . Find (a) the point P on AB
´ extended trough
B so that P is three times as far from A as from B; (b) the point, if P is on AB´ extended
through A so that P is three times as far from B as from A.
30. Find the point of the line passing through A (−1 ,−1 ) and B ( 4,4 ) which is
(a) twices as far from A as from B (two cases).
(b) three times as far from B as from A (two cases).
31. The line segment joining A ( 3,1 ) and B (−2,−1 ) is extended each end bt a distance equal
to its original lenght. Find the coordinates of the new endpoints.

1.4 ANALYTIC PROOFS OF GEOMETRIC THEOREMS 29

In each of exercises 32 through 35, find the intersection point of the diagonals of endpoints.
32. A ( 3,0 ) , B ( 7,0 ) , C ( 9,3 ) , D (5,3)
33. A (−2,3 ) , B ( 6,1 ) , C ( 5 ,−2 ) , D(−3,0)
34. A (−1 ,−2 ) , B ( 3 ,−6 ) ,C ( 11,−1 ) , D(7,3)
35. A ( 0,2 ) , B (−3,1 ) ,C ( 2,−1 ) , D(5,0)
36. A 30-Ib child is sitting at A(2,3) and a 50-Ib child is at B(12,7), where units are feet.
Find the point P between A and B which could be used as the fulcrum of a teeterboard
5
putting the two children in equilibrium. [Hint. 30AP =50PB or (AP/PB) = . now use the
3
point of division formulas.]
37. A 60-Ib child is sitting on teeterboard at (1,4) and the fulcrum is at (6,5), where units are
feet. At what point should a 40-Ib child sit to be in equilibrium? See hint in Exercise 36.
38. A person 6 ft tall is standing ner a street light so that he is 4/10 of the distance from the
pole to the tip if his shadow. How high above the ground is the lightbulb? If the person’s
head is exactly 5 ft from the lightbulb, how far is the person from the pole, and how long
is the shadows.

1.4
ANALYTIC PROOFS OF GEOMETRIC THEOREMS

By the use of a coordiante system, many theorems of geometry van be proved with surprising
simplecity and directness. We illustrate the procedure in the following example.

EXAMPLE 1● Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram and then introducie a coordiante
system. A judicious location of the axes relative to the figure makes thee writing of the
coordinate of the vertices easier and also simplifies the algebraic operations involved in
making the proof. Therefie we choose a vertex as the origin and a coordiante axis along a side
if the parallelogram (Fig. 1.27). then we write the

30 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

coordinates if the vertices earsier and also simplifies the algebraic operations involved in
making the proof. Therefore we choose a vertex as the origin and a coordinate axis along a
side of the parallelogram (Fig. 1.27). then we write the coordinates of the vertices as O(0,0),
P1 (a , 0), P2 (b , c ), and P3 (a+ b , c). It is essential that the coordinates of P2 and P3 express
the fact that P2 P3 and OP1 are parallel and have the same length. This is achived by making
the coordinate of P2 and P3 the same and making the abscissa of P3 exceed the abscissa of P2
by a.

To show that OP3 and P1P2 bisect each other, we find the coordinates of the midpoint of each
diagonal.

a+b c
Midpoint of OP3 : x= , y¿
2 2

a+b c
Midpoint of P1P2: x= , y¿
2 2

Since the midpoint of each diagonal is ( a+b2 , 2c ) the theorem is proved.●

Note . In making a proof it is essential that a general figure be used . for example, neither a
rectangle nor a rhombus (a parallelogram with all sides equal) should be used for a
parallelogram. A proof of a theorem based on a specal case would not consitute a general
proof.

EXAMPLE 2 ● Prov that in any triangle the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides
is parallel to, and one−half as long as, the third side.

SOLUTION. The trianlge and midpoints of two sides are shown in Fig.1.28. Note that the
coordinate axes are positioned relative to the triangle so that it is easy to write the coordinates
of the vertices. According to Theorem 1.3, the slope of DC is

( c /2 )−( c /2 )
=0
1 1
( a+b ) − b
2 2

1.4 ANALYTIC PROOFS OF GEOMETRIC THEOREMS 31

Hence the line segment DC and the third side are parallel since the slope of each is 0. To get
the length of DC, we use the distance formula and find

√( a+ b b 2 c c 2 a
2
− )(
2
+ − = .
2 2 2)
Which is one-half the third side, as reguired.●

EXAMPLE 3● Prove that a parallelogram whose diagonals are perpendicular is a rhombus.

SOLUTION. First, we recall that a parallelogram whose sides are all equal is called a
rhombus. So we start the proof with the parallelogram OACB and the perpendicular diagonal
AB and OC (Figg.1.29). if the sides of this parallelogram are all of

32 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

The same length, the figure satisfies the definition of a rhombus. We know that the opposite
sides of a parallelogram are equal. Then if a side of one of the pairs of opposite sides has the
same length as one of the sides of the other pair of opposite sides, all the sides are equal and
OACB ia a rhombus. Let us now that side OA is equal to side OB.

c−0 c
slope of OC = = .
a+b−0 a−b
c−0 c
slope of OC = = .
b−a b−a
Each of these slopes is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other (theorem 1.5). in other
words, their product is −1. Hence

c c
. =1∨c 2=a 2−b2∧a= √ b 2+ c2 .
b−a a+b
The left.hand side of this last equation is the length of OA and the right-hand side is the
length of OB. Hence OACB is a rhombus.●
EXAMPLE 4● The points A(x1y1), B(x2,y2), and C(x3,y3) are vertices of a triangle. Find the
coordinates of the point on each mdian that is two-thirds of the way from the vertex to the
midpoint of the opposite side.
SOLUTION. Figure 1.30 shows the triangle and the coordiantes of the midpoints of the sides,
we let (x,y) stand for the coordinates of the desired point on median

1.4 ANALITIC PROOFS OF GEOMETRIC THEOREMS 33

 2
AD. Then using r = in the division formulas, Eq. (1.5,). We obtain
3

2 x 2+ x 3 x +x +x
x=x 1 +
3( 2 )
−x 1 = 1 2 3 ,
3

2 y2 + y3 y +y +y
x= y 1 +
3( 2 )
− y1 = 1 2 3 ,
3

Similarly, we let (x,y) stand for the desired point on median BE and find

2 x 1+ x 3 x +x +x
x=x 2 +
3( 2 )
−x 2 = 2 1 3 ,
3

2 y1 + y3 y +y +y
x= y 2 +
3( 2 )
− y2 = 2 1 3 ,
3

From the above result, we see that two of the medians intersect at the point

( x + x3 + x ) ,( y + y3 + y )
1 2 3 1 2 3

We can now conclude that all three medians pass through this point. Could we have made
this conclusion by considering only one median?●

We have now established the following theorem:

THEOREM 1.7 ● The three medians of a triangle intersect at the point whose abscissa is
one-third the sum of the abscissas of the vertices of the triangle and whose ordinate is one-
third the sum of the ordinate of the vertices.

EXAMPLE 5● The vertices of a triangle are at (-7,3), (4,-2), and (6,5). Find the point of
intersection of the medians.

1 1
SOLUTION. The abscissa of the intersection point is (-7+4+6)=1, and the ordinate is (3-
3 3
2+5)=2. Hence the medians at (1,2)●

Exercises

give analytic proofs of the following theorems.

1. the diagonals of a rectangle have the same length and bisect each other.
2. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are of equal length, the figure is a rectangle.
3. The diagonals of a square are perpendicular to each other.
4. The segments that connect the midpoints of consecutive sides of a square from a square
of one—half the area of the original figure.*

34 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

5. If the diagonals of a rectangle are perpendicular to each other, the figure is a square.
6. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
7. The segments that join the midpoints of the consecutive sides of a plane quadrilateral
from a parallelogram.
8. The segments that join the midpoints of the consecutive sides of a rhombus form a
rectagle.
9. The line segments joining the midpoints of the opposite seides of a quadrilateral bisect
each other.
10. The sum of the squares of the of the diagonals of a rhombus is equal to four times the
square of a side.
11. The midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from the vertices.
12. If the midpoint of one side of a triangle is equidistant from the three vertices, the
triangle is a right triangle.
13. If the sum of the squares of two sides of triangle is equal to the square of the third side,
the figure is a right triangle.
14. If two medians of a triangle are equal, it is isosceles.
15. The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle bisects the median
drawn to the third side.
16. The line through the vertex of an isosceles triangle parallel to the base bisects the
exterior angle.
17. The vertex and the midpoints of the three sides of an isosceles triangle are the vertices
of a rhombus.
18. The line segment joining the midpoints of the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid is parallel
to the bases and its length is the average of the lengths of the bases.
19. The diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid are equal.
20. If the diagonals of a trapeziod are equal, the figure is an isosceles trapezoid.
21. The sume of the squares of the four sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the
squares of the two diagonals.
22. The lines drawn form a vertex of a parallelogram to the midpoints of the opposite sides
trisect a diagonal.
23. The line joining each to the trisection points of a diagonal of a rectangle with the other
vertices form a parallelogram.
24. If P ( a , b ) is on a circle with center at the origin and radius r , then a 2+b 2=r 2
25. If P is a point on the circumference of a circle, then the line segments joining P to the
extremities of a diameter are perpendicular. [Hint. Chooses the center at the origin and
the diameter along one axis and use the rest t of Exercise 24.]

1.5 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 35

1.5
RELATIONS AND FUNGTIONS
The concepts of relations and fungtions, which we introduce in this section, pervade all of
mathematics. They are perhaps the most fundamental ideas in the many branches of
mathematics. Indeed, the reader has already encuntered these noticon in algebre and in
trigonometry,. Nonetheless, the concepts will be introduce now, because they are central of
the remainder of this book.

DEFINITION 1.6 ● A relation is a set of ordered pairs of numbers. The set of all first
elements that occur in a relation is the domain of the relation, and the set of all second
elements is the range of the relation.

EXAMPLE 1● The set of ordered pairs

R={ (−5 ,−5 ) , (−4,2 ) , (−2 ,−2 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 0 ,−3 ) , ( 2,−4 ) ,(3,4) }

Defines a relation with domain {−5 ,−4 ,−2,0,2,3 } and range {−5 ,−4 ,−3 ,−2,1,2,4 } . This
relation R does not exhibit an apparent connection between the elements of the ordered pairs;
thus a listing of the pairs is the best way to present the relation.●

It often happens that three is a specified “relationship” between the elements of the
ordered pairs of a relation. For instance, the second element may always be twicw the first
element when we have a rule or a recipe to show how the elements of thhe ordered pairs are
related, we need not resort to a listing of the pairs as we did in Example 1. We may describe
the relation by using the rule.

EXAMPLE 2● The relation S, whose domain is the set of real numbers and which has the
property that each ordered pair is of the from (x,2x) for some real number x, has infinitely
many ordered pairs. It can be denote by the rule y = 2x

DEFINITION 1.7● A function is arelation in which no two ordered pairs have the same first
element and distinct second elements.

36 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

 If a relation is fungtion, then for each member of the domain there correspondens one
and only one member of the range. A fungtion, then, is a particular type of relation. The
relation R , that is, the number 0 in the domain is related to distinct numbers 1 and -3 in the
range. The relation S of example 2 is a fungtion.

When a fungtion is to be given a name, say f , it is customary to write y = f(x) to

specify the fungtional relationship. The term “f(x)” is to be read “f of x” and it signifies the
point in the range with which the member x of the domain is associated by fungtion f. If S is
the fungtion of example 2, then we may specify the fungtion by y = S (x)= 2x then S(6)= 12.
S(-√ 2) = 2 √2 and S(π) = 2 π.

EXAMPLE 3 ● Let T be the relation whose domain is the set of all real numbers and with the
property that (x,y) is in T provided that

Y=|x|.

Is T a fungtion? What is the range of T ?

SOLUTION. We see that (2,2) and (-2,2) are both in T, but that this does not contradict the
definition of function. The issue is this: Are there two ordered pairs in T with the same first
element and diferent second elements? Can a real number have two distinct absolute values?
The answer, according to definotion 1.1, is “No.” The relation T is a function. The range of T
is the se of all results we can get by taking the absulute value of each real number. Hence the
range of T is the set of all nonnegative real numbers.●

A relation or a function may be completely determined by specifying a domain and by

an equation relating the elements of the ordered pairs. It frequently happens that an equation
is given without specifying a domain. When this occurs, it is understood that the domain is to
consist of the largest set of real numbers x for which the equation yields real numbers y =
f(x).

EXAMPLE 4 ● Find the domain and range of the function specified by y = 1/x.

SOLUTION. For any nonzero real number x the equation yields a real number y≠0. If either
x or y is 0, the equation is a false statement; hence the domain is the set of all nonzero real
numbers, as is the range.●

EXAMPLE 5 ● Find the domain and range of y = √ 9−x2 .

SOLUTION. The domain consists of all real number x for which 9 – x2 ≥ 0, for if the
radicand is negative, y will not be a real number. From algebra we know that 9 ≥ x x2 if and

only if -3 ≤ x ≤ 3. Furthermore, as x is allowed to vary form -3 to 3, y varies from 0 to 3 and

back to 0. The range is the set of numbers from 0 to 3, inclusive. ●

1.5 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 37

 The functions sine and cosine of trigonometry each have as their domain the set of
real numbers and as their range the set real numbers from -1 to 1, inclusive. We shall
encounter the trigonometric functions again later in the book.

It may happen that a functoin is best defined by different recipes in different intervals.
For instance, we might have

x if 0≤ x ≤ 1.
f ( x )=
{ x 2 if 1 ≤ x <3 ,
2 x+3 if 3 ≤ x .

Then f ( 12 )= 12 , f(2) = 4, and f (12) = 27

Graphs of Relations and Fungtions

Earlier in the chapter we alluded to the fact that analytic geometry is the marriage of algebra
and geometry. Indeed, we are now in a position to see some of the power of analytic
geometry. The strength of the discipline is this: it gives us a way to visualize algebraic
expressions and, on the other hand, it gives us ways to associate with a geometric figure an
algebraic expression. We may be able, then, to manipilate the algebraic expression in order to
learn more about the geometric figure.

Likewise, given an algebraic expression, we may associate a geometric firugre with is

so that examination of the figure reveals properties of the algebraic expression that were not
previously apparent.

We turn our attention in this section to the problem of associating a geometric figure
with an algebraic or analytic expression (or equation).

DEFINITION 1.8 ● The graph of a relation or function consists of all points in

thecoordinate plane whose coordinates satisfy the relation or function. If the relation or
function is defined by an equation, the graph of the equation is the same as the graph of the
relation or function.

The graph of the relation R from Example 1 of this section is Fig. 1.6 in section 1.1. It
is a discrete graph, consisting of only seven points. The graphs of the functions in Examples 2
through 4 are left as exercises. The graph of y = √ 9−x2 of example 5 will be an exercise in
Section 2 of Chapter 5.

EXAMPLE 6 ● Draw the graph of the function defined by the equation

2x+3y = 6
38 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

SOLUTION. To draw the graph we assign values to x and find the corresponding values of y.
The resulting ordered pairs shown in the following table. We plot

x −3 −1.5 0 3 4.5 6
y 4 3 2 0 −1 −2

Each of the pairs the abscissa and ordinate of a point. The points thus obtained appear to lei
on a straight line (Fig. 1.31). The variables x and y are of the first degree in the given
equation and therefore the equation is said to be linear. In the next chapter we shall prove
that the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line.

EXAMPLE 7 ● Construct the graph of the equation

y=x 2−3 x −3

SOLUTION. Any pair of numbers for x and y that satisfy the equation is called a solution of
the equation. If a value is assigned to x, the corresponding value of y may be computed.
Thus setting x = -2, we find y = 7. Several values of x and the corresponding values of y are
shown in the table. These pairs of values, each constituting a solution, furnish a picture of the
relation of x and y. A better representation is had, however, by plotting each value of x and
the corresponding value of y as the abscissa and ordinate of a point and then drawing a
smooth curve through the points thus obtained. This process is called graphing the
equation, and the curve is called the graph of the equation.
 1.5 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 39

x −2 −1 0 1 1.5 2 3 4 5
y 7 1 −3 −5 −5.25 −5 −3 1 7

T h e p l o t t e d p o i n
and large values of x could be plotted, and also any number of intermediate points could be
located. But the plotted points show approximately where the intermediate points would be.
Hence we can use a few points to draw a curve that is reasonably accurate. The curve shown
here is called a parabola. We can, of course, draw only a part of the graph, since the
complete graph extends indefinitely far into the first and second quadrants.

EXAMPLE 8 ● Construct the graph of the relation defined by the equation

4 x2 +9 y 2=36.

SOLUTION. We solve the equation for y to obtain a suitable from for making a table of
values. Thus, we get

2
y=± √ 9−x2
3

We now see that x can take values only from -3 to 3; other values for x would yield
imaginary values for y. The number pairs in the following table yields points of the graph.
The curve drawn through the points (Fig. 1.33) is called an ellipse.
40 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 0 ±1. ±1.9 ±2 ±1.9 ±1.5 0
5

Observe the graph in Fig. 1.6. 1.31 trough 1.33. we see that it is relatively easy to tell
from a graph whether a relation is a function by the test: if any vertical line crosses or
touches the graph of a relation in mero than one point, then the relation is not a function. For
then we would have two points (x,y) and (x,z) on the graph, with y ≠ z. The relations that are
graphed in Figs. 1.6 and 1.33 are not functinos, while the relations graphed in Figs. 1.31 and
1.32 are readly seen to be fuctions.

DEFINITION 1.9 ● The abscissa of a point where a curve touches or crosses the x axis is
called an x intercept, and the ordinate of a point where a curve touches or corsses the y axis
is called a y intercept.

To find the x intercepts, if any, of the graph of an equation, we set y = 0 and solve the
resulting equation for x. Similarly, we set x = 0 and solve for y to find the y intercepts. Thus,
the x intercepts of the equation

y + x 2−2 x −3=0

Are −1 and 3, and the y intercept is 3. The intercepts will be indrawing the graphs of the
equations in the following exercises.
 1.5 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 41

Exercise

1. Does the relation { ( 1,5 ) , ( 2,5 ) ,(3,5) } from a function? Why?

2. Does the relation { ( 1,2 ) , ( 2,3 ) , (1,1) } from a function?why??

Plot a few points and draw the graph of each equation inexercises 3 through 16. Use a hand
calculator or table 1 of the Appendix to find square roots. Decide which represent functions.

3. y=2 x 4. y=−3 x
x if 0 ≤ x <1
5. y=f ( x ) =
{ x 2 if 1≤ x< 3
2 x +3 if 3 ≤ x
6. 3 x−5 y=15 7. y=|x|
8. y=x 2 9. y=x 2−4 x+2
1 if 0≤ x ≤ 1
2

{
10. x= y 11. y= 2 if 1< x ≤2
3 if 2< x<3
12. y=| x−1|13. y =1/x
14. x 2+ y 2=115. y=− √ x
16. 2.158x – 3.804y = 7.116

17. Is the relation defined by the following equation a function? That is, is the set of all
pairs (x,y) a function if x and y are related by the equation?
x if x ≥ 0
a) x= y 2 b) y=x 2 c) y= {
0 if x <0
d) y=± √ x e) x=±|x|
18. If f is a function with all real numbers in its domain, and if f(x) = x2 + 1, what is f (−1), f
(1+h), f (1−h), f (Q).? Is there an x for which f(x)=0?
19. Recent research in sociology discribe the relationship between the age x one first
marries and the years y of education the person complete, by a model of the form.

y= ax +b , if 14 ≤ x ≤ 22
{ c , if 22< x ,

Where the parameters a,b and c are constants to be found empiricially. Graph the
particular model (equation)

y= 1+ x /2 , if 14 ≤ x ≤ 22
{12 , if x >22.
42 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1.6
THE EQUATION OF A GRAPH
Having obtained graphs of equations, we naturally surmise that a graph my have a
corresponding equation. We shall consider the problem of writing the equation of a graph all
of whose pants are definitely fixed by given geometric conditions. This problem is the
inverse of drawing the graph of an equation.
DEFINITION 1 . 10 ● an equation in x and y that is satisfied by the coordinates of all points
of a graph and only those points is said to be an equation of the graph.*.
The procedure for finding the equation of a graph is straightforward. Each point
P(x,y) of the graph must the satisfy the specified conditions. The desired equation can be
written by requiring P to obey the conditions. The following examples illustrate the method.
EXAMPLE 1 ● A line passes through the point (−3,1) with slope 3/2. Find the equation of
the line.
SOLUTION. We first draw the line through (−3,1) with the given slope. Then we apply the
formula for the slope of a line through two points (Section 1.2). Thus the slope m through
P(x,y) and (−3,1) is
y−1 y−1
m= = .
x−(−3 ) x+3

We equate this expression to the given slope. Hence

y−1 3
= .
x +3 2
Or, simplifying,
3 x−2 y+ 11=0.

The graph if this equation is the line in Fig. 1.34.●

EXAMPLE 2 ● Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (5,-2) with slope
-4/3.
SOLUTION. We now have
y−1(−2) y +2
m= = .
x−5 x−5
*A graph may be represented by more than one equation. For instance, the graph of
( x 1 +1 ) ( x + y )=0 and x+y = 0 is the same straight line. Somtimes, however, we shall speak of
“the”equation when really we mean the simplest obtainable equation.

1.6 THE EQUATION OF A GRAPH 43

Hence

y +2 4
x−5
=- 3
.

Simplifying this equation, we obtain the desired equation

4x + 3y – 14 = 0.

The graph of this equation is in Fig. 1.35.

44 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

EXAMPLE 3. Find the equation of the set of all points equally distant from the y axis and
(4,0).

Solution. We take a point P(x,y) of the graph (Fig. 1.36). then, referring to the distance
formula (section 1.1), we find the distance of P from the y axis to be the abscissa x, and the
distance from the point (4,0) to be

√ ¿ ¿.

Equating the two distances, we obtain

√ ¿ ¿ = x.

By squaring both sides and simplifying, we get

Y2 - 8x + 16 = 0.

Example 4. Find the equation of the set of all points that are twice as far from (4,4) as from
(1,1).

Solution. We apply the distance formula to find the distance of a point P(x,y) from each of
the given points. Thus we obtain the expressions

√¿ ¿ and √ ¿ ¿.
 1.6 THE EQUATION OF A GRAPH 45

Since the second distance is twice the first, we have the equation

2√ ¿ ¿ = √ ¿ ¿.

Simplifying, we get

4(x2 – 2x + 1 + y2 – 2y + 1) = x2 – 8x + 16 + y2 – 8y + 16

Or

x2 + y2 = 8.

The graph of the equation appears in Fig. 1.37.

Example 5. Find the equation of the set of all points P(x,y) such that the sum of the distances
of P from (-5,0) and (5,0) is equal to 14.

Solution. Referring to Fig. 1.38, we get the equation

√ ¿ ¿ + √ ¿ ¿ = 14.

By transposing the second radical, squaring, and simplifying, we obtain the equation

7√ ¿ ¿ = 49 – 5x.

Squaring again and simplifying, we have the equation

24x2 + 49y2 = 1176.

46 CHAPTER 1 / FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

As shown in the figure, the x intercepts of the graph of this equation are (-7,0) and (7,0), and
the y intercepts are (0, -√ 24) and (0,√ 24).

Exercises

In each of exercises 1 through 10, draw the line that satisfies the given conditions. Then find
the equation of the line.

1. The line passing through (4,2) with slope 1.

2. The line passing through the origin with slope -2.
1
3. The line passing through (-1,2) with slope .
2
3
4. The line passing through (5,7) with slope - .
2
5. The line passing through (-1.8059, 2.1643) with slope -3.1786.
6. The horizontal line passing through (-2,4).
7. The vertical line passing through (3,-1).
8. The line 2 units above the x axis.
9. The line passing through (2,-3) with slope 0.
10. The line 4 units to the left of the y axis.
 1.6 THE EQUATION OF A GRAPH 45

In each of exercises 11 through 26, find the equation of the set of all points P(x,y) that satisfy
the given conditions. From the equation sketch the graph, if the instructor so requests.

11. P(x,y) is equidistant from (-2,4) and (1,-5).

12. P(x,y) is equidistant from (-3,0) and (3,-50.
13. P(x,y) is equidistant from the y axis and (4,0).
14. P(x,y) is equidistant from (4,0) and the line x = -4.
15. P(x,y) is twice as far from (4, -4) as from (1, -1).
16. P(x,y) is twice as far from (-8,8) as from (-2,2).
17. P(x,y) forms with (0,3) and (0,-3) the vertices of a right triangle with P the vertex of
the right angle.
18. P(x,y) forms with (4,0) and (-4,0) the vertices of a right triangle with P the vertex of
the right angle.
19. The sum of the distances of P(x,y) from (-4,0) and (4,0) is equal to 12.
20. The sum of the distances of P(x,y) from (0,-3) and (0,3) is equal to 10.
21. The difference of the distances of P(x,y) from (-3,0) and (3,0) is 2.
22. The difference of the distances of P(x,y) from (0,-3) and (0,3) is 1.
23. The distance of P(x,y) from (3,4) is 5.
24. The sum of the squares of the distances of P(x,y) from (0,3) and (0,-3) is 50.
25. The product of the distances of P(x,y) from the coordinate axes is 5.
26. The product of the distances of P(x,y) from (0,4) and the x axis is 4.

REVIEW EXERCISES

1. Define the following terms: directed line, ordered pair, inclination of a line, slope of a
line, relation, function, graph of a function, real number line.
2. The points A(1,2), B(4,3), and C(6,0) are vertices of a triangle. Find the lengths of the
sides of the triangle,
3. Show that the points A(-10,2), B(4,-2), C(16,2), and D(2,6) are the vertices of the
parallelogram ABCD.
4. Find the tangents of the angles of the triangle whose vertices are A(-2,1), B(1,3), C(6,-7).
Find also each angle to the nearest degree.
5. The points A(-4,1) and B(2,7) determine a line segment. Find (a) the coordinates of the
1
midpoint of the segment, and (b) the coordinates of the point of the way from A to B.
3
48 CHAPTER 1/ FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

6. A lines passes through A(2,-2) and B(-4,3). Find the coordinates of the point on the line
twice as far from A as from B (two cases).
7. Find the equation of the set of all points P(x,y) that are equidistant from A(-4,3) and
B(2,-2). Draw the graph of the equation.
8. Construct the graph of the equation y = x2 – 4.
9. Find the equation of the set of all points P(x,y) if the sum of the distances of P from
(-4,0) and (4,0) is equal to 12. Draw the graph of the equation.