GCE 204

Psychology of Learning
ii
Ibadan Distance Learning Centre Series

GCE 204
Psychology of Learning

By
Norbert N. Okoye
Reader in Psychology
Department of Guidance & Counselling,
University of Ibadan

Published by
Distance Learning Centre
University of Ibadan

iii
© Distance Learning Centre
University of Ibadan
Ibadan

All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner.

First published 1989

Reviewed 2007

ISBN 978-2828-60-2

General Editor: Prof. Francis Egbokhare

Series Editor: O.I. Adeyemo and O.O. Akisanya

Printed by Kasapco Publishing & Printing Limited, Ibadan

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Table of Contents
Pages

The Vice-Chancellor’s Message … … … … … vi

Foreword … … … … … … … vii
General Introduction … … … … … … viii
Lecture One: The meaning of Learning I … … … 1
Lecture Two: Factors Affecting Human Learning I … 9
Lecture Three: Factors Affecting Human Learning II … 21
Lecture Four: The Process of Human Learning … … 30
Lecture Five: Theories of Remembering and Forgetting … 39
Lecture Six: Theories of Learning: S — R Theory I … 48
Lecture Seven: Theories of Learning: S — R Theory II… 58
Lecture Eight: Theories of Learning: S — R Theory III
Skinnerian Conditioning … … 66
Lecture Nine: Theories of Learning: Cognitive… … 75
Lecture Ten: Motivation and Learning … … … 86
Lecture Eleven: Effective learning Strategies… … … 94
Lecture Twelve: How to Study Effectively… … … 103
Lecture Thirteen: Techniques of Effective Study … … 115
Lecture Fourteen: Study Habits Problems: Solution … … 121
Lecture Fifteen: Psychology of Learning: Application … 131

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Vice-Chancellor’s Message
I congratulate you on being part of the historic evolution of our Centre for
External Studies into a Distance Learning Centre. The reinvigorated Centre,
is building on a solid tradition of nearly twenty years of service to the
Nigerian community in providing higher education to those who had hitherto
been unable to benefit from it.
Distance Learning requires an environment in which learners themselves
actively participate in constructing their own knowledge. They need to be
able to access and interpret existing knowledge and in the process, become
autonomous learners.
Consequently, our major goal is to provide full multi media mode of
teaching/learning in which you will use not only print but also video, audio
and electronic learning materials.
To this end, we have run two intensive workshops to produce a fresh
batch of course materials in order to increase substantially the number of texts
available to you. The authors made great efforts to include the latest
information, knowledge and skills in the different disciplines and ensure that
the materials are user-friendly. It is our hope that you will put them to the best
use.

Professor Olufemi A. Bamiro, FNSE

Vice-Chancellor

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Foreword
The University of Ibadan Distance Learning Programme has a vision of
providing lifelong education for Nigerian citizens who for a variety of reasons
have opted for the Distance Learning mode. In this way, it aims at
democratizing education by ensuring access and equity.
The U.I. experience in Distance Learning dates back to 1988 when the
Centre for External Studies was established to cater mainly for upgrading the
knowledge and skills of NCE teachers to a Bachelors degree in Education.
Since then, it has gathered considerable experience in preparing and
producing course materials for its programmes. The recent expansion of the
programme to cover Agriculture and the need to review the existing materials
have necessitated an accelerated process of course materials production. To
this end, one major workshop was held in December 2006 which have
resulted in a substantial increase in the number of course materials. The
writing of the courses by a team of experts and rigorous peer review have
ensured the maintenance of the University’s high standards. The approach is
not only to emphasize cognitive knowledge but also skills and humane values
which are at the core of education, even in an ICT age.
The materials have had the input of experienced editors and illustrators
who have ensured that they are accurate, current and learner friendly. They
are specially written with distance learners in mind, since such people can
often feel isolated from the community of learners. Adequate supplementary
reading materials as well as other information sources are suggested in the
course materials.
The Distance Learning Centre also envisages that regular students of
tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high quality
textbooks will find these books very useful. We are therefore delighted to
present these new titles to both our Distance Learning students and the
University’s regular students. We are confident that the books will be an
invaluable resource to them.
We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for
the high quality of work.
Best wishes.

Professor Francis O. Egbokhare

Director

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General Introduction
Learning is an activity that cuts across the human and animal kingdom. However,
human learning is higher than that of animals partly because human beings have
higher intelligence than ordinary animals and also because human beings are
better exposed to wider areas of experience both in quantity and quality. It is this
superiority of human learning over animal learning that accounts for the quality
of civilization developed by mankind.
This course is designed to make the distant learner understand what we
really mean by the concept of learning and the factors affecting learning. In
examining the factors affecting learning, attempts will be made to make a critical
look at various theories of learning and what messages these theories have for
mankind in general and educational practice in particular. Finally, psychological
techniques of facilitating and improving human learning will be discussed in
details e.g. motivational, reinforcement techniques and others.
The course is broken into units and sub-unit arrangements will take proper
care of key concepts in the process of learning.

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LECTURE ONE

The Meaning of Learning

Introduction
Learning is a concept which cuts across two disciplines - Psychology and
Education (Okoye 1987). As a Psychological concept, learning is regarded as
having something to do with a change in human behaviour which must be
permanent and which must have come about as a result of the individual having
been exposed to experience - a new method of learning which is not restricted to
only human species but which also refers to animals. On the other hand, the
educationist has a different view of learning as a concept. He sees learning as a
knowledge acquisition tool needed for grappling with the process of education
that goes on in the school. For the psychologist, learning is not something which
can be pinned down to only the class-room situation, but it is a phenomenon that
can take place anywhere there is experience which leads to permanent change in
the behaviour of an organism.
For the educationist, although he knows that animals learn, he is not
bothered about animal learning since he is dealing directly with human creatures
and not animals. Since learning traditionally belongs to psychology as a concept,
our definition of learning will assume the psychological stand rather than the
educational stand since the psychological view of learning is broader than
educational view (Okoye, 1987). Besides, the psychological view of learning fits
more readily into various areas of human endeavour’s e.g. in the school, in the
industries and in other places. Assuming this psychological view point does
much justice to learning knowing what it is, what it stands for and what is its
end-result, whether we are thinking of learning either in an educational setting or
in an industrial setting. More so, since the psychological view of learning
encompasses the educational, we shall lose nothing by assuming the
psychological definitions of learning even when we are dealing with the
educational situation.

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Objective
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
i. explain the meaning of Learning;
ii. make an analysis of the definition of the concept of learning; and
iii. explain what is meant by change in behaviour and experience.

Pre-Test
1. Learning is:
a. what takes place only in school
b. what brings about any change in behaviour'
c. what brings about a relatively permanent change in behavior arising
from experience.
d. what brings about change in behaviour with or without previous ex-
perience.

2. Learning is an activity which is displayed by:

a. only human beings
b. only animals
c. only trained animals
d. both human beings and animals

3. Learning cannot take place

a. in the absence of a teacher
b. in the absence of experience
c. in the absence of a book
d. in the absence of instruction

4. Which of the following behaviour constitutes learning?

a. a burnt child dreads fire
b. a newly hatched chick starts walking
c. a young cock crowing for the first time
d. a new born baby sucks the mother's breast, milk immediately after
being born.

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 5. A child injected in a hospital by, a nurse in a white dress begins to fear
white cloth. Thus is a case of
a. onset of childhood insanity
b. onset of perceptual disease in early childhood
c. onset of stimulus - response generalization in children
d. on-set of brain damage.

CONTENT
Analysis of the Concept of Learning
To understand what learning is and what it is not, we have to analyze the key
words in the definition of the concept of learning. These key words are
permanent change in behaviour; and experience

Change in Behaviour
This implies that for learning to have been assumed to have taken place, there
must be evidence of change in an organism’s behaviour in terms of the difference
in the organism’s manifest behaviour before and after the organism must have
been exposed to some experience. If the pre-experience exposure behaviour is
exactly the same as the post -experience exposure behaviour then we can
justifiably say that the organism has not learnt. If on the other hand, the pre-
experience exposure behaviour is different either in quantity or in quality (or
both) from the organism’s post-experience exposure behaviour, then we can
justifiably regard this as learning. This is a change in behaviour which would
constitute learning if such a change in behaviour is permanent.

Experience
We can regard experience as a product of an organism’s interaction with a given
stimulus impinging on that organism. Here the term interaction implies that while
the organism is reacting to the given stimulus, this same stimulus is also
simultaneously reacting to the organism. Before this reciprocal reaction
(interaction) takes place, this organism must be exposed to the said stimulus in
such a way that this stimulus impinge on the organism. Broadly speaking it can
be said that experience emanates from the quality and quantity of the organism’s
interaction with the environment and associated with the organism’s exposure to
the components of the environment within which the organism finds itself.
This exposure could be either direct or indirect. When direct, psychologists
refer to the experience as being direct or first-hand experience. If it is indirect, it
is referred to as indirect or vicarious experience (second-hand or third-hand
experience). It is this experiential exposure that brings about the desired

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permanent change in behaviour that constitutes learning. Obviously, direct or
first hand experience leads to better learning than indirect or vicarious
experience.

What Learning Is Not?

Perhaps to understand better what learning is, it may be helpful to examine what
learning is not. We shall identify what learning is not by using the key words in
the definition of learning as reference terms. Our definition of learning
emphasizes the importance of change in behaviour that is associated with
experience. In other words learning implies change in behaviour. Thus if a
learner’s behaviour before experience (let us call this the learner’s pre-experience
behaviour) does not indicate any significant difference in the learner’s behaviour
after the said experience (let us call this the learner’s post-experience behaviour)
then no learning has taken place. Put in a clear way, if a group of students enter a
class with certain pre-entry behaviour stand and after a systematic exposure to a
teacher’s pedagogic (teaching) experience, come out of the teacher’s class still
assuming the same pre-entry behaviour stand, then it can be said that such
students have not learned because their pre-entry behaviours are exactly the same
with their post-entry behaviour. They have added nothing and they have dropped
nothing and we can justifiably say that they have learned nothing. For learning to
have been assumed taken place, there must be a significant change in the
behaviour of the individual learner, traceable to the individual’s exposure to a
particular experimental phenomenon. Again, mere change in the behaviour of the
individual may not always indicate that learning has actually taken place. It all
depends! For example, if there is an observed change in the behaviour of an
individual but this change cannot be traceable to the individuals exposure to a
particular previous experience then such a behavioral change cannot be strictly
regarded as constituting learning. An example of such a change in behaviour that
is not permanent that readily come to mind is a situation when an individual
experiences a change in behaviour as a result of having drunk some alcohol or
drug. Daily observations have shown that when an individual has taken some
appreciable quantity of alcohol, he or she readily displays a marked and
significant change in his or her behaviour. But this behavioral change is by no
means permanent. It is only temporal —lasting for about three hours before the
effects of the alcohol subside. As long as this change in behaviour is temporal
(no matter how impressive) such a change in behaviour should not be regarded as
learning even though it has arisen from experience — alcohol experience, it must
however be clearly indicated that the initial walking behaviour of a newly
hatched chick does not constitute- learning in the strict psychological sense of the
term. (For examples although both boys and girls walk and both rich and poor
people walk but girls have a feminine style of walking different from the style of

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boys, and rich people have a stylistic way of walking to display some air of
superiority, akin to people who usually walk in less advertising style.
As the cock makes subsequent crows after the initial un-learnt crowing, it
listens to other cocks crowing and then begins to improve on the initial rather
crude crowing. This relatively improved style of crowing as compared with the
initial crowing can be regarded as having been learnt.

A Classic Example of Learning

We have examined so far what learning is not. We will examine what one can
regard as a classic example of what learning is. Again, our identification of what
learning is per se will be determined vis—a-vis the key words associated with the
definition of learning- permanent change in behaviour and experience.
Okoye (1981, 1983) has cited a classic example of what really constitutes
learning when he described the adventures of a crawling child who saw fire for
the first time in his/her life, and was attracted to the fire because of its attractive
colour, warmth and fantastic glowing appearance. The child moved towards the
“charming” fire. This behaviour has been regarded by psychologists as “adient
behaviour’ -an approach behaviour towards fire which can be regarded as the
child’s initial behaviour on seeing fire - the child’s pre-entry behaviour to fire.
On reaching the fire according to Okoye (1981 and 1983), this child innocently
stretched his hand to touch the apparently attractive fire and of course was burnt
and quickly withdraw his hand and started running away from this fire. This
running-away behaviour is what psychologists call post entry behaviour, referred
to as abient behaviour (avoidant behaviour). This child displayed two conflicting
behaviours — adient behaviour at tie pre-entry stage and abien behaviour at the
post-entry stage. Obviously, this is child’s pre-entry behaviour (adience) and his
post-entry behaviour. Tomorrow and in other days and in fact throughout life
when this burnt child sees fire, he will run away from it, hence the change in the
child’s behaviour from adient to abient behaviour.
Finally, this permanent change in the behaviour of the crawling child
towards fire arose from the child’s exposure to fire-burning experience. The three
conditions needed for learning to be confirmed as having taken place have been
observed - there was a change in behaviour of the child signified by the child’s
change of behaviour from initial adient behaviour to subsequent wisdom — after
event behaviour that is abient. This change in behaviour is also permanent since
this child developed negative abient behaviour towards fire — a behaviour that
he would continue to display all through his life. In fact this abient behaviour
would be manifested in the presence of other objects which share certain qualities
and properties like fire in obedience to the principle of stimulus-response
generalization. Thus, if the English proverb “a burnt child dreads fire” can be
used to refer to a learning phenomenon, the Igbo proverb that says “once stung

5
by a bee, the stung child dreads a blue-bottle fly?’ Blue bottle fly of course is
harmless but because it shares many qualities and properties with a bee and of
course the child stung by a bee naturally generalizes his fear of the bee to the
harmless blue-bottle fly, this child now fears the blue bottle fly.

Summary
Learning as a concept belongs initially to Psychology, although it is of great
concern to Psychology and Education as independent disciplines. Learning as a
Psychological concept is broader than learning as a concept in Education.
Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour arising
from experience. This is a psychological definition of learning as distinct from
learning as an educative process.
Basing on the key words used in the definition of learning, what learning
isn’t has been discussed vis-à-vis a change in behaviour that must be permanent
and must have arisen from some previous exposure to related experience.
Following the same pattern, the course unit discusses a classic example of what
learning is citing a case of crawling child exposed to fire burning experience and
who eventually learnt to dread not only fire but anything having the resemblance
or appearance of fire - A burnt child dreads fire and a child stung by a bee fears a
blue-bottle fly.

Assignment
1. Write down your attitude about a particular person before you come in
close contact with him or her. Now write down your attitude about the
same person again after you have become familiar with him or her. What
do you observe? Is your attitude about the person still the same or not?
2. Make a close study of a new born baby and take note of behaviours
which this baby displays which you think are: a. learning and b. not
learning.
3. Indicate three experiences which you think influenced your behaviours
tremendously in life and how.

Post-Test
1. Learning is:
a. what takes place only in school
b. what brings about any change in behaviour
c. what brings about a relatively permanent change in behavior arising
from experience

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 d. what brings about change in behaviour with or without previous
experience.
2. Learning is a phenomenon which is displayed by:
a. only human beings
b. only animals
c. only trained animals
d. both human beings and animals
3. Learning cannot take place:
a. in the absence of a teacher
b. in the absence of experience
c. in the absence of a book
d. in the absence of instruction
4. Which of the following behaviours constitute learning?
a. a burnt child dread fare
b. a newly hatched chick starts walking
c. a young cock crows for the first time
d. a new born baby sucks the mother’s breast milk at birth.
5. A child injected in hospital by a nurse in a white dress begins to fear
white cloth. This is a case of:
a. onset of childhood insanity
b. onset of perceptual disease in early childhood
c. onset of stimulus — response generalization in children.
d. onset of brain damage.

References
Borger, R and Seaborne, A.E.M., (1977) The Psychology of Learning.
New York: Penguin Books.
Burton, W. H. (1962) The Guidance of I earning Activities. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts Inc.
Hill, W.F., (1978) Learning: A Survey of Psychological Interpretations.
London: Methuen.
Hintzman, D.L., (1978) The Psychology of Learning and Memory. San
Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Hulse, S.H. et al, (1980) The Psycholoy of Learning. London: Kogakusha
Limited.

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 Okoye, N.N., (1981) The Psychology’ of Effective Learning. Ibadan:
Department of Guidance and Counseling (Monograph)
Okoye, N.N., (1987) Psychological Facilitation of Human Learning
(University of Ibadan 3rd Faculty Lecture). Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press
Ltd.
Okoye, N.N., (1983) Psychological Theories of Learning. Owerri:
Lindston Press Limited.,

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LECTURE TWO

Factors Affecting Human Learning 1

Introduction
Man and animals possess the necessary ability for learning. In other words, they
are potential learners. However, certain factors within and outside the learner
determine how effectively each individual learns. These factors are referred to as
‘organismic’ factors if they lie within the organism; and if they lie outside the
organism, they are referred to as external factors. These two are the main sources
or factors influencing the quality and quantity of learning which an individual
learner can experience.
When organismic factors interact with external factors in a given organism,
such interaction leads to the development of an individual’s phenotype. This
phenotypic effect accounts for the quality and quantity of civilization which a
particular individual can generate. We shall now discuss these two sources of
factors affecting learning in human beings.

Objectives
This lecture treats various facts that affect human learning with particular
reference to organismic factors.
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. identify various organism factors that affect human learning;
2. explain the role of intelligence in human learning;
3. analyze the role of personality factors in human learning;
4. explain the various conduction units under which the learner operates;
and
discuss the role of locus of control and emotion in human learning.

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Pre-Test
1. Which of the following factors affecting human learning are organismic?
a. the learner’s books
b. the learner’s emotions
c. the learner’s parents
d. the learner’s race.
2. Self-concept refers to the way
a. we perceive other people’s abilities, capabilities and potentialities.
b. we perceive children’s abilities, capabilities and potentialities
c. we perceive our own abilities, capabilities and potentialities
d. we perceive our teacher’s abilities, capabilities and potentialities.
3. “Your name may affect your learning’ was an idea put forward by
a. Ausubel
b. Binet
c. Jahoda
d. Thorndike
4. Teachable moment in the process of Leaning refers to
a. assimilation moment
b. maturational moment
c. motivational moment
d. reinforcement moment.
5. Einstellung effect refers to
a. effect of alcohol on human learning
b. effect of attitude on human learning
c. effect of intelligence on human learning
d. effect of sickness on human learning.

CONTENT
Organismic Factors Affecting Learning
When we talk of organismic factors affecting learning we are referring to those
factors which lie inside the learner (organism) which affect the organism’s
learning. Chief among these factors are intelligence, personality, and individual’s
attitudes, and others. These factors determine the inherent traits and determinants
of learning that arc deeply rooted in the individual organism. As such, these
factors naturally differ from one individual to the other hence different

10
individuals react differently to learning exposure. Thus, people with high level of
intelligence measured out in terms of 10 will (all things being equal) perform
better in learning tasks than an individual with a lower level of intelligence.
Similarly, certain personality traits affect learning differently either positively or
negatively. So also is age an important factor affecting human learning. This is
because the condition of the age of the learner determines how well or not such
individual will learn. In spite of some heated arguments as regards the effect of
sex on human learning, it has been proved by research studies that while male
and female learners do not differ in their intellectual makeup because of
differences in sex per se, it has been found that there are areas and aspects of
learning and types of learning tasks which a particular learner performs better
because of certain neurological or physiological make-ups which arc part of
being either male or female.

Intelligence and Human Learning

By far the most important tool for learning is the intelligence. It is one of the
organismic factors affecting learning. Our intelligence is what we inherit from
our parents at the time of our conception. At the time of our conception, our
parents donate to us 23 chromosomes each (making a total of 46 chromosomes)
which are fundamental to our initial existence as human beings.
Perhaps it may be very useful to understand what we really mean by
intelligence. It must be admitted that it is not easy to find a consensus on the
definition of intelligence. While Binet sees intelligence as a measure of
performance on many kinds of tests, Terman sees it as ability we carry on
abstract thinking. Even such a shallow definition of intelligence as “what
intelligence tests measure” was put forward by Boring. Wechsler defined
intelligence as, “the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.”
Although this definition has been criticized in some quarters as being too global
and less specific, it has given us at least a working guide when examining the
rather enigmatic concept of intelligence. As Okoye (1981) has put it “Intelligence
has intelligently defined definition.
Perhaps, it may be more rewarding for us to concentrate on how intelligence
affects human learning. But before we do this, we have to understand how an
individual’s intelligence level can be determined. This is important because
people concerned with the sensitive work associated with human training and
human engineering need to have same idea about how intelligent, the people they
are dealing with, are. This will help them to know how to handle each individual
without either overstretching or under-utilizing the individual’s intellectual
capacities, abilities and potentials.

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 Measurement of Human Intelligence
Alfred Binet has given a formula for measuring an individual’s level of
intelligence using Intelligence Tests devised by him. The formula runs thus:
IQ = MA x l00
CA 1

Where I.Q = Intelligence Quotient

M.A. = Mental Age
C.A. = Chronological Age

Thus, the 1Q of a child who is 10 years old (chronologically) who can

successfully perform an Intelligence Test meant for people of the mental age of
15, would be calculated thus:

15 x 100 = 150
10 1

This means that this child has an IQ level of 150, which according to Sperling
(1979) qualifies him to be regarded as gifted child.
If on the other hand another child of the same 10 chronological years of age
can only perform no more than the Intelligence Test meant for 6 year old. This
would be calculated as
6 x lOO = 60
10 1
This means that the child qualifies to be classified as a moron according to
Sperling (1979). Research studies have found that the more intelligent a person is
the more likely he is or she is to learn better than the less intelligent person (other
things being equal). In other words, the quality of human learning is determined
by the level of intelligence of the learner.

Personality and Human Learning

Although we are all members of the thinking and reasoning beings popularly
referred to as homo- sapiens, we differ as individuals. This difference from one
person to the other has been regarded as arising from individual personality
make-up. According to Heim (1974), while discussing the concept of personality
of an individual refers to it as the “(non-arithmetic) total of all characteristics
which gives him his individuality and distinguishes him as a person identifiably
different from all other persons, just as everyone’s handwriting differs from
12
everyone else’s so does his personality. She goes on to describe personality as
‘the combination of all the traits, sentiments, aptitudes; prejudices; emotions;
attitudes; moods; self- perceptions; abilities; interests, skills, recollections;
desires, ambitions and manners which make up the individual”. In other words
your personality is the sum of all your characteristics and attitudes that make you
the person you are and not just another person.
Heim’s (1974) definition of personality will serve a useful purpose in our
discussion of personality and human learning but the definition has succeeded in
bringing so many traits and factors that are sub-summed in personality. As she
pointed out, the list of the components of personality mentioned in her definition
of personality is by no means complete and that it could be added to indefinitely
As such in our discussion of how personality affects human learning, we have to
select only very important key components of the various traits and factors of
personality.

Self - Concept and Human Learning

Self-concept is an aspect of human personality which is concerned with the way
an individual perceives his or her self; it is a sort of self perception which can be
either high (positive) or low (negative). Our self concept level is said to be high
or positive if we perceive our selves, our capabilities, abilities and potentialities
very favourably. This means that we have a very favourable opinion about
ourselves. It is a case of low self concept, if we perceive ourselves negatively as
inferior and unable to perform in terms of our capabilities, abilities and
potentialities. Research studies have found that people with high or positive self-
concept perform better in learning tasks than people with low or negative self-
concept. This is because your self-concept provides the background out of which
an individual sizes him or herself up in terms of what he or she can do or cannot
do. This self appraisal stands either to encourage or discourage an individual
facing a task to be performed or facing a problem to be solved. Names given to
individuals affect their performance by way of determining the level of their self-
concept. Okoye (1981) made reference to the studies of Jahoda, using Ghana
children to determine the influence of names given to children on their formation
of self-concept. Jahoda’s findings are congruent with those of Kendler which
asserted that a child who is always made to believe that he is incompetent or
never- do-well will accept this picture of himself and operate incompetently.
Okoye (1981) carried this assertion to African names which convey deep seated
psychological and inspirational meanings to the persons bearing such names. He
commented on Shakespearean saying ‘that, rose called by another name still
smells sweet” arguing that in African setting, a person who has been given a
particular name and has the name changed might after all not “smell as sweet”, or

13
have the same inspirational connotative meaning and may not evoke the same
psychological and philosophical fillip as the original name (Okoye 1981).

The Will Power and Human Learning

Part of an individual personality make-up is his or her will power. The will
power provides the much needed determination to continue with whatever we
have decided to do in spite of all odds, till we achieve the desired success.
Will power can be either strong or weak. A strong will power refers to will
power that does not shake or waver in the face of difficulties in the pursuit of a
desired target. The motto for such a strong willed person is “Forward ever,
backward never”.
A person with weak will power lacks the tenacity and determination to
continue in spite of all hazards and odds till the desired goal is reached. A person
with weak will power is more likely to break his promises and decisions any
moment unlike the person with strong will power who sticks stubbornly to a
promise or decision taken with a sense of commitment and devotion.
Since the process of learning involves taking decision to pursue a topic of
study to its logical conclusion and in spite of difficulties, failures and mistakes, it
stands to reason, that the strong willed person will perform better in learning
tasks than the weak willed person. This is particularly true of such difficult
courses “like Mathematics, .Statistics and other difficult ones which need
determination, perseverance and painstaking search for success.
It is pertinent to add that an individual who has a high self concept and
strong will power will perform fantastically well in a learning encounter, in
contrast with a person with a low self concept and weak will.

Sensory Perceptual Modalities and Human Learning

Our various sensory modalities arc the instruments by which we perceive the
various stimuli around us. The quality and quantity of our learning would in part
depend on how effective and efficient our various perceptual modalities are.
These five sensory modalities are eyes for visual perception; ears for auditory
perception; nose for olfactory perception; tongue for gustatory perception and the
fingers and body for tactile perception. Through these modalities we become
aware of various stimuli around us through a mental process referred to as
perception. Research studies and observations have shown that combined use of
two or more of these sensory modalities produces better quality of learning than
would be the case where only one modality is used. It is therefore obvious that
faulty sensory modalities will lead to poor sensory perception and eventual poor
learning.

14
Human Learning and Maturation
When we were discussing the role of intelligence in human learning, we saw that
human intelligence is one of the hereditary traits which affect human learning.
Psychologists have found that hereditary traits are unfolded in a given individual
through what is variously referred to as either maturation or functional maturity
or by others as functional readiness (Okoye, 1981). Hurlocks has asserted that
maturation is the raw material for learning and behavioural patterning. It is also
referred to as the “teachable moment when the individual is really ready and
willing to learn”. (Okoye 1981).
Maturation according to Okoye (1981) “determines when to and when not to
start learning Maturation therefore is a personality trait that affects learning.
Pupils, who are not yet maturationally ready to learn and in spite of this state of
unreadiness are forced to learn, will not learn satisfactorily. It is like making an
unwilling horse to drink against its will. Parents who in their emotional bid to get
their children into higher classes will sooner or later find that such children may
not learn well, their parental pushing and rushing notwithstanding.
This reminds us of the findings of Thorndike as regards the categories of
conduction unit. He identified three categories of conduction units as follows:
Conduction Unit One: Under this condition of maturational state, the
organism is ready to learn and the environment is also cooperative. Obviously,
learning will be high in this type of maturational state.

Conduction Unit Two:

Under this unit, the organism is ready to learn but the environment is not willing
to cooperate. Obviously the level of learning to be attained by this particular
organism will be very low.

Conduction Unit Three

Finally, the third possible conduction unit is a state of maturation where the
individual organism is not ready to learn even though the environment is
cooperative. Like in Conduction link Two, the level of learning will also be
relatively low.
These Thorndikean categorizations of maturational conduction unit states
subsumed the need for careful placement of learners in class within their reach
and sending them to school not on emotional grounds but on readiness
qualifications. It also implies that effective learning is a joint partnership affair
where both the learner and teacher must be ready to cooperate in order to benefit
from the learning - teaching exposure.

15
Human Learning and Attitudes:
Okoye (1983) has cited Aliport’s (1935) definition of attitude as “a mental or
neural state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a directive or
dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations
with which it is related, in simple straight-forward explanation, attitudes can be
regarded as the mental pre-disposition arising from a previous experimental
exposure. Attitudes shape the individual towards a particular line of action and
colour our perception of situations to which our attitudes are directed. For
example, our attitudes can colour relatively simple tasks as very difficult tasks
and vice versa. This attitudinal colouration will eventually shape individual
perceiver’s assessment of the difficulty or otherwise of the perceived task. Such a
coloured perception will no doubt affect the way and manner this individual
perceiver will react to the task or any other object (stimulus) being perceived.
Katz (1960) has observed that attitudes satisfy four basic human needs. These
needs he argued are satisfied through four basic functions being performed by
attitudes. These functions are associated with:
i. helping the individual understand the environment meaningfully;
ii. helping the individual achieve some adjustive and utilitarian needs
peculiar to the individual;
iii. helping the individual boost and maintain his or her ego and self concept
at high level and finally ; and
iv. helping the individual to achieve, consciously or unconsciously some
satisfactory level of self-identity leading to what Oskamp (1977) has
referred to as the function of attitude in achieving. “value expression”.
German psychologists have also found that an individual’s attitudes affect
his or her quality of learning. Thus, positive attitudes towards certain courses
being learnt or certain tasks being solved will favourably aid learning of the
courses or the solution of the tasks. Conversely, negative attitudes towards the
courses we study and tasks we perform will lead to our poor and unsatisfactory
performance in such courses and tasks. This attitudinal effect on learning has
been referred to as Einstellung effect.
Daily experiences do show that many Nigerian school children develop very
negative attitude towards mathematics as a school course and subsequently they
have not been performing well in mathematics whether we think of daily
classroom performance or of their performance at examinations.
Pointing out this role of attitude towards pupil’s performance in certain
school courses, Okoye (1985) argued that “pupils are fond of categorizing school
courses into liked and disliked courses, a categorization which in many cases
extends to the teachers “(p88). It is therefore obvious that when pupils regard
both the course and the teacher who teaches it as annovers, not only will the pupil

16
dislike the said course but there is a likelihood of this pupil disliking the idea of
going to school which both the teacher and the course he teaches symbolize.
Such pupils who dislike the course, the teacher associated with the course and the
school system will no doubt turn to be veritable truants. This fact has been
pointed out by Ausubel (1963) and Mitchel and Shepard (1967) as cited by
Okoye (1984) in his study on the implications of knowledge of school location
and incidence of truancy for teachers in service training using no less than 12,990
Nigerian primary school pupils whose ages ranged between 6 and 12 years.

Locus of Control and Human Learning

The way we attribute the source of factors controlling our behaviours, actions
and either achievements or failures affect our quality of learning. Julian Rotter
carried out extensive studies on this personality trait usually referred to as locus
of control. Rotter identified two dimensions of locus of control — External and
Internal loci of control.

External Locus of Control

This refers to a type of locus of control situation in which an individual attributes
his or her behavioural outcomes to external significant forces. These external
forces may be spiritual beings like God, or the devil or the spirit of dead
ancestors or other spirits, or they may refer to luck (good or bad luck) or to
unidentifiable forces. Thus, a person who is external in locus of control usually
blames significant others for his or her failure to achieve and so consciously or
unconsciously claims a sort of psychological alibi as responsible for his or her
failures or non-achievement On the other hand the person who is externally
oriented in locus of control usually maintains that his or her success and
achievements should not be attributed to his or her efforts but to either sheer luck
or to divine intervention.
Obviously to assume extreme positions in both loci stands will make the
individual not recognize his or her strengths and shortcomings. Non recognition
of these will make him or her develop a sort of extreme resignative stand to life
that may eventually negate hard work and individual efforts and struggles in
order to achieve. If this trend is not arrested it may lead an individual into
developing a sort of predestinate attitude to life.

Internal Locus of Control

This refers to the type of locus of control situation where an individual attributes
the sources of his or her behavioural outcomes to himself or herself. In other
words a person who is internally oriented in locus of control accepts full
responsibility for his or her success or failure. Thus if he or she passes or fails an

17
examination, he or she believes that he or she must be responsible for either
passing or failing. In the case of failure or non-performance the internally -
oriented individual as regards locus of control will start a sort of self analysis in
order to detect sources of his or her failure or non-performance. Such a locus of
control stand will help the individual engage in meaningful remediation in order
to pass in future and avoid a repeat non-performance. As Shakespeare has put it,
“The fault with us is not in our stars but in us”. Such wise sayings as “As you
make your bed, so you lie”. You are the architect of your own fortune; “Fortune
favours the brave;” and that “Success is 99% hard work and 1% luck; emphasize
the importance of assuming the internally oriented locus of control stand in all
we do. Obviously people who are more internally-oriented than externally-
oriented in locus of control learn better than people who are more inclined
towards externality of locus of control.

Emotions and Human Learning

Emotions are part of our personality make-up that determine the direction and
intensity of our actions and behaviours. They give colour to our perceived stimuli
and thus prepare the ground for the direction and intensity of our reaction to such
perceived stimuli. Emotions are responsible for the generation of interest,
anxiety, joy, delight, etc. as well as their contrary emotional feelings of dislike,
sadness etc.
At moderate quantities, emotions facilitate learning and other human
activities. But when they are overdosed in an individual, they may lead to
individual disorganization.
For example, a little dosage of anxiety keeps the learners alert and active
while over-anxiety actually becomes a negating factor in human learning and
performance.

Summary
Learning is a phenomenon which human beings exhibit. Certain factors
determine how individuals learn. These factors may be within the learner or
outside the learner. Factors lying within the learner are referred to as
organismic factors while factors lying outside the learner are treated as
external factors. When organismic factors interact with the external factors, the
result will be the production of the individual’s phenotype.
Intelligence is seen as the chief of organismic factors affecting learning. The
sex of the learner per se does not make for any difference in human learning;
however, there are certain neurological differences between male and female
learners that account for the way male and female pupils learn. Thus, girls sing
better than boys; dance better and walk in a more stylistic way than boys.

18
 Again it was seen that cultural inhibitions also can adversely affect the
learning performance of the particular sex being discriminated against. The
role of intelligence in human learning was discussed touching on such topics
as self-concept, will power, sensory perceptual modes, maturation (with
particular reference to Thorndikean concept of conduction units), attitudes,
locus of control and emotions.

Assignment
1. Mention some organismic factors which affect human learning.
2. Teach some children how to perform some simple task. Now after having
taught them this, test them on how to perform the task. Record their
performance. What differences do you observe?
3. Get the pupils in a school to write down their attitudes towards different
courses they do in school. Compare their individual attitudes to these
courses with their individual performances in these courses.

Post-Test
1. Which of the following factors affecting human learning are organismic?
a. the learner’s books
b. the learner’s emotions
c. the learner’s parents
d. the learner’s race.

2. Self-concept refers to the way

a. we perceive other people’s capabilities and potentialities.
b. we perceive children’s abilities, capabilities and potentialities
c. we perceive our own abilities, capabilities and potentialities
d. we perceive our teacher’s abilities, capabilities and potentialities.
3. “Your name may affect your learning” was an idea put forward by
a. Ausubel
b. Binet
c. Jahoda
d. Thorndike

19
 4. Teachable moment in the process of learning refers to
a. assimilation moment
b. maturational moment
c. motivational moment
d. reinforcement moment.
5. Einstellung effect refers to
a. effect of alcohol on human learning
b. effect of attitude on human learning
c. effect of intelligence on human learning
d. effect of sickness on human learning.

References
Allport, G.W., (1935) Attitudes. In C Murchison (Ed); A Handbook of
Social Psychology. Worcester Mass; Clark University Press, 798 – 844.
Ausubel, D. P., (1963) The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning:
An introduction to School Learning. New York and Stratton.
Heim, A. (1974) Intelligence and Personality.
Katz, D. (1981) The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163 - 204.
Okoye, N.N. (1981) Psychology of Effective Learning. Ibadan: Adedara
Publishers Limited.
Okoye, N. N. (1983) Psychological Concept of Attitude: Its Use In
Education. In E.O. Atolagbe (Ed). The Use of Psychology In Modern Nigeria,
Vol.111, 70- 79.
Okoye, N. N. (1984) The implication of Knowledge of School Location
and Incidence of Truancy for Teacher In-Service Training In E,E. Ezewu (Ed).
Teacher In-Service Education in Nigeria (Policy implications Needs, Appraisals
and Strategies) Ibadan: Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (Ibadan Chapter), 62
- 75.
Okoye, N.N., (1985) Nigerian Pupils’ Liked and Disliked Courses At
The Primary School Level. In M.A. Mkpa, et al (Eds) Issues In Curriculum
Evaluation And Vocational Education In Nigeria. Ibadan: Curriculum
Organization of Nigeria Monographs series No.1., 81 – 92.
Oskamp, S. (1977) Attitudes and Opinions. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.

20
LECTURE THREE

Factors Affecting Human Learning II

Introduction
In the preceding lecture, we examined how certain organismic factors affect
human learning. These organismic factors are innate to the organism or learner
and account mainly for the uniqueness of an individual and the subtle differences
that exist between one individual and another.
In this lecture, we are going to discuss other factors that also affect human
learning but which lie outside the organism. These factors are not part and parcel
of the organism’s innate make-up but are various stimuli existing on their own
but which impinge on the organism. The organism having become aware of the
existence of such impinging stimuli, also in turn react towards such stimuli. It is
this double way process of stimuli, impinging on the organism, and the organism
reacting to the stimuli that produces what is regarded as experience which
according to our definition of learning in lecture 1, is the sine qua non for
learning. Environment therefore affects human learning for better or for worse
because it plays this vital role of generating heuristic experience.

Objectives
This lecture is aimed at introducing the student to the concept of External Factors
affecting human learning.
At the end of this lecture the student should be able to:
1. identity various external factors affecting human learning
2. distinguish between genotypic and phenotypic factors affecting human
learning
3. explain the role of societal and cultural factors on human learning
4. explain how the home and its contents affect human learning.

21
Pre-Test
1. An individual’s phenotype refers to
a. his genetic endowments.
b. his physiognomic make-up
c. the interactional effect between the genotype and his environment
d. the interactional effect between his emotion and nutrition.
2. The genotype of an individual refers to
a. the generating force
b. the product of his genetic endowments
c. the phenotype of an individual
d. the age determining factor in an individual
3. Intelligence A refers to
a. first class intelligence
b. intelligence possessed by first born
c. intelligence that has not been stimulated enough
d. intelligence that has been stimulated enough
4. Intelligence B refers to
a. first class intelligence
b. second class intelligence
c. intelligence of second born
d. intelligence that has been stimulated.
5. Various situational make-up which is concerned with the mental well-
being of the individual can be called
a. physical environment
b. psychic environment
c. psychological environment
d. physiotherapeutic environment

CONTENT
Environment and Human Learning
We shall now discuss how environment affects learning; Environment can be
regarded as any of external impingement on an organism. The source may either
be physical or psychological. Sources that impinge on the organism include the
home, and the social and material as well as psychological contents; the society
and all that it contains; the school and its social and material and psychological

22
components. These sources can be broadly broken into physical and
psychological- leading to the eventual categorization of environment into
physical and psychological environment. Both the physical and psychological
environments affect learning either positively or negatively depending on the
type of influence the environment has on a particular organism.

Physical Environment and Human Learning

In the first instance, the home, the school and the society in their structural make-
up constitute physical environment which impinge on an organism in this regard,
they generate physical influences that affect learning either positively or
negatively depending of course on the nature of the generated influences. Besides
the material and physical contents of the home, the school and the society also
exert their various physical influences on the organism within their reach.

The Home and Human Learning

Homes which contain separate well furnished apartments for study will affect
learning better than homes lacking such facilities. Similarly, the lighting system,
the ventilation system, citing of the home, and the inmates of the home, the
various contents of the home will in no doubt affect the, quality of learning that
organisms within the said home will experience.
Thus, if the home is planned in such a way as to have library or even a book
shelf, such a home will have high level of learning facilitation compared with a
home which has no such heuristic facilities. Provision of adequate lights and
adequate ventilatory facilities in a home will facilitate human learning while on
the other hand homes in which the lighting system or provision is very poor;
where the air is stuffy and insipid will no doubt have adverse effect on the
learning gains of the inmates of such homes.
Again, the citing of the home determines how the inmates of the home will
learn. If for example, the home is cited in the noisy parts of the city, it is clear
that unwanted noises and sounds will constitute very serious distraction to
learners within such homes. In contrast, learners living in cool noiseless zones
will learn better (other things being equal);
It is pertinent to examine the role of the human inmates of the home as
either facilitating or negating learning. If the people with whom the learner lives
in the home are cooperative in helping the learner to learn, using languages that
can be modelled or imitated by the learner, disturbing the learner less, and
making judicious chore assignments to learners in such a way that the discharge
of such house chore assignments will not adversely affect the learning experience
of the learner, the learner is bound to learn better. Above all, the socio-economic
status of the parents or guardians of the learner will affect how the learner learns

23
and what he- or she learns. It has also been observed that family size affects the
learning performance of children in the homes (Majoribanks 1974). ‘When we
talk of the home, we usually think of the nourishment which the home provides
for people living inside it. For example, as soon as a child is born, the mother’s
breast is already there to nourish the child. The mother’s breast milk has been
found to be the best food for the child. Psychologists and nutritionists emphasize
the importance of feeding the new born baby on his mother’s breast milk as the
mother’s breast milk provides the best nourishment for the healthy growth and
development of the intelligence of the child. A such, it is warned that the new
born child be fed on his mother’s breast milk for at least the first four months of
post-natal life to ensure healthy intellectual growth and development.
Apart from feeding on the mother’s breast milk, good feeding and nutrition
ensure healthy body that would maintain healthy intelligence and brain needed
for effective learning. Malnutrition therefore will lead to poor learning.

The School and Human Learning

Although learning can occur outside the school, daily observations have proved
that the school is a place specifically and specially prepared for human learning
facilitation. The citing of the school, its material components, chairs, chalk-
boards, books, teachers and fellow pupils make the school an ideal place for
human learning. Research studies are unanimous in identifying the heuristic
value of the school. That the school’s physical environment provides very
conducive condition for human learning puts nobody in doubt, It is therefore
clear that the school constitutes the necessary physical factors affecting human
learning.

The Society and Human Learning

The society in which a learner finds himself and its associated cultural orientation
affect the quality and quantity of human learning going on in that society. The
various stimuli lying within the society either facilities or negate human learning.
Thus, the availability of educational institutions; study facilitates; societal status
(in terms of urbanity and rurality), the quality and quantity of interpersonal
interactions existing in the society; the level of sophistication or primitively of
the society and various activities going on within the society affect human
learning within the society. Where a society lacks educational institutions,
learning of her citizens will suffer, in the same way, a society that has made
provision for effective study facilitates will produce better learners than would be
the case in a society that lacks such facilities. Urban areas with their high culture;
various advertisement posters; mass-media services; and larger population
interaction (than would be the case in rural areas) provide better physical
environment setting for human learning than rural areas. It must however be

24
pointed out that while urban areas provide better facilities for school learning
especially of the academic type, rural areas also facilities learning in nature-
oriented learning experiences; farm life learning, experiences; and the learning of
society’s traditional cultural norms, and style of life than would be the case in
urban areas; It is not out of place to mention here the possible effects of cultural
disadvantaged or deprived society on human learning. Such disadvantages and
deprivations will no doubt lead to poor learning of the citizens of such a society.
So also is the case where in a society, superstitious beliefs pervade the system
which normally negate modern scientific and technological education, leading to
poor learning.
So far, we have been examining the effects of physical environment on the
quality and quantity of learning which the citizens of a given society experience.

The Concept of Phenotype and Human Learning

While the inherent and innate characteristics of an individual which relate to this
individual’s genetic endowments (gene donations), produce what arc referred to
as genotype of that particular individual, we shall now examine the concept of
phenotype as they affect human learning. Having possessed the necessary
genotypic traits for human activities, behavioural manifestations and learning, the
human organism there tries to use his or her God-given intelligence (sub-summed
in his genotype) to interact with the environment. This interaction of genotypic
factors with the environment does not only improve the intellectual life of the
individual but also does help the production of what psychologists usually refer
to as Phenotype. One’s phenotype can be regarded as the interactional effect
between one’s genotype and one’s environmental setting. It is this phenotypic
factors that help mankind to come off his or her crude civilization and bring
about a higher level of culture and civilization. Skemps has clearly shown how
our undeveloped intelligence (a genotypic factor) can be regarded merely as
intelligence A while the interactional effect of intelligence and the environment
would produce our phenotype. He regarded this intelligence which is operating at
the phenotypic level as intelligence B. Functionally, intelligence B holds greater
civilization hope for mankind while Intelligence A is only concerned with simple
biogenic needs, that will keep body and soul together i.e. to satisfy what Maslow
(1954) regards as physiological needs.

Psychological Environment and Human Learning

Psychological environment refers to various situational make-ups which are
concerned with the mental well-being of the individual. In discussing the effect
of such psychological environment on human learning, we have to use our usual
three dimensional categorization of physical environments affecting human

25
learning: The home (and psychological effect on human learning ;) — The
School and the Society (and their Psychological Effect on Human Learning.)

The Home and Psychological Human Learning

So far, we have been discussing various physical factors that affect human
learning. We shall now discuss psychological impact which the home has on
human learning.
Apart from the physical need being satisfied in the individual by the home,
the home also provides some psychological stimulation which includes warm
reception and treatment of the people living in it; Permissive and understanding
parents and guardians provide better stimulating environment for learning than
parents and guardians who are authoritarian, autocratic and repressive. Besides,
homes in which encouraging and positive remarks are made will help learning
better than in homes where people are always blamed, discouraged and
destructively criticized. Above all, it stands to reason that a home which provides
conducive psychological climate and atmosphere will promote human learning
better than homes which are full of squabbles, bickering and interpersonal
animosity and rancor.
It is therefore not surprising that researchers have found that children from
broken homes and unstable marriage relations perform poorly in learning and
study enterprises. After all, one needs calm and peaceful atmosphere, worry-free
atmosphere in order to concentrate effectively and learn satisfactorily.
It would appear that while the material components of the home no doubt
seriously affect human learning, it must also be admitted that the psychological
climate and atmosphere generated by the home by far surpass the physical
components in their effect on human learning.

The School and Psychological effect on Human- Learning

As we have seen above, the school provides necessary ideal situation for helping
people learn effectively, in the preceding discussion, we saw how the school
could provide such help to the learner by means of material devices and
furnishing which lend physical support to human learning.
Here we are going to discuss the psychological aspect of how the school
aids human learning. As we saw in the discussion on the home, the school should
also provide necessary psychological climate and atmosphere for effective
human learning. In fear-dominated schools where teachers carry the canes like
masquerades and where they inflict punishment on pupils like sadists, human
learning will be very poor. Children learn better under peaceful living and secure
atmosphere. Okoye (1985) has shown the negative effects which punishment
may have- on human learning.
26
 Schools where children are allowed freedom to express themselves and not
repressed will surely improve human leaning better than schools where children
are treated like people under detention. Permissive school teachers facilitate
learning better than autocratic and authoritarian teachers.
Schools that make use of reinforcement techniques; that provide necessary
motivational facilities for learners will promote human learning better than
schools where such reinforcing and motivating facilities are lacking.
Above all, inter-personal relationship between the teachers and the pupils
must be positive enough as to promote human learning. So must pupil — pupil
relationship be made to facilitate human learning. In simple straight forward
language, the school should be seen and felt by the pupils as their other home, if
high quality learning is to take place.

The Society and Psychological Effect on Human Learning

Both the home and the school are rooted in the society. The society influences
the quantity and quality of learning that goes on there. We have seen above how
the physical components of the society can do this. The society can also provide
necessary psychological climate and atmosphere for effective human learning
and development of creative innovativeness and ingenuity. For example, a
society where the citizens enjoy peace, harmony and unity, will facilitate human
learning better than a society where the citizens live ‘cats and dogs’ lives. This is
because for effective interaction of ideas and thoughts, the citizens need peace,
unity, harmony and tranquility that will nurture necessary dynamic interaction
that will generate effective and creative learning. Besides, superstitious belief
systems of any society will eat deep into the belief system and attitudes of the
citizens thereby affecting the citizens’ learning performance. It is well-known
that superstitious beliefs can negate pupil’s absorption of scientific ideas and
findings. Akin to this, is the concept of culturally disadvantaged areas; where
cultural norms, taboos and censorship create mental blocks in the citizens,
leading to poor and ineffective learning.
Finally, a society’s attitude towards education will affect the way and
manner her citizens study and learn. Societies that have developed negative
attitudes to academic pursuit will transfer such attitudes to their citizens leading
to academic disinterestedness.
Innovativeness, creativity and high quality learning can be developed in the
society if the citizens who show academic excellence are encouraged and
rewarded (through offer of prizes, scholarships and bonuses) unlike a society
where such excellence is ignored and unrecognized.

27
 Summary
This is concerned with external factors affecting human learning. All these
factors are given the canopy name of environment. The role of physical
environment in human learning has been discussed with particular reference to
the home, and what the home provides in terms of nutrition; mothers’ breast milk
for new born babies. The school as facilitator of human learning is also examined
and finally, the society and how it affects human learning is also examined from
the urbanity-rurality angles together with certain aspects of cultural deprivation
and effect on human learning.
The concept of Phenotype vis-à-vis human learning has been well discussed
drawing a clear distinction between Intelligence A and Intelligence B.
The rest of this lecture has been devoted to psychological environment and
effect on human learning with particular reference to the home, the school, the
society and how they can generate their own psychological stimulation for
human learning.

Assignment
1. List various components of your home which could be classified as
physical stimulators to human learning.
2. How could nursing mothers who are also working mothers ensure
adequate and appropriate feeding for their newly born babies?
3. Clearly distinguish between physical and psychological factors affecting
human learning.

Post-Test
1. An individua1s phenotype refers to
a. his genetic endowments
b. his physiognomic make-up
c. the interactional effect between his genotype and his environment
d. the interactional effect between his emotion and nutrition.
2. The genotype of an individual refers to
a. the generating force
b. the product of his genetic endowments
c. the phenotype of an individual
d. the age determining factor in an individual

28
 3. Intelligence A refers to
a. first class intelligence
b. Intelligence possessed by first born
c. Intelligence that has not been stimulated enough
d. Intelligence that has been stimulated enough
4. Intelligence B refers to
a. first class intelligence
b. second class intelligence
c. intelligence of second born
d. intelligence of last born
5. Various situational make-ups which are concerned with the mental well-
being of the individual can be called
a. physical environment
b. physical welfare environment
c. psychological environment
d. physiotherapeutic environment

References
Majoribanks, K. (1974) Academic Achievement; Family size and Social
Class Correlates. In Majoribanks, K. (Ed) Environments for Learning. Windsor;
Barks; NFER Publishing Company Ltd.
Okoye, N.N., (1985) ‘Psychological Stress Associated With Punishment
and Effect on Learning’. In Mgbodile, T. O. et al (Eds) Issues In Teacher
Education And Science Curriculum In Nigeria Monograph Series No.2., 196-
213.

29
LECTURE FOUR

The Process of Human Learning

Introduction
Human learning follows some processes which are sequentially built up. These
are acquisition retention and recall. These stages must be passed before learning
takes place. In other words, we must acquire some information as the first stage
in the learning process. But if we merely acquire the necessary information, we
may sooner or later lose what we have acquired. Such apparently acquired
materials may not be available to us for future reference or use. Thus, there is
much need for retaining what we have acquired. This leads us to the second stage
of the process of learning known as retention. Having acquired and retained
information materials in the process of learning may not after all be enough
guarantee that we have really learnt. The only way we claim that we have
acquired and retained some information material effectively is if we can express
what we have acquired and retained. Otherwise, outsiders may not know
precisely what we claim to have acquired and retained. Even we may not know
exactly what we have acquired and retained if we cannot make practical use of
such materials. Thus, if even we have acquired some body of information
materials and retained them in the process of learning, we cannot claim to have
learnt. We need to express this acquisition and retention achievement by the third
stage in the process of learning otherwise known as recall. This is the third and
last stage in the process of human learning, in other words, learning comprises
three important stages or processes - acquisition, retention, and recall. We must
acquire some information materials- retain these information materials - and
finally be able to recall the acquired and retained materials in order to have
claimed that we have learned.

30
Objectives
This lecture is aimed at introducing students to the process of human learning.
At the end of this lecture, the student should be able to:
1. explain the process of human learning;
2. explain the role of the short term Memory Storage Centre (STM);
3. explain the role of the long Term Memory Storage Centre (LTM) ; and
4. discuss the concept of T.O.T. phenomenon.

Pre-Test
1. Learning comprises the following stages
a. recall — retention — review
b. acquisition recall — retention
c. acquisition — retention — recall
d. acquisition — review — recall
2. In the retention process, rehearsal
a. comes after perception in STM
b. comes after retention in STM
c. comes after catabolisation
d. comes after consolidation
3. The T.O.T Phenomenon refers to
a. Thematic Opinion Test Phenomenon
b. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
c. Tip of the Finger Phenomenon
d. Twist of the Tongue Phenomenon
4. Action Decrement occurs
a. because a learner is tired
b. because a learner has not completed consolidation process
c. because a learner has not learned properly
d. because a learner is becoming old.
5. Which of the following is directly concerned with recall experiences?
a. rehearsal
b. catabolization
c. cognition
d. recognition

31
CONTENT
The Process of Acquisition
Human learning process begins with the acquisition stage. We acquire
information items in the process of learning through our five sensory organs or
modalities. These five sensory modalities are the means by which information
items lying outside us are made available to our Central Nervous System (CNS).
These sensory modalities are:
i. the eyes for visual perception
ii. the ears for auditory perception
iii. the nose for olfactory perception
iv. the tongue for gustatory perception and
v. the fingers and body for tactile perception.
These five sensory modalities carry out the specific perception functions of:
i. seeing (through the eyes)
ii. hearing (through the ears)
iii. swelling (through the nose)
iv. tasting (through the tongue) and
v. touching (through the fingers and the body).
In the process of acquisition associated with human learning, we may make
use of only one modality or we may in some cases use more than one (in some
cases even all the five) sensory modalities together in the process of learning.
Research studies have shown that although we can acquire information
items through only one sensory modality, the combined use of more than one or
all the five sensory modalities in the process of learning will lead to better
acquisition and better learning. For example you are bound to learn better about
say a food item if:
i. you see it
ii. you hear the name
iii. you smell its aroma
iv. you touch it and have a feel of it and
v. finally you taste it by eating it.
You can now compare this acquisition experience with a case where the
person either only sees the food item and that is all; or where he only hears the
name but does not see it; or sees it and hears the name but does not smell it or
touch it or eat it In the process of acquisition, an information item is deposited
with the central nervous system (CNS) through one of the sensory modalities
(unimodal perception) and through more than one sensory modalities (multi

32
modal perception). By this process, the information item or the image is made
available through the different nerve fibers to the CNS. In other words, the
information item that initially is lying outside the organism (the learner) is now
lying within the organism’s (the learner’s) CNS. At this stage, this available
information item is said to be in its raw form. This is because it has not been
interpreted and made meaningful to CNS.

The Interpretation Sub-Process

Having made information item available to the CNS in the raw form, this item
needs to be interpreted into meaningful form for the CNS to understand. This
sub- process of interpretation is referred to as encoding. This encoding is carried
out by the CNS sending the newly received raw information item to the long term
memory storage center of the brain for interpretation. The long term memory
storage centre is a permanent store house for all items one has been receiving
throughout life. Hence, when a new raw item is received by the CNS, it looks
logical that it is from the Long Term Memory Storage Centre that clearance and
interpretation of the new item will come.
In order to carry out this encoding (interpretation) the brain engages in what
is called referential association sub-process by which the image of the new item
is referred to previously retained image so that by association meaning will be
derived from the previous image in. the Long Term Storage Centre.
This type of meaning which the new image now gathers is referred to as
associative meaning which has been derived through associative reference or
what Johnson (1975) has called ‘referential association’. Having passed through
this process of associative reference, the new raw image, now becomes
meaningful, interpreted and understood. It can now be said to have been encoded.
The CNS now understands and knows (congnises) the image of what it has just
received through the sensory afferent nerve fiber. The new information item or
image can now be said to have been acquired.

The Process of Retention

Having acquired the new information item or image, the next process is the
process of retention. The idea behind .retention of a newly acquired information
item or image is to make sure that the image is always available to the organism
(the learner) for making use of when needed. The retention of an item or image
passes through (a) the short term and (b) long term memory centres. As the name
implies, short term memory centre contains items or images that we want to
make use of immediately - within a short term; while the long term memory
centre contains items or images which we want to use in future - within a long
term.

33
Rehearsal Sub-Process of Retention
After an information item must have been interpreted, the brain quickly engages
in a sub-process of retention referred to as rehearsal. This rehearsal is a sub-
process of retention by which the new meaning attached to the newly interpreted
item is sustained to avoid possible loss through evaporation. Rehearsal therefore
continues refreshing the brain of the new meaning attached to the item; till the
Short Term Memory Centre opens up to receive the item of information.

Short Term Storage of information item

Since the rehearsal sub-process has effectively protected the newly acquired
information item from losing meaning, the newly acquired information item is
safely lodged in the Short Term Memory Storage Centre. The Short Term
Memory Storage Centre has the limited capacity of retaining not less than 5 items
and not more than 9 items at a time. This retention capacity of the Short Term
Memory (STM) Centre is technically referred to as The Magical Number Seven:
plus or minus Two.
= (7±2) (Miller l962)
The length of time which an information item can stay in the STM ranges
from few seconds to about one hour depending on the type of material being
retained. After this short duration, the newly retained image or item is now
pushed out of the STM for onward movement to the Long Term Memory (LTM).
Storage Centre where it will be retained permanently.

The Consolidation Sub-Process of Retention

The new item or image which is now pushed of the STM is to be consolidated
and turned into a refined form before it can be accepted for retention in the LTM.
This sub-process of refining is known as Consolidation.
Consolidation has two sub-processes:
a. Catabolization and
b. Anabolization.
Anabolization complements Catabolization and with Catabolization and
Anabolization produces the Consolidation process.

The Sub-Process of Catabolization

This sub-process is concerned with breaking down the new information item into
tiny pieces as part and parcel of refinement. The better and more thorough the
Catabolization, the better the expected refinement. On the other hand if the
catabolization process is badly done, the resultant refinement will not be

34
satisfactory. It will be a numbo-jumbo affair and will eventually lead to poor
retention and of- course poor recall. It has been observed that the thoroughness or
otherwise of the catabolization sub-process depends on how the information item
has been initially received at the appropriate sensory receptor end at the time of
perception. For example, if the new item is received in an impactful manner - -
creating some impact or arousal on the particular specific sensory receptor cortex
in the brain, then such an item stands a better chance of being more thoroughly
catabolized than would be the case where the item has been initially received
without an impact or arousal.

The Sub-Process of Anabolizatlon

After the information item has been catabolized, it is now anabolized i.e. it is
built up again. After this building-up, the item is said to have been refined and
now ready for being lodged (into the Long Term Memory (LTM) Storage Centre.
It must be pointed out that in between Calabolization and Anabolization is a
period when the brain experiences a sort of lowered performance in recall ability.
This is technically referred to as “Action Decrement”. This decrease in recall
performance has emanated from the fact that catabolization has set in, while
anabolization has not been completed. In other words, - action decrement is a
function of uncompleted consolidation process of retention.

The Sub-Process of Catabolization

Consolidation having been completed, the new information item is refined and is
ready for lodgment into the LTM Storage Centre. However, before it is lodged
there, it must be categorized What this means is that the new item in order to be
absorbed by the LTM Storage Centre, must be retained according to its scale of
priority to the organism (the learner). The new item is therefore categorised or
graded according to its relative importance to the organism vis-à-vis already
retained items. This categorization pattern will be maintained in storing the new
item in the LTM Storage Centre eventually.

Storage in the Long Term Storage Centre

Once the new item has been categorized, it qualifies for storage in the LTM
Storage Centre. It will be retained here permanently till there is need to recall it.

The Recall or Retrieval Process

So far, we have seen through two very important mental processes associated
with learning. The third and remaining process of learning is the recall process.
The retrieval of retained information items begins with the sorting-out sub-
process via recognition to recall.
35
 An information item already stored in the LTM Storage Centre is recalled in
a stage-by-stage pattern.

The Sorting-Out Sub-Process

Firstly, the item to be recalled must be initially sorted-out from the whole gamut
of items lodged with the L.TM Storage Centre. This is a sub-process by which
the brain tries to identify the specific information item being recalled. When this
item is identified, it is singled out of the LTM Storage Centre.

The Recognition Sub-Process within Retrieval

Having identified through sorting-out the specific information item to be
recalled, the brain now engages in another mental sub- process known as
recognition. The term recognition implies that this item has been known
(cognized before and is now being cognized for the second time hence
recognition implies that the item has been recognized.

The Decoding Sub-Process within Retrieval

Having been sorted out, identified and doubly cognized (recognized) this item
can be recalled now. But since the item is still in the encoded form, it cannot be
recalled in the encoded form or else it would not be meaningful to the CNS. It
must therefore be transformed into its original raw form in which it has been
initially acquired. This transformation of the refined or encoded item into initial
raw form is technically referred to as decoding (the opposite of encoding). The
item having been decoded is now in the raw form in which it has been originally
acquired. It is now very ready for recall.

The Recall Sub-Process within Retrieval

Having decoded the item to be recalled, this item can be recalled with ease now
(other things being equal). But other things are not always equal; hence this item
could come up for recall and yet may not be recalled. The person trying to recall
feels that the item to be recalled is just at the tip of his tongue but refuses to be
fully recalled. In recalling the year 1935 we may only recall 19 ..? or 193....? or
in trying to recall the name of a classmate called Okoye, we simply recall
‘Okooo’ and not the ending ‘….oye’. This funny phenomenon has been referred
to as the Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) phenomenon.
It is usually experienced by individuals’ attempting to recall something in a
stage of anxiety or unrelaxed mood.

36
 Summary
Human learning comprises three processes or stages- acquisition, retention, and
recall. All the three stages or processes must have taken place before learning has
actually occurred.
The acquisition stage has been examined in details. The various five sensory
modalities have been found to be important tools for acquisition. These five
sensory modalities are (i) visual perceptual modality associated with seeing and
making use of the eyes (ii) auditory perceptual modality associated with making
use of the ears. (iii) gustatory perceptual modality associated with making use of
the tongue, (iv) olfactory perceptual modality associated with making use of the
nose and (v) tactile perceptual modality associated with feeling the touch of
something making use of either the fingers or different parts of the body.
Although learning can occur using only one sensory modality, research studies
have shown that better quality learning comes where more than one modality is
employed in the process of learning. The process of acquisition has been
examined with particular emphasis on transmission of an information item
through the afferent nerve fiber to the Central Nervous System (CNS) and also
with emphasis on interpretation of the newly acquired item through a process of
referential association.
The various sub-process involved in retention has been examined with reference
to retention in the STM and LTM Storage Centres. The capacity and duration of
the STM centre have been discussed. The sub process of consolidation (which
sub divides to catabolisation and anabolisation) has been discussed and the
important problem of action decrement explained. Finally the categorization
process which comes before retention in the LTM centre has been highlighted.
Finally, the retrieval (process involving sorting-out; recognition (potential recall)
and recall) has been fully elaborated with a hint on the possibility of a mental
process in recall known as the TOT phenomenon.

Assignment
1. Try to perceive any object around you using only one sensory modality
then try to perceive another object using more than one modality. Which
of these objects do you perceive better?
2. Try to learn something and without allowing for enough time to elapse,
try to recall what you have learnt. Try to learn another thing but this time
allow it enough time before you attempt recalling. What do you observe?
3. Each time you experience a T.O.T. phenomenon keep a record of this.
After a series of such phenomena try to re-examine the moods in which
you found yourself each time before the T.O.T. phenomenon occurred.

37
Post-Test
1. Learning comprises of the following stages:
a. recall -— retention — review
b. acquisition -— recall -— retention
c. acquisition -— retention -— recall
d. acquisition — review — recall
2. In the retention process, rehearsal:
a. comes after perception in STM
b. comes after retention in STM
c. comes after catabolization
3. The T.O.T. Phenomenon refers to:
a. thematic Opinion Phenomenon
b. tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
c. tip of Finger Phenomenon
d. twist of the Tongue Phenomenon
4. Action Decrement occurs
a. because a learner is tired
b. because a learner has not completed consolidation process
c. because a learner has not learned properly
d. because a learner is becoming old.
5. Which of the following is directly concerned with recall experiences?
a. rehearsal
b. catabolization
c. cognition
d. recognition

38
LECTURE FIVE

Theories of Remembering and Forgetting

Introduction
Human life would be meaningless and civilization ground to a halt if we have no
memory with which to recall past experiences.
Psychologists have concerned themselves with trying to understand why at
times we recall and at other times we find it terribly difficult (to almost
impossible point) to recall what were acquired. In trying to find explanations to
the enigma of remembering and forgetting, series of theories have been put
forward. These theories have put their own points of view as regards the concept
of remembering and forgetting. We shall examine these theories in detail and
critically too.

In this lecture, we are going to discuss:

i. the meaningfulness theory of Remembering and Forgetting.
ii. the Psycho-Analytic or Freudian Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
iii. the Temporal Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
iv. the Physiological Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
v. the Ziegarnick Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
vi. the Primacy - Finality (Serial Position) Theory of Remembering and
Forgetting
vii. the Asymmetrical Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
viii. the lmpactfulness Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
ix. the Recency Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
x. exercise Theory of Remembering and Forgetting.

39
Objective
This lecture is expected to expose the students to the theories of Remembering
and Forgetting.
At the end of this lecture, the student should be able to:
1. explain why we remember;
2. discuss why we forget;
3. identify some basic theories of remembering and forgetting; and
4. make a critical appraisal of the theories of remembering and forget.

Pre-Test
1. The meaningfulness Theory of Remembering and Forgetting was put
forward by
a. Ebbinghaus
b. Fay & Smith
c. Folkard, et al
d. Ziegarnick
2. Who among the following put forward the theory of Exercise as regards
Remembering and Forgetting?
a. Freud
b. Miller
c. Thorndike
d. Von Restoff
3. Ziegarnick is
a. an English woman psychologist
b. a French woman psychologist
c. a German woman psychologist
d. a Russian woman psychologist
4. The Mneme Phenomenon is part of
a. meaningfulness Theory
b. physiological Theory
c. psycho-analytic Theory
d. serial-Position Theory
5. Von Restoff Effect is somehow associated with
a. Asymmetrical Theory
b. Freudian Theory

40
 c. Mneme Phenomenon Theory
d. Primacy — finality Theory

CONTENT
The Meaningfulness Theory of Remembering and Forgetting
This was put forward by Ebbinghaus to explain why certain materials are better
remembered than others. According to this theory, meaningful materials stand
better chance of being remembered than non-meaningful materials or what are
usually referred to as nonsense syllables. Since understanding comes from
meaning and things that are understood are better recalled than things that are
non-meaningful (and therefore not understandable) meaningful materials will be
better recalled than non-meaningful materials. Thus, if we want to remember and
recall any material, we have to make it meaningful to us. This could take the
form of making its contents meaningful to us or by presenting it to ourselves in a
meaningful way. In the learning- teaching situation, the message of this theory
should be taken proper note of. Both in the content of teaching materials and
methodology of teaching those materials we as teachers have to be judicious and
cautious in selections. It must however be pointed out that meaning is
manipulable hence nonsense syllables which may initially be non-meaningful
may eventually become meaningful to particular individuals. For example, such a
group of letters as XT may not initially be meaningful, but after being exposed to
an individual for some time and after this nonsense syllable has signified
something to the individual, then gradually it begins to assume meaning and by
this very fact will be remembered. It will be remembered because it has assumed
some level of relative meaningfulness.

The Psycho-Analytic Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory has been put forward by Sigmund Freud, a psycho- analyst. Freud
argued that pleasurable experiences are light and being light, float on the sea of
consciousness and as such will be better remembered and recalled than painful
experiences which are heavy and like heavy materials will sink below the sea of
sub-consciousness and so will be less remembered and recalled. This is because
materials floating in the consciousness domain are more accessible to the
consciousness for easier recall than materials which have sunk into the domain of
sub-conscious. This is why this theory is also called the Pleasure - - Pain Theory.
Because it was put forward by Sigmund Freud, it is also called the Freudian
Theory, and because it is concerned with the repression of painful experience by
pushing then into the sub-conscious it is also referred to as Theory of Repression.
Much as this theory relates to daily experience, we have to be cautious in
accepting it line-hook-and-sinker. For example, while it is true that pleasure

41
oriented experiences appear to be more quickly remembered, it must be pointed
out that there are certain painful experiences that are very vividly and more
quickly remembered even more than pleasurable experiences. There must surely
be another intervening variable, to account for this very fact that even certain
painful experiences can be better remembered than the so-called pleasurable
experiences. We shall see the role of impactfulness in the course of this lecture.

The Temporal or Temperature Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory was put forward by Fay & Smith (1941). This theory tries to argue
that materials learnt under hot atmosphere (as Fay & Smith (1941) put it,
anything learnt at a temperature level of 69°F or over) will be less remembered.
This is because researches have found that heat has a negative effect on the
functioning of the brain and human memory.
On the other hand, Folkard et al (1977) have also found that morning time
has better recall effect than afternoon time and that materials learnt during
morning time are better recalled during morning time than during afternoon time.
It should be mentioned that what is being discussed here is relative recall ability.
What is learnt under heat must be recalled as well as what is learnt under cold
atmosphere. The argument however is that materials learnt under cold
atmosphere are better recalled than materials learnt under hot atmosphere. The
emphasis is on the word better which implies relativeness of recall.

The Physiological Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory argues that any thing that brings about a physiological change in an
organism will no doubt affect the organism’s recall functioning. Such
physiological change is usually associated with pregnancy and memory effects
observed in the pre-partum and post-partum (before and after child birth)
psychosis of women (Mac Farlane).
This physiological theory has been expatiated to include what has been
called the Mneme Phenomenon to explain the physiologically rooted causes of
remembering and forgetting in human beings as brain cell decay.

The Ziegarnick Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory was put forward by a German woman psychologist called Ziegarnick.
She found that an uninterruptedly completed task will be less remembered than
would be the case in interruptedly uncompleted task.
However, researchers have found that the recall effect (usually referred to as
Ziegarnick Effect) said to be observed in the interruptedly uncompleted work is
very small and short-lived. In fact the Ziegarnick Effect has been observed to last
for no more than 24 hours.

42
The Primacy - Finality Effect (Serial Position Effect) Theory of
Remembering and
Forgetting
This theory tries to explain the problem of remembering and forgetting from the
angle of the initial position of materials to be recalled. Thus it is argued that
materials that occupy the first (primacy) and last (finality) positions stand the
chance of being better remembered and recalled than materials which occupy
other positions in the serial sequence of events. This is why it is called either the
Primacy - Finality theory or the Serial Position Effect Theory of Remembering
and Forgetting.
This theory was also researched upon by Von Restoff who eventually found
that while the first and last materials in the serial sequence of events are better
remembered than the other serial positions, he argued that materials occupying
the middle position are also better remembered than the other positions other than
first and final positions. The middle position is unique and so by that fact is
remembered. One will see some intervening variable in explaining this Serial
Position (Primacy - Finality) Theory such as the fact that the first, the middle and
final positions are unique and being unique can create greater perceptual impact
than the other positions hence will be better remembered and recalled than the
other positions. This middle position effect has been named after Von Restoff as
Von Restoff Effect.

The Asymmetrical Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory argues that memory trace follows the symmetrical rather than the
asymmetrical pattern. This means that similar (symmetrical) materials are better
remembered and recalled than the materials that are not similar (asymmetrical).
This emphasized the need for making materials to be recalled to look similar in
some ways.
This is because when one has perceived the various aspects and attributes of
a material, this perceived material will be repeatedly perceived when a similar
material is presented. This repeated perception of similar aspects and attributes
will enhance recognition and linking up of previous experiences thus making
memory trace perform better and aid recall better.
However, it can be argued that even when two materials are not similar but
rather exact opposites, their dis-similarity can even be an aid to their being
remembered and recalled. For example pairs of tall and short persons; white and
black cats; bright and dull colours; beautiful and ugly persons; dry and fresh fish
etc. (cf. tall and tall persons; short and short persons; white and white cats; black
and black cats; bright and bright colours; beautiful and beautiful persons, ugly
and ugly persons; dry and dry fish; fresh and fresh fish; etc.

43
The Impactfulness Theory of Remembrance and Forgetting
This theory which is relatively newer than the other theories already discussed
argues that any material which creates impact at the time of perception will be
better remembered than the material that has not created any impact. Studies on
the neurophysiology of the brain support the view that when a material is
impactful at the time of its being perceived by an individual, this impactfulness
will arouse the specific appropriate sensory receptor cortex - the higher the
impact the greater the cortical arousal On the other hand, dull and unimpressive
materials do not create any impact and so do not arouse the specific appropriate
sensory receptor cortex.
It has been found by research studies on the retention and recall processes
that the higher the impact created by the material, the greater the cortical arousal,
the better the quality of catabolization sub-process and eventual better retention
and subsequent recall of the material. For non- impactful and non-cortical arousal
materials, the reverse is the case leading to low catabolization, poor retention and
poor recall.

The Recency Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory argues that Recency of events improves quality and quantity of
recall. Hence, materials that are newly learnt stand better chance of being
remembered than materials that have been learnt sometime in the distant past.
This is common sense theory of remembering and forgetting and is the basic idea
behind the use of reviewing in the process of learning or memorisation.

Exercise Theory of Remembering and Forgetting

This theory was put forward by Thorndike after series of experimental studies.
The more a material is practised the better it will be remembered and recalled.
On the other hand, non- exercise on a material will lead to dis-use of the material
eventually leading to low or non-recall. This is why this theory is also referred to
as the Theory of Law Use and Dis-Use as regards remembering and forgetting.
This theory is also subsumed in the law of exercise and constant practice.
Constancy in practice no doubt improves remembering and recall. John Dewey’s
argument that “we learn by doing also implies this theory of Exercise. Thus
constant exercise and involvement in activities will improve remembering and
recall as well as learning. As the old adage goes, “Practice makes perfect”.

A Critical Appraisal of the Theories of Remembering and Forgetting

From the discussion above on the various theories of remembering and forgetting
some facts come to mind. Firstly some of the theories subsume the concept of
impactfulness either directly or indirectly. For example, the psychoanalytic

44
theory of remembering and forgetting capitalises on the fact that pleasurable
experiences are expected to create greater impact than painful experience.
However, as we have observed above, painful experiences can create greater
impact even than pleasurable experiences -— it all depends! Meaningfulness
theory of remembering and forgetting has the celebrated greater effect on
remembering and recall because the meaning embedded in the materials to be
recalled are so impressively oriented as to be impactful; the Ziegarnick effect
implied in the Ziegarnick Theory of Remembering and Forgetting subsumes
impactfulness. The Primacy — Finality (serial position effect) theory capitalizes
on impactfulness — positions that are impactfully embedded attract ready
perceptual attention. The Asymmetrical Theory also functions on impactfulness
— similar materials are better remembered and recalled because being similar
creates impact. Finally, the theories of Recency and Exercise are memory
facilitating because recency practice and constant practice make the materials (to
be remembered and recalled) impactful than would have been the case where
there is neither recency practice nor exercise. It therefore appears that
impacifulness theory appears most convincing.

Summary
In this lecture we have tried to examine the various theories of Remembering
and Forgetting. No less than ten such theories have been discussed. These
theories are: The Meaningfulness Theory; The Psycho-analytic Theory; The
Temporal Theory; The Physiological Theory; The Ziegarnick Theory; The
Primacy - Finality Theory; the Asymmetrical Theory; The impactfulness
Theory; The Recency Theory; and the Exercise Theory of Remembering And
Forgetting. All these theories have been carefully and critically examined, in
conclusion it was pointed out that of all the theories put forward in this lecture,
the theory of impactfulness appears to have cut across many of these theories
since impactfulness is implied directly or indirectly in many of these theories
and appears to hold more convincing explanation for the whys and hows of
remembering and forgetting.

Assignment
1. Take your pen and write down all the pleasurable experiences you have
had for the last ten years. Write also all the painful experiences you have
had within the same period. Using your mental eye, which of these two
groups of experiences are better remembered and recalled by you now?
2. Outline what the Impactfulness Theory of Remembering And Forgetting
has in common with Ziegarnick Theory, Meaningfulness Theory by
Ebbinghaus; Primacy - Finality Theory and Recency Theory.

45
 3. Write down certain things you have observed about Remembering and
Forgetting that have not been adequately explained by the ten theories of
Remembering and Forgetting discussed in this lecture.

Post-Test
1. The Meaningfulness Theory of Remembering and Forgetting was put
forward by
a. Ebbinghaus
b. Fay & Smith
c. Folkard, et al
d. Ziegarnick
2. Who among the following put forward the theory of Exercise as regards
Remembering and Forgetting?
a. Freud
b. Miller
c. Thorndike
d. Von Restoff
3. Ziegarnick is
a. an English woman psychologist
b. a French woman psychologist
c. a German woman psychologist
d. a Russian woman psychologist
4. The Mneme Phenomenon is part of
a. meaningfulness Theory
b. Physiological Theory
c. Psycho-analytic Theory
d. Serial-Position Theory

5. Von Restoff Effect is some how associated with

a. Asymmetrical Theory
b. Freudian Theory
c. Mneme Phenomenon Theory
d. Primacy - Finality Theory

46
References
Okoye, N.N. (1985) The Psychology of Effective Learning. Ibadan:
Adebara Publishers Nigeria Ltd.
Stephens, J.M. The Psychology of Classroom Learning New York: Holt,
Rhinehart & Winston, Inc.
Young, Pai. Teaching Learning and the Mind Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.

47
LECTURE SIX

Theory of Learning: S-R Theory I

Introduction
Psychologists have been concerned with how learning takes place. As a result of
this concern, theories of learning have emerged. The first of these theories of
learning is the Stimulus - Response Theory referred as the S -- R theory of
Learning.
In this lecture we are going to discuss the origins of the S -— R theory of
learning and make a critical appraisal of the theory.

Objectives
This lecture is expected to introduce the student to various Theoretical Stands in
learning and at the end of this lecture, the student is expected to be able to:
1. explain the origins of the S -R theory of learning;
2. explain Thorndike’s experimental studies;
3. explain Thorndike’s various laws of learning; and
4. apply Thorndike’s findings in daily life situations.

Pre-Test
1. S-R theory of learning refers to
a. Sense — Reason theory
b. Stimulus — Response Theory
c. Systematic — Response Theory
d. Stress — Related Theory

2. The origins of S-R. Theories of Learning can be traced to

a. Kohler — Lewin — Wertheimer
b. Miller — Ziegarnick — Fay

48
 c. Thorndike — Pavlov — Skinner
d. Von — Restoff — Folkard — Semon
3. Thorndike’s Truncated Law of Effect was put forward in
a. 1982
b. 1932
c. 1939
d. 1942
4. Blind Learning means
a. the behaviours referred to as those of blind people
b. the behaviours referred to as blind folded man’s behaviours
c. the behaviours referred to as trial-and-error
d. the behaviours referred to as conscious.
5. Which of the following Laws of Learning was not put forward by
Thorndike?
a. Law of Effect
b. Law of Exercise
c. Law of Readiness
d. Law of Regression

CONTENT
Origins of the S -— R Theory of Learning
Three psychologists have been associated with the development of the S – R.
Theory of Learning. They are Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner. Of these theorists,
Thorndike was the first to formulate the basic theory of S -— R.

Thorndike and S -— R Theory of Learning

In pre-Thorndikean times, it was believed that animals solved their problems
either by reasoning or by instinct. This was of course quite wrong. For sometime
however people accepted this concept of animal learning without questioning.
However, Thorndike broke the ice and made the first attempt to find a rather
scientific and more empirical explanation for animal learning. He found that
animals learn not by means of instincts or by reason but by application of
responses to a given stimulus. Here stimulus is regarded as an object that elicits
reaction or response from an organism. Response on the other hand is regarded as
a visceral neural reaction to a given stimulus.

49
 Thorndike found from his studies that animals learn by applying the right
response to the right stimuli.
He was a believer in the principle of association as put forward by Herbart.
Besides, he was also interested in physiological psychology. Eventually he
developed the idea that our behaviours (and of course those of animals) are
directed by two events. These events which he regarded as physical and mental
will if well blended produce learning.
Initially these S — R association occurs as trial-and-error behaviour and was
usually referred to as blind learning. It is to drive home his argument about the
bonds or connections between S and R and how trial-and-error behaviour
emerges that he carried out an experiment with a cat using a puzzle or problem
box he constructed by himself.

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

Thorndike used the puzzle box (also called the problem box) to carry out an
experiment explaining how animals learn. Perhaps a detailed description of the
Puzzle Box may enhance a better understanding of the experiment.
The puzzle box was made of wood and it had six sides. It was so made that
the animal put inside it was trapped and could not escape except when a
particular string by the side of the puzzle box was pulled, although it could have
a full view of and could smell the things outside the box. Thorndike in the
process of carrying out this experiment placed an odoriferous (highly scented)
fish in a plate near the box. The cat of course could not have access to the fish
unless it came out of the box and it could not come out of the box except when
the string near the door of the box was pulled.

Thorndike and His Experiment

Thorndike brought a hungry cat into the puzzle box and also kept an odoriferous
fish in a plate close to the box but not accessible to the cat from within the box.
Thorndike then watched the reaction of this hungry cat to the fish and to the
puzzle box which acted as an apparent barrier to its getting the fish. The cat,
having perceived the fish through the visual sensory organ became aware of the
presence of the fish. This fish, the cage and its various parts can now be regarded
as stimuli (objects that elicit reactions from perceiving organism). The cat’s
reactions can be regarded as responses.
This cat became aware of the fish and started making frantic efforts to have
access to it. It first started exhibiting trial and error behaviours like scratching
different parts of the box in order to escape from the box and have access to the
fish. When these failed to solve the problem (getting access to the fish), it started;
walking round the box. It however continued to receive the enticing aroma from
50
the fish and its hungry stomach continued grumbling and the mouth salivating.
All these made the cat continue struggling in spite of initial failures. Thus, the
trial-and-error behaviours continued and by coincidence, the cat’s paws pulled
the string and outlet of the box opened. The cat, with a terrific speed made for the
fish.
This experimental process was continued by Thorndike using the same cat,
the same puzzle box and an equally attractive and enticing fish. It was observed
that although the cat followed the initial sequence of — trial-and-error behaviour
for some time before pulling the string, each subsequent experimental exposure,
reduced the length of time spent on the trial-and-error behaviour in a progressive
manner till a point when the cat was able to discard the trial-and-error behaviours
entirely, made straight for the string, pulled it, and moved straight to the fish.
Thorndike therefore arrived at the conclusion that the cat did not simply jump
into knowing how to open the puzzle box. In Thorndike’s language, the cat did
“catch on” to the method of opening the box but learned it by stamping in the
right responses and stamping in the wrong responses. In other words, the cat was
engaged in a process of selection and rejection - - selecting responses that
rewarded it and rejecting responses that did not reward it.
To show that this observation was not peculiar to cats alone, Thorndike
carried out similar experiments with other animals like dogs, fish, monkeys and
chicken and came out with similar findings and results.
Thorndike expatiated on the stamping in and stamping out phenomena and
pointed out that stamping in within the S -— R connections depended on the
effect that followed the act of response to a particular stimu1u. S -— R
connections are strengthened when the stimulus (S) is followed by response
reward or a satisfier. On the other hand, when the stimulus (S) is followed by a
response (R) and then also followed by a punishment or an annoyer, then. S -—
R connection will be weakened. Stamping in a response depends on whether the
response (R) is satisfying or annoying; if it is satisfying, it will be stamped in; if
it is annoying it will not be stamped in; rather it will be stamped out.
From Thorndike’s various experiments on the S-R connections, he
arrived at formulating certain theoretical stands about learning. He argued that
learning comes about as a result of existence of the association between sense
impressions and impulses to action. The S and R relationship determines this
association which is also referred to as bond or connection, and these
associations or connections increase learning capacity. According to Thorndike,
practice makes perfect only if each practice is rewarded as there is no special
learning merit in unrewarded practice or repetition.
Thorndikean brand of psychology as regards learning is based on bonds;
connections, or associations. This came to be regarded as the psychology of
bondism; or psychology of connectionism; or psychology of associationism.

51
Thorndikean Laws and Principles of Learning
Thorndike formulated laws and principles that guide learning.
These are the:
i. law of Effect
ii. law of Exercise
iii. law of Readiness
iv. principle of Multiple response
v. principle of Set or Attitude
vi. principle of Pre-potency of elements
vii. principle of Response by analogy and
viii. principle of Associative Shift.

Thorndikean Law of Effect

Following his studies, Thorndike put forward his earlier law of Effect in which
he argued that punishment decreases behaviour as much as reward increases
behaviour. In other words punishment equally reduces unwanted and undesirable
behaviours just as reward increases the perpetuation of wanted or desired
behaviours. This stand places punishment and reward on equal footing as
behaviour modification tools.
Other psychologists felt that something was wrong with the Thorndikean
view formulated in the 1929 Law of Effect. He was challenged and made to
realize the weaknesses of the law. Thorndike accepted these flaws and the law
was re-modified. This reformulation produced the 1932, Truncated Law of Effect
in which he accepted that although punishment decreases behaviour but not as
much as reward increases behavior. Put in a more straight- forward language,
Thorndikean Truncated Law of Effect argues that reward has a greater behaviour
modification effect than punishment. The term truncated means cut short or
sliced. Obviously, Thorndike’s 1932 stand on the effect of reward and
punishment on behaviour modification was the basis of the 1929 Law of Effect.

Thorndikean Law of Exercise

This law emerges from Thorndike’s bond or connection theory. It refers to the
effect of practice on connections or bonds. The theory argues that reward -
oriented practice strengthens bonds or connections. The more intense the
practice, the greater the strength of resulting bonds or connections. On the
contrary, discontinuation of practice leads to the weakening of connections of
bonds. Learning, which is directly related to the strengthening and weakening of
relevant connections, bonds and associations, is also dependent on practice

52
through exercise. The law of Exercise is subsumed in Thorndikean Theory of
Exercise and the Use and Dis-se associated with Remembering and Forgetting.

Thorndikean Law of Readiness

Hilgard sees Thorndike’s’ law of Readiness as “an accessory principle which
describes a physiological substratum for the law of effect”. (.18) The law of
readiness states in lucid terms the conditions under which a learner shows
tendency to receive or reject the offer to learn.
The Conduction Unit theory put forward by Thorndike is the basis of his law
of Readiness. He identified three Conduction Units, which signify different levels
of readiness of a learner to learn and the level of learning of effectiveness. Thus,
he identified Conduction Unit I. Conduction Unit 2; and Conduction Unit 3. In
Thorndikean Conduction in Unit I, the organism is ready to act and nothing is
done to change its action. This is a satisfying situation, in which the organism is
ready to act and the environment is ready to co- operate. Learning will be
maximized.
In Thorndikean Conduction Unit 2, the organism is ready to act but
circumstances do not allow it to act. This is an annoying situation under which
the learner cannot learn effectively. Under this condition the organism or learner
is ready to learn but the environment is not cooperative.
In Thorndikean Conduction Unit 3, the organism is to act although it is being
forced to act. Again this is an annoying situation in which the learner is not ready
to learn but it is being forced to learn against its wish. Here learning will be
minimal and ineffective.

Thorndikean Sub-ordinate Law and Thorndikean Principles of Multiple

Response
This principle argues that the learner is capable of eliciting varying responses to a
given stimulus. In the face of a given problem (stimulus) the learner will vary his
responses - in order to arrive at the right response leading to the desired solution.
In the process of eliciting varying responses, the learner engages in a stamping in
and stamping out exercise.

Thorndikean Principle of Set or Attitude

Human learners are social beings, who engage in various processes of adjustive
behaviours within their social milieu. Our responses are in part determined by
our adjustive characteristics. Our attitudes are part of these adjustive
characteristics. Given our degree of involvement in the process of acculturation,
our attitudes shapes our responses and what we may like to do and those we may
not like to do. Attitudes are therefore mental predispositions that determine lines

53
of action. They make us develop a sort of mental set that pre-determines the way
we respond to and perform a given task. This is how our attitudes affect the
quality and quantity of learning by leading to a mental set which puts a sort of
psychological seal on our performance and response level thereby facilitating or
negating learning or performance. This mental set effect or attitudinal effect on
our performance has been referred to by German psychologists as Einstellung
effect.

Thorndikean Principle of Prepotency of Elements

One of the qualities of a good learner is the ability to identify subtle differences
between one thing and the other. This appears a very important quality for
effective learning. Unless a learner is able to see subtle differences between one
thing and the other and respond to these differences accordingly, he will get
confused in the mess of apparent similarity of stimuli. Such a confused learner
will resort to guessing rather than generating the right responses that aid the
elimination of the wrong responses. A learner who has the prepotency traits will
identify and select the prepotent items or feature and ignore other tangent
features. Such a learner will then concentrate on these prepotent features till
success is achieved.

Thorndikean Principle of Response by Analogy

Our previous experience and learning influence our present learning. Because of
our previous learning and experience, we analogise situations and so we begin to
respond to new stimuli and situations in ways analogous to what we have learnt
before. The learner therefore tries to see some aspects of similarities between his
previous experience and the new situation and thus responds to these aspects and
features in a way reflecting his previous learning. According to Okoye (1987).
“Learning is an analogous response to a new situation.”

Thorndikean Principle of Associative Shift

This principle subsumes the principle of fading in reinforcement. Thorndikean
principle of associative shift argues that a particular response initially directed to
a particular stimulus can be shifted to another stimulus while keeping the initial
response intact. This can be done by tactfully alternating additions and
subtractions till nothing is left of the original stimulating situation.
This principle was exemplified by Thorndike with the use of fish to teach cats to
stand. Thorndike dangled a fish before a cat (addition), and while putting up the
fish he shouted - - STAND withdrew the fish (subtraction) while still giving the
vocal command - — STAND. This time the mere vocal commands STAND! Not
accompanied by the piece of fish was able to evoke the required response;
STAND.
54
Thorndike’s View on Forgetting
Thorndike’s’ law of exercise and disuse implies that forgetting is a function of
non- practice and lack of frequency of response. Constant use brings about
remembering while dis-use leads to forgetting. This is because constant practice
refreshes initial impression while dis-use keeps initial practice remote.

Thorndike’s View on Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning is the use of initial learning in solving problems associated
with subsequent learning that are in some ways different form the initial learning
and situations.
Thorndike and Woodworth, as a result of the studies on transfer of learning
emphasised the role of identical elements existing between initial learning
situation and subsequent learning situation before subsequent learning can take
place. According to Okoye (1983), Thorndike’s theory of transfer, therefore, is
one that recognises the formation of well-defined bonds which fully operate in a
new situation”.
In trying to explain his stand on identical elements that bring about transfer
of learning Thorndike gave an illustration of possible transfer of learning
occurring between A12345 activity and B45678 activity because A12345 and
B
45678 have 4 and 5 in common. It is pertinent to mention that Thorndike and
Woodworth later reviewed the idea of identical elements to identical
components: a change that appears necessary and relevant to transfer situations.

Summary
S-R representing Stimulus-Response relationship is very important to understand
the concept of learning and how it comes about. The origins of the S-R theories
of learning can be traced to Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner. This lecture
discussed Thorndike’s (brand of S-R theory of learning. Thorndike was of the
view that learning comes when an organism applies the right responses to the
right stimuli. He believed in principle of associationism initially put forward by
Herbart. His physiological background made him to believe that learning is
determined by both physical and mental events.
Thorndike carried out some experimental studies. One of these was to put a
hungry cat in a puzzle box out of which the cat was supposed to find a way to
have ass to a perceived plate of odoriferous fish lying outside the box. The cat
started with the trial and error behaviours. Accidentally, the cat’s paws pulled the
string which opened the door of the box and this provided an outlet for the cat.
Repeated performance of this experiment using the same cat and the same
box reduced the duration of the trial-and-error behaviour till the right string was
pulled by the cat on entering the box.

55
 This experiment was repeated by Thorndike using dogs, fish and chickens
and he came up with similar findings. From these studies Thorndike formulated
some laws and principles of learning like:
i. The Law of Effect,
ii. The Law of Exercise;
iii. The Law of Readiness;
iv. Principle of Multiple Response,
v. Principle of Set or Attitude
vi. Principle of Prepotency of Elements and
vii. Principle of Response by Analogy.
Thorndike’s view of forgetting and transfer of learning were also discussed.

Assignment
1. You are given a bunch of keys to some offices. You are asked to select
the right key that opens a particular office. Write down your responses
before you find the right key. Which behaviours exhibited by
Thorndike’s experimental cat can be analogous to your door opening
exercise?
2. When you go home get some maize seeds and as you spread them to
your chickens ring a bell simultaneously. Do this for about a week or
two. Withdraw the maize seed and ring the bell alone. What are the
chicken’s responses? Which of Thorndike’s’ Principles of learning
typifies the response of the chicken?
3. Teach your sister or brother how to prepare rice stew and later on call on
her or him to prepare Okra soup. What are the chances of her or his
doing this successfully and why?

Post-Test
1. S-R theory of learning refers to
a. Sense — Reason theory
b. Stimulus –– Response Theory
c. Systematic — Response Theory
d. Stress — Related Theory
2. The origins of S-R. Theories of Learning can be traced to
a. Kohler -— Lewin -— Wertheimer
b. Miller — Ziegarnick -— Fay

56
 c. Thorndike -— Pavlov -— Skinner
d. Von — Restoff –– Folkard -— Semon
3. Thorndike’s Truncated Law of Effect was put forward in
a. 1929
b. 1932
c. 1939
d. 1942
4. Blind Learning
a. the behaviours referred to as those of blind people
b. the behaviours referred to as blind folded man’s behaviours
c. the behaviours referred to as trial-and-error
d. the behaviour referred to as conscious.
5. Which of the following Laws of learning was not put forward by
Thorndike?
a. Law of Effect
b. Law of Exercise
c. Law of Readiness
d. Law of Regression.

Reference
Okoye, N.N. 1985, Psychological Theories of Learning: Systematic
Analysis and Application. Owerri, Lindston Press

57
LECTURE SEVEN

Theories of Learning: S-R Theory II

Pavlovian conditioning

Introduction
Before Pavlovian experiments in learning and the formulation of his brand of
learning theory, comparative psychology was a mentalistic and abstract affair,
and not an objective one. It was Pavlov who made the study of psychology an
objective exercise based on his type of learning theory: classical theory of
learning.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian physiologist turned psychologist, had
cause to doubt and object to Wolfang Kohier’s work on the “Mentality of the
Apes” in which Kohier argued that the change in the behaviour of an animal in a
problem solving situation was an abrupt, sudden, complete and perfect insightful
learning, which cannot be improved upon by reinforcement. He was not
particularly happy with Kohier’s experimental studies on his apes because he did
not seem to realise the need for adequate methodological control of the previous
conditioning experiences of the apes he used in his insightful learning
experiments. Pavlov argued that Kohier’s apes could not have developed any
insightful learning if they did not have any previous experience and conditioned
situation.
He used experimental studies to support his arguments. One of these was
concerned with the salivation of a dog. From this study, he was able to make
observations that played a very vital role in the understanding of the how and
whys of human and animal learning.

Objectives
This lecture introduces the students to Pavlovian Classical Conditioning
Experiment and at the end of this lecture, the student is expected to be able to:
1. explain with Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment;
2. identify certain principles of learning relating to Pavlov’s experiment;

58
 3. apply these principles in oganising learning encounter for learner; and
4. make a critical appraisal of Pavlov’s experimental findings.

Pre-Test
1. Spontaneous Recovery is
a. getting well from sickness
b. the appearance of a response (that has already been extinguished)
following a period of rest after the extinction.
c. the appearance of Pavlov’s dog after a period of rest following
extinction of an acquired response
d. the appearance of urine and faeces in the experimental situation
following confused presentation of circular and elliptical objects.
2. Which of the following experimental phenomena was not observed by
Pavlov?
a. inhibiting the inhibition
b. internal Extinction
c. experimental Extinction
d. action Decrement
3. Pavlov was
a. an American Psychologist
b. a Russian Psychologist
c. a German Psychologist
d. a French Psychologist
4. Pavlov’s experimental studies were attacked by
a. Thorndike
b. Wertheimer
c. Kohler
d. Skinner
5. The main source of attack on Pavlov’s experimental studies was that
a. the dog was hungry
b. the dog was tired
c. the dog was made in-active
d. the dog was made active

59
CONTENT
Pavlov and his Experimental Dog
Pavlov devised an experimental instrument for classical conditioning, using his
dog. The whole make-up of the instrument rested on a wooden platform, on
which stood two pieces of stones which had the upper section adequately
perforated to facilitate adjustment of the instrument. It was inside this apparatus
that a hungry dog was strapped. The instrument was so made that the dog was
screened off from the experimenter in such a way that while the experimenter
would be watching the reactions and responses of the dog inside the instrument,
the dog could not see the experimenter. In other words the dog would be acting
and behaving true to type within, not suspecting it was being observed. There
was a cup fixed to the instrument to suck the saliva from the dog within the
experimental station. It was ensured that the neck, the shoulder, the waist and
fore limbs of the dog were firmly tied to the stands and the experimental situation
was sound proof.
To this dog, Pavlov presented a tuning fork. This is a metal instrument for
identifying the right sofa-notation tune to be used in starting a song or hymn. In
actual fact, the tuning fork is a mere metal instrument which cannot be regarded
as food; hence it would appear quite unreasonable for one to present the tuning
fork to a hungry dog expecting it to salivate as a preliminary behaviour to actual
eating. So Pavlov was by no means surprised when the dog did not salivate at the
presentation of the tuning fork. When tuning fork was presented to the dog, it
was recorded that the tuning fork produced or elicited no salivation response;
hence the tuning fork was appropriately referred to as a neutral stimulus which
produced neutral response. After presenting this tuning fork to the dog several
times with the same result, Pavlov then presented meat powder to the dog. The
meat powder is a material that can be eaten by the dog to assuage its hunger. It
was expected that this meat powder will surely elicit salivation from the dog. So
when the meat-powder was presented to the dog, Pavlov was not in the least
surprised, to find that the dog salivated. The meat powder was regarded as
original stimulus. After presenting this powder to the dog for several times with
the same salivation effect, Pavlov then paired the tuning fork (initial neutral
stimulus) with the meat powder and presented the two to the dog. The result was
that the dog naturally salivated to the paired items. After some time, Pavlov then
withdrew the meat powder and presented the tuning fork alone. Surprisingly, the
dog salivated; it is pertinent to note that this tuning fork when presented initially
was not able to elicit any salivation from the dog. One would ask, what was the
difference between the tuning fork presented initially and the tuning fork
presented this time that made the dog salivate? The answer is quite straight
forward. The paired tuning fork has been conditioned to the original stimulus -
the meat powder - hence it could acquire the salivational properties of the meat

60
powder. Pavlov therefore called this paired tuning fork, a conditional stimulus,
although with time, the term conditional became transformed into the term
conditioned; so that now it is referred to as conditioned stimulus (CS) while the
resulting salivation is referred to as conditioned response (CR). The original
stimulus is therefore either called original stimulus or simply unconditioned
stimulus (US) and its resulting salivation is called unconditioned response (UR).

Pavlov and Experimental Extinction

The tuning fork having acquired the properties of salivation continued to be
presented without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the meat
powder). The result was that the salivation started fading before it finally
stopped. This was called Experimental Extinction of an acquired response. This
has indicated that there is a limit to which unconditioned response can be
manipulated.

Pavlov and Stimulus-Response Generalisatlon

As soon as the paired tuning fork started eliciting salivation, Pavlov withdrew the
unconditioned (or original) stimulus, (i.e. the meat powder) and presented the
tuning fork alone and there was salivation. He later paired this tuning fork which
(he called foist order conditioning) with another neutral stimulus, for example a
buzzer or even Pavlov’s shirt, and found that this buzzer or his shirt had acquired
the salivational properties of the tuning fork. This acquisition of response Pavlov
called second order conditioning. He conditioned stretching this conditioning to
third, fourth orders. This was possible through a psychological process known as
stimulus - response generalisation. It is technically referred to as higher order
conditioning.

Pavlov and Experimental Neurosis

Pavlov carried his studies to the area of discrimination learning. He trained his
dog to discriminate a circular object from an ellipse one; however, the circular
object was always presented after the meat powder while the elliptical object was
not rewarded with meat powder. The usual difference in shape between a circle
and an ellipse is in the ratio of one to two when this shaping ratio was
maintained; the dog was able to differentiate between the circle and the ellipse.
However, when the ratio of difference between a circle and an ellipse was
increased to nine to eight making the ellipse look unusually similar to a circle,
the dog could not differentiate between the two and it started responding to the
circle and the ellipse. The dog got confused and started responding to the wrong
response and eventually defecated and urinated. This Pavlov regarded as a
classical example of experimental neurosis.

61
Pavlov and (Inhibitions of Inhibition) (Dis- Inhibition)
When Pavlov succeeded in making a tuning fork elicit salivation and he
continued using the turning fork without pairing it with the unconditioned
stimulus (meat powder) it was found that this newly acquired conditioned
response gradually started fading. As this downward trend in salivation was
going on, Pavlov introduced a novel and strange object along side the tuning fork
and presented the two to the dog. Surprisingly enough, the fading out response
experienced an upward trend and salivation increased. This upward trend in
extinction trend was referred to by Pavlov as inhibiting the Inhibition or simply
referred to as Dis-Inhibition.

Pavlov and Internal Extinction

Pavlov observed that when the conditioned stimulus (tuning fork) was presented
to the animal and immediately withdrawn before the expected conditioned
response (CR) will not occur. This Pavlov referred to as TRACE
CONDITIONED RESPONSE otherwise known as INTERNAL EXTINCTION.

Pavlov and Spontaneous Recovery

Pavlov observed that after presenting the conditioned stimulus (the tuning fork)
for several limes without pairing it with the meat powder (unconditioned
stimulus) the dog gradually started phasing out the conditioned response (CR)
and finally stopped salivating to the conditioned stimulus (CS). He then untied
the dog, and gave it some hours of rest. He later brought the dog back to the
experimental situation and presented the conditioned stimulus (CS) the tuning
fork and the dog salivated. This reactivation of an extinguished response was
referred to as Spontaneous Recovery of Response.

Pavlov and Sub-Zero Extinction

Pavlov observed that when a conditioned stimulus, (CS) in this case the tuning
fork, ceased to elicit salivation, due to continued presentation without being
paired with the unconditioned stimulus, (US) the continued presentation of this
(CS) without being pairing with the (US) will further weaken the strength of the
(CS) leading to what Pavlov referred to as sub- zero extinction.

Pavlov and Reinforcement:

For a conditioned response (CR) to be developed and maintained, Pavlov
believed that reinforcement was very essential. To reinforce is to introduce a
satisfier or to withdraw an annoyer immediately after a response, thereby
increasing the probability of repeating the response. With the introduction of a
satisfier, the resulting reinforcement is the positive type of reinforcement. On the
62
other hand, with the withdrawal of an annoyer, the resultant reinforcement is
negative reinforcement.
In Pavlov’s classical experimental conditioning, the introduction of meal
powder could be regarded as positive reinforcement which would lead to
increased salivation or response.

Conclusion
Although Pavlov’s experiment acted as an eye-opener and revealed many facts
about human and animal learning, it has been seriously attacked by other
psychologists.
B.F. Skinner who queried the reliability of studies carried out with what
may be regarded as ‘prisoner dog”. This was because Pavlov tied the dog during
the experiment that one wonders how the dog would have really responded if
kept free and more active. There was no doubt that Pavlov’s dog was inactive
under detention.
With this attack, Skinner began to carry out his own studies leaving the
animal in the experiment much freer than that of Pavlov. Again, Pavlov used an
air-conditioned experimental situation and a noise-proof situation too. He was
also taken up on this because normal classrooms where Pavlovian findings are
expected to be applied are not air-conditioned or sound proof; rooms, hence one
doubts if the findings of such classical conditions could have the same
experimental effects on the normal classrooms.
Despite all these criticisms, Pavlov stands out as a pacesetter and a man to
be reckoned with in the field of learning and experimental psychology.

Summary
Pavlov’s contribution to the building up of a theoretical frame work for learning
was his Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning. His experimental studies
using the hungry dog led to the development of many ideas about learning. They
also led to the observation of certain phenomena very crucial in understanding
learning in the classroom.
In this lecture we have found how continuous presentation of conditioned
stimulus (CS) without pairing it with the appropriate unconditioned stimulus
(US) led to the eventual extinction of the acquired conditioned response (CR).
This condition has been referred to as Experimental Extinction.
Problems in discrimination can lead to a state of experimental neurosis.
Although problems of discrimination in the classroom may not make pupils
defecate or urinate in the class- room but it can lead to some form of neurosis
where they learn by guessing rather than by responding to the right responses.

63
This highlights the need for teachers to explain subtle difference between
concepts and items that look alike so that the pupils can discriminate one concept
or item from the other. This will enhance learning. One fact of inhibition shows
that even an on- going inhibitory trend in learning can be arrested by the
introduction of novel materials continuously with the conditioned stimuli (CS).
Internally Extinction reminds us of the need for teachers to exercise patience
and stop rushing lessons so that the presentation of conditioned stimulus (CS)
will occur simultaneously with the unconditioned stimulus (US) or else internal
extinction sets in with the unconditioned stimulus (US) leading to ineffective
learning.
The need for breaks during the course of learning and study and the need to
space learning have been established by the spontaneous recovery phenomenon
observed in Pavlov’s dog after a period of rest, following the experimental
extinction of an acquired response.
Sub-zero extinction sounds a note of warning as to when to stop presenting
conditioned stimulus (CS) in order not to negate whatever good work we have
initially done in the teaching- learning process.

Assignment
1. Teach a biology lesson using a live insect and teach the same lesson to
another group of pupils using the diagram of the insect. Which class
learnt better and why?
2. As you are engaged in this study try to lock your door and keep reading
from morning till evening-non stop. Next day try reading for about 50
minutes and then take a break before you continue reading. Which study
method facilitated assimilation and why?
3. How do you feel when during the course of your studies you are made to
realize that you are performing well? What would be the situation if this
feedback is absent?

Post-Test
1. Spontaneous Recovery is
a. getting well from sickness
b. the appearance of response (that has already been extinguished)
following a period of rest after the extinction
c. the appearance of Pavlov’s dog after a period of rest following
extinction of an acquired response
d. the appearance of urine and faeces in the experimental station
following confused presentation of circular and elliptical object
64
 2. Which of the following experimental phenomena was not observed by
Pavlov?
a. inhibiting the inhibition
b. internal Extinction
c. experimental Extinction
d. action Decrement
3. Pavlov was
a. an American Psychologist
b. a Russian Psychologist
c. a German Psychologist
d. a French Psychologist
4. Pavlov’s experimental studies were attacked by
a. Thorndike
b. Wertheimer
c. Kohler
d. Skinner
5. The main target of attack of Pavlov’s experimental studies was that
a. the dog was hungry
b. the dog was tired
c. the dog was made inactive
d. the dog was made active

Reference
Okoye, N.N. 1985 Psychological Theories of Learning: A Systematic
Analysis and Application, Owerri: Lindston Press Ltd.

65
LECTURE EIGHT

Theories of Learning: S-R Theory III:

Skinnerian Conditioning

Introduction
As indicated in the preceding lecture, Skinner was not happy with Pavlov as
regards his classical conditioning experiments which studied the dog kept in a
rather passive mood. He would like to see the experimental animal become more
active in solving its problems.
Besides, Skinner was more concerned with the usefulness of
experimentation in acquiring new knowledge. He showed little confidence in
theories and hypotheses and preferred to be referred to as a technologist rather
than a theorist. Instead of carrying out experiments designed to test predictions
and speculations, he would rather experiment on situational factors which
influence the organism and, which eventually lead to the manifestation of certain
behavioural changes. Skinner developed special interest in original experimental
studies in animals, especially pigeons.
These experimental studies and his concern for practical ways of solving
situational problems associated with animal and human learning led him into
developing what Okoye (1985) called, epoch- making and educationally
revolutionary innovative teaching machine and programmed learning.
Skinner became interested in the study of psychology because of his critical
views and stand on Pavlov’s work on conditioned reflex and classical
conditioning. However, Skinner’s brand of psychology became behaviouristic
within the S - R field of psychology because of Watsonian and Rosellian
philosophic ideas. His interest in animal and human behavioural studies bore fruit
as contained in his book:
The Behaviour of Organisms became very popular in behavioural
psychology. 1939-1945 saw Skinner as a worker in the U.S. office Department of
Scientific Research and Development. It was during his stay in this office that he
developed the idea of carrying out experimental researches with the pigeons,
which culminated in his training pigeons to pilot torpedoes and bombs during the
66
Second World War. His interest in human beings as targets of his experimental
studies led him into inventing and developing the air-crib which was an air-
conditioned box made to serve as a baby tender. This no doubt came up as his
initial concern for environmental situational effect on human and animal
behavioural manifestation and directions. This air-crib took care of children
between the ages of one and two years.
In 1948 Skinner showed evidence of a shift in his focus to community life
and social living. The book “Walden Two” which was a result of this change in
focus sparked off a lot of controversy.
In 1948 Skinner became a Professor at Harvard University and it was then
he started his business of training animals into tricksters. For example pigeons
played the piano, and cats obeyed military command. His deep involvement in
experimentation led to the development of what has been known as Skinner Box,
an experimental box in which he observed practical proofs of the effectiveness of
reinforcement in bringing about changes in behaviour. Skinner’s experimental
studies also led to his writing on psychology and other behavioural studies. His
books were highly controversial, and “Beyond Freedom and Dignity” was the
most controversial. In this book, Skinner warned the whole world about the
world’s mad desire and demand for freedom. According to him, the demand for
freedom may after all, leads to self destruction.

Objectives
This lecture aims at introducing the students to Skinnerian Conditioning
Experiments and at the end of this lecture, the students are expected to be able to:
1. analyze and discuss (and Skinnerian Instrumental Conditioning
Experiment;
2. explain Skinnerian reinforcement techniques and their working;
3. discuss Skinnerian role in behaviour modification; and
4. explain the application of Skinnerian reinforcement techniques in
learning - teaching settings.

Pre-Test
1. In which of the following was Skinner very much interested?
a. experiments designed to predict learning potentials
b. experiments designed to speculate on learning potentials
c. experiments designed to understand situational factors affecting
learning
d. experiments designed t, understand cognitive learning.

67
 2. The book ‘Behaviour of Organism” - was written by
a. Pavlov
b. Skinner
c. Thorndike
d. Ziegarnick.
3. Which of the following books represented Skinner’s view on community
life and Social living?
a. A Tale of Two Cities
b. Walden Two
c. Christmas Carol
d. Freedom and Beyond.
4. Which of the following items was not found in the Skinner Box?
a. a cup for food
b. a lever
c. light
d. a tuning fork
5. Which of these researchers replicated Skinner’s Studies on punishment?
a. Ebbinghaus
b. Estes
c. Kohier
d. Thorndike.

CONTENT
Skinnerian Experimental Studies within the S-R Frame Work
Skinner in his bid to reduce the importance of mere theorisation and to elevate
experimentation demonstrated in practical terms certain studies. He asserted that
he was not a theorist and should not be regarded as one. He preferred to be
referred to as a technologist, a title that was most justified by his invention of the
programmed learning; Teaching Machine, and Air Crib.

The Skinner Box

One of the technological devices in aid of animal learning which was eventually
transformed into use for Skinner’s experimental work popularly known as the
Skinner Box.
Okoye (1985) referred to the Skinner Box as “experimental artifice which
was air- conditioned and sound - proof. It contained three things used in the
68
experiment - a lever, a cup for food; and light. This lever was attached to a pen
which recorded lines on a piece of moving paper reflecting the experimental
animal’s lever pressing responses. (p. 100).
This box was used for Skinner’s instrumental or operant conditioning
experimental studies. There was a hungry rat inside this box. The box had a lever
which was directly attached to a hidden container of pellets of food for the rat.
The lever was linked with the food container in such a way that when the lever
was pressed, the food container would release some pellets of food which
according to Okoye (1985) “would fall down like manna from heaven. The lever
and the food container worked in connection with an attached light. When the
bulb showed light, this could be an indication that the lever had been pressed
enough to make pellets of food drop from the roof of the box. When lever
pressing was followed by no light it indicated inadequate lever pressing which of
course needed another trial.
It was observed that the rat initially started exhibiting trial- and-error
responses, having been motivated by the need to assuage its hunger by the
presence of undisclosed food, indicating its presence with a strong aromatic
scent. After series of trial- and-error response the rat, by coincidence pressed the
lever and there was light in the attached bulb and this was followed immediately
by fall of pellets of food from the roof of the Skinner Box. In this instance, the
fall of pellets of food was a reward for pressing the lever. As long as lever
pressing was rewarded with the fall of pellets of food signified by light in the
bulb the rat increased the rate of pressing the lever. It was also observed that
when the lever pressing mechanism was dismantled so that it was no longer
possible for lever pressing to be rewarded with the fall of the pellets of food, the
rat gradually reduced the rate of lever - pressing. Thus, the lever pressing
response became reduced in frequency and this led to the extinction of lever -
pressing as a result of non-reinforcement.

Skinner and Punishment

From the Skinner box, Skinner studied the effect of punishment on lever pressing
response. Instead of allowing pellets of food to drop when pressed, the lever was
made to give a sharp slap on the paw of the rat. This sharp painful slap was
regarded as punishment. Observations from this sharp slap experiment indicated
that although, sharp slap led to slowed down lever pressing responses by the rat
both the punished and the unpunished rats carried out the same number of lever
pressing responses. Estes (1944) reported similar findings as Skinner found in his
initial studies. It was therefore concluded that punishment after all is not food
behaviour modifying tool.

69
Skinner and Pigeons
Skinner used pigeons to carry out his experimental studies. Here Skinner made
hungry pigeons play the piano. This be did by training the pigeons piano key
board pecking exercise. Certain keys of the piano when pecked would reward the
pigeons while some others did not. The keys that rewarded when pecked were
linked with the appropriate musical sound that was needed to produce the desired
musical sound. As a result of this, the pigeons were able to “stamp in” the right
responses (that is the right keys) and “stamp out” the wrong keys.
Eventually, the trained pigeons were able to selectively peck only the
desired keys. From his experience on these experimental studies and also from
the earlier works of Pressey on Programmed Learning, Skinner produced his
Programmed Learning Device, which symbolised the operant or instrumental
conditioning producers. Skinner also developed teaching machines which were
basically designed out for the respect for the individuality and uniqueness of each
learner. When the right answer must have been pressed on the teaching machine,
the machine would ring some bell, and flash some light. The teaching machine
was modified to contain both questions and answers. The modified machine has
been found very useful in teaching courses like psychology, social sciences and
the humanities.

Skinner's Operant Behaviour and Operant Conditioning

Skinner believed that Operant conditioning should be a supplement to classical
conditioning. In other words, he believed that a merger of the classical
conditioning (of Pavlov) and operant conditioning ( of Skinner) would produce a
better means of improving human and animal learning and aid the understanding
of the why and how of behaviours.

Skinner, Operant Behaviour and Respondent Behaviour

Skinner clearly distinguished between what he regarded as Operant behaviour on
one hand and respondent behaviour on the other.
For him, operant behaviour is characterised by its operating on the environ-
ment. He also regarded operant behaviour as being emitted rather than being
elicited by something. In other words, operant behaviour is inner directed rather
than being stimulated or triggered off from outside.
Respondent behaviour according to him would refer to a behaviour which
comes under the direct control of stimulus. In other words, respondent behaviour
refers to behaviour that is outer- directed rather than inner-directed.
Besides, operant behaviour is goal-directed in the sense that it is regarded as
a tool or an instrument for achieving a desired goal. This is why operant

70
behaviour is also called instrumental behaviour or tool behaviour.
Operant behaviour implies activity rather than passivity. In other words an
Operant behaviour takes place in the process of active purposive responses on the
part of the organism. Put in a more straight forward manner, Operant behaviour
is brought about by the organism itself in the process of activity geared towards
achieving the designed goal. In this wise an organism can initiate or terminate an
Operant behaviour. Operant behaviour therefore is a planned conscious
behaviour. In human beings it can be regarded as a humanus actus – a behaviour
carried out with the full consciousness and consent of the individual.
On the other hand, a respondent behaviour implies passivity rather than
activity. This means that an organism does nothing to bring about a respondent
behaviour. It occurs as a result of the interaction of a stimulus and the internal-
make-up of the organism. In this sense, a respondent behaviour is stimulus-
directed or stimulus oriented.
Examples: If we regard (i) going to the penny-in-the-slot machine, (ii)
putting a coin into the slot, (iii) and pressing the machine as three Operant
behaviours, then we can also regard (i) salivate at the sight of food, (ii) urinating
at the sight of danger as respondent behaviours. According to Wolman (1975) an
Operant behaviour is "behaviour which is identified in terms of its effect on the
environment", while he regards respondent behaviour as "behaviour which is
elicited by a particular “stimulus’.

Skinner, Operant Conditioning, and Classical conditioning

Having explained his own view of operant and respondent behaviour, Skinner
went on to discuss conditioning and classical conditioning.
According to him, operant conditioning refers to a conditioning process
whereby a response is followed immediately by either a reward or a reinforcer
thereby strengthening the bond between a given S (Stimulus) and a given R
(response). For example, the rat in the Skinner box generated a response,
(pressing the lever) which was followed immediately by a reward (pellets of food
falling down like manna from heaven). This therefore strengthened the bond
between S (stimulus which is the lever) and R (response, which is pressing the
lever).
On the other hand, classical conditioning according to Skinner refers to a
process of conditioning Stimulus (CS) being immediately followed by
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). For example, here a conditioned stimulus (CS)
would refer to the initial tuning fork which was immediately followed by
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS), meat powder.

71
Skinner and Reinforcement
For Skinner, reinforcement is the achievement of a goal which can satisfy a drive
or urge. For example, reinforcement for a hungry organism is acquiring food; and
water is the reinforcement for a thirsty organism. Reinforcement can therefore be
viewed as being either positive or negative.
A positive reinforcement can be as a result of the introduction of a satisfying
stimulus (satisfier immediately after a response, thereby increasing the
probability of repeating that response.
On the other hand, a negative reinforcement occurs as a result of withdrawal
of an aversive stimulus (annoyer) immediately after a response, thereby
increasing the probability of repeating that response. In other words, whether we
are talking of positive or negative reinforcement, the result is always the same,
that is a response or behavior has a greater probability of being repeated.

Skinner and Behavioural Modification

From Skinner’s experiment it became clear that reinforcement holds the key to
behavior modification and behaviour change. His pigeons were able to play the
piano because of the intensive manipulation of the reinforcement techniques
when training the pigeons on the pecking exercise. His cats obeyed the military
command STAND UP!, because reinforcement played a very vital role in the
military training.
Skinner’s concept of reinforcement is very important to teachers,
psychologist, guidance counsellors, therapists and all concerned in one way or
the other with human and animal behaviour manipulation.

Summary
During this lecture we discussed Skinner and his experimental studies. Skinner
has shown little confidence in theories and hypothesis. He would prefer to be
called a technologist rather than a theorist. In his experimental studies, he was
concerned with situational determinants of behaviour.
He was particularly a pragmatic experimenter whose concern for evolving
practical ways of solving situational problems in the way of animal and human,
learning led him into developing teaching machines, and programmed learning
devices. His critical view of Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment made him
develop interest in psychology; however Skinner's brand of psychology was
behaviouristic with the S-R field of psychology. As a result of his studies on
human and animal behaviour, he wrote a book. The Behaviour of Organisms
which was very popular in behaviouristic psychology.
Skinner's studies with pigeons led him into training pigeons to pilot

72
torpedoes and bombs. His concern for and interest in situational manipulation as
aid to human and animal learning led him into producing the air-crib which took
custodial care of children between the ages of one and two years.
In 1948, he shifted his research focus to community life as shown in his very
controversial book, Walden Two. His research studies took him into training
animals as tricksters for example pigeons playing the piano and cats obeying
military command. Using the "Skinner Box" which he developed, he could
observe the influence of reinforcement on animal behaviour and from which he
inferred the human behaviour mange which in practical terms led to the
behaviour modification techniques widely used in Psychology, Counselling and
Psychotherapeutic services.
In his book "Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner warned that much desired
freedom by mankind may after all prove illusory and self destructive to mankind
since extreme freedom is a negating force.
Skinner's definitions of operant and respondent behaviours were examined.
For Skinner, operant behaviour is emitted rather than elicited and it is inner-
directed and acts upon its environment. Respondent behaviour is outer-directed
where operant behaviour is goal-directed and instrumental to achieving the
desired goal.

Assignment
1. Each time your students protest t in demand for a particular favour, you
offer them that favour immediately they protest. Do you think these
students will increase or decrease the frequency of rioting?
2. Make a list of operant behaviours and respondent behaviours which you
have observed in connection with human behaviours.
3. Praise your student for being very punctual to school. Watch his school-
attending behaviour the next day.
What do you observe?

Post-Test
1. In which of the following was Skinner very much interested?
a. experiments designed to predict learning potentials?
b. experiments designed to speculate on learning potentials
c. experiments designed to understand situational factors affecting
learning.
d. experiments designed to understand cognitive learning.

73
 2. The book "Behaviour of Organisms" - was written by
a. Pavlov
b. Skinner
c. Thorndike
d. Ziergarnick
3. Which of the following books represented Skinner's view on community
life and social living?
a. A Tale of Two Cities
b. Walden Two
c. Christmas Carol
d. Freedom and Beyond
4. Which of the following items was not found in the Skinner Box?
a. a cup for food
b. a lever
c. light
d. a tuning fork.
5. Which of these researchers replicated Skinner's studies on punishment?
a. Ebbinghaus
b. Estes
c. Kobler
d. Thorndike.

Reference
Okoye, N.N. (198.S) Psychological Theories of Learning: A Systematic
Analysis Application, Owerri. Lindston Press Ltd.

74
LECTURE NINE

Theories of Learning: Cognitive

Introduction
The Associationists School of Psychology which had structuralists;
behaviourists; and. functionalists was seriously attacked by another group of
psychologists otherwise referred to as the Cognitive psychologists' who were
initially based in Germany. In their bid to criticise the S-R psychologists’ view
and stand on learning, they produced the cognitive theories of learning.
Three men were responsible for the formation of the Gestalt Cognitive
Psychology. They were Max Wertheimer', now referred to as the Father of
Cognitive Psychology; Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. The basis of their
theoretical stand is their philosophical belief that "the sum of all parts cannot be
equal to the whole". This led them into opposing the piece-meal method of
studying human behaviour and sensations. They argued that to understand how
human beings behave, they must be studied in their totality, in all their complex
forms. Their contention was that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
They argued that before any problem can be solved, the gestalt of the problem
must be identified. This Gestalt is a German term which does not have an English
equivalent. However, gestalt has been variously interpreted in English as having
a very close meaning to words such as form; configuration and shape. The
cognitivists argue that to identify the gestalt of a problem, the problem solver
must carry out a wholesome observation of the totality of the problem situation.
This wholistic (holistic) perceptual observation of the problem and its situation
will reveal the subtle form of the background and milieu in which the problem
exists. These subtle thin strands of configuration are what are referred to as the
gestalt of the problem.
Gestalt psychology soon spread across the Atlantic Ocean and America
where it was readily received. With supportive experimental studies in animal
behaviours and problem solving, Gestalt psychology also gained ground in
Europe.

75
Objectives
This lecture aims at introducing the students to the concept of cognitive
psychology and cognitive theory of learning. At the end of this lecture, the
students are expected to be able to:
1. explain the concept of cognitive psychology;
2. explain the cognitive theory of learning;
3. discuss the various laws of cognitive psychology; and
4. explain the concept of gestalt.

Pre-Test
1. The Father of Cognitive Psychology was
a. Kohler
b. Koffka
c. Lewin
d. Wertheimer

2. Cognitive Psychology started in

a. America
b. England
c. France
d. Germany
3. Cognitivists are synonymous with
a. associationists.
b. existantialists
c. gestaltists.
d. structuralists.
4. There is a tendency for the uncompleted to become perpetually
completed in order to develop the good gestalt needed for effective
problem solving.
This statement refers to
a. the law of closure
b. the law of good continuation
c. the law of pragnanz
d. the law of proximity

76
 5. Gestalt’s view on motivation is meaningful in terms of
a. the law of closure
b. the law of good continuation
c. the law of pragranz
d. the law of proximity

CONTENT
Cognitive Theory of Learning
The development of a separate theory of learning based on the principles of
cognitive psychology began with Kohler's experimental studies on animal
problem solving and insightful learning. The term insightfulness was evolved
because insightfulness is very closely linked with the identification of the gestalt
of a problem. Once the gestalt has been identified, an insight into the problem is
developed. The identification of insight is usually symptomised by what has been
technically referred to as “Aha! Experience” or “Eureka Experience”. In a local
Nigerian Languages this Aha! Experience is synonymous with what the Igbo’s
may call “Afugom ya! Experience”; or “Motiri!” experience in Yoruba’ or
“Nagaji Experience” in Hausa, one of the physical signs exhibited by a problem
solver having achieved the Aha! Experience is the smile visible on his face.
Kohler for example regarded problem solving as an abrupt affair that would
come suddenly in a complete form as a perfect insightful phenomenon. Problem
solving cannot therefore be improved upon through reinforcement. .To give a
practical base to this contention, he carried out series of experiments on
chimpanzees. Five chimpanzees Soho, Popo, Nueva, Sultan and Chiko, were
used for these experiments. Of these five chimpanzees, the Sultan was said to be
the most intelligent.

Kohler and His Experiments with Chimpanzees

Kohler prepared-an instrument which looked like a cage but made with wood for
carrying out his-experiments on animal problem solving. The top of the cage was
covered completely on two sides while the other two sides were partly covered.
This cage gave the experimental animal kept inside it, freedom of movement. At
the base of the cage was a platform which stretched far beyond the cage at
ground level.
Because of a fence built round the cage it was impossible for the
chimpanzee in the cage to reach the end of the projecting platform with its hands.
It was at the end of this platform that a bunch of ripe banana was attached. The
cage was so made that the chimpanzee could not escape from it unless it was let
out by someone. Inside the cage were two pieces of sticks - one had a socket end

77
to which another stick could be fixed; the other stick had a hook which could be
used in plucking something like fruits. However, these two sticks were scattered
and kept quite apart from each other within the cage. A hungry chimpanzee was
kept inside this cage.
When, the hungry ape saw the ripe banana it naturally struggled to get at it.
It went to the farthest end of the platform, as far as the fencing structure would
allow it; from this end it stretches its hand in an attempt to pluck the banana, but
it could not reach it.
After some more desperate attempts using the hand, the ape became
disgusted and it sat down in the cage. Later it started examining the cage and its
environmental setting. During this process the ape was able to see the hooked
stick. Initially, it used this hooked stick to beat the rails of the cage. But
suddenly, it noticed that the stick could be of help in plucking the banana. It
decided to use the stick and its band to pluck the banana. But unfortunately, the
banana was still out of its reach. This ape struggled further but to no avail. It then
moved back to the cage and started moving round the cage till it later saw the
other stick. It did not notice any relationship between the first and the second
sticks initially. The first reaction was using the two sticks for beating up some
consoling music. Then suddenly, it dawned on this ape that this stick could be
plugged into the socket of the other stick to produce one long stick with a hook at
the end. With this idea, a smile of success beamed on the ape’s face. The ape had
thus developed what gestalists call. “Aha! Experience”. With this “Aha!
phenomenon”, the ape plugged one stick into the other, used the long hooked
stick (product of this plugging) and made straight for the end of the platform,
stretched out the stick and its handle and of course, plucked the banana. The
problem had been solved at last.
Commenting on this solution, Kohler noted that the ape was able to pluck
the banana because it has made a wholistic (holistic) observation of the problem
situation in its tota1ity and was able to identify otherwise hidden subtle gesta1t.
With the gestalt identification, the ape was able to develop an insight into the
problem and thus was able to solve the problem. The emphasis on wholistic
observation is necessary because when initial1y the ape had only a partial
cognition of the problem situation it could not solve the problem. (For example,
when it only made use of one of the sticks without noticing the other stick).
Kohler thus argued that complete solution to a given problem could come
only in terms of insightful learning which would in turn come through
identification of the gestalt of the problem. He believed that after an animal must
have gained the whole perception of the cognitive structure of a given problem, it
will set out to make some hypotheses as to how best to solve the problem. Then
the animal will produce responses and activities which are quite meaningful in
terms of solving the problem, vis-à-vis the total structural and contextual set-up

78
of the problem. This is the major idea behind the cognitive theory of learning.

The Law of Pragnanz

Pragnanz is a German word which can be translated to mean pregnancy. This is a
close but unsatisfactory translation. For the gesta1t psychologists, pragnanz
refers to the way events or patterns move towards forming psychological
organization. This movement trend is consistently inclined towards this
organisation and does not move to other directions. The movement towards the
desired organisation is synonymous to the movement towards the direction of the
good gestalt. According to Okoye (1985); "The law of pragnanz therefore is the
law that guides this directional movement of psychological organizations towards
the good gestalt. A good gestalt must have certain properties in order to attract
the expected psychological organisation. The properties are: regularity or
consistency; simplicity or lack of complicatedness and stability.
Since some of the chief problems observed in the course of learning are as-
sociated with unbalanced adjustment arising from anxiety, tension and other
related problems, the Gestaltists argue that the law of pragnanz will bring about
the equilibrium desired for the 1earner to grapple with these problems.

The Law of Similarity

This is also referred to as the Law of Equality. It was particularly formulated by
Wertheimer to explain how groups are formed within a given perceptual content.
Similarly in colour, forms or a patterned out arrangement tends towards the
formation of groups in perceptual context. In other words, similar forms or
colours are perceived in groups rather than singly. Two similar objects or
materials always tend to interact between themselves, and it is this interaction
that makes similar objects or materials amenable to better and easier learning.

The Law of Proximity

This law says that when materials or items in a given contextual setting are
spread and scattered, objects which lie near each other tend to form perceptual
groups which eventually become organizations. The law of proximity is therefore
concerned with nearness of materials in the contextual setting of the problem.
In terms of memory processes and functioning, the law of proximity
becomes analogous with the law of recency. This means that sensory impressions
that are near are better recalled and better learned because being near these
impressions form perceptual groups which eventually become perceptual
organisations useful in identifying the gestalt of the problem or learning situation.

79
The Gestalt Law of Closure
When areas are left open ended and not closed, they leave a perceptual gap which
if not closed, will lead to perceptual difficulty in problem solving. There is
therefore a gestalt perceptual tendency to close the un-closed in order to give the
resulting good gestalt the important quality of stability. As Okoye (1985) has
pointed out "In the learning process, an unsolved problem is viewed as an
unclosed area which is therefore not stable in terms of good gestalt".

For learning to be effective this unsolved problem must be solved.

The Law of Good Continuation

This law argues that perceptual organization tends towards perpetuating or
ensuring the continuity of a given pattern or perceptual structure. Thus, a line or
curve drawn somewhere tends towards completing itself into a wholistic
(holistic) perceptual structure
e.g.
a. becomes b.

in terms of perceptual
structure

c. becomes d. and

a. becomes f.

80
the lines which are obviously uncompleted in diagrams and in the process of
perceptual cognition become perceived as wholes in diagrams.

Gestalt view on Learner's Capacity

For a learner to be able to react satisfactorily and effectively to the gestalt
differentiation in the problem solving or learning situation, that learner must
possess natural capacities that are adjustable and manipulable. Such natural
capacities will help the learner restructure and reshape ideas and perceptual
contexts to develop the much desired organisation needed for the identification of
the good gestalt. These natural capacities for adjustability, restructuring and re-
shaping would mean that the good gestalt in spite of its three qualities of
constancy, stability and simplicity, is ever-changing, hence good teaching should
reflect this ever-changing trend of good gestalt.

Gestalt view on Practice

According to the Gestaltists, the process of cognitive perceptual restructuring
involves continuous practice which is achieved 'through repetitious performance
of a particular act, response or behaviour. Repetition and practice subsume the
gestalt law of proximity and law of recency.
Practice, we normally say, makes perfect. The phrase on practice sounds a
bit hyperbolic, it should be modestly accepted that practice leads to recency,
better recognition of what has been initially learnt; over learning and to the
development of indigestion of an acquired response or behaviour.
However, prolonged practice may make an individual over develop the "p"
factor at the expense of the "o" factor. Here, "p" factor refers to the perseveration
factor which produces the 'perseveration effect which eventually leads to fixation
of response'. The "o" factor refers to the "oscillation" factor which makes it
possible for an individual to adjust to changing or changed situation in spite of
acquired responses following constant practice.
Practice which is expected to facilitate human learning must strike an ac-
comodable balance between the 'p' and 'o' factors, and be able to enjoy the heuris-
tic benefits of practice without developing negating fixation which has been
referred to as mental fixedness or mental fixation (Wright, 1966).

Gestalt view on Motivation

Learning is goal-oriented. Observations have shown that human beings display a
lot of interest in completing the uncompleted job in order to achieve a target goal.
The uncompleted job therefore creates a psychological gap which calls for
closure. The unclosed job should therefore be closed; and this is how the concept

81
of motivation in whatever sphere of endeavor can only be very meaningful in
terms of the gestalt law of closure. The unclosed, uncompleted task generates a
sort of impelling force that triggers off motivation and pushes the organiser into
action in order to close the unclosed.
Trial-and-error behaviours or responses at the initial stage of problem
solving should not be seen as Purposeless as (Thorndike would like us believe),
but should really be seen as purposeful reactions aimed at closing the unclosed
and completing the uncompleted in the problem situation. Once the unclosed
becomes closed there would be no need for trial-and-error behaviours or
responses.

Gestalt view on Understanding

According to the gestalt psychologists, understanding is a very essential pre-
requisite for problem solving or learning. It is a product of good perceptual
cognition of the organisation derived form the link between one structural
material and the other in the problem or learning situation. Good perceptual
cognition will also help the learner or problem-solver appreciate the existing part
- whole relationships of various materials which form part and parcel of the
problem or learning situation. Such appreciation leads to the understanding and
eventual effective problem solving and learning.

Gestalt view on Transfer of Learning

Whether the active and ever-changing relationships as observed in the Original
learning situation can be seen as applicable to another subsequent situation, then
transfer of learning or transfer of training will be possible. For Gestaltists
therefore, transfer of learning becomes meaningful in terms of transposition
whereby a perceptual phenomenon in one situation (the original situation) is
transposed to the new situation. Perceptual cognitive orientation which highlights
this transposition possibility between initial learning situation and subsequent
situation will no doubt bring about high quality and quantity of transfer of
learning.

Gestalt view on Forgetting

Gestalt view on forgetting becomes meaningful in terms of memory traces that
have suffered some changes. When memory traces change and eventually phase
out or disappear through decay or some destructive processes, these traces will
form ineffective perceptual field within a faulty cognitive structure, thus 'leading
to forgetfulness. Forgetfulness arises when a trace process is unable to pick up
available traces.

82
Summary
Cognitive psychologists also referred to as either cognitivists or gestaltists posed
a serious challenge to the S-R Associationist Psychologists’ view on learning.
While Wertheimer was regarded as the Father of Cognitive psychology,
Koffka, Kohler and Lewin were regarded as the chief leaders. The cognitivists
strongly argued that for a comprehensive understanding of human behaviours and
responses in learning and problem-solving situation, the individual generating
these behaviors and responses should be observed in his totality. They argued
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This means that even when all
the parts are heaped together, an assembled whole is greater. For example a car
that has been dismantled into odd pieces and ends carefully heaped making sure
that no single part has been removed from the heap, cannot of course be said to
be equal with a car that has been left in its original wholistic structural setting.
This is because, while the un-dismantled car is intact and still retains the
functional qualities associated with mobility and manipulation, the heap of
dismantled car parts cannot perform these functions.
The car in its wholistic structural set-up is surely greater than the sum of the
other car that has been dismantled. Semblance and functionality appear to have
disappeared as soon as the car loses its wholistic structural make-up.
The experimental study which Kohler carried out with a Chimpanzee (ape)
was discussed as regards on how animals are experimented upon to solve
problems. It was found that the hungry ape could only solve the problem of
plucking a ripe banana when it was able to have a wholistic perceptual' cognition
of the problem situation. Such wholistic perceptual cognition leads to the
identification of organisation locked up within the problem situation. With
organisation being identified, the gestalt is also identified and the ape recorded a
success known as "Aha Experience". (Afugom ya! experience in Igbo language;
“Motiri! Experience” in Yoruba and “Nagahi! Experience” in Hausa). As a result
of these experiments, the cognitive psychologists came up with some formulated
laws of learning. These include: the law of Pragnanz; the law of Similarity; the
law of Proximity; the law of Closure-; and the law of Good Continuation. These
included were well- discussed.
Gestalt views on the learner's capacity practice motivation, understanding,
transfer of learning or training and forgetting were examined in the light of the
tenets of gestaltism.

Assignment
1. Draw uncompleted lines and curves. Watch them wholistically. What
perceptual cognition does your brain present as regards these lines and
curves?

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 2. Get a problem to solve. At first tackle it in, then part attempt its solution.
Note your performance. Now view it wholistically and then attempt its
solution. What perceptual method has helped you better?
3. Go to a printer's workshop and watch a book in scattered form - odd
pieces of paper here and there in a rather disjointed form, Go later after
the book must have been assembled. Which perception of the book
(scattered versus assembled) proved meaningful to you-and why?

Post-Test
1. The Father of cognitive Psychology was
a. Kohler
b. Koffka
c. Lewin
d. Wertheimer
2. Cognitive Psychology started in
a. America
b. England
c. France
d. Germany
3. Cognitivists are synonymous with
a. Associationists
b. Existentialists
c. Gestaltics
d. Structuralists
4. There is a tendency for the uncompleted to become perpetually
completed in order to develop the good gestalt needed for effective
problem solving. This refers to
a. the law of closure
b. the law of good continuation
c. the law of pragnanz
d. the law of proximity.
5. Gestalt view on Motivation is meaningful in terms of
a. The law of closure
b. The law of good continuation
c. The law of pragnanz
d. The law of proximity.

84
References
Okoye, N. N.(l985) Psychological Theories of Learning; A Systematic
Analysis and Application Owerri: Lindston Press Ltd.
Wright 1966. Introducing Psychology. London.

85
LECTURE TEN

Motivation and Learning

Introduction
Motivation is a Latin word derived from movere which means to move into
action. Motivation is therefore the process by which an organism is moved into
action in whatever the organism does. Motivation is the ingredient that makes
organisms tick in the process of achieving what they want to achieve.
Research studies have revealed that there is a natural tendency in human
beings and animals to achieve and maintain psychological balance, comfort or
equilibrium always. All our struggles in life are geared towards attaining this
equilibrium. But it is paradoxical to observe that when the much desired
equilibrium is achieved and maintained without any disruption, the situation may
not augur well for the progress and civilisation of mankind. We need a tinge of
rough conditions, some bits of inconvenience in order to arouse us from our
psychological slumber into which we have been thrown by the prolonged stay in
a state of psychological equilibrium. This is why psychologists argue that
inconveniencing situations are motivating (Okoye, 1985).
It therefore follows that we need some challenges, some rough edges, some
hard times in order to get us triggered into action and become motivated.

Objectives
This lecture exposes the students to the concept of motivation in learning and
teachings settings. At the end of this lecture, the students are expected to be able
to:
1. explain the meaning of motivation;
2. explain the process of motivation;
3. explain how motivation affects human learning; and
4. distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation.

86
Pre-Test
1. Which of the following stages has nothing to do with the Motivational
process?
a. anabolization
b. feeling of tack of
c. tension
d. urge
2. Adient behaviour is the same thing as.
a. abient behaviour
b. approach behaviour
c. avoidant behaviour
d. awareness behaviour
3. Which of the following psychologists was concerned with the Inverted
'U' formula of motivation?
a. Kobler - Koffka
b. Pavlov - Thorndike
c. Skinner - Watson
d. Yerkes - Dodson
4. Which of the following does not belong to Extrinsic Motivation?
a. blames
b. punishment
c. warning
d. sensory reinforcement
5. Which of the following sustains activities in the process of motivation?
a. drive
b. emotions
c. need
d. urge.

CONTENT
The Process or Motivation
An organism in the process of motivation passes through certain sequential steps.
Human beings also pass through some stages.
The individual is in a equilibrated situation feeling comfortable,
psychologically balanced and satisfied. Then, this individual experiences some

87
inconvenience. This inconvenience therefore disrupts the psychological equilibrium
which the individual is enjoying. The individual can then be said to be dis-equilibrated;
dis-balanced, and uncomfortable. Dis-equilibrium therefore creates a psychological
gap or vacuum in the individual.' This produces an inner drive in the individual to
restore the lost equilibrium, to refill the gap and to restore him to a state of
balance, comfort or satisfaction. In trying to achieve this equilibrium, the
individual becomes motivated.
When the individual feels a psychological gap or vacuum within himself, we
can say that the individual has now developed a sense or feeling of lack of. A
feeling that he lacks something. This feeling is regarded as the first stage in
motivation.
The individual now makes moves to bridge the gap by transforming the lack
of into need. He feels there is the need for him to achieve that which he feels he
lacks. This transformation comes as a result of interaction between the internal
state of the individual and stimuli that impinge on him.
Following the same pattern of transformation, this need state is transformed
into urge. Urge is a motivational state when the individual experiences a higher
level of compulsive need. For example the urge to drink water is more
compelling than the ordinary need for water. Also, the urge for learning and
academic pursuit is more compelling than the mere need for learning and
academics. This urge appears at the third stage in the process of motivation.
After the urge comes the drive stage. At this stage, the individual in the
process of motivation begins to experience some push or pull state. If the source
of motivation is 'an aversive stimulus (like a dangerous snake) then this stage will
take the form of pulling this individual out of the reach of the dangerous snake by
means of avoidant behaviours technically referred to as abient behaviours in
psychological parlance. If on the other hand, this source or motivation is
satisfying stimulus (like obtaining an academic qualification or marrying a girl)
then the individual stage of drive will take the pushing form, pushing this
individual towards the motivational target by means of approach behaviours also
technically referred to as adient behaviours.
From this drive stage, the individual moves further to a stage of tension.
This stage is a rather charged and turgid state. It generates activities which would
help the individual to achieve the desired motivational target. Generated
activities can evaporate hence there is need to sustain these activities when the
motivational goal has been achieved. Emotions are known for sustaining and
giving direction and intensity to activities. So at the seventh stage emotions are
generated by the limbic part of the parasympathetic section of the brain. Besides,
emotions add hue and colour to the motivational process.
Generated and sustained activities can be mis-used and abused hence the in-
dividual passes through a stage of selecting the appropriate activities and
88
dropping activities that run counter to the norms and mores of the society to
which the individual belongs. This stage is that of the mechanism, which works
hand- in-hand with the individual's super-ego (conscience).
The ninth stage comes immediately after mechanism. At this stage, the
individual has succeeded in carrying out a selective process whereby only
purposive behaviours are available for use by the individual. The tenth and final
stage is the stage when the individual, using these purposive behaviours achieves
the desired goal (the motivational goal) and this particular motivational process is
phased out because the initially lost equilibrium has now been restored. The
individual once more becomes equilibrated, balanced, satisfied and comfortable.
This process of motivation has been illustrated by Okoye (1981) as
Homeostatic Cycle of Motivation.

Yerkes - Dodson and Inconveniencing Situations

Although, we have shown above that inconveniencing situations may after all
prove to be motivating situation. However, practical experiences of life have
shown that an overdose of inconvenience disorganises rather than motivates.
Yerkes - Dodson (1908) in their studies found that inconvenience motivates only
if it is restricted within the optimal level and not beyond that. Making room for
these limitations as regards the level of inconveniences, challenge, tough
conditions, it is correct to argue that challenges of life; inconveniences and tough
conditions motivate. When the going becomes rough only the tough will keep
going. Challenges and inconveniences bring out the best reactive resistance
in individuals. When everything in life becomes smooth and easy-going, it is
a danger sign for human progress.

Motivation and Human Learning

Although human learning comes naturally, there are periods when individuals
lose interest in learning. They become indifferent to learning and perform poorly.
Such individual learners therefore need to be motivated and triggered into action.
Having examined the various processes associated with motivation, we have
to see how each of the stages in motivation can be utilised and manipulated to
facilitate human learning.
If learners appear lazy and lethargic about learning and lose interest in it, we
can motivate them by firstly making them realise the importance of learning in
their lives. We will make them realize that the key to achieving their ambition in
life lies with effective learning. In other words, without taking the learning
programmes seriously, they would not pass their examinations, and they cannot
achieve their aims in life. This will enable the learners feel that something is
lacking if they do not take their learning programmes seriously. Secondly, while
89
teaching the individual learners, there is the need to highlight the need for
learning and academic programmes.
Identifying such a need will make them strive towards satisfying the
identified need.
Thirdly, learners must be made to realize the possibility of becoming
successful academically. This will transform their need into urge. Telling them
stories of their classmates who have achieved academic success by working hard
and highlighting various possibilities available to them for improving their social
and personal status through hard work and devotedness to their academic pursuits
might be of help.
Highlighting the possibilities of improving their academic performance and
making them realize that progress depends on how seriously they take their
studies, will transform their state of urge into drive.
This transformation can come about if the teacher or whoever is in position
to facilitate learning makes the learner realise both the advantages and
disadvantages of learning. The enumerations of possible advantages in learning
and possible disadvantages in not learning will make individual learners in the
stage of drive to experience the push away (abient) behaviour from not taking
learning programme seriously. On the other hand, the awareness of the
possibilities of success in life through studying hard and taking the learning
programme seriously will make them develop a pulling (adient) behaviour
towards learning as a venture worth pursuing.
In the motivational process, drive will transform into activities. Obviously
learners need to possess some activities in order to carry out various functions
and duties associated with learning. So the fifth stage in motivating an individual
to study and learn effectively and seriously, is concerned with making the learner
activity - oriented.
After activities have been generated in the learning encounter, the learner
should be helped to develop the appropriate emotional state that would sustain
these generated activities; give hue and colour to the target of motivation; (which
in this instance is learning) and give direction to the generated activities. For
example, if positive emotions are directed towards motivation, then the
individual will direct - all his energies and activities towards the target of
motivation. Finally, emotions will also give intensity to the way individual
learners tackle their studies and learning programmes. If the goal is highly
coloured by emotions, then the learner will show greater intensity and
involvement in carrying out all activities needed for achieving \the target.
Activities at our disposal in the process of motivation must be controlled, and
selected into purposive behaviours that do not run counter to learning rules and
regulations for example, the elimination of examination malpractices.

90
 With this selection of purposive behaviours and activities, the learner will
have at his disposal learning skills and techniques that are acceptable in the
learning discipline. With these skills and techniques, learning success would be
easily achieved. With this, the initial motivation to learn and achieve the
particular desired goal will be phased out.
Obviously, such- a motivated learner will learn better, than a non-motivated
learner. Motivation therefore plays a very important role in the facilitation of
human learning. It must be pointed out that like inconveniences, over-dosage of
motivation disorganises. Again motivating an individual whether in the work
situation, in the home or. in the learning environment, should not go beyond the
optimal level, or else the individual being motivated may become disorganised
Teachers and people who facilitate human learning should bear this fact in mind
when motivating their children, pupils or learners.

Sources of Motivation
Motivation may either come from within the individual or from outside forces. If
the source of motivation is within the individual, this motivation is referred to as
intrinsic motivation. If on the other hand the source of motivation is from outside
the individual, it is called extrinsic motivation. By comparison, intrinsic
motivation is a better form of motivation than extrinsic motivation. But rather
than leave an individual without any motivation at all it is better to resort to
extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation and Human Learning

Daily observations have shown that intrinsic motivation promotes learning better
than extrinsic motivation. This is because intrinsic motivation comes as a result
of an individual's deep lying realisation of the need to achieve the goal he wants
to achieve. For example, if A strongly wishes to be a medical officer and he
understands that before be can be admitted into the University to pursue the
Bachelor's Degree in Medicine, he must have credits in mathematics at the GCE
OIL Examination or its equivalence then he will develop an internal realisation of
the need of studying Mathematics very seriously. He does not require an outside
force to do this. Motivation to read and study Mathematics that comes from
within, without outside prompting is referred to as intrinsic motivation. In this
case, the need to be satisfied is clear and lucid and there is the interest to work
hard to achieve the goal.

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Extrinsic motivation and Human Learning
Extrinsic motivation occurs when the individual is motivated by outside forces.
Such outside forces include praises, appreciation, rewards, recognition, warning
punishment, scolding, and blaming.
For example, in a class, if one pupil gives a correct answer to a question, or
scores the highest mark in a test, and he is praised in the presence of the other
pupils or given a prize for scoring the highest mark, the pupil is reinforced and at
the same time, we are extrinsically motivating the other pupils to read hard and
give correct answer or to score high marks in future tests.
Such remarks or actions motivate human learning because they make the
other pupils in the same class who have not answered correctly or who have not
won any prize feel that something is lacking in them. In other words, this feeling
of lack creates a psychological gap or vacuum which dis-equilibrates the pupils.
In striving to fill this gap, the pupils become motivated, passing through various
stages of motivation as indicated in 10.2 above.

Summary
Motivation is derived from the Latin word movere meaning to move into action.
When human performance and morale in any situation become low, there is the
need to motivate the individual into action for better performance.
The ten stages of motivational processes have been discussed. These are
feelings of lack of, aced urges, drive, tension, activities, emotions, mechanism,
purposive behaviours and achievement.
The role of inconveniencing situation in bringing about motivation has been
highlighted but Yerkes- Dodson (1980) warned against not keeping dosages of
inconvenience within the optimal level since over-dosage of inconvenience
disorganizes rather than motivates. The role of motivation in human learning has
been examined vis-a-vis the ten stages of motivational processes. This was
followed by a discussion on the sources of motivation. Two main sources of
motivation were identified - Intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation. Practical
examples of each type of motivation and how they affect human learning and
their relative importance and use mentioned.

Assignment
1. Compare how seriously you take your studies when you are aware of a
test to how you will attend to your studies if there is no test.
2. Compare two pupils - (one motivated and the other not motivated)
consider their relative levels of interest in studying a day later.
3. Make a close study of a person under the influence of motivation vis-a-
vis the ten stages of motivation.

92
Post-Test
1. Which of the following stages has nothing to do with the Motivational
process?
a. anabolisation
b. feeling of lack of
c. tension
d. urge
2. Adient behaviour is the same thing as
a. abient behaviour
b. approach behaviour
c. avoidant behaviour
d. awareness behaviour
3. Which of the following psychologists were concerned with the Inverted
'o' formula of motivation?
a. Kohler - Koffka
b. Pavlov - Thorndike
c. Skinner - Watson
d. Yerkes - Dodson
4. Which of the following does not belong to Extrinsic Motivation?
a. blames
b. punishment
c. warning
d. sensory reinforcement
5. Which of the following sustains activities in the process of motivation?
a. drive
b. emotions
e. need
c. urge.

References
Okoye, N.N. (1985). The Psychology of Motivation Ibadan: Adedara
Publishers Ltd. (In Press).
Okoye, N.N. (1987). Psychology Facilitation of Human Learning.
Ibadan: University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

93
LECTURE ELEVEN

Effective Learning Strategies

Introduction
Learning is a phenomenon that transcends human and animal kingdom. What dis-
tinguishes human from animal learning is the high level of intellectual
functioning with which human learning is associated in open contradiction with
animal learning. Man has a higher intellect than animals hence; human learning
is of a higher status and quality when compared with animal learning. However,
for human beings, the quality and quantity of learning differ from individual to
individual. While this can be explained in terms of different individual traits and
make-ups, it can also be explained in terms of various learning strategies being
adopted by different individuals in the process of learning. Researchers in
psychology and education contend that the quantity and quality of learning
outcomes would in part depend on various learning strategies being adopted by
different individuals.
Individual differences can satisfactorily account for differences in the way
individuals learn.

Objectives
This lecture introduces students to effective learning strategies, and at the end of
the lecture the students are expected to be able to:
1. explain the need for adopting effective learning strategies;
2. explain various learning strategies.
3. apply the strategies in the learning - leaching setting.
4. discuss the special heuristic qualities of these learning strategies.

Pre-Test
1. Knowledge of result is the same as
a. advanced organiser

94
 b. computerised results
c. information Feedback
d. thorough results.
2. That the whole strategy is better than the part strategy of has been put
forward by
a. associationist psychologists
b. cognitivist psychologists
c. existentialist psychologists
d. structuralist psychologists
3. You Restoff carried out studies on
a. effect of Middle position on learning
b. effect of motivation on learning
c. effect of Reinforcement on learning
d. effect of Von, Rest and off duty on learning.
4. In a series of several items lined up for learning which three will be
better learnt?
a. 1st. 2nd and 7th
b. 1st. 3rd and 7th
c. 1st. 4th and 7th
d. 1st. 5th and 7th
5. The adult span of active non-stop learning is
a. 20 – 30 minutes
b. 10 – 40 minutes
c. 40 – 50 minutes
d. 50 – 60 minutes

CONTENT
The Need for Effective Learning Strategy
Experiences have shown that many people complain of having been trying their
best in order to learn fruitfully, yet it appears they achieve very little
academically. At times they conclude that they have either been bewitched or a
powerful juju doctor is using his diabolical spells on them. Such a superstitious
belief often worsens the situation since such a learner would emotionally
hallucinate and would not see the reality of his academic failure. Such a person
needs professional counsel to enable him eliminates his wrong emotional stand
and be more realistic. In professional guidance and counselling services, such a

95
learner will be treated to Rational Emotive therapy.
Part of this Rational Emotive therapy will be concerned with helping the
learner realize the cause of his academic failure and effect of superstitious views
about his non-performance. He would be advised to change his mode of learning
and adopt better learning strategies for more effective learning. Effective learning
strategies are therefore very essential tools for effective learning. They are based
on years of hard nosed psychological researches and experiments. Some of such
strategies to be discussed in this lecture include spread rather than massed
learning; recitation rather than more reading; whole rather than part learning
strategy, knowledge of result rather than non-feedback strategy, selective serial-
position rather than non-selective strategy, reinforcement rather than non-
reinforcement strategy, motivation rather than non-motivation strategy. These
seven strategies will help learners to improve the quality and quantity of their
learning.

Spread Rather than Massed Learning Strategy

Some learners in their enthusiasm to learn and succeed think the brain can be
worked for a long time. Therefore, they study for long hours at a stretch without
taking any rest. Psychologists have found that such a non-rest method of learning
does not help the learner. On the contrary, it has adverse effects on the academic
performance of a learner.
The human brain has a pecu1iar way of working. For example, the adult
brain can work effectively for about 50 minutes to one hour non-stop. After this,
the rate of assimilation will decrease. This low performance is a result of what
psychologists refer to as reactive inhibition. Once this reactive inhibition sets in
during a learning exercise, the learner's mental functioning will decrease and
eventually the brain may be fatigued, leading to brain-fag. (coined from brain-
fatigue).
For younger children this brain performance duration ranges from 30
minutes to 40 minutes. This therefore explains why in a learning situation,
provision must be made for rest and break. Therefore learning loads and
exercises should be spread rather than massed or heaped. The old and archaic
method of reading non-stop either from morning till evening or from night till
morning non-stop has been found to be a useless and non-rewarding exercise.

Recitation Rather than Mere Reading Strategy

Reading no doubt is a very important tool for effective learning, especially when
the leaner reads with understanding. This is the most popular method of learning.
Unfortunately many learners do not know how to read. They continue reading
without understanding; and they also read very slowly and spend a lot of time on

96
a short piece.
Psychologists in their attempt to improve the quality of learning have found
that recitation has a better learning effect than reading alone. In recitation, all the
mental processes are involved; in the act of bringing back in a film like manner
what we have learnt hence: the term recite (to cite again). There arc two types of
recitation:
i. verbal or vocal recitation
ii. mental recitation.
In verbal recitation, we speak out the piece we are citing again; while in
mental recitation, the citing again is not vocalised. By comparison mental
recitation has a greater improvement effect on learning than verbal recitation.
Moreover, it is not always possible to use the verbal recitation in public
libraries and public study rooms because other readers and students may be
disturbed by the recitation technique. However, it must be pointed out that when
recitation is paired with reading, it will improve the quality of our learning.

Whole rather than Part Learning Strategy

Cognitive psychologists have taken pains to explain the perceptual differences
observed in human beings arising from whether the perceptual target object has
been perceived as a whole or in part. It has been conclusively observed that
perceiving things in a wholistic manner leads to better cognition of the perceived
material than in parts. This belief is subsumed in the gestalt argument that “the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts”.
In the learning situation, this gestalt argument has been found operative
hence better learning outcomes emanate from a wholistic (holistic approach to
learning than would be the case in part learning.
It is because of these findings regards the (learning) gains of wholistic
approach over the patristic (learning) approach that psychologists have advocated
teaching pupils words in wholes rather than in single alphabet patterns. This
same principle applies in the teaching of poems and passages to be learnt. The
whole approach always beats the patristic approach. For example, if the old poem
"'Twinkle Little Star, is to be taught it is better done by teaching the whole poem
as a whole verse:
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star
How I wonder bow you are
Up above the world so hip
Like a diamond in the Sky.
than to teach it in the partristic manner thus: .

97
 Twinkle (as a single word detached from the poetic verse), then teach the
second
Twinkle and then teach the word Little, all in isolation and pulled out of context.
Obviously, the intended and embedded meaning in the poetic verse would
be lost as a result of the excessive break down of the various components of the
verse. Obviously, the first approach which presented the first verse as a whole
will facilitate human learning better than the patristic approach which
disorganises the meaning and understanding.

Knowledge of Result rather than Non-Feedback

Human beings naturally want to know how well they are performing on a certain
task. If their initial performance happens to fall below what is expected, the
knowledge of how well they have performed will help them identify their errors,
correct such errors and avoid a repeat failure performance. On the other hand, if
they have performed well, knowledge of having performed well will act as an
impetus and source of encouragement to them to work harder and improve in the
initial good behavior as to convert their good performance into the best
performance.
It has been found that if the learner is not given information feedback
(knowledge of result) on how he performs, he could be likened to a person kept
in the dark, blindfolded. For such a "blindfolded" learner, learning performance
improvement is not certain. Such a learner will find it difficult to identify his
errors not to talk of correcting them or avoiding them in future.
As Okoye (1981) pointed out, when knowledge of result is concerned with
bringing message of failure, it must be tactfully done so as not to corrode the self
concept of the learner and thereby depress the learner. As Okoye (1987) warned
in providing information feedback, care must be taken not to over-emphasise the
learner's past failures to the point of discouraging the learner. They should make
the learners think less of their past failures and more of their successes" (p.25).
It must be pointed out here that knowledge of result may be either
immediate or delayed. Whether the immediate or delayed type will be used will
depend on the type of learning task being done. Okoye (1987) has given practical
examples of learning tasks needing immediate and delayed knowledge of results.
In summary, learning tasks involving creative skill and mental fluidity should not
be interrupted or else effective learning will be negated. For other non-sensitive
learning tasks, immediate -knowledge of result can be used gainfully. (p.25)

98
Selective Serial Position rather than Non- Selective Strategy
Psychologists have found that the position which a learning task occupies in time
and in space (in serial order) affects how well the task can be learnt. Thus, tasks
occupying first and last positions are better learnt because of the prominence of
their positions. This means that relating this to space, tasks occupying the first
position in a serial order will be better learnt than tasks coming in-between. So
also is the case with the last-position learning tasks. Relating the serial position
effect on learning to time will mean that first mentioned learning topics and last
mentioned learning topics will be better learnt than learning topics mentioned in-
between. This strategy which emphasises the role of the first and last positions
has been referred to as "Primacy-Finality strategy. (Here primacy refers to first
while finality refers to the last.
Subsequent studies by Von Restoff found that not only the first and last
positions are easily recalled and learnt, the middle positions are also better learnt.
The effect of middle position on learning has been referred to as Von Restoff
effect (named after the psychologist who made the observation).
Teachers and learner-helpers should therefore listen to the message of the
serial position effect and arrange the task contents in such a way that more
important learning tasks should be taught either first or last in the series or at the
middle of the term.

Reinforcement rather than non-Reinforcement Strategy

Human beings like praise, recognition, appreciation, rewards and promotions.
Human beings also like to be praised and, to be recognised often. These, praises,
recognition, appreciation, rewards and promotions are satisfiers and are generally
preferred to annoyers. Thus, any response or behaviours or even stimulus coming
immediately before these satisfied are looked upon by the recipient organism, as
being responsible for the occurrence of such behaviours or responses, because
they have been they have been very closely associated with the satisfiers. They
will therefore repeat those behaviour and responses which preceded the
emergence of the satisfiers in the hope that history will repeat itself and they will
enjoy the satisfiers once more. This is the basis of what psychologists call
reinforcement, and this was why Skinner’s rat in the Skinner Box experiment
was able to learn how to feed itself within the box by pressing a satisfier lever. In
line with this argument, it then follow that learning tasks which are cushioned
with satisfiers or reinforced have better chances of being learnt than learning
tasks that have not been so cushioned.
In the learning situation, when learners exhibit the right responses, these
responses should be immediately followed by satisfiers like praises, rewards,
appreciation, promotion so that a repeat exhibition of those responses can take
place.

99
Motivation Rather Than Non-Motivation Strategy
Human beings tend towards a state of equilibrium whether we think of physical
or psychological equilibrium. This equilibrium state has been called different
names, like complacency state, state of comfort, state of balance, state of
satisfaction. An organism enjoying this state is said to be equilibrated. Although
a persistently un-broken state of equilibrium may finally lead to lethargic and
unprogresiveness states, human beings consciously or unconsciously would like
to restore an interrupted state of equilibrium. This is because once the
equilibrium is disrupted; it creates a psychological gap in the individual and the
individual experiences an inner struggle to fill the gap. With this, the individual
becomes moved into action (motivated).
This means that occasional bouts of interruptions and disruptions of our
state of equilibrium may after all be veritable sources of our being motivated into
further progress and upliftment. This is true in ordinary tasks and in our learning
ventures. In the learning situation, learners should not be spoon fed. They should
be exposed to occasional rough edges and moderate doses of difficulty which
would interrupt and disrupt their equilibrium in the learning encounter. Such
interruption and disruptions of the equilibrium will make them see the need to
restore the lost equilibrium. An inner struggle and strife will set in motion and
eventually rouse them up (from their lethargy and slumber) to action, motivating
them for effective learning.
Research studies and observations have shown that the motivated learner is
better than the un-motivated learner. Creating a more challenging classroom
situation and making the learners realise that their individual image and prestige
are at stake with their learning performance will create a need in them, rousing
them up into action in order to satisfy the need which has been created.

Summary
This lecture has exhaustively discussed the various learning strategies expected
to improve human learning. These learning strategies with their negative options
are discussed in seven paired groups.
i. Spread versus Massed learning strategy;
ii. Recitation versus mere Reading Strategy;
iii. Whole versus Part Learning Strategy;
iv. Knowledge of result (information feedback) versus non-
feedback learning strategy;
v. Selective serial position versus non-selective position strategy;
vi. Reinforcement versus non-reinforcement strategy;
vii. Motivation versus non-motivation strategy.
Reasons were given to explain why a particular strategy is preferred to its paired option.

100
Assignment
1. Watch a person learning how to drive a car.
What usually happens when the driving teacher delays providing the
learner driver with information feedback?
2. When your pupil greets you in the morning, praise him for greeting you,
at the same time ignore another pupil who greets you. Watch the two
pupils tomorrow and identify which of the two pupils will greet you
more readily and cheerfully.
3. Try to learn two comprehension pieces, of the same task level. Use the
whole strategy to learn one piece and the partistic strategy for the other
piece.
Which piece has been better comprehended?

Post-Test
1. Knowledge of result is the same as
a. advanced organisers
b. computerised results
c. information Feedback
d. thorough results
2. That the whole strategy is better than the part strategy of learning has
been put forward by
a. assocationist psychologists
b. cognitivist psychologists
c. existentialist psychologists
d. structuralist Psychologists
3. Von Restoff carried out studies on
a. Effect of Middle position on learning
b. Effect of motivation on learning
c. Effect of Reinforcement on learning
d. Effect of off duty on learning.
4. In a series of seven items lined up for learning which three will be better
learnt?
a. 1st, 2nd and 7th
b. lst, 3rd and 7th
c. 1st, 4th and 7th
d. 1st, 5th and 7th

101
 5. The adult span of active non-stop learning is:
a. 20 - 30 minutes
b. 30 - 40 minutes
c. 40 - 50 minutes
d. 50 0 60 minutes

References
Okoye, N. N. (1981) The Psychology of Effective Learning, Ibadan:
Adedara Publishers Ltd
Okoye, N.N. (1985) Psychological Theories of Learning: A systematic
Analysis and Application. Owerri: Lindston Press Ltd

102
LECTURE TWELVE

How to Study Effectively

Introduction
Study has been regarded as work, hard work. If we accept that study is hard work
then it becomes clear that we have to prepare for study as a serious worker
prepares for work. Wrong and negative attitudes to study arise from the fact that
we do not see study as hard work and consequently upon this attitudinal stand,
we handle study with laxity and abandon.
Psychologists have carried out series of research studies on determinants of
effective study and how best to improve our study habits. Suggestions have been
made on how to prepare for effective study. The way we prepare for anything
appears to hold the key to our understanding of how we are going to perform in
that task.
Two types of preparations are very essential for effective study. These are
psychological and physical.

Objectives
This lecture introduces students to study effectively, and further at the end of this
lecture the students are expected to be able to:
1. explain the concept of study;
2. discuss how to prepare for study effectively;
3. manipulate their concentration processes; and
4. explain how to select right materials for effective study.

Pre-Test
1. Which of the following is not concerned with the psychological
preparation for effective study?
a. arranging seating position during study
b. arranging your attitudes towards study
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 c. arranging how to control your thoughts during study
d. arranging how to have confidence in yourself as you study.
2. Who among these psychologists suggested how best to control our
concentration at a given point in time?
a. Anastasi
b. Biehler
c. Fay and Smith
d. Lewin
3. Which of the following is the right way of developing positive attitude
towards studying a particular course?
a. thinking of how the course will relate to your life now and in future.
b. thinking of the type of seat to use for study
c. thinking of the type of books to use for study
d. thinking of the type of place of stay for study.
4. Which of the following has nothing to do with effective study?
a. confidence in ourselves
b. selecting a study corner
c. selecting a study seat
d. selecting the hair style
5. In the course of study which of the following should be discouraged
when we feel tired?
a. allowing the brain to cool down
b. eating kola-nut
c. resting for a while
d. sleeping for a while.

CONTENT
The Psychological Preparation for Study
Study is a process which involves both mental and physical aspects of the
learner. In other words, in the process of studying, the mental process goes hand
in hand with the physical processes. Thus, our preparation for effective study
should be bifocal.
The mental processes involved in study are concerned with our attitudes to
what we are studying, our ability to control our thoughts, ability to have
confidence in our abilities, our determination and perseverance to study
successfully.

104
 We shall see how our psychological preparation for effective study can take
care of these mental aspects of study processes.

Preparing our Attitudes towards Study

Our attitudes which influence our performance have been referred to as our
mental pre-dispositions by psychologists. They are the opinions we hold about
what we perceive of things ever before we come in contact with them. Attitudes
may be either positive (favourable) or negative (unfavourable). As we have found
in the preceding lectures, the attitude we have towards what we want to learn
affects the way we learn a phenomenon often referred to as Einstellung Effect

Controlling our Concentration Processes

Studying needs high level of concentration. Although, a one hundred - percent
undisturbed concentration is idealistic to be attainable, we should try to maintain
a high level of concentration. This is very important for effective study, because
unless we concentrate during the course of our study, our thought will wander to
other ideas and things and our study becomes meaningless.
At any given time, our mental processes are flooded with relevant and
irrelevant ideas. This is a relative term because what determines relevant ideas
would depend on what we are attending to at the point in time. If we are studying
the concept of Psychology then any idea that is concerned with its understanding
is relevant. If on the other hand, an idea about how to make quick money comes
up; since this is not relevant to the understanding of the topic we can regard that
idea as irrelevant. All irrelevant ideas weaken our level of concentration. In the
study situation, efforts should be made to eliminate to the barest minimum all
ideas that reduce the level of concentration or whatever good idea we set out to
achieve.
Kurt Lewin a cognitive psychologist has suggested that we can maintain a
fairly stable level of concentration, if we keep ignoring all irrelevant ideas
coming our way in the course of study and capitalise on the relevant ideas. This
is an art of concentration that can be developed with practice.
Worries and unsolved problems are chief sources of irrelevant ideas that
reduce our level of concentration. Therefore, before we start studying, we should
try to find a sort of tentative solution to our worries and problems.
During the study period, serious attempts must be made to keep Kurt
Lewin's formula for controlling concentration in mind.

105
Developing Confidence in Ourselves
There is an old joke that "If people do not say that you exist; you must say that
you exist".' While this sounds a bit like blowing one's trumpet, the message is
clear and simple - you must acknowledge the good qualities you possess, In other
words, we have to believe that we have the necessary abilities, capabilities and
potentialities to perform a particular task meaningfully and successfully. It is this
belief in our ability to perform' effectively that is equal to having confidence in
ourselves. A person who has confidence in himself accentuates the positive rather
than the negative, when making self assessment and self-appraisal of himself. By
accentuating the positive we mean emphasising our strengths rather than our
weaknesses. It is seeing ourselves as performing individuals, who can be seen as
potential' success. Such a confident stand gives the individual the much needed
strength, stamina, zest .and courage to forge ahead and achieve success.
When we lose confidence in ourselves, then we look down on ourselves, our
abilities, capabilities and potentialities, such perception will lead to non-perfor-
mance. As (my namesake) Norbert Wiener of Germany, (a psycho cybernetics
specialist) has argued, the brain works like a servo-mechanism and if we play in
success ideas to it, it will reflect and play back success and if we play in failure
ideas to it, it will play back failure. From this psycho-cybernetic point of view,
learners in the course of their studies should develop high level of confidence in
themselves. This can be done by making the pupils develop a positive perception
of themselves in terms of the capabilities, abilities and potentialities vis-a-vis the
topic of their study.
Such short prompting statements like, "I know I can!" or "I know I will
succeed" are very good methods of developing confidence in ourselves.

Developing Determination and Perseverance towards Study

As a follow-up to developing confidence in ourselves in the process of studying
we also develop some level of determination to study not minding the odds. As
discussed earlier in preceding lectures, determination is a function of a strong
will power, the will to survive and succeed however tough and rough the situa-
tion may be. Once we are determined to achieve the goal of our study, we shall
naturally persevere till the goal is achieved.
As soon as we are determined to study, our whole body and its system will
be geared towards achieving that which we are determined to achieve. With this
determination, perseverance would come readily. Perseverance gives the
individual the necessary endurance to continue trying till the logical end which is
success.
An individual who lacks determination to study will continue to
procrastinate studies. As long as we are not determined to tackle our study or

106
whatever task we want to undertake, we shall not make an effective start in the
study encounter. This is why an old adage has it that "Procrastination is a lazy
man's apology". An undetermined learner will never start or if he ever starts, will
never take his studies seriously.
Again, a non-persevering learner may start to study but may not continue
studying to the end especially when the going becomes tough and rough.
The learner who wants to study effectively and fruitfully should therefore
develop the good qualities of determination and perseverance.

The Physical Preparation for Study

So far we have been discussing how to get psychologically prepared for effective
study. But, it has been observed that in the process of study, an individual needs
to get prepared both psychologically and physically. This is because even if you
are psychologically prepared for studies you may not after-all attain the desired
effective study if certain physical preparations are neglected. This is because in
the process of study, both the individual and the physical components of the
environment interact. Lack of physical preparation for study may negate
whatever psychological preparation we must have made; and vice versa.
These physical preparations for effective study include the selection of a
study place the selection of study materials; the selection of study seats; and
making use of well arranged time-tables.

The Selection or a Studying Place

Study is not what can be carried out anywhere. This is because study is a
sensitive process that needs conducive atmosphere and environment for
meaningful results. The best place for study is a distraction free place. Effective
study cannot take place under any type of distraction because distraction destroys
the learner's level of attention to given stimulus involved in the study. If the
learner's attention is reduced or diverted, the learner will not study effectively.
Thus, the ideal study place should be distraction-free. A noisy classroom is
not a good place for study; so is a classroom too near the heart of an industrial
city (unless of course you are studying environmental noise as a topic itself!).
In the home, the study room should be far from the living room because
of noise from the T.V., Radio or even noises of living room discussions, jokes
and arguments.
The study room should therefore be in a corner of the house where
domestic, .and electrical gadget noises will not disturb the learner.
Fay and Smith as we have seen in preceding lectures have observed that hot
places are not good enough for learning; Folkard and his team of researchers

107
have confirmed this finding by Fay and Smith in their studies on the effect of the
time of the day on human recall. What this means is that very hot places are not
ideal places for effective study. Studying in the cool of the morning is better than
studying in the afternoon.
Recent studies by Okoye have shown that learners study better in their self
"selected study corners than in fixed routine study places. This is because self
selected study corners make learners feel more adjusted while studying than
would -a fixed routine study places. Well-lighted and well-ventilated places are
ideal places for study. For formal instruction, a fixed meeting place is needed.

The Selection of Study Material

Study is work and like other types of work, it needs some necessary materials for
better results. These materials include relevant books; jotters for taking notes;
pens and pencils; for studying mathematics, the Mathematical set must be kept
handy; for the languages, appropriate dictionaries must be kept within reach of
the learner and of course the time table must be there. These must be kept very
close to the learner so that immediately study starts the individual learner is not
disturbed by moving up and down.

Se1ection of Study Seats

In the course of study, the posture of the individual engaged in the study exercise
matters a lot. This is because the learner needs a good and reliable supply of
blood -to the brain for the brain to function effectively.' This is one of the reasons
why we pointed out the need for providing good ventilation. This is to ensure that
adequate supply of oxygen is made available to the learner for onward
transmission to the blood vessels via the lungs and finally to the brain. Adequate
supply of oxygen to the brain ensures high quality functioning.
It has been observed that the posture we assume at study time will affect the
supply of blood to the brain. If we sit in a clumsy way the free now of blood will
be disrupted and the brain will be deprived of enough blood. This situation will
lead to reduced brain functioning and poor study and learning.
People engaged in studying should endeavor to sit up instead of sitting bent
or hunched.
Again, it is suggested that the chair on which we sit for study should be
neither too soft nor too hard. If the seat is too soft it will lull the learner into
unsolicited sleep. On the other hand if the seat is too hard, it will make the
learner uncomfortable and this will be a source of distraction leading to breach of
concentration in the process of study and learning. The table should be of the
right size fitting the individual using it for study. If the table is either too high or
too low for the learner, his attention will be distracted.
108
Making Use of a Well-arranged Time Table
The person involved in studying should have a working time table which should
be consistently adhered to. The time- table should ensure that there are periods of
break from study after about one hour (for adults) and about 40 minutes (for
children).
Following the time-table judiciously requires some level of discipline and
self-control. It must be pointed out that the time-table for study be impartial to all
the courses that must be studied. In other words, we should not let our attitude
towards any particular course affect the time which we allocate to the course on
the time-table.
When we feel that we are getting tired over our study, we should rest. Eating
of kola-nuts is not advisable.
Having prepared our-selves both psychologically and physically for
effective study, we have to go further and discuss techniques for effective study
and various sources of study habits problems. These techniques and study habits
problems will be discussed in Lectures 13 and 14 respectively.

Summary
This lecture discussed the concept of study and how it can be facilitated.
Various factors determining how we study were discussed. The concept
of psychological preparation for human learning was examined from different
angles such as preparation of our attitudes towards study, controlling our
concentration processes, developing confidence in ourselves, and developing
determination and perseverance towards our study.
In preparation for study, the way the interaction between the person
studying and how the various physical components of the study locations
affect human learning was discussed. The relationship between the
psychological and physical aspects of study preparation was also highlighted.
This physical preparation for study was discussed from four angles - viz:
preparation associated with selecting a study place; preparation associated with
the selection of study materials; preparation associated with the selection of
study seats; and preparation associated with making use of a well- arranged
time-table. Attempts were made to explain how these preparations for study
affect the quality of study of individua1learners.

Assignment
1. Write down five things that work and study have in common.
2. Try to concentrate on a particular idea in your discussion with somebody.
How often do your thoughts shift to entirely different ideas not having
109
 any connection with the idea initially being discussed?
3. Get a current newspaper and try to read it lying on your bed with a soft
cushion underlay. Stay in this cozy bed and keep reading for some time.
How effectively have you really read this newspaper? Do you mean you
really did not fall asleep?

Post-Test
1. Which of the following is not concerned with the psychological
preparation for, effective study?
a. arranging for better seats during study
b. arranging your attitudes towards study
c. arranging how to control your thoughts study
d. arranging how to have confidence in yourself as you study.
2. Who among these psychologists suggested how best to control our
concentration at a given point in time?
a. Anastasi
b. Biehler
c. Fay and Smith
d. Lewin
3. Which of the following is the right way of developing positive attitude
towards studying a particular course?
a. thinking of how the course will relate to your life now and in future
b. thinking of the type of seat to use for study
c. thinking of the type of books to use for study
d. thinking of the type of place to stay for study
4. Which of the following has nothing to do with effective study?
a. confidence in ourselves
b. selecting a study corner
c. selecting a study seat
d. selecting the hair style.
5. In the course of study which of the following should be discouraged
when we feel tired?
a. allowing the brain to cool down
b. eating kola nut
c. resting for a while
d. sleeping for a while.

110
Reference
Okoye, N.N. 1985 The Psychology of Effective Learning. Ibadan:
Adebara Publishers Ltd.

111
LECTURE THIRTEEN

Techniques of Effective Study

Introduction
It has been observed that though some people possess the necessary intellectual
abilities to study, the wish to study effectively is not always achieved. To bridge
the gap between what students wish to achieve academically and what they
actually achieved, psychologists have devised various techniques - tested over
the years. Professor Robinson, an American developed the study technique based
on the SQ3R formula. Professor Pauk's technique for effective study is the OK4R
formula and the 5-Rs formula for effective note taking. Professor Tussing
developed the P AT formula of effective study. These study formulae will' be
analysed during this lecture.

Objectives
This lecture teaches students the Techniques of Effective Study, and at the end of
the lecture the students are expected to be able to:
1. identify key techniques for effective study;
2. explain similarities existing among Robinsons, Paul and Tussings study
techniques;
3. discuss the use of memories for effectiveness; and
4. explain the use observation for easy study.

Pre-Test
1. The SQ3R formula for effective study was postulated by:
a. Pauk
b. Robinson
c. Tussing
d. Wertheimer

112
 2. The OK4R formula for effective study was postulated by:
a. Pauk
b. Robinson
c. Tussing
d. Wertheimer
3. The 5-Rs formula for note-taking was postulated by:
a. Pauk
b. Robinson
c. Tussing
d. Wertheimer
4. Robinson's S in SQ3R formula for effective study is:
a. similar to Pauk's R
b. similar to Tussings A
c. similar to Maddox M
d. similar to Skinner's R
5. The SQJR; OK4R and PAT Formulae for effective study are put forward
by.
a. behaviouristic psychologists
b. Cognitive psychologists
c. Counselling psychologist
d. Social psychologists

CONTENT
Professor Robinson's SQ3R Formula for Effective Study
Professor Robinson's SQ3R formula was developed from cognitive psychology.
The components of the SQ3R formula become meaningful in terms of the
principles of cognitive psychology as put forward by the Gestaltist.
Thus in SQ3R formula, the first letter S refers to Survey which is a cognitive
perceptual derivation term from the cognitive insistence on the observation of the
cognitive field to solve a particular problem.
As our study begins, we will survey the problem situation very carefully. In
a study exercise concerned with studying the contents of a prescribed textbook,
we have to survey the themes and headlines indicated in the textbook. Usually,
these are boldly printed which makes them conspicuous to the reader. In
newspapers, the key words or themes or headlines are also printed boldly and are
therefore eye catchers. They usually give an indication of the contents of the

113
newspaper. In this aspect of S in SQ3R, surveying involves the learner concerned
with the study in scanning through these themes, or headlines to have an idea of
what information the book or newspaper has in stock for him. For example, when
a newspaper carried the headline "Nigeria's, petrochemical plant commissioned"
the key message is plain and simple although the details are yet to be searched
for. (See Daily Star No. 7608 of Saturday, March 19, 1988, page 1)
As a matter of fact, it is the headlines that attract the attention of a potential
newspaper buyer. In a text-book., the headings key words or headlines help the
reader to have an idea of what the textbook is talking about.
Q in SQ3R refers to Questions The person engaged in 'the study exercise,
should now prepare what he or she would regard as likely examination questions
related to the themes or headlines of the chapter. For a textbook chapter, five or
twenty questions are adequate. After setting up these questions, the learner now
turns the questions which he or she has already written on a sheet of paper,
upside-down. This question paper should not be turned up or peeped into till the
time it is to be reviewed. This Q gives the learner the singular opportunity to
become his or her examiner. It must be pointed out that these questions must be
well thought-out, and relevant to the central theme of the chapter.

The 3rd-R is a label for Read; Recite and Review.

Its therefore should be taken to signify Read. Under this part, the individual
learner in the course of study should read the passage requested by each headline
or key-description. In fact, reading holds the key to understanding the contents of
a given contextual piece.
In the course of reading, it should be realised that words make up a sentence
while sentences makeup a paragraph and paragraphs make up a passage. A
passage has a bulk message to deliver to the reader, and each paragraph
constitutes parts of this bulk message. Finally each sentence has its own part of
the message. To understand a passage, the reader must first understand the
paragraph then understand the message of each sentence in the paragraph. In
other words, unless we understand the message of each sentence in various
paragraphs of a message, we may not effectively comprehend the message of
paragraphs not to talk of the message of the passage. This means that we have to
master the meaning of every word in the sentence, and see the sentences in a
paragraph from their totality in contribution to the paragraph. In other words each
of the sentences in a paragraph in a rather cumulative manner contributes to the
paragraphic message. There is therefore the need for the reader to engage in
study to understand every word in the sentence in its contextual form and
meaning. In the same way, the various paragraphic messages from all the

114
paragraphs making the whole passage must be received and understood as a
whole. It is this wholistic reception and understanding of the passage that leads to
comprehension; and gives meaning to reading. When we read a passage with
understanding and comprehension, we can boast that we have read effectively.
This effective reading is what should be achieved in the 1R of the 3R of the
SQ3R formula.
The second R in the 3R refers to Recite. Here, reciting refers to the going
over of a passage that has been read once. This may take the form of verbal
(vocal) recitation or mental recitation. Verbal recitation means reciting the
already read passage audibly. While mental recitation is going through the
already read passage mentally. In this process of recitation, if the reader gets
stuck somewhere, and finds that the recitational flow is broken, the particular
point in the passage where he gets stuck should be referred to. Re-read from this
point as meaningfully as possible. Then try -your reciting once more until the
whole passage flows fluently in the process of your mental recitation.
The third R in the 3R of the SQ3R formula refers to Review. Here the
learner involved in a study exercise must have an assessment of his performance
during the study exercise. This can be regarded as the recapitulatory aspect of
study. It is at this time, that the questions set by the learner at the Q stage of the
SQ3R formula, are used. At this juncture, the learner has to look at the questions
one-by-one and attempt answering them. If these questions are answered without
much difficulty, then the learner can be said to have studied effectively. If, on the
other hand, the learner finds these questions difficult, this might be a sign that the
study has not been effectively carried out. Then a repeat study exercise is needed.

Pauk's OK4R Formula for Effective Study

Pauk's formula and Robinson's formula are both rooted in the cognitive approach
to study. They are made to encourage the learner to make full use of his or her
cognitive perceptual skills concerned with a wholistic observation or survey of
the whole study piece. Thus the O in Pauk's OK4R formula would refer to
overview. Here the learner is expected to have an overview or survey of the
contents the study piece. This is the same as the term survey used by Robinson.
K refers to key words used in the study piece. This is synonymous with
Robinson's sub process within the survey process.

4R would refer to 1R (Read) 2R (Recall); 3R (Reflect); 4R (Review).

Read is the same as read in Robinson's Recall is subsumed or implied in

Robinson's R2 (Recite) Reflect refers to the mental process by which the learner
engages in imaginative thinking over the study pieces that has recalled under 2R.

115
 Review refers to 'a process which is synonymous with Robinson's 3R
(Review). This assessment of what the learner has actually gained during the
study is best done setting up some tentative likely examination questions.

Tussing PAT formula for Effective Study

Tussing's own study formula follows the same cognitive principles like those of
Robinson and Pauk. In this PAT formula P. stands for Pre-view which
incorporates Robinson's Survey and Pauk's Overview. Where Robinson ,used the
terms Read and Recite, and Pauk used the terms Read, Recall and Reflect,
Tussing used a single term Attack, Finally, Tussing's (testing) is synonymous
with Robinson's and Pauk's Review.

General Consideration for Use of Study Formulae

Any of these three study formula can be beneficially used for effective study. The
study formulae have been tested in high schools in America and secondary
schools in Nigeria with positive results. However, effectiveness of these formulae
would depend on how meticulous the .learner is in applying the various steps to
each formula.
It is important to warn that learners who are about to use these formulae for
effective study results should avoid rushing the steps or skipping one step. Such
an act: will not allow smooth study and understanding. Besides, it disorganises
the normal sequential flow of ideas and mental activities associated with
studying.

Pauk's Effective Note -Taking Formula

In the course of study, the learner will need to take notes. According to Pauk
(1962), "Students who take few notes or none at all", are the students who
consistently find themselves at the bottom of the class". Maddox (1963) an
authority in note taking and study identified four valuable uses of note-taking.
According to him note taking:
1. serves as permanent record for re-learning and revision
2. reduces the incidence of forgetting
3. coordinates the functional use of visual; auditory, and kinesthetic
modalities needed for effective forgetting.
4. prepares learners better for test and examinations.

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Unoh, (1969) identified following qualities of note taking:
1. short precise statement of the original supporting facts and figures
2. Clear, unambiguous and meaningful
3. Organised in logical sequence
4. Handy.

It is surprising to note that many students in Nigeria do not actually know

how to take notes. They either write almost everything without discriminating
between important and unimportant items and ideas. Notes become bulky and
cumbersome and in some cases, nearly approximate in size to the original
material from which they have been taken.
On the other hand, some make sketchy notes, to the extent that the real
message of the original material is left out or disorganized. Note-taking should
not be for granted. It is an art that should be learnt and practised systematically
and consistently.
Pauk gave an effective formula for note-taking. This has been referred to as
5-Rs formula for note-taking.
R1 refers to Record. This is when the note-taker should note down
only meaningful and important ideas from the original material.
R2 refers to Reduce - The note-taker should make a summary of the
original material.
R3 refers to Recite. The note-taker should go through the
summarized material either vocally or mentally.
R4 refers to Reflect. This is when the note- taker should think over
the summarised piece.
R5 refers to Review. The note-taker should have a revision or
recapitulatory survey of the original material vis-a- vis the
summarised piece.
Pauk has guaranteed effective note-taking and effective study if the 5 steps
mentioned above are conscientiously carried out.

Mnemonics Aids for Effective Note-taking During Studies

One of the ways of reducing the size of your notes without necessarily reducing
the original message and meaning of original material is to avoid excessive use
of long-hand in taking notes. Each note-taker should therefore work out
meaningful mnemonics which would help them recall what they have jotted
without wasting words and paper.

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 Such abbreviated meaningful groups or single letters can help.
agst = against Exam. = examination
b/4 = before educ. = education
b/c = because univ. = university
c = with % = percentage
b/w = between chn = children
.. = therefore coy = company
Eg. = for example Fr. = father
c.f. = compare ins. = insurance

Summary
This lecture is concerned with how to study effectively. It tries to show how
many learners study ineffectively even though they have intentions of doing this.
Cognitive psychologists have suggested some effective study formulae
which are expected to bring about high quality study. These psychologists
include Professor Robinson, Pauk and Tussing who have evolved the SQ3R,
OK4R and PAT formulae respectively. In addition to these, Pauk also developed
a reliable formula for effective note-taking as part of the study programme.
Each of these formulas has been carefully analysed. The role of note-taking
in the course of study has been highlighted, and the similarities among the
formulae identified.
Finally, some hints on and samples of meaningful abbreviations for reducing
long hand into concise precise summaries of the original materials were given.
These samples however are for guidance and each note-taker is free to use his or
her /own self- developed mnemonics which would be more meaningful to the
note taker.

Assignment
1. Get three study pieces and use each of the following study formulae -
SQ3R; OK4R and PAT separately. What is your impression as to their
relative effectiveness?
2. Practice taking note with Pauk's 5-Rs formulae. What is your
observation?
3. Try and study without making notes and later study making notes and
Compare the effectiveness of study in both cases?

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Post-Test
1. The SQ3R formula for effective study was put forward by:
a. Pauk
b. Robinson
c. Tussing
d. Wertheimer
2. The OK4R formula for effective study was put forward by:
a. Pauk
b. Robinson
c. Tussing
d. Wertheimer
3. The 5-Rs formula for Note-taking was put forward by
a. Pauk
b. Robinson
c. Tussing
d. Wertheimer
4. Robinson's S in SQ3R formula for effective study is
a. similar to Pauk's R
b. similar to Tussing A
c. similar to Maddox M
d. similar to Skinner's R.
5. The SQ3R; OK4R and PAT formulae for effective study are put forward
by
a. Behaviouristic psychologists
b. Cognitive psychologists
c. Counseling psychologists
d. Social Psychologists

References
Maddox, H. (1963) How to Study London: Pan Books Ltd.
Okoye, N.N. (1985) The Psychology of Effective Learning. Ibadan:
Adebara Publishers Ltd.,
Pauk, W. (1962) How to Study in College. Boston, Houghton Mifflin
Company.

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 Robinson, F.P (1941) Effective Study New York: Harper and Row.
Tussing, L. (1962) Study and Succeed, John Wiley and Sons. New York,
Unoh, S .O. (1971) Reading Problems in Secondary Schools Careen. 4
(iv), 52-62.

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LECTURE FOURTEEN

Study Habits Problems: Solution

Introduction
When we study in a particular way for some time, we tend to develop habits of
study or what is technically referred to as Study- habits.
If the study method we initially adopted in the course of study is faulty and
we continue in the process, the repeated faulty - study method will lead to the
formation of study-habit problems.
On the other hand, if the acquired study methods which we repeat for
several times are favourable, they will eventually lead to the development of
good study habits. The development of good study- habit promotes learning. This
is because various study-habits problems arising from repeated faulty study
methods make effective learning and study very difficult to achieve.

Objectives
This lecture highlights the problems of study habits and how to solve them and at
the end of this lecture, the students are expected to be able to:
1. the major study habits problems;
2. explain the causes of these study habits problems;
3. explain how to solve the identified study habit problems; and
4. apply these solution techniques in solving study habits problems in
practical terms.

Pre-Test
1. Which of the following are related to study habits problems associated
with Teacher-Consultations’:
a. fear of examinations
b. fear of parents

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 c. fear of the teacher's cane
d. fear of sitting in one place for a long time.
2. Study habits problems associated with reading can be best resolved by
a. eating good food
b. having a good dictionary around as we study
c. taking brain pills
d. making a good time table
3. Who among these psychologists worked on the concept of positive and
negative valences as they relate to concentration?
a. Bull
b. Dewey
c. Lewin
d. McClelland.
4. Which of the following factors is really responsible for learners dodging
the teachers?
a. teachers are highly educated
b. teachers are very hard working
c. teachers' interpersonal relationship with the learners is very poor
d. teachers' interpersonal relationship with the learners is very good.
5. The idea that "we learn by doing" was put forward by
a. Dewey
b. Skinner
c. Thorndike
d. West.

CONTENT
Identification of major Study-Habits Problems
Bakare (1977) in his study habits inventory identified eight key sources of poor
academic achievement. These are:
1. study-habits problems associated with response to home work and
assignment
2. study-habits problems associated with response to time allocation.
3. study-habits problems associated with response to reading and note
taking.
4. study-habit problems associated with response to study period procedure.

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 5. Study-habits problems associated with response to concentration
6. study-habits problems associated with response to written work
7. study-habits problems associated with response to examination
8. study-habits problems associated with response to teacher consultation.
These main sources of study-habits problems stand in the way of effective
study given the best intentions to study effectively and using the most effective
study techniques. It is therefore necessary to discuss in detail these eight possible
sources of study-habits problems.

Study-habits problems associated with response to home work and

assignment
Some learners form the habit of dodging homework and assignments given to
them by their teachers. They usually give various excuses for not doing their
home work and assignment. This happens at times because of laziness on the part
of the learner: Family problems might also be responsible, for example some
homes do not have adequate study materials like books, writing materials and
seats. Again some children are saddled with too much house chores to the extent
that they do not have time for their homework and assignment. Some children
who are really eager to learn are usually found attempting their homework and
assignment while performing their chore or while displaying wares for sale.
Under such study conditions, study habit problems are created and if
unsolved such problems will lead to poor study and poor learning.

Study-habits problems associated with response to time allocation

Some students study without timing. They do not work with any study time table
and so may over-study certain courses at the expense of other courses, even
though they are expected to pay equal attention to all the courses they study.
Such a pattern of study leads to unstable study habits, and courses that are given
less attention will suffer. In the final analysis, there will be unbalanced
examination results where certain courses are passed with credits and others are
either failed or partially passed.
For balanced academic results, all the courses undertaken by the candidates
should be passed at the same level.

Study-habits problems associated with response to reading and note taking

Reading is the surest way of acquiring knowledge. For reading to be beneficial
and meaningful, it must effectively communicate the desired information and
knowledge. Meaning and understanding are essential ingredients of effective

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reading. 'When a reader in the process of study reads without meaning and
understanding, there will be no assimilation.
Some pupils read without getting the meaning, and message of the passage.
Such readers can not achieve much in terms of reading and studying. This is the
same as wasting precious time. Reading needs concentration for meaningful
understanding.
As discussed in the lecture on Note-taking, study and note taking should go
hand-in-hand and note taking should complement reading to produce effective
study results.

Study-habits problems associated with study procedures

One of the causes of ineffective study is the inability to make necessary arrange-
ments for effective study. These arrangements include the various stages needed
for effective study and learning. For example, before we study, all the necessary
materials for the exercise should be available. The reading chairs, the text book,
various writing materials that will be needed in the course of study should be
provided. During the course of study, we should know exactly when to stop and
rest. Studying beyond the optimal level may lead to boredom and inertia.
Learners who are sick should avoid studying. This is because a sick body has
adverse effects on working of the brain.
If these arrangements are neglected, concentration of the learner will be dis-
turbed and the study programme will become disjointed and in disarray.

Study-habits problems associated with response to concentration

One of the greatest obstacles to effective study is lack of concentration during
study. When a learner involved in a study programme begins to attend to
irrelevant stimuli other than the stimuli concerned with the study there will be no
concentration. There are some basic criterion (target) stimuli which are
concerned with study. It is on these stimuli that we focus our attention during the
course of study. This ensures concentration, leading to effective study. However,
if we allow our attention to be focused on irrelevant stimuli, this will negate
rather than facilitate effective study. Such extraneous stimuli and ideas constitute
distraction, and of course distractions detract the quality of our study and
learning. This is because the human brain is made to concentrate on one criterion
stimulus at a time.
If in the course of study we allow other ideas like worries and unsolved
problems to disturb us, then we cannot study effectively because we are studying
with lack of concentration.

124
Study-habits problems associated with response to written work
Effective learning comes through continuous practice. Written work provides
opportunity for learners to practice what they have studied or learnt. When
learners do their written work conscientiously and consistently, they will develop
some appreciable level of improvement in their study and learning.
According to John Dewey, we learn by doing and since written work affords
us the heuristic (learning) opportunity for increasing our knowledge, we need to
incorporate consistent written work into our study programme because the active
child is the learning child.

Study-habits problems associated with response to examination

If we agree that learning comprises three important sequential stages -
acquisition, retention, and recall; then we must acknowledge the role of the
examination in the process of learning. This is because recall, which is the third
essential stage in human learning, connotes the need for examination.
Examination in this instance implies an assessment of how far a given
individual has been able to learn and this can be proved by the quantity and
quality he can recall from what has been acquired and retained.
According to Okoye (1986), "Examination may therefore be seen as
organised assessment of the individual's performance on series of questions or
tasks based on the content of an instructional procedure to which the individual
has 'been exposed". (p.3) Examinations are therefore very important part of
learning and study programmes. Since it is one of the ways of knowing how well
we have learned, we should develop positive attitude to it. We should approach
examinations in a relaxed manner. This will help to recall retained materials.
Unfortunately, students are usually too anxious about examinations. Such
anxiety bothers on fear, and in extreme cases phobia. This makes learners who
have actually studied and learned effectively disorganised and perform poorly.
This is because they approach the examination hall disorganised and with low
morale.
Such disorganised learners will become victims of T.O.T. phenomenon
(Tip-of the-Tongue Phenomenon) leading to inability to recall ideas and facts
that are needed in the examination. This will lead to doing the wrong things; not
carrying out stated examination instructions and making avoidable mistakes and
eventually failing the examination.

Study-habits problems associated with response to teacher consultation

Teachers by virtue of their position in the teaching-learning enterprise are looked
upon as the repository of knowledge. They are in a position to help others learn.

125
It is out of the teacher's corpus (body) of knowledge that they can teach their
pupils. Pupils and learners therefore need to interact with their teachers by way of
academic consultations so that they can get proper clarification from the teachers.
Before this consultation can be carried out with the teacher, the pupil must
have developed good interpersonal relationship with the teacher.
When the teacher becomes unapproachable because he is aloof, he may not
be able to relate meaningfully to his pupils. This will create yawning social gap
between the teacher and the learners leading to poor and ineffective learning.
Again, where the teacher, according to Okoye (1986) "Carries the cane like
a masquerade", learners will always run away from him and will not find it easy
to consult with such a teacher. When there is no consultation by the learners,
effective study and learning will suffer. Thus, the pupils may not be able to gain
from the teacher's knowledge.

Solution to These eight study-habit problems

Psychologists have devised methods of stemming these eight study- habits
problems associated with the process study. These devices help to eliminate these
problems.

Solution to study-habit problem associated with home work and assignment

While the need for children to help their parents in home chores is not disputed
because of the present economic crunch, it must be pointed out that this should
not be allowed to disturb the children's normal study programme. This means that
the pupils and their parents should work out an acceptable plan whereby the
children can contribute meaningfully to house-chores without any disturbance to
the homework and written assignment. Thus, the parents should map out in
specific terms the services they want their children to carry out and when they
can be free to concentrate on their study, homework and assignment.

Solution to study-habits problem associated with time allocation

Unequal distribution of the time allocated to our courses during the study
programme arises from the fact that we allow our attitude to various courses of
our study to affect the amount of time we allocate to each course of study. Thus,
there is either a conscious or unconscious tendency to allocate more time to the
courses we prefer. The result usually is an unbalanced performance at
examinations.
A solution to this is in providing an impartial time table for study, which
will take care of all the courses we study.

126
 Learners should be encouraged to prepare and adhere to the time-.table
drawn.

Solution to problemsassodared.1ritb reading and note taking

The basic problem associated with reading in the course of study appears to come
from the readers’ inability to receive the message of the passage being read. This
might be as a result of the reader's inability to understand full meaning of words
that make up the sentences which finally make up the paragraphs and text
passage being read. Since English Language is our second language, we only
have a smattering knowledge of some words and this may give the wrong
meaning of the words.
A way out of this linguistic dilemma is to have a copy of an English
dictionary whenever we engage in study. This will help us get the real contextual
meaning of the words we are not sure of. Michael West English Dictionary is
very good in explaining the contextual meanings of English words.
For effective note-taking, the learner should be selective in making or taking
notes and should be able to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant words in
the process of note taking. The guidelines for taking good notes mentioned in the
preceding lecture should be strictly adhered to.

Solution to problems associated with study procedures

These problems arise from lack of adequate arrangements for the study before we
embark on the study programme. These arrangements are usually concerned with
making various materials needed for effective study available in time before the
study exercise begins, or else our study programme becomes disjointed and
disorganised.
The solution to this problem lies in making adequate logistic arrangements
of the necessary materials needed for effective study and arranging our study
periods in such a way that we do not study for too long without break periods.
This is to avoid boredom and fatigue during the course of study.

Solution to problems or lack of concentration at study

Lack of concentration at study is a serious problem for learners. Lewin, a
German psychologist indicated that if we want to concentrate on what we are
doing at any given time, we should eliminate our positive valences (distractors)
and uphold our positive valences (attractors).

127
 If before we begin our studies or in the course of studying, we remember an
unresolved personal problem, there should be a tentative solution to this problem.
This enables us to concentrate on our studies and shift the solution of the bogging
problems till after our study period.

Solution to problem associated with written work

Laziness and procrastination are major causes of this problem hence it can be
cured by making the learner realise the advantage of written-work in the process
of studying and the need to practice.
The old adage "Do not put till tomorrow what you can do today" is a good
advice to learners who procrastinate.
Where the problem of scanty written work arises from shortage of writing;
materials or text books, the parents and guardians of the learners should be con-
tacted and briefed.

Solution to problems or examinations

Learners should be encouraged to face examinations with confidence. This con-
fidence comes through hard work which leads to success. Success of course does
not necessarily come from luck as some think but from hard work. It is only in
the English dictionary that success comes before work (Okoye, 1987).
Above all candidates must be re1axed before entering the Examination hall.
Relaxation comes when the candidate is convinced that he or she has really
worked hard and so deserves success.

Solution to problems associated with teacher consultations

Learners should be encouraged to consult teachers on matters relating to their
studies. But before this encouragement can be fruitful, teachers should improve
their interpersonal relationship with the pupils. Teachers should convince the
learners that they are their "second parents" not penal officers.

Summary
Eight sources of study habits problems as identified by Bakare (1977) and how
they affect the quality and quantity of learning have been discussed.
Suggestions were made on how best to resolve these study habit problems to
achieve best study results.

128
Assignment
1. Indicate some five problems you usually encounter when you are
studying.
2. Note how many times you are carried away during the course of one
study.
3. Write down about three reasons why we need a well- planned time-table

Post-Test
1. Which of the following are related to study habits problems
associated with Teacher-Consultations?
a. fear of examination
b. fear of Parents
c. fear of the teacher’s cane
d. fear of sitting in one place for a long time
2. Study habits problems associated with reading can be best resolved by
a. eating good food
b. having a good dictionary around where we study
c. taking brain pills.
d. making a good time table
3. Who among these psychologists worked on the concept of positive and
negative, valences as they relate to concentration?
a. Bull
b. Dewey
c. Lewin
d. McClelland
4. Which of the following factors is really responsible for learners dodging
the teachers?.
a. Teachers are highly educated
b. Teachers are very hard working
c. Teachers' interpersonal relationship with the
d. Teachers' interpersonal relationship with the learners is very good.
5. The idea that “we learn by doing” was put forward by
a. Dewey
b. Skinner

129
 c. Thorndike
d. West.

References
Bakare, C.G.M, (1977). Study Habits Inventory, Ibadan (SHI) Psycho-
educational Services
Okoye, N. N. (1986) The Psychology of Effective Learning, Ibadan:
Adedara Publishers Ltd.
Okoye, N. N. (1987) Psychological Facilitation of Human Learning, (3rd
Faculty Lecture, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan), Ibadan University
Press Ltd

130
LECTURE FIFTEEN

Psychology of Learning: Application

Introduction
We shall now examine how the various concepts and theories of teaming
discussed in this course can be applied for self-improvement and effective
performance. These psychological concepts and their related theories have very
useful messages for mankind. If these messages are well-received and practised,
human overall behavioural patterns will assume new and progressive dimensions.
These messages will have positive effects on education, work in industries,
behaviour modification and interpersonal relations.

Objectives
This lecture concludes the course by introducing the students to how to apply
various facts in psychology of learning to solve day-to-day problems of human
life and at the end of this lecture students are expected to:
1. apply facts learnt from Pavlovian Classical Conditioning experiments to
everyday life;
2. apply facts learnt from Thorndikean conditioning experiments associated
with his cat and puzzle box;
3. apply facts learnt from Skinnerian instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
experiment; and
4. apply facts learnt from gestalt psychological experiment by Kohler in
solving daily problems.

Pre-Test
1. Thorndike's Law of Effect is concerned with
a. effect of punishment response
b. effect of reward on response
c. effect of reward and punishment on response

131
 d. effect of reward and punishment on stimulus.
2. A child does not like Mathematics as a course but likes singing songs.
Which of the following will bring about the conditioning of Mathematics
course?
a. Present mathematics alone
b. Present song alone
c. Present song and mathematics
d. Present mathematics a day after song.
3. "You can not solve any problem well unless you make a wholistic
observation of the problem and its situation"
Who among the following psychologists shared this theory?
a. Connectionists
b. Gestaltists
c. Phenomenologists
d. Structuralists.
4. "We catch more flies with honey than with vinegar"
Which of the following laws of learning supports this view?
a. The Law of Effect
b. The Law of Exercise
c. The Law of Good continuation
d. The Law of prepotency.
5. Learners who are losing interest in a lesson and are responding in a
systematically declining manner should be helped to improve their
declining responses by
a. begging them to behave
b. caning them to behave
c. introducing a novel object while teaching them to make them
behave.
d. introducing a sit-down-look method of teaching to make them
behave.

CONTENT
Lessons to be learnt from the Concept of Learning
Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour arising
from experience. From this definition of learning, it becomes clear that
behaviours are manipulable and that both good and bad behaviours, desirable and

132
undesirable behaviours are learnt. It is a well-known scientific fact that what can
be learnt can also be unlearnt. Thus, there is much hope for changing people's
undesirable behaviours or making people shed unwanted behaviours as well as
acquire new and more acceptable behavioural patterns. This implies that the
world can be changed into a better place by shedding off unwanted behaviours
and acquiring desirable behaviours, through learning.
Again the definition of the concept of learning emphasises the role of
experience in bringing about the learning and the desired behaviour changes.
This means that to change the behaviours of an individual for better or for worse,
exposure to some criterion experience is very essential. People's behaviours
change according to the various experiences of life to which they have been
exposed to. Some experiences are stimulating; some are dull and insipid.
Stimulating experiences are more effective in behaviour changes than dull and
insipid experiences.
This implies that to develop good and dynamic citizens, we have to arrange
for corresponding experiences to which the citizens will be exposed. Since
learning is said to have arisen from experience, it follows that the richer the
experience of an individual- the richer the individual's learning. Classroom
observations reveal that children with wider and more relevant experiences learn
better, and react to questions more readily and with greater self-confidence.
Parents should therefore enrich the experiences of their children by taking
them to places of interest. For example, going on excursions. It must be pointed
out that what we want our children to be in life may determine the type of
experiential milieu to which they should be exposed. This is because different
environments generate different experiences. Thus, academic environments
generate academic experiences, agricultural environments would of course
generate agricultural and farm experiences.

Lessons to be learnt from Pavlov's Experiments and Theories of Learning

Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments have provided trainers the
opportunities of making people like what initially they did not like through a
process of conditioning. Thus, if children do not like eating, beans but eating ripe
plantain, they can be made to eat beans by pairing plantain with the beans.
Through this process, beans will be made to acquire the stimulus properties of
plantain. This conditioning process will make the children not only eat the paired
meat but eat the beans even when not paired with. While the plantain meal may
be regarded as the original or unconditioned stimulus, the beans meal paired with
the plantain meal can be regarded as the conditioned stimulus.
This conditioning process can be effectively used in the classroom to make
pupils like certain school courses which initially they disliked. According Okoye

133
(l984) since children like songs and plays but show some dislike for mathematics
as' a school course they can be made to like mathematics by pairing the teaching
of mathematics either with songs or with .the plays.. Okoye (1984) cited
examples of the “Aboki na game of numbers” and “Ten green bottles song” as
practical examples of effective use of classical conditioning principles in making
pupil like mathematics. This can of course be extended to any school course.
This can also be extended to interpersonal relationship where your friend's
friend may eventually become your friend by, conditioning. This can also explain
why people may at times dislike us, simply because we move with a person they
do not like.

Lesson from Extinction in Learning

Pavlov's tuning fork (which was originally a neutral stimulus that could not elicit
any salivation) started eliciting salivation because it was paired with the meat
powder. This newly acquired quality of the tuning fork made the tuning fork
elicit salivation from the dog even when presented alone without being paired
with the meat powder.
However, there is a limit to which a conditioned stimulus can elicit
conditioned response. If the conditioned stimulus is over presented without being
paired with the original stimulus, it will generally begin to lose its newly
acquired salivation - eliciting powers. If this is continued for long, a point will be
reached when the conditioned stimulus will completely lose its new salivation -
eliciting qualities.
This is the stage of extinction, a point when the acquired salivation –
eliciting qualities have been completely lost.
This extinction phenomenon can be experienced in the classroom -where an
acquired conditioned response may be lost due to its being over-presented
without being paired with the original stimulus. Thus, if we succeed in making
pupils (who initially did. not like mathematics as a school course) begin to like
mathematics through the conditioning process, we should be careful not to over-
present this conditioned stimulus (mathematics) without occasionally pairing it
with the original stimulus (Songs or plays or games) or else the acquired
corresponding conditioned response may be lost.

Lesson from Dis-Inhibition

Dis-inhibition is a process by which ongoing process of inhibition is arrested by
the introduction of a novel object alongside a conditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's
conditioning experiment, when the conditioned responses of a conditioned
stimulus (tuning fork) was gradually declining, he introduced a novel object
while the presentation of the conditioned stimulus was going on. The result was
134
an increase in the conditioned response (salivation).
In the classroom situation, if there is an established conditioned response to
a conditioned stimulus, and if this conditioned response is carried out to a
monotonous point, there is the likelihood of this conditioned response dying out
through the process of inhibition. However, this inhibitory process can be
arrested by introducing a novel object alongside the conditioned stimulus. For
example if a teacher has succeeded in bringing about pupils' conditioned
response to mathematics by pairing the teaching of mathematics with (song, or
game or play), then mathematics can elicit the same response (conditioned
response) even when the unconditioned stimulus (song, play or game) has been
removed. If the teacher over presents mathematics alone, then there is likelihood
of the elicited conditioned responses suffering some gradual decline which if not
checked or arrested will lead to eventual extinction of the acquired response. This
extinction or inhibition of the conditioned response can be effectively arrested if
the teacher introduces some novel object in teaching the course, like introducing
the use of audio-visual equipment or Video tape materials. This once more
emphasises the need and the use of teaching aids when teaching to avoid drab
and monotonous teaching which would lead to inhibition.

Lesson from Pavlov's Observation on Experimental Neurosis

When Pavlov's dog was presented with two objects that looked similar (a circular
and elliptical objects) it developed problems in differentiating which eventually
led to the dog urinating, defecating and breaking down - a condition which
Pavlov referred lo as "experimental neurosis".
In the classroom situation, when pupils are presented with two or more
learning materials that cannot be easily and clearly distinguished because they
look alike, then the pupils may develop discrimination problem and eventually
end up behaving neurotically and responding to the wrong stimulus, even though
they may not urinate or defecate in class. This problem can arise in such learning
exercises associated with reading where alphabet recognition is very important as
well as in mathematics where certain mathematical symbols may create some
discrimination problem for the pupils.

Thorndike's Experiments and Their Lessons

Thorndike put forward certain laws of learning as a result of his experimental -
studies using the cat and his puzzle or problem box. These include - The Law of
Effect and The Law of Exercise.

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Lesson from 1borndike's Law of Effect
Thorndike's Law of Effect is concerned with the effect of reward and punishment
on learning. His Truncated Law of Effect which was a modification of his
original Law of Effect maintains that although punishment decreases behaviour
but not as much as reward increases behaviour. This stand apportions greater
behaviour modification ability to reward than to punishment.
In practical terms, within life experiences, if there is a behaviour observed in
people which we want to change, the use of reward rather than punishment would
be recommended because it would be more effective. In other words, the law is
discouraging the use of punishment either in helping people learn new tasks or in
dropping already acquired undesirable tasks. This law has been supported by the
studies of Estes (1944) on the effect of punishment on behaviour change.
The classroom teacher should therefore learn this lesson-that for effective
teaching and learning, the teacher does not have to resort to corporal punishment,
caning or flogging.
Corporal punishment generates fear, and fear is a negative force which if
introduced in learning negates effective learning. Its use in trying to discourage
an undesirable behaviour has proved less effective than reward. After-all do we
not say that "We catch more flies with honey than with vinegar".
Here honey refers to reward; while vinegar refers to punishment.
Punishment does not therefore appear to be a good tool for either removing
undesirable behaviours or for acquiring desired behaviours.

Thorndike's Law of Exercise and Its Lessons

"Practice makes perfect" is an old saying. However, even if it has not exactly
made anyone perfect, for only God is perfect, it cal1 improve expertise and
efficiency. Besides, such psycho- philosophers like John Dewey have
emphasised the heuristic role of activities in human being when he argued that
"We learn by doing". Teachers in the classroom setting or managers in industries
should give their pupils and workers the opportunity to practice learned tasks so
that they do not remain passive theoreticians but rather active pragmatists.

Skinners experiments and their Lessons

Skinner's experimental studies have shown the role of reinforcement in
determining the intensity and direction of an organism's responses. In real life
situation this means that reinforcement is a powerful tool in behaviour
modification (BM) exercises. This is true, whether we are thinking of workers in
the industrial and organizational setting; or of the housewife or husband in the
marital situation, or children in the family or school environment.

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 If Skinner could make pigeons play piano, and cats obey military command,
one could also guess what human beings could do if exposed to similar
reinforcement techniques. According to an Igbo proverb "If you praise a person
who has caught a flat fish; tomorrow he will catch an eel". Skinner's teaching
machines and programme learning technology are practical means and ways of
recognizing and appreciating the uniqueness of the individual engaged in-a
learning encounter.

Gestalt Psychology and Lessons for Learning

Gestaltists emphasise the role of wholistic (holistic) cognition of the problem and
situation in order to identify the gestalt of the problem without which the
problem may not be effectively solved. It capitalises on the concept of
observation as the key to effective learning and problem-solving.
In the school situation we have to encourage the pupils to make wholistic
observations of the learning task and situation in order to identify the apparently
hidden gestalt holding the key to the effective solution of the learning problem.
This very fact has been practicalised by Wertheimer when he asked some school
children (whom he initially taught how to find an area of a rectangle) to find the
area of a parallelogram. Once the gestalt of the parallelogram was discovered by
the children through steadfast and systematic observation, they also discovered
the solution to the problem (the area of a parallelogram).

Summary
This lecture is concerned with enlightening the student on how the various
concepts and theories discussed in this course can be applied to the human setting
either in the school, the family or industries. It also cited relevant practical
examples. The experimental findings of Pavlov as regards conditioning,
extinction, disinhibition and experimental neurosis were discussed. These were
followed by the findings of Thorndike on the Law of Effect and the Law of
Exercise and Skinner's reinforcement techniques. Finally, the gestalt emphasis on
wholism (holism) and the discovery of the apparently hidden gestalt of given
problems were discussed.

Assignment
1. Practice giving a pupil two instructions that look similar. What effect has
this on this pupil?
2. One of your pupils is fond of coming late- to school but one day he came
a bit-earlier than usual (though still late). You lavishly praised him for
this coming a bit earlier. What effect does this have on the pupil?

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 3. Watch the faces of your pupils as they find solutions to their learning
problems. What do you find common on the faces of these problem
solvers just immediately the right solutions to the problems were
discovered.

Post-Test
1. Thorndike's Law of Effect is concerned with
a. effect of punishment on response
b. effect of reward on response
c. effect of reward and punishment on response
d. effect of reward and punishment on stimulus.
2. A child does not like Mathematics as a course but likes singing songs.
Which of the following will bring about concentration on Mathematics?
a. Present mathematics alone
b. Present song alone
c. Present song and mathematics
d. Present mathematics a day after song
3. You cannot solve any problem well unless you make a wholistic
observation of the problem and its situation. Who among the following
.psychologists favoured this view?
a. Connectionists
b. Gestatists
c. Phenomenologists
d. Structuralists.
4. "We catch more flies with honey than with vinegar'" which of the
following laws of learning support this view?
a. The Law of Effect
b. The Law of Exercise
c. 'The Law of Good continuation
d. The Law of prepotency.
5. Learners who are losing interest in a lesson and are responding in a
systematically declining manner should be helped by
a. begging them to behave
b. caning them to behave
c. introducing a novel object while teaching the to make them behave
d. introducing a sit-down-look method of teaching to make them
behave.

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