Introduction to Linguistics

A Learning Module

Bonifacio T. Cunanan
Henrietta Miranda Mary Joy Yambao

Preface

Introduction to Linguistics: A Learning Module is the result of the

collaborative efforts of Bonifacio T. Cunanan, Henrietta Miranda, and Mary Joy
Yambao.
This learning material consists of 20 basic lessons in the scientific and
philosophical study of language that are grouped in seven units.
 Mary Joy Yambao, in Units 1 and 2, provides for the historical backdrop
of linguistics as a legitimate branch of social sciences. These preliminary parts
discuss the philosophical forces that pushed for the development of principles
and procedures in studying the nature of language, which in effect analyses
human nature. In doing so, language described in terms of its physical
features. These characteristics are material in the study of the building blocks
of language: sound system, vocabulary, and grammar. Lessons 7 and 8 were
completed with the help of Bonifacio T. Cunanan.
Henrietta Miranda elaborates the basic grammatical units of language.
In Units 3 and 4, she discusses how words are formed and combined. Initially,
she compares traditional and contemporary approaches of language
description. Going beyond grammar, she compares two of the most influential
theories of contemporary syntax: Transformational Generative and Systemic
Functional models of Chomsky and Halliday.
For the last part, Bonifacio T. Cunanan elucidates the two allied fields of
descriptive approaches to language analysis: psycholinguistics (the nature of
language within the framework of the mind) and sociolinguistics (the study of
language in relation to society). In Unit 5, he discusses the biological and
sociological dimensions of language development and language pedagogy. In
Unit 6, he addresses social issues like language change, language shift, and
language revitalization. Finally, in Unit 7, he demonstrates the practical uses
and applications of linguistics in promoting and sustaining scientific methods in
language teaching and language learning.
This learning module, though it appears encompassing, can be
compared to the tip of an iceberg. There are numerous topics that had been
left out in the interest of time. Some of which include writing system,
lexicography, translation, just to name a few. Indeed, linguistics is a broad field
of study.
The scope and sequence of the topics in this learning module are
intended primarily for tertiary students who wish to pursue teacher education in
English.
Much of the topics in this compilation can be enriched through selfstudy
inasmuch as online materials are provided by the contributors in all the
lessons.
The authors assure the readers that the materials included in this
module are the accumulation of ideas that they have gained through extensive
reading and teaching experiences through the years.
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan
Tel/Fax (044) 791 -0153

COURSE SYLLABUS
Introduction to Linguistics
First Semester, AY 2020-21

COLLEGE : College of Arts and Letters

DEPARTMENT : Department of English
COURSE CODE : EL 102
COURSE TITLE : Introduction to Linguistics
FACULTY : Bonifacio T. Cunanan, Ph.D.

CONSULTATION HOURS: To be arranged.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This three-unit undergraduate course is designed for

future teachers of English. It aims to provide the intended users with the depth and
extent of scientific procedures in describing the very structures and building blocks
of language. Further, it encompasses two major allied disciplines: the psychology
and the sociology of language. The course aims to provide the intended students
with the scientific and philosophical principles and procedures in studying language,
specifically the English language.

University Vision
Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge-generating institution,
globally-recognized for excellent instruction, pioneering research, and responsive
community engagements.

University Mission
Bulacan State University exists to produce highly competent, ethical, and
service-oriented professionals that contribute to the sustainable socio-economic
growth and development of the nation

Core Values: SOAR BulSU!

Service to God and Community
Order and Peace
Assurance of Quality and Accountability
Respect and Responsibility

The BulSU Ideal Graduates Attributes (BIG A) reflect the graduate’s capacity as:
a. highly and globally competent,
b. ethical and service-oriented citizen,
c. analytical and critical thinker, and
d. reflective life-long learner.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO)

Program Educational Objectives (PEO) University Mission

 AIG-a AIG-b AIG-c AIG-d

Equip students with strong foundation in   

the scientific and philosophical study of    
language.
Produce graduates who are imbued with    
the seal of excellence and service.
Produce graduates who are catalysts for    
social transformation.

Program Outcomes (PO)

On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to do the following:

PROGRAM OUTCOMES Program Educational Objectives

PEO1 PEO2 PEO3

Provide an academic environment that promotes   
higher order thinking skills that are tempered   
with humanistic perspectives.
Promote an academic and liberal environment   
anchored on academic freedom and excellence.   

Course Outcomes and Relationship to Program Outcomes

Course Outcomes Program Outcomes
After completing this course, the student must be able
to: a b c
Attributes of Ideal Upon completion of the course, the student is expected to be
Graduate (AIG) able to do the following:
LO1. Highly 1. Have a thorough knowledge of the
competent principles of the science and I E D
philosophy of language
LO2. Ethical 2. Can close the gap between linguistic I E D
professional theory and language pedagogy
LO3. 3. Can apply linguistic principles and
Serviceoriented procedures in teaching the different I E D
aspects of English
LO4. Contribute to 4. Demonstrate familiarity with the
country’s technical and practical aspects of I E D
sustainable linguistics
growth and
development

Note: (I) Introductory Course to an Outcome (E) Enabling Course to an Outcome (D)
Demonstrative Course to an Outcome

LEARNING EPISODES:

Learning TOPIC Week Learning Activities

Outcomes
Unit 1. Linguistics: The Scientific and Philosophical Study of Language
• Differentiate Lesson 1. The Historical Background • Virtual Lecture
language and of Linguistics Online Google
others forms of Lesson 2. Human Language and Meet
communication. Animal Communication • Completion of
• Discuss the Lesson 3. The Subfields of Modular Learning
philosophical Linguistics Tasks
basis of • Online Submission
language study. of Accomplished
Worksheets
Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics
 Discuss the Lesson 4. The Human Speech • Virtual Lecture
building blocks Apparatus Online Google
of meaning in Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Meet
language. Alphabet • Completion of
Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Modular Learning
Phonemes and Tasks
Allomorphs • Online Submission
Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow of Accomplished
Transcriptions Worksheets
Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in
English
Unit 3. Morphology and Syntax
 Discuss the Lesson 9. Free, Bound, Derivational, • Virtual Lecture
word formation and Inflectional Online Google
and basic units Morphemes Meet
of grammar. Lesson 10. Morphophonemic • Completion of
Changes and Types of Modular Learning
Word Formation Tasks
Lesson 11. Prescriptive and • Online Submission
Descriptive Grammars of Accomplished
Worksheets
Unit 4. Semantics
• Differentiate two Lesson 12. Meaning: The • Virtual Lecture
grammatical Transformational Generative Online Google
models. and The Systemic Meet
• Trace language Functional Turns • Completion of
change. Lesson 13. Language Modular Learning
Change: Semantic Change Tasks
and • Online Submission
Semantic Broadening of Accomplished
Worksheets
Unit 5. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics
• Explain the Lesson 14. Language and the Brain: • Virtual Lecture
psychological The Biological Online Google
dimensions of Dimension of Language Meet
language. Lesson 15. Language • Completion of
• Discuss the Development: The Behaviorist and Modular Learning
developmenta The Tasks
l milestones of Cognitivist Perspectives • Online Submission
language. of Accomplished
Worksheets
Unit 6. Sociolinguistics
  Discuss the Lesson 16. Language and Society: • Virtual Lecture
social and The Sociological Online Google
political aspects Dimension of Language Meet
of language. Lesson 17. Language Change : • Completion of
Dialect and Register Modular Learning
Lesson 18. Language and Culture: Tasks
Linguistic Relativism • Online Submission
of Accomplished
Worksheets
Unit 7. Linguistics and Language Teaching

 Conceptualize Lesson 19. Applied Linguistics • Virtual Lecture

the importance Lesson 20. Educational Linguistics Online Google
of scientific Meet
language • Completion of
teaching. Modular Learning
Tasks
• Online Submission
of Accomplished
Worksheets

FINAL COURSE OUTPUT:

The students are expected to write a 2000-word synthesis of the relevance of
linguistics in English language pedagogy.

RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

Rubrics for Short Research in Linguistics
Criteria Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet
- 4 pts - 3 pts acceptable - 1 pt
- 2 pts
Quality of Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet
Research • Cited 3 or more • Cited 3 sources acceptable
50 % sources • Sources mostly • Failed to cite 3 • Failed to cite sources.
• Sources reliable reliable. Citation sources. • Source reliability
and properly errors minor. • Source questionable. Omitted
cited. • Most information reliability information does not
• All information relevant to questionable. interfere with ability of
relevant to topic thesis. Omitted reader to find the
• Sufficient • Sufficient information source.
information information does not • Some information
provided to provided. interfere with relevant to thesis.
support all • Research of ability of reader • Information provided
elements of topic. sufficient depth. to find the to support some
• Research indepth source. elements of topic.
and the beyond • Some • Surface research.
the obvious, information
revealing new relevant to
insights gained. thesis.
• Information
provided to
support some
elements of
topic
• Surface
research.
Content Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet
30 % • Question • Question acceptable • Question too
interesting, of somewhat • Question too broad or narrow
appropriate broad or broad or for length of paper
breadth for length narrow for narrow for and/or a poor
of paper & an length of paper length of paper topic for research.
appropriate topic and/or a and/or a poor • Support for thesis
for research. questionable topic for barely sufficient,
• Support for thesis topic for research. and/or.
complex, research. • Support for • Organization,
complete, & • Support for thesis barely transitions,
indepth. thesis sufficient, introduction, and
• Writer involved sufficient but and/or. conclusion lacking
with subject, not lacking in • Organization, clarity and/or
merely doing an depth or transitions, appropriateness.
assignment. complexity. introduction,
• Clear and • Organization, and conclusion
appropriate transitions, lacking clarity
organization, with introduction, and/or
effective and conclusion appropriatenes
slightly lacking
clarity and/or s.
appropriatenes
s.
transitions,
introduction, and
conclusion.
Works Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet
Cited and  All sources  All sources acceptable  Not all sources Bibliogra
properly cited in properly cited properly cited in both phy both paper and in both paper
 Not all sources paper and
10 % bibliography. and properly cited bibliography.
 No more errors in bibliography. in both paper  More than 4 errors in
format or  2 errors in and format or punctuation.
punctuation. format or bibliography.
punctuation.  More than 3 errors in format
or punctuation.
Grammar Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet and  Consistent and 
Voice mostly acceptable  Voice somewhat Mechanic appropriate consistent and  Voice
consistent and s voice. appropriate. somewhat appropriate.
10 %  Sophisticated  Fairly effective consistent and  Correct word and precise
word choice. appropriate. choice.
word choice.  No more than  Correct word  More than 4
• No spelling 2 spelling choice. spelling errors.
errors. errors.  More than 3  More than 3 errors
• No errors in  Fewer than 1 spelling errors. in agreement, agreement, error in 
More than 2 pronouns/antecede pronouns/antece agreement, errors in nts, or
tense. dents, or tense. pronouns/ante agreement,  More than 4
• No punctuation cedents, or pronouns/ante punctuation or or capitalization tense.
cedents, or capitalization errors.  Fewer than 2 tense. errors.
• Met all style and punctuation or  More than 3  Failed to meet
min/max page capitalization punctuation or style and/or requirements.
errors. capitalization min/max page  Met most style errors.
requirements.
and min/max  Failed to meet
page style and/or
requirements. min/max page
requirements.

Source: https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?code=W952CX&sp=yes&

OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS:

 Occasional papers may be required as additional assessment/evaluation procedures
in addition to active class participation and discussion.

GRADING SYSTEM:
Term Examinations 30%
Quizzes/Activities 20%
Project 30%
Participation/Recitation 10%
Attendance/ Promptness 10%
TOTAL 100%
Final Grade = Midterm Grade + Tentative Final Grade Period
2

Range Grade
97-100 1.00
94 – 96 1.25
91 – 93 1.50
88 – 90 1.75
85 – 87 2.00
82 – 84 2.25
79 – 81 2.50
76 – 78 2.75
75 3.00
74 and below 5.00

References:
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2010). Introduction to Linguistics. Pasig
City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd.

Online Resources:
Coulmas, F. (ed.). (1998). The handbook of sociolinguistics. Blackwell.
http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9780631211938_c
hunck_g97806312119381

Required Readings:
Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., and Harnish, R.M. (2010). Linguistics: An
introduction to language and communication, 6th ed. London: MIT Press.
Chapman, S. & Routledge, C. (eds.). (2009). Key ideas in linguistics and the
philosophy of language. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press.
Collinge, N.E. (ed.). (1990). An encyclopaedia of language. London: Routledge.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of language learner: Individual differences in
second language acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Incorporated.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2013). An introduction to language, 10th ed.
NY: Cencage Learning.
Llamas, C., Mullany, L., & Stockwell, P. (Eds.). (2007). The Routledge companion to
sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge.
Malmkjær, K. (ed.).(2005). The linguistic encyclopedia, 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. London: Penguin Books.
ZaoHong, H. & Odlin, T. (eds.) (2006).Studies of fossilization in second language
acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Class Policies:
1. Students should read in advance the assigned text/s.
2. Students who incur absences more than 20% of the total number of class hour
shall be considered dropped.
3. Students are encouraged to use resources other than those available in the
University.
4. Schedules of oral presentations shall be followed as scheduled.
5. Course requirements should be free from any form of plagiarism.
6. Course requirements shall be submitted as scheduled.
7. Queries about grades shall be attended immediately upon posting on the
University portal.
8. Incomplete grades must be attended to as prescribed in the Student Handbook.

Note:
The subject teacher who prepared this syllabus reserves the right on the content of
this material. The Office of the Dean of Instruction can exercise possession of the
hardcopy of this syllabus only for administrative purposes.

Prepared: BONIFACIO T. CUNANAN, Ph.D.

Professor 6

Evaluated: ANALIZA VILLACORTE, Ph.D.

Program/Area Chair

Approved: MARIA BULAONG

Dean

Declaration
I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this course I agree to
the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and my responsibilities, and I have
discussed everything unclear to me with the instructor.
I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students and my
teacher with due respect.
I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of the instructor
in class or on any social media site at any time
______________________________________ ____________________ _______________
Student’s Printed name Signature Date

______________________________________ ____________________ _______________

Parent’s Printed name Signature Date

Student’s Copy

-------------------------------------------------------Cut here----------------------------------------------------------

Declaration
I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this course I agree to
the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and my responsibilities, and I have
discussed everything unclear to me with the instructor.
 I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students and my
teacher with due respect.

I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of the instructor
in class or on any social media site at any time
______________________________________ ____________________ _______________
Student’s Printed name Signature Date

______________________________________ ____________________ _______________

Parent’s Printed name Signature Date
Instructor's Copy

Table of Contents

Preface
Syllabus
Table of Contents

Unit 1. The Scientific and Philosophical Study of Language

Lesson 1.The Historical Background of Linguistics
Lesson 2.Human Language and Animal Communication
Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics
Lesson 4. The Human speech Apparatus

Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics

Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet
Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs
Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions
Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English

Unit 3. Morphology and Syntax

Lesson 9. Free, bound, Derivational, and Inflectional Morphemes
Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of Word
Formation
Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars
Unit 4. Semantics
Lesson 12. Lesson 12. Meaning: The Transformational
Generative and The Systemic Functional Turns
Lesson 13. Language Change: Semantic Change and Semantic
Broadening

Unit 5. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics

Lesson 14. Language and the Brain: The Biological Dimension of
Language
Lesson 15. Language Development: The Behaviorist, The
Cognitivist, and The Constructivist Perspectives

Unit 6. Sociolinguistics
Lesson 16. Language and Society: The Sociological Dimension of
Language
Lesson 17. Language Varieties : Dialect, Register, Sociolect,
Genderlect, and Idiolect
Lesson 18. Language and Culture: Linguistic Relativism

Unit 7. Linguistics and Language Teaching

Lesson 19. Applied Linguistics
Lesson 20. Educational Linguistics

UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY

OF LANGUAGE

Lesson 1. The Historical Background of Linguistics

Duration: 3 hours
Introduction

The study of linguistics involves several components which are all leaning
to the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics. This
scientific study aims to fully understand how words are produced and
combined to come up with fully understandable and comprehensible
communication among humans.

Also, this body of knowledge focuses on finding general properties common

to all languages or groups of languages that greatly impacts different fields
such as education, anthropology, sociology, language teaching, philosophy,
and artificial intelligence.

Although linguistics plays an important role in understanding of how

language is being produced, how language affects cognition, and how
language is manifested in actions, its importance and significance to people
remain to be low. People do not have a strong idea how linguistics works
nor do they give attention to how it affects their daily life.

Linguists analyze human language and how it is being produced by

humans. It was Ferdinand de Saussure who pioneered the study of
linguistics through his idea of sign. From this concept, many thoughts
sprung that ignited the thoughts of other linguists to explore other ideas
concerning language.

In this lesson, you will learn how language and linguistics come hand in hand
and we will also learn how to identify their distinctions.

Objectives/Competencies

During the allotted time, you are expected to

1. articulate a comprehensive and contextualized understanding of importance

of signs through a reflective essay
2. Create a visual representation of how sign works in communication, and
3. Illustrate the importance of signs by defending points of view.

Pre-test
In order to check how much you have learned previously in your language
classes, here are some activities that we will work on.

Choose the correct word that may appropriately describe the picture in
column A from the words listed on column B. Write your answer on the
space provided.

Column A Column B
____1. a. dog
b. aso
c. perr
o
____2 a. table
b. lamesa
c. mesa

____3 a. red dot

b. Japanese flag
c. red moon

____4. a. life
b. go
c. nature

____5. a. tree
b. family
c. unity

Lesson Proper

From the activity that we have done in pre-test we can say that language
has a wide scope when it comes to meaning. A mere symbol or sound can
be interpreted in many different ways and still can be considered a possible
or right answer. As we have mentioned early, the study of linguistics was
fathered by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist whose idea of
language is more on the agreed signs and meanings.

Saussure contended that

meaning is derived from
the sign that is being
associated with it. He aimed to
find a bridge between the
psychic essence concept and
the concrete reality of word. He
therefore came up with the of
 “sign” as an indivisible pair which is consisted of abstract concept
and concrete realization.

Ferdinand de Saussure was born on

November 26, 1857. He was considered to
be the Father of Linguistics.
Let us take the examples in the pre-test. All the pictures found on column A can
be interpreted using the words on column B. The words found on the second
column are correct interpretations of the signs on the first column.

Based on the idea of de Saussure, a representation of communication can

be interpreted by:
a. intentional – such as word uttered with specific meaning
b. unintentional – such as a symptom being a sign of a
particular medical condition

The “Sign” is the whole result from the association of the following
concepts:

1. Signifier= any material thing that signifies

e.g. word on a page, facial expression, image

2. Signified= the concept that a signifier refers to

Together, the signifier and the signified can create a sign which gives
the smallest unit of meaning that can be used to communicate. The
relationship of the signifier and the signified is referred to as
“signification.”

Let us take these examples:

(SIGNIFIER) (SIGNIFIED)
CODE CONCEPT
D-O-G

four legs barks

furry
not g-o-d

T-A-B-L-E
 w
o
R-E-D D-O-T
o
danger d
en flat surface
thin gs are on it dining place

blood anger love

G-R-E-E-N
life nature freshness

What is Signifier and Signified then?

Signifiers are the physical form of anything that are considered signs. They
are something that can be heard, touched, smelled, tasted, or seen. Based
on the examples given the first column which can be seen, touched, tasted,
heard, or smelled are the physical forms of the signs.

Signified on the other hand, are the mental concepts that are being referred to.

We must take note that the relationship of the signifier and the signified is
arbitrary. In order to understand a particular sign, we need to know the
signifier and the signified.

It is also important to note that sign can only be understood when the
relationship of the signifier and the signified are agreed upon by the users.

Example:
 dog = English
aso = Filipino
perro = Spanish

This sign can be referred to as dog, aso, perro or any kind of signifier that a
group of people will agree upon. All of the words that are used to describe
the said sign are correct. Depending on the group of people who are using
the said signifier, they will be able to understand each other if they are
referring to the same sign.

However, if a signifier is going to be used in a different group,

communication or understanding will be impossible. Let us take for
example the word “aso” when used to a group of Americans, they will
certainly not understand the signifier as this was not the agreed one.

It is important to note that signifier and signified should be agreed upon by

users to ensure understanding and eliminate confusion.

Confusion and misunderstanding can easily happen if the users of the sign do
not have the common background of the signifier and signified.

The illustration shows the connection of signifier and the signified in a

single sign. This only shows that language is mainly symbolic, since the
sequence and their meanings are conventional, arbitrary and have to be
learnt.

What is the main purpose of Linguistics then?

The focus of Linguistics as a body of knowledge is mainly on recognizing

how laws, processes and ways operate in languages. It aims to understand
how these laws apply universally in different languages. The way linguists
work on investigating phenomena common in language is the primary work
of linguistics.

Reminder:

Here are some points that we need to know about languages which were
discovered and generalized through the use of Linguistics

An American linguist named Charles Hockett has identified some properties

common to all languages. Here are his generalizations:

Features Common to all languages.

a) all languages have vowels and consonants;
b) all languages have words;
c) all languages can create new words when required and modify their
meanings;
d) all languages are open-ended in the sense that they can produce totally
new utterances which are understood by the users of the language; e) all
languages can form questions;
f) in all languages it is possible to talk about things and situations
that are removed from the immediate situation of the speaker
(this is called displacement);
g) in all languages we can use hypothetical, unreal, and fictional
utterances.

Activity

Let us try:

1. View this video about features of language

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU7XcD9TIGY

2. Using the features that were given by Charles Hockett and the
video that you have watched, try to explain how language works
in a chosen advertisement through a caricature.
Analysis

Using the diagram below, explain how sign can be manipulated in

a conversation that will result into understanding among family
members.

Abstraction

Imagine that you went on a cruise and along the trip your ship sank and
there were only 5 people who made it to a small island. Each of the
survivors can only speak 1 language: Filipino, Mandarin, German,
Japanese and Urdu. How would you manage to communicate with each
other given the language barrier that you have?

Application

As a future language teacher, how can the use of signs be beneficial in

teaching your students in order to ensure that you are being understood
completely?

Reflection and Insights

How important are signs in communication? What will happen if signs are
deliberately distorted?

Write your opinion of the space provided.

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

Post-test

To check your learning of the lesson, answer the questions below. Place a
cross mark () on the box of your choice.

No. Statement True False

1. Signs are agreed upon by the users.
2. Language can change over time. 3.
People speaking diverse languages can
never understand each other 4.
A single sign has only one definite meaning
5. Linguistics helps understand all languages

Suggested References and Websites

https://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/2018/09/ferdinand-de-saussure-
quickfacts.html

https://dirtyworkblog.wordpress.com/2012/12/14/ferdinand-de-saussurecourse-
in-general-linguistics/
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF
LANGUAGE

Lesson 2. Human Language and Animal Communication

Duration: 3 hours
Introduction

Many scientists believe that all things on the face of the Earth came from
simpler life form that had started to stretch and expand causing the birth
and development of all living things. As such, animals and humans are said
to be coming from the same origin but a certain link that cannot be
explained by science is how humans developed extraordinary ways of
communicating with each other.

In this lesson, you will learn the characteristics of human language that
makes human beings superior compared to animals. You will also learn
features of language that are not present in the communication process of
animals.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to

1. discuss the difference of human communication to animal communication,
2. compile examples that will show or illustrate the differences between
human and animal communication, and
3. compose a piece of literature that depicts a preferred feature of human
language

Pre-test
Determine whether the statement is attributed to all animal or only human
communication. Write AA if the statement is for all animals and OH for
humans. Write your answer on the space provided.

_____1. Heavily rely on instinct to understand a message.

_____2. Sounds are produced through a voice box

_____3. Can refer feelings in the past

_____4. Every sign has one meaning

_____5. Communication can be learned.

Lesson Proper

Photo credit: owlcation.com

If you will be asked how a cat can express its

feelings to its owner, what would you possibly
tell? Do you think that pets can really
communicate what they want? Can
really humans communicate with
animals?
One of the many linguists who tried to study
the difference of human
communication to animals is Charles
Hockett. He is a well-known linguist who
made use of a comparative approach to Photo Credit:
identify the difference of humans to https://alchetron.com/CharlesF-
animals in terms of communication. Hockett

Features of Human Language

1. Vocal-auditory channel: sounds emitted from the mouth and perceived by
the auditory system.
2. Transitoriness (Rapid fading) : Signals last a short time. This is true of all
systems involving sound.
3.Interchangeability: All utterances that are understood can be produced.
4.Total feedback: The sender of a message also perceives the message.
That is, you hear what you say.
5.Specialization: The signal produced is specialized for communication and
is not the side effect of some other behavior.
6.Semanticity: There is a fixed relationship between a signal and a
meaning.
7. Arbitrariness: There is an arbitrary relationship between a signal and its
meaning. That is, the signal is related to the meaning by convention or by
instinct but has no inherent relationship with the meaning.
8.Discreteness: Language can be said to be built up from discrete units
(e.g., phonemes in human language). Exchanging such discrete units
causes a change in the meaning of a signal. This is an abrupt change,
rather than a continuous change of meaning.
9. Displacement: Communicating about things or events that are distant in
time or space.
10.Productivity: Language is an open system. We can produce potentially an
infinite number of different messages by combining the elements
differently.

11.Cultural transmission: Each generation needs to learn the system of

communication from the preceding generation.
12. Duality of patterning: Large numbers of meaningful signals (e.g.,
morphemes or words) produced from a small number of meaningless units
(e.g., phonemes).
13. Prevarication: Linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or
meaningless.
14. Reflexiveness: In a language, one can communicate about communication.
15. Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another language.

Activity

1. Watch this video for additional understanding of the features of human

language. Then do the next step.
https://youtu.be/LEOPCEiigYQ

2. Compile pictures that will illustrate the features of human language. Be

sure to write a short explanation about the picture stating how helpful
those features are in communication.

Analysis
How does a baby communicate with its parents? Are the features of human
language present among babies? When do you think these features are
evident in human communication?

Abstraction

Given the different features of human language, can we safely say that
animal communication does not have these kinds of features? Or if there
are, can you identify what features are applicable for animal
communication?
Application

As a future language teacher, how can you show your students the difference
between animal language and human language?

Create a short acrostic poem that can remind you of the importance of
human language.

Your work will be evaluated using this checklist:

Each “Yes” is equivalent to 1 point and each “No” is equivalent to 0 point.

Criteria Yes No
The subject of the acrostic poem is written vertically
one letter at a time in a column.
Each vertical letter begins a word, a phrase, or a
sentence in each line of a poem.
No repetitive words in the poem.
Words are spelled correctly
Is the poem linguistically correct?
Total

Reflection and Insights

Do you think that language is a gift from a divine entity? Does it mean that
humans are better in the eyes of the divine? How about the language used
by animals?

Write your reflection on the space provided below.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Post-test
Based on the discussion above, determine if the statements are true. Write
True or False on the space provided.

___1. Animals use language to communicate with each other.

___2. Instinct is the primary source of communication to animals.
___3. Cultural transmission is one feature of human language
___4. Human language is dormant and does not undergo change.
___5. Language is common to both humans and animals.

Suggested References and Websites

https://pages.uoregon.edu/redford/Courses/LING162/Handout_1.pdf
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF
LANGUAGE

Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction
Based on what you have learned from the first lesson in this unit, linguistics is
known to be the study of human language and what features may be present
and shared by different languages. You have learned that it tries to understand
how a person conceives ideas and how it is associated with a particular
concept in order to convey information to others.

Linguists use of different ways on how to examine the human language since
language is a vast area of knowledge to examine. Let us take for example a
linguist wants to study how an American pronounces the word “often” and
compare it on how a British or an Indonesian say that same word? There will be
notable differences on how they say it.

Another example is when a person wants to know how words are connected to
form a simple sentence and why some sentences are correct in grammar, but
we find it hilarious? These concepts that we want to understand are
investigated by subfields of linguistics.

In this lesson you will learn some of the subfields of linguistics which will help us
understand human language.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to

1. familiarize with the subfields of Linguistics, and
2. be able to determine features of the different subfields of linguistics.
Pre-test

Determine whether the following statements are True or False

_____1. There is no difference when the word “often” is pronounced by either
American or British.
_____2. The sentence, “The radio listens to a boy.” is wrong.
_____3. Meanings of statements depend on the speakers alone.

_____4. The sentence, “ The horse is owned by a small hotel owner.” can
possibly cause confusion.
_____5. There is no difference between: Why is there change? vs Why is
there change?

Lesson Proper

Phonetics is the study of the physical attributes of speech sounds and how
these sounds are produced. Phoneticians are the people study how
sounds are produced by the human speech system. The study of
phonetics is further divided into other subparts which are: Articulatory
Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics, and Auditory Phonetics. Each of the
subfields has its own focus or specialization. The first subfield which is
articulatory is focused on studying how sounds are being produced. The
second part pertains to the study of the quality of the sound a human
produce such as the loudness, frequency, and timber. And the last subpart
explains how the brain perceives and processes the sound. Let us take the
example of the production of the sound [i] when heard by a person, his
brain knows its sounds because he can imagine that it is the sound that is
produced in the front of the mouth and when the tongue is tensed and the
lips are rounded.
Morphology is another subfield of linguistics that investigates the internal
structure of words, in which morphemes are the basic unit of a word. This
subfield of linguistics delves deeper into some rules in word creation such
as when to use -ed or d in a making a past tense of a verb.
Lexicology refers to the study of how words are made through the use of
lexemes. Lexemes are the smallest unit of syntax. This subfield of
linguistics wants to account for the changes of how words change in form
using a lexeme. Let us take this example, the words ridden, rode, riding,
rides are all forms of the lexeme ‘ride’. The other words enumerated are in
similar form to the original lexeme which is ride and it is in verb form.
 Another example in the study of lexeme is with the word the difference of
the nominal form of the word drink, drinks, drink’s and drinks’ would differ
from the verb form drink, drank, drunk and drinking. The lexeme of a word
does not change in grammatical form. The focus of lexeme is to further
increase the inventory of lexicon or in other words vocabulary. Lay people
may refer to lexicon as vocabulary.
Syntax is mostly known to people for the arrangement of words in a sentence.
This subfield of linguistics assesses and evaluates larger components
such as phrases and clauses. The people who specialize in syntax are
known to be syntacticians. They study how words and their functions in
the sentence complement each other. Most common area of interest of
syntacticians are subject- verb- object relationships. For people who may
have not known the idea of syntax, they normally refer it to grammar.
Semantics is the study of meaning. This subfield of Linguistics investigates the
words in a sentence and how they are related to each other to give
meaning. Linguists who focus on semantics are known to be semanticists.
The primary role of semantics is to explain the relationships of words to
their referent. Example we and us are pronouns that may indicate to the
same person who is speaking.
Pragmatics is the subfield of linguistics that explains how language is used in
context, status, and speaker. This subfield is also associated with a body
of knowledge called semiotics. Pragmatics considers outside factors that
may contribute to the meaning of an utterance or expression. The
importance of appropriate communication in social situations is one
important area in which pragmatics want to investigate. According to
pragmatists, meaning can differ among the interlocutors and the listeners.
The meaning being conveyed is sometimes changed because of context.
Figure 1.3 shows the different subfields of linguistics that branched out to
different areas of expertise. You will notice that language plays an
important role in daily communication. Can you tell how these subfields
depend and affect each other? We can say that linguistics and its subfields
are interrelated with each other. It means that at some point, a linguist may
use a particular subfield when trying to explain another subfield. They
always come hand in hand with each other. One or more subfields can
help explain and shed light to a particular point of view.
Figure 1.3 is taken from: https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/

Activity

1. For your activity, please visit this video to further know what Linguistics is
and its subfields.

https://youtu.be/bzz1pFWAtMo

2. List down some other subfields of Linguistics which were not discussed in
this lesson. Discuss what these subfields focus on in terms of understanding
the nature of language.

Analysis

From the “mine,” try to explain how this word evolved into the social meaning,
“It is the practice of examining large databases in order to generate new
information.”

Abstraction
Using the lesson learned, illustrate the development language from Phonology to
Pragmatics. How does a simple sound develop into meaningful ideas?
Try to use a simple sound and show how it can turn into meaning that causes
conflict among interlocutors.

Application
As a future educator, how would you explain how word usage differs from being
a young learner to a full-fledged teacher within the next five years. Do you think
the words, phrases, or expressions that you currently use will be the same
words, phrases, or expressions when you are already a teacher?

Reflection and Insights

What makes a person speak various ways and use different expressions
even in a recurring situation? How do you speak differently when you are
talking to your classmates, your parents, or your teacher?

Post-test

From what we have discussed, try to match the statement from column A to the
subfield of Linguistics in Column B

A B

_____1. “It is pronounced as mmmm… like man. a. pragmatics

_____2. “ Put the tip of your tongue in between b. morphology

your upper and lower front teeth
_____3. “ Can you pass the salt? “ c. phonology

_____4. smallest unit in morphology d. syntax

_____5. Subject – Verb- Object f. lexemes

_____6. Horses ride men. vs. Men ride horses. g. phonetics

_____7. change ‘y’ to ‘i” and add ‘es’ f. semantics

.
_____8. act, acts, acting, acted vs acts, acts, h. morphemes

Suggested References and Websites

https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/too-much-linguistics-too-little-time/
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 4. The Human Speech Apparatus

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

You have already learned from the previous lesson that language is a human
phenomenon. It means that even if there are other creatures that are able to talk
such as parrots, seals and other animals which can be trained to utter few learnable
words, still there is no other animal which can communicate through words like man.

What makes man different from other animals? Based on the study conducted by
Jacob Dunn, a zoologist in University of Cambridge, humans have better working
vocal anatomy. Unlike the chimpanzees or monkeys which are considered to be near
like humans, these animals do not have functional larynx and vocal cords.

Humans use the communicative and informative signals to express how they feel.
What does it mean when we say signals? Let us take for example when you sneeze,
people may get the signal that you have either cough or colds. This situation is when
you unintentionally deliver a signal to others. This is considered to be a
communicative signal. One can send messages even he did not mean to.

But let us take for example you wanted to buy a new pair of sneakers and you wish to
ask money from your mother for it. You intentionally say this to your mother, “Mom,
may I ask for some money? I’d like to buy the blue sneakers we saw in the mall.”
These statements are intentionally given so as to express ideas. This example is a
way how humans deliver intentional signals.
What about animals? Many scientists and linguists believe that animals purely rely on
instinct for feelings and expressions, like how dogs snarl, squirm or wag their tails.

It is important to know what makes humans different from animals and know how
sounds are produced in order to make meaningful conversation. In this lesson you
will learn how humans create different sounds through their speech apparatus. You
will also learn the different parts and how they work together to create words.

Objectives/Competencies

During your study in this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the different parts of the human vocal system used in speaking, 2.
Contrast the difference between the human speech apparatus to animals, and
3. Explain how sounds are produced by humans.

Pre-test

Let us try your knowledge about human speech. Determine whether the following
statements are True or False. Write True if the statement is correct, and then write
False if you think it is incorrect. Write your answer on the space provided.

______ 1. Humans alone can speak among primates.

______ 2. All animals rely on instinct as a means of expressing feelings.
______ 3. All animals have similar sound producing apparatus.
______ 4. Some sounds can be produced even if there is no active use of
speech organs.
______ 5. Humans alone can communicate.

Lesson Proper

You may wonder how humans speak and how words are being produced. Have you
tried checking out how you make sounds whenever you speak? Humans are gifted
with what we call speech organs. These parts of the human anatomy allow humans
to produce varieties of sounds, blend them together and create a distinct sound that
can be associated with meaning.

The organs that are used in producing sounds include: lips, teeth, tongue, etc. Below you
can find a diagram illustrating the human speech organs.
 Photo credit: https://giftofgab-fluentenglish

The diagram shows the different parts of the human speech organs. These parts are
also known as Place of Articulation. This means that humans can produce distinct
sound using the different places of the human speech organs.

But before you proceed with the different places of articulation, let us learn first what
are voiced and voiceless sounds.

Voice and Voiceless sounds

In phonetics, we learned that linguists investigate how words are formed and
classified.

Voiced speech sounds are produced when the vocal cords vibrate. Try to say the
sound, “a” as in albatross. When you produce the “a” sound you will notice that your
vocal cords vibrate.

Voiceless sounds on the other hand are produced when vocal cords do not vibrate. Let
us take for example when you say the sound “h” as in hat.

Places of Articulation

Bilabial
These are sounds that are created when both lips are used. “Bi” which means two
and “labia” which means lips. The sounds that are produced using both lips are
called bilabials such as [p], [b], and [m]. [p] sound is voiceless and the [b] and [m]
are voiced sounds.

Examples
 [p] [b] [m]
pink bank mat
pants brick men
Labiodental
These are sounds that are produced with the combination of the upper teeth and the
lower lip. The sounds in this group are: [f] which is voiceless and [v] which is voiced.

Examples
[f] [v]
feet van
fist velvet
found volt

Dental
These sounds are formed with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper front
teeth. “th” sounds are considered dentals, the [θ] is for voiceless and [ ð ] is for the
voiced.

Examples
[θ] [ð]
bath then
thumb feather
thin there

Alveolar
These sounds are formed when the front part of the tongue is placed on the alveolar
ridge, which is the rough and bony ridge right behind the upper front teeth. The [t],
and [s] are the voiceless sounds whereas the [d], [n] and [z] are the voice sounds.

[t] [s] [d] [n] [z]

tank sip dug nun zap
bat ticks feed den buzz
tip seal god net jazz
Other alveolar sounds are [l] as in lap and [r] as in right and wrong.

Palatal
Just next to your alveolar ridge is the doom of your mouth. It is hard and it is called
hard palate or just palate. The sounds that are formed in this section are called
palatals. Palatals are produced when your tongue and the palate are used. The
sounds that are created with these locations are: [ʃ], present in a word like sheep, and
[ʒ], found in a word like occasion and /ʧ/ as in church. [ʃ], and /ʧ/ are voiceless but [ʒ]
is voiced.

Examples
[ʃ] [ʧ] [ʒ]
 sheep church
treasure dish cheese
pleasure
There is a special voice palatal which is [ʤ ] similar to gem and judge.

Velars
Even further back in the palate is a soft spot of your mouth. This is your soft palate
and known as velum. This place is also used in producing sounds. The velum can
come with your back part of your tongue to produce some sounds. These sounds
produced by your soft palate and the back of your tongue are called velars. The
sounds are: [ k ] which is a voiceless sound and [g] which is on the other hand a
voiced sound.

Examples

[k] [g]
kind guard
cool go
king bag

There is also another velar sound that is produced when your velar is lowered, and
the sound passes through your nose and that is the [ŋ]. This is also a voiced sound.
Examples to this sound are bang, sing, ring.

Glottals
Some sounds may be produced with no active use of the parts of the human speech
organs. This sound is known as glottal. The sound produced is normally called a
voiceless glottal which is represented by [ h ] such as in heart, house. Similarly the
sounds [w] and [j] are also considered to be glottal.

Manner of Articulation

You have already learned the places on which sounds specifically the consonants
are produced. Knowing where they are formed is not enough. You should also know
how they are produced. In this section, you will learn how sounds are formed.

Stops
These sounds are produced by stopping the airflow very briefly then releasing it
abruptly. These sounds are produced when there is sudden blocking and stopping of
the airstream. Stops are sometimes called plosives. The sounds that are produced by
plosives are: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k] and [g].

Fricatives
The sounds in this type are produced when air is blocked and is allowed to pass
through a small opening. The air is pushed through that produces some friction which
produces the sound. These sounds are produced through fricatives: [f], [v], [θ], [ð],
[s], [z], [ʃ] and [ʒ].
Affricates
These sounds are similar with stops as they require stopping but the difference with
stops is that affricate sounds are released with obstruction which causes friction. The
sounds that are formed in the manner are: [ ʧ ] and [ʤ ].
Nasals

Sounds that pass through the nasal cavity are called nasals. These sounds are all
voiced. The sounds are: [n], [m] and [ŋ].

Laterals
The [r] and [l] sounds are all lateral sounds or sometimes called liquids. These
sounds are formed by letting the air pass through the sides of the tongue.

Glides
The sounds [h], [w] and [j] are described as glides. The [h] sound is a voiceless glide,
but the two others are voiced and are typically formed with the tongue in motion
similar to producing a vowel.

Activity

After learning the lesson, you can try doing these tasks.
1. Read the poem below. Focus on the initial sounds of the short poem. Create a
tally board for each of the places of articulation.

Poem by: J.R.R. Tolkien.

Roads go ever on and on

Roads go ever ever on.
Over rock and under tree,
By caves where never sun has shone,
By streams that never find the see;
Over snow by winter sown
And through the merry flowers of June,
Over grass and over stone,
And under mountains in the moon.

2. Here are some words, try to identify to which place of articulation does each
word belong. Focus on the italicized part of the word.

thud_______ wham _______ foot _______ hoping_______

who_______ cheery _______ calf _______ jolly _______

goat _______ drive _______ nap _______ chip _______

Analysis

Given the different parts of articulation, do you think that animals can develop a
means of way to communicate with each other? Do you think that animals can also
use the same parts so they can produce varieties of sounds and eventually mix and
match to come up with intelligible combinations?

Abstraction

Can you describe how Filipinos create sounds when they speak Tagalog? Do you
think that these places of articulation are similar in terms of Tagalog or Filipino
language? What differences do you notice in the places of articulation when you use
Tagalog?

Application

1. Using a dictionary, come up with a list of words for each of the type of sound
under each type of place of articulation. Make it 5 words each and highlight the
sound that you are focusing on.

2. Try to use the chart below and identify how each consonant is formed. The first
one is done for you.

Example: [b] = bilabial stop

Reflection and Insights

Answer the question below. Write your opinion on the space provided.

Can places of articulation be applicable in all types of languages?

Do you think that other languages will have a different way of describing how their
sounds are produced?

Post-test
I. From the topic that we have discussed, answer the following questions. Circle a
letter for your best answer.

1. Which of the following does not belong to the group?

a. [ŋ] b. [d] c. [k] d. [g]

2. This refers to the production of sound in which the air passes through the side of
the tongue.
a. affricates b. fricatives c. lateral d. glides
3. To produce the sound [ ð ] what will be the combination of the place of articulation
and manner of articulation?

a. bilabial- nasal b. dental-fricative c. velar- stop d. alveolar- fricative

4. What place of articulation is being used when we form the sound [w]?
a. none b. tongue only c. tongue and velar d. tongue and lips

5. Consonants are always voiced.

a. Maybe b. True c. False d. No idea

II. Identify what is being described in each of the following sentences below. Write
your answer on the space provided.

________1. This refers to the production of sounds that allow vocal cords to relax
resulting in no vibration during the passage of the air from the lungs.
________ 2. This refers to the place of articulation that makes use of both the
upper and lower lips.
________3. [n], [m] and [ŋ] are the sounds that are produced with this manner of
articulation
________ 4. This refers to the place of articulation that is known to be the soft back
part of your mouth.
________ 5. This sound is produced with labiodental and it is voiced.

Suggested References and Websites http://giftofgab-

fluentenglish.blogspot.com/2009/08/speech-organs-howimportant.html
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Duration: 3 hours
Introduction

Have you ever wondered how people learned to unify the pronunciation of certain
words? There are times when people do not agree on what is the correct
pronunciation of the word “minute.” Some say it is read as “mi-nut” others say “may-
nut” and one may say “mɪnɪt.” Which one do you think is the correct way of
pronouncing the word minute?
The example scenario is quite common especially when people are learning or
studying a particular language. This is to ensure that common and uniform
pronunciation will be performed.

One aim of linguists is to come up with a good strategy to help people to uniquely
learn words and the symbols associated. This is also to ensure that these symbols
do not overlap with each other for distinction.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to:

1. Use IPA symbols in transcribing words,

2. Write short sentences using IPA symbols to illustrate proper pronunciation, and
3. Come up with guidelines on how to use IPA in transcribing or reading words

Pre-test

Determine what words are provided. Write the words on the space provided.

1. kʌmˌbæk =____________________

2. prəˈvaɪd ðɛm ðɪs ˈsɜrvəs = ______________________________

3. pɑsəˈbɪləti = _____________________________

4. aɪ æm ˈtaɪərd = ___________________________

5. haʊ ɑr ju = ______________________________

Lesson Proper
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a chart that is used in the English
language. The symbols that we have in IPA charts are drawn from the study of
Phonetics. You were already introduced with the different ways of articulation and
places of articulation.

In this lesson, we will learn what IPA is and how it is used in reading.

Vowel
When we were in the lower years, we learned that vowels are just simply a, e, i , o
and u. Based on some linguists, vowels are formed with free movement of air in the
mouth. All of the vowels are voiced. In American English, there are a lot of vowel
sounds. When we try to learn about vowels, we need to take note that these sounds
are associated with the place they are produced. Just like consonants, they too are
described in place and manner they are formed. Let us check the diagram below.

The American English vowel sounds are described in terms of height (high, middle,
low); backness (front, central, back); lip position (rounded, spread, or unrounded);
length (short, long, complex); and tenseness (lax, tense). Study this list.

[ I ] eat, bead, bee [ u ] boot, two, tube

[ ɪ ] id, bid, pit [ o ] location
[e ] eight, wade, bay [ ʊ ] foot, should, put
[ɛ ] bet, fed [ ɔ ] caught, paw, port
[ æ ] ask, bat, glad [ ɚ ] merge, bird, further
[ ʌ ] under, putt, bud [ ɝ ] surfer
[ ɑ ] cot, bomb [ ə ] above

The vowels in English language are remarkably diverse. There are many types
of vowels in order to fully illustrate the different sounds produced and their
distinctions from each other.

Activity

Can you try transforming these words into IPA symbols?

1. back _______________ 6. cloak _______________

2. bought _______________ 7. who _______________
3. face _______________ 8. bed _______________
4. how _______________ 9. chip _______________
5. hoping _______________ 10. gem _______________
Analysis

Why do you think linguists have developed the International Phonetic Alphabet? Do
you think that this chart is helpful? If so, how? If not, why?

Abstraction

How can IPA help an English language learner in his learning experience? As a
future teacher of English language, how would you use the chart in teaching
students with difficulty in pronouncing words? Can this chart help people with
language defects to speak properly?

Application

List down 20 words composed of Filipino languages that you know. Try to
transcribe those words using the IPA.

Reflection and Insights

Would spelling be a reliable source of pronunciation? Why?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Post-test

Complete the IPA transcription by providing the missing vowel sounds of each
word listed below.

1. great = gre_t 6. blood = bl__d

2. road = ro__d 7. key = k__

3. myth = m__θ 8. could = k__d

4. laugh = l__f 9. ball = b__l

5. move = m__v 10. support = s__ˈpɔrt

Suggested References and Websites

http://ingles-americano.blogspot.com/2011/07/vowel-sounds.html

UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs
Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

In the previous lesson you were able to learn how sounds are being produced. It
was also discussed that consonants and vowels have distinct places and manners
of how they are formed by the human speech organs. It is therefore safe to
generalize that all humans share the same process and organs to produce
particular sounds. All humans share the same characteristics.

However, individuals will have different qualities of producing a particular sound

due to physical differences such as size and shape of vocal tracts. Because of
these physical differences, people invariably pronounce the word “we.”

Similarly, people will have different sounds of the word “we” in given situations.
Example, during suffering from bad colds, scared, or even shouting.

In this lesson you will learn how to recognize the different variations of the word
“we” to other words such as see, me, tea and so many more. How do people
manage to constantly recognize the word? In order to understand how people do
recognition of sounds, it is the work of phonology.

You have already learned that phonology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on
describing the system and patterns of speech sounds in a particular language.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to:

1. Articulate features of sounds by listing them,

2. Describe how changes in sounds happen through analysis of a diagram, and
3. Be able to describe features of different phonemes by giving examples.
Pre-test

On the space provided, transcribe the following words. Show the allomorphs or
variants for /p/, /t/, /s/, /n/, /m/, and /z/.

1. people 6. measure
2. potato 7. pressure
3. letter 8. incorrect
4. water 9. computer
5. batman 10. boxes

Lesson Proper

Phonemes

Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound in a word which is perceived to be

distinct in a language. Examples: the word “pad” has three (3) phonemes which
are: /p/- /a/ and /d/.

The slash marks are used to indicate that it is a phoneme. One property of
phonemes is contrastive. The contrastive property of phonemes is the basic test
used in determining phonemes in a language. It allows people to differentiate each
phoneme from the other. A mere single substitution of a phoneme can lead to a
different meaning.

Examples of contrastive phonemes are /f/ and /v/. We can determine the change
between fat and vat or with fine and vine.

In knowing the features of phonemes, we make use of the plus sign (+ ) if the
feature is available, then we use the minus sign ( - ). Let us take this example: the
phoneme / f / -voice, +labiodental, + fricative.

Another example is with /h/ -voice, +glottal, +glides. You must identify if each
phoneme is voiced, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.

Allomorphs

You already know that phonemes have distinct sounds and they can be readily
distinguished from other phonemes. However, each phoneme can have a variation
on how it is produced by the mouth.

Phones are the phonetic units produced by the mouth and the word allo- means
closely related to or variant. Therefore, the word allophones mean, phonetic
sounds closely related to a particular phoneme.

Let us take this example: /t/ sound

In the word “tar” /t/ is pronounced as regular /t/
“star” /t/ is pronounced as /th/
“writer” /t/ sound is produced as /d/

The sounds /th/ and /d/ which correspond to the /t/ sounds on the given examples are
what you call allophones.

The distinction of phoneme to allophones is that; when we replace a phoneme and

the meaning of the word changes therefore it is a phoneme. When the change in
sound production does not make any change in meaning, it is an allophone.

Activity

Research from different references on what allophones do the following sounds

have. Cite examples on how these phonemes change.

1. /p/

2. /k/

Analysis

A good example of allophone is the /s/ sound.

Study the /s/ sound and its allophones. Discuss what the table means and give some
examples on each allophone.

Abstraction

Since you have already learned how to identify the features of a phoneme, can
you explain what rule there may be in combining consonants?

Why do you think we have the combination of /p/ + /r/ as a common combination but
not /r/ + /p/?
Why do you think we do not see combinations like:

1. /l/ +/s/ = ls
2. /h/ +/s/ = hs

Application

List down some words in your mother tongue that have allophones. Tell how the
changes happen.

Reflection and Insights

What do you think is the impact of allophones to the daily conversations of

humans? Do you think allophones can cause misunderstanding during
conversations?
_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Post-test

On the space provided, transcribe the following words. Show the allomorphs or
variants for /p/, /t/, /s/, /n/, /m/, and /z/.

1. tomato 6. leisure
2. bitter 7. assurance
3. legacy 8. indecent
4. girls 9. writer
5. plants 10. rider

Suggested References and Websites

Source: https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions

Introduction

In narrow transcription, you will learn the detailed descriptions of phones in terms of
their physical attributes. Compared to broad transcription, it provides explanations
how phonemes behave in different phonological environments. These changes
manifest in terms of phonetic differentiation.

Objectives/Competencies
During the three-hour period, you are expected to
1. Differentiate long and short vowels through narrow transcription,
2. Illustrate finer phonetic features through narrow transcription, and
3. Transcribe selected words in narrow transcription.

Pre-test

Group the words below in two columns: A for short vowels and B for long vowels.

deal feel deep fill meal seal ship

dill heat mill seat sick seek sill
dip hit peak sheep sit
pick

A- Short /I/ B- Long /i/

1. ____________ ___________
2. ____________ ___________
3. ____________ ___________
4. ____________ ___________
5. ____________ ___________

Lesson Proper

As explained in the previous lessons, no two languages are the same. Each language
is unique and has peculiarities. In comparing languages on the phonological level,
you will notice that there are some phonological features that are not shared by two
languages. One of which is the difference between long and short vowels. Failure to
recognize the differences between short and long vowels results in the inability to
perceive their differences both in receptive and productive skills, listening and
speaking, respectively. Surprisingly, the same difficulty may occur in writing and
reading as well. Hence, it is very important to get yourself familiar with both broad
and narrow transcriptions.

In this lesson, you learn to read words as they are transcribed in two ways. Broad
transcription is also known as phonemic transcription. It uses slashes. Narrow
transcription, which is also known as phonemic transcription, used square brackets.
Narrow transcription is more detailed because it considers the physical properties of
every speech sound or phone.

Aspirated Stops
Stops are consonant sounds which are produced with the complete impedance or
obstruction of the flow of speech air through the closure of the upper and the lower
lips which is immediately followed by a sudden release. Hence, stops are identified
with the final position in a word like top, put, book. However, stops become aspirated
when they are in initial position. In the case of /t/, it is aspirated both in the initial
position or middle position provided that it is part of the stressed or accented syllable.
In the final position, stops are unreleased or unaspirated. In narrow transcription, a
superscript of /h/ is used. In the case of ‘cook’, only the initial /k/ is aspirated. See the
examples below.

Unreleased Stops
To indicate that the stop is unreleased, a superscript of /o/ is used. Unreleased
indicates that the speech air is not allowed to pass through even a small passage
between the lips of teeth.
Flaps
When the phoneme /t/ is between two vowels, it is in an intervocalic position. Because
it is between two vowels, the unvoiced /t/ becomes similar to /d/. Hence, we use [D] in
narrow transcription. Below are examples of flaps.

Dental Consonants
Consonants which are placed in close proximity tend to affect each other. The
interdental /Ɵ/, for example, assimilates the lateral /l/ such that it becomes dentalized,
that is, it is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the upper and the lower
teeth. Observe the symbol used beneath /l/, /n/, and /t/. The symbol stands for
dentalization.

Velarized / ɫ /

The lateral / ɫ / behaves differently in different phonemic environments. If a word ends

win a / ɫ /, the sound of the consonant manifests a backward movement of the tip of
the tongue. Velarization is represented by a small bar placed across / ɫ /. Compare
the examples below.

Voiceless Liquids and Glides

Liquids and glides are voiced, but they become voiceless when placed near voiceless
consonants like /p/, /s/, and /k/. A small zero is placed beneath a liquid or a glide to
indicate that it is voiceless. See the examples below.
Lengthened Vowels
Length is phonemic. The meaning of a word changes significantly when the sound of
a vowel is lengthened. The symbol for vowel length is a colon [:]. Imagine the
communication breakdown if you miss to use a lengthened vowel when you ask a
friend, Do you enjoy going to the beach?

Nasalized Vowels
Nasalization means letting the air pass through the nasal cavity. When a vowel is
near to a nasal consonant, that vowel also becomes nasalized as well. To indicate a
nasalized vowel, we use a tilde, a small diacritic in niño, the Spanish word for boy.

Activity

Give four examples for every type of phonetic or narrow transcription and have them
transcribed using appropriate phonetic characters and square brackets.

Category of Phonetic Examples

Transcription

1. Aspirated Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

2. Unreleased Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

3. Flaps _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

4. Dental Consonant _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

5. Velarization _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

6. Voiceless Liquids and _______________ _______________

Glides _______________ _______________
 7. Lengthened Vowels _______________ _______________
_______________ _______________

8. Nasalized Vowels _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

Abstraction

Explain how phonemes behave differently in different phonological environments. You

may go back to the preliminary parts of this lesson to support your answer. Write your
explanation below.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Application

Using your output above, write the words in narrow transcription.

Category of Phonetic Narrow Transcription

Transcription

1. Aspirated Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

2. Unreleased Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

3. Flaps _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

4. Dental Consonant _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

5. Velarization _______________ _______________

 _______________ _______________

6. Voiceless Liquids and _______________ _______________

Glides _______________ _______________

7. Lengthened Vowels _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

8. Nasalized Vowels _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

Reflection and Insights

Which of the phonetic changes do you find most challenging? Do you consider this as
a challenge or potential problem area in teaching English to speakers of other
languages?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Post-test

Transcribe ‘The Lord’s Prayer” in the space below using narrow transcription.
Disregard here the use of square brackets. Make the transcriptions linear.

The Lord’s Prayer _______________________________

Our Father, who art in _______________________________

_______________________________
heaven, hallowed be thy
_______________________________
name; thy kingdom come; thy
_______________________________
will be done; on earth as it is _______________________________
in heaven. _______________________________

Give us this day our daily bread. _______________________________

_______________________________
And forgive us our trespasses, as _______________________________

we forgive those who trespass _______________________________

_______________________________
against us.
_______________________________
And lead us not into temptation; but
_______________________________
deliver us from evil. _______________________________
_______________________________
For thine is the kingdom,
the power and the glory,
for ever and ever. _______________________________
_______________________________
Amen.
_______________________________

Suggested References and Websites

The examples in the above narrow transcriptions are accessed from

Crabtree, M. & Powers, J. (Comp.) (1991). Language Files, 5th ed. Columbus: Ohio
State University Press.
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

Every language is dynamic. As such, every language changes. If a language does

not change or the rules are fixed and no new words are added to that language, it is
a dead language. Linguists consider English as a living language as it permits
changes and accommodates new words.

You have known in your previous lessons in English that this language belongs to
Indo-European family of languages and its transition from the original structure to its
divergent form is attributed to change.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to:

1. Discuss how pronunciation changes and what factors affect it,
2. Provide examples of pronunciation changes, and
3. Propose possible new sound combinations or word pronunciation

Pre-test

Determine what is the correct pronunciation of the words; put a check mark on the
space provided.

1. bagel ____bay-gull vs ____ bah-gull

2. caramel ____ car-ml vs ____ car-a-mel
3. syrup ____ seer-up vs ____ sirr-up
4. almond ____ ahl-mend vs ____ am-end
5. salmon ____ sahmon vs ____ sahlmon
Lesson Proper

During the travel or the migration of the known ancestors of English, known as the
Anglo-Saxon, various but related languages emerged. Many proofs can relate the
modern English language to other languages that are drawn from the same source.
English language loaned words from different groups of people either their
conquerors or the people they have conquered. Some of the words that have been
borrowed are from government, nobility, military, food, and art. Definitely, these
words originally had their own form and due to borrowing and time, change
occurred. We sometimes refer to the older version of English as Middle English,
which was believed to be the type of English language spoken in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries.

One prominent feature of change that distinguishes Modern English to Middle

English is the so-called Great Vowel Shift (GVS). This refers to the changes of
pronunciation that happened in English language. The shift has heavily influenced
other types of Englishes.

You already have an idea on how language has changed and from the article you
will read below, you will find out that there are many factors which can contribute to
the gradual change of language.

Read the article and try to check how changes happened in the English language
GVS can be manifested in many examples, this is due to the different mouth
and tongue positioning of speakers. A good example of sound that
underwent change is the word “hoose” which originally meant dwelling. This
word has changed now to “house.”

Another example is the word “coo” which refers to cows nowadays. Many
people are still trying to make changes in pronunciation and linguists believe
that GVS will still continue to happen as English varieties prosper and many
regional dialects of English emerge.

One manifestation of GVS is the emergence of new sound combinations

which are mostly turning to new types of diphthongs.

In the illustration below, the process of combination of sounds is explained.

This process also happens in GVS

Activity

To understand more about GVS, try to check this video

https://youtu.be/zyhZ8NQOZeo

Analysis

Investigate about the Push Theory and Pull Theory that affected the Great
Vowel Shift.

Application
 Do you consider the phonological differences between British and American
varieties of English a consequence of the Great Vowel Shift? Write your
explanation below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights

What do you think are the common reasons why languages change?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test

Below is the passage from Matthew 6:9-13 in Anglo-Saxon language ( 410 to

1066 CE) and New International Version of the Bible (21st Century).

Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, Si Our Father in heaven, hallowed be

þin nama gehalgod. To becume þin your name, your kingdom come,
rice, gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa your will be done, on earth as it is in
swa on heofonum. urne heaven. Give us today our daily
gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, bread. And forgive us our debts, as
and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we we also have forgiven our debtors.
forgyfað urum gyltendum. and ne And lead us not into temptation but
deliver us from the evil one.
gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of
yfele. soþlice.
List down some words that have persisted from the Anglo-Saxon Period to the
21st century. Discuss how these words have changed over the last 1,500
years.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Suggested References and Websites

https://www.slideshare.net/mlmohlere/great-vowel-shift-64524575

https://www.larapedia.com/english_the_english_language/the_english_langu
age.html
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Lesson 9. Free, Bound, Derivational, and Inflectional

Morphemes

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have described into
categories. As a future educator, you need to figure-out the different
functions of morphemes or words according to its categories. Moreover, as
you study morphemes, you will identify the different kinds of morphemes and
their own uses in language.

Objectives/Competencies
1. Identify the different types of morphemes
2. Analyze the different usage of the categories of morphemes.
3. Differentiate the different categories of morphemes.

Pre-test
This first part of your module will not only test your prior knowledge but will
also introduce you to the next lesson. Check the box of your choice.

YES MAYBE NO
1. Morphemes only deals with words.   
2. Free morphemes are words that can stand   
alone.
3. Bound morphemes are divided in three   
categories which are lexical, derivational, and
inflectional.
4. Lexical morphemes refers to bases of the   
words.

5. Morphemes can be a conjunction, a verb, or an   

article.

Lesson Proper

Morphemes are the smallest grammatical units of language. They can be

classified as free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, or bound
morphemes, which must be combined with another morpheme to form a
complete word. In the English language, bound morphemes naturally appear
as affixes.

Free morphemes are also called the root words. These words are can stand
alone (such as "bag") and cannot be divided into smaller meaning units. Most
free morphemes can be improved by affixes to form complex words and
compound words through combining two free morphemes like bookmark,
while free morphemes modified by affixes are complex words like beginner.

Free morphemes are divided in two categories which called as lexical

morphemes and functional morphemes.

Lexical Morphemes are words that make the main meaning of a sentence.
These includes nouns, verbs, and adjectives.

Examples
Noun: bag, book, pencil
Verbs: run, seek, walk, dance
Adjectives: kind, fast, sad, quick

These words are vital parts of a sentence. The gist and meaning of these
words might change when joined with other morphemes, but their free
morphemes will still make up the content of the sentence.
Functional morphemes consist of articles, auxiliaries, prepositions,
demonstratives, quantifiers, pronouns, and conjunctions.

Examples of free morphemes as functional morphemes

• Articles: the, a, an
• Auxiliary Verbs: will, is, must, does
• Quantifiers: some, many, few
• Demonstratives: this, that, those, these
• Prepositions: under, over, to, by
• Pronouns: he, she, his, her
• Conjunctions: for, and, but, or

Functional morphemes serve as a grammatical connection between

lexical morphemes. They are not usually added or connected with affixes
that change their meaning.
Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand alone. It has no
linguistic meaning unless they are combined and united to a root word, or
even in another bound morphemes.

These morphemes have no linguistic meaning unless they are linked or

connected to a root word, or other bound morpheme. Bound morphemes
can be clustered and grouped into two categories: inflectional morphemes
and derivational morphemes.

Inflectional morphemes alter the grammatical function of a word whether

mood, verb tense, or another language inflection. These morphemes cannot
change the meaning, but the suffixes can change the word condition. The
eight inflectional morphemes are organized by which part of speech they
modify:

 Modify a Noun: -s (or -es), -'s (or s')

 Modify an Adjective: -er, -est
 Modify a Verb: -ed, -ing, -en

Derivational Morphemes alters and changes the semantic meaning of a word.

Most derivational morphemes have roots in Greek or Latin. These
morphemes can change a word's part of speech.
Prefixes: pre-, un-, non-, anti-, dis-
Suffixes: -ize, -ine, -ary, -ate, -ion
Activity
Analyze the given word in each number and identify the free and bound
morphemes. Use the table below.
WORD FREE MORPHEME BOUND MORPHEME ex. beautiful
beauty -ful
1. singing
2. refrigerator
3. assignment
4. cheaply
5. separation
6. unbreakable
7. employment
8. hunter
9. generosity
10. steadfastness

Analysis
The components of the morphologically complex words below have been
separated by a hyphen (-). Indicate which of these morphemes are bound
and which is free, and which bound morphemes are inflectional and
derivational.

Ex. Care-ful care (free), -ful (bound, inflectional)

1. kind-ness
2. dance-ing
3. teach-er
4. fright-en
5. understand-able
6. king-dom
7. favorite-ism
8. speak-s
9. award-ed
10. achieve-ment

Abstraction
Using the free morphemes below add a bound morpheme and write the new
meaning of the word.
OLD WORD NEW WORD MEANING
ex. use useful valuable or productive in kind
1. coordinate
2. tremendous
3. suffocate
4. product
5. possible
6. learn
7. book
8. collect
9. phone
10. paint
11. comfortable
12. wash
13. happy
14. marine
15. acid
Application
Create ten sentences and label and underline four words that has different
types of morphemes. L for lexical morpheme, F for functional, I for inflectional
and D for derivational. ex. The businesswoman is selling goods online
strategically.
F L I D
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Reflection and Insights
Reflect on what have you learned about morphemes. What are the
implications of the way you learned in teaching new generation of 21 st
century learners? Write your insights on the lines provided below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Post-test
Answer the following questions to assess your understanding on the lesson.

1. Identify the two types of morphemes?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

2. Differentiate lexical morphemes to functional morphemes?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

3. How does inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes

dissimilar from each other?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Suggested References and Websites
To enrich your understanding in the given lesson you may read relevant
article on the website below.

http://punjabirevolution.com/index.php/morphology/

UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of

Word Formation
Introduction
Language is a vital aspect in the life of every human being. We use it to
express emotions and thoughts, make sense of abstract and complex ideas,
and also to learn how to communicate with others. When we communicate
with native speaker, we need a speak with good language and proper
pronunciation. Therefore, in English we know about linguistics and its
process of learning. Morphology is the study of word structure. It seeks to
describe the system of rules and categories involved in word formation and
interpretation. Morphology is related with morphophonology, the aspect of
linguistics which studies about the phonological structure of morphemes, the
alternative series which serve a morphological function and the combinatory
phonic modifications of morphemes which occur when they are combined.
Morphophonemic change occurs when some phonological features change
as a corollary of their phonological environments.

Objectives/Competencies
a. Identify the different types of word formations.
b. Explain the different types of word formations.
c. Discuss the process of morphophonemic changes.
d. Create a digital organizer containing different word formation and
morphophonemic changes.

Pre-test
This first part of your module will not only test your prior knowledge but will
also introduce you to the next lesson. Check the box of your choice.
YES MAYBE NO
1. Morphophonemic changes can be classified in   
different processes.
2. Compounding forms a word out of two or   
morphemes
3. Assimilation is a type of word formation.   
4. A fusion of two phonemes can brought together   
by combining morphemes into a single
phoneme.

5. Morphophonemic changes can change the form   

of the word.
Lesson Proper
1. Loss of phoneme - The loss of phoneme /t/ w word class (adjective to
a noun)
e.g. different → difference; democrat → democracy
2. Addition of phonemes- The addition of “s” in a word to change it.
sword → swordsman; sale → salesgirl; craft → craftsman
3. Simple change of phonemes - The change from singular to plural like
the example above.
e.g. dog → dogs
4. Assimilation – Dissimilation
Assimilation is the process of substituting a sound by another sound
under the effect of a third sound which is near to it in the word or
sentence.
5. Synthesis- There is the combination of the two phonemes brought
together by morpheme combination into a single new phoneme. 6.
Stress shift, gradation- The addition of an affix to a word is together
with a shift in stress called stress shift
7. Suppletion- This type of morphophonemic change is the incidence of
the allomorph totally different in phonemic construction from the normal
form.

Such are some common change of morphophonemic in English. If we can

guess the rule behind the different kind of pronunciation or monomorphemic
that occurred, it will make it cooler and easier for us to learn English.

Types of Word Formation

Compounding pertains to forming a word out of two or more root
morphemes. These are called compounds or compound words. It can be
either native or borrowed. Native English roots are commonly free
morphemes, meaning to say native compounds are made out of independent
words that can arise by themselves.
Examples: mailman, mail carrier, doghouse, fireplace, fire hydrant, dry run,
cupcake, cup holder, email, e-ticket

Some compounds have a preposition as one of the component words like

pick-up truck and talking-to
Roots do not typically stand alone in Greek and Latin, in contrast to English.
Therefore, compounds are composed of bound roots. Compound words
shaped in English from derived Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this
distinctive. Some examples are photograph, iatrogenic, and many thousands
of other conventional words.
Note that compounds are written in various ways in English: with a space
between the elements; with a hyphen between the elements; or only with the
two roots run together with no separation. Words written in this way do not
affect its status as a compound. Later on, the way for writing compounds can
also change, such as the word email used to be written with a hyphen before.
In the 19th century, today and tomorrow were occasionally still written to-day
and to-morrow. The particle to formerly was the preposition to with an older
meaning 'at [a specific period of time]'. Clock work changed to clock-work
and finally to one word with no break, clockwork. Some compound words in
earlier literature are now written as one word appearing with unfamiliar
spaces or hyphens between the components.
Another thing to note about compound words is how different parts of speech
can be combined with each other. Some common examples are the
nounnoun combination, yet, there are others, like adjective-noun (dry run,
blackbird, hard drive), verb-noun (pick-pocket, cut-purse, lick-spittle) and
even verb-particle (where 'particle' means a word mostly entitling spatial
expression that means to complete a literal or metaphorical path), such as
run-through, or hold-over. Occasionally, these compounds are different in the
part of speech of the whole compound vs. the part of speech of its
components. Remember that the last two are nouns, despite their
components.
Some compounds have more than two component words. These are formed
by sequentially combining words into compounds, such as pick-up truck,
formed from pick-up and truck, where the first component, pick-up is itself a
compound formed from pick and up. Additional examples are no-fault
insurance, ice-cream cone, and even more complex compounds like top-rack
dishwasher safe.
There are a number of subtypes of compounds that do not relate with part of
speech, yet the sound characteristics of the words. These subtypes are not
commonly exclusive.

Rhyming compounds (subtype of compounds)

These words are formed or compounded from two rhyming words. Examples:
Lovey-dovey, chiller-killer
There are words that are very alike to rhyming compounds but are not quite
compounds in English for the reason that the second component is not really
a word--it is only a nonsense item added to a root word to form a rhyme.
Examples: higgledy-piggledy tootsie-wootsie

This formation process is connected in English with child talk precisely called
hypocoristic language. Examples: bunnie-wunnie, Henny Penny,
snugglywuggly, Georgie Porgie, Piggie-Wiggie

Another word type that similar a bit to rhyming compounds includes words
that are formed of two components that almost match but differ in their
vowels. The second element is naturally a nonsense form Examples:
pitterpatter, zigzag, tick-tock, riffraff, flipflop

Derivation is the creation of words by alteration of a root without the addition

of other roots. Frequently the effect is a change in part of speech.

Affixation (Subtype of Derivation)

Affixation is the addition of one or more affixes to a root, as in the word
derivation itself. A term which shelters both prefixation and suffixation and
this process is called affixation.

Blending is of word formation processes in English that loved almost by

everyone. Speakers take two words and merge them based not on
morpheme structure but on sound structure. The result is called blends.

Commonly in word formation we join or combine roots or affixes along their

boundaries: one morpheme comes to an end before the next one starts. Like,
when we form derivation out of the sequence of morphemes de+riv+at(e)
+ion. One morpheme follows the next and each one has recognizable
boundaries.

But in blending, part of one word is stitched onto one more word, without any
regard for where one morpheme ends, and another begins. Examples
include glitterati=glitter+literati mean 'Hollywood social set', mockumentary=
mock+documentary means 'spoof documentary'.

These are some common blends that we usually use.

1. brunch (breakfast and lunch)
2. motel (motor hotel)
3. electrocute (electric and execute)
4. smog (smoke and fog)
5. cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger)
6. stagflation (stagnation and inflation)
7. spork (spoon and fork)
8. carjacking (car and hijacking)

Here are some more recent blends.

1. mocktail (mock and cocktail) 'cocktail with no alcohol'
2. splog (spam and blog) 'fake blog designed to attract hits and raise
Google-ranking'
3. Britpoperati (Britpop and literati) 'those knowledgeable about current
British pop music'

Clipping is a kind of abbreviation of a word in which one part is 'clipped' off

from the whole word, and the remaining word now means fundamentally the
equivalent thing as what the whole word means or meant.
Example rifle=rifle gun (means having a spiral groove causing the bullet to
spin, and thus making it more accurate)
Burger=hamburger (This could only come about once hamburg+er was
reanalyzed as ham+burger.)

Acronyms are formed by getting the initial or first letters of a phrase and
making a word out of it. Acronyms turned a phrase into a word. The usual
acronym is also pronounced as a word.
Examples:
Scuba(Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
Snafu (Situation Normal All Fucked Up)
Sometimes an acronym uses also the first syllable of a component word.
Examples
Radar-RAdio Detection And Ranging Sonar-
SOund Navigation and Ranging.

Initialisms include words made out from the first letters of a phrase yet NOT
pronounced as a normal word – instead, it is pronounced as a string of
letters. Organization names are some initialisms Examples:
NOW (National Organization of Women)
US or U.S., USA or U.S.A. (United States)
UN or U.N. (United Nations)
IMF (International Monetary Fund)
Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word:
UNICEF
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)

The last example integrates a meaning into the word that turns the nature of
the organization. This type is called a Backronym OR Reverse Acronym.

Some example of special case of acronyms.

Memos, email, and text messaging are manners of communication that give
rise to both clippings and acronyms, since these word formation methods are
designed to abbreviate.
Some acronyms:
NB - Nota bene, literally 'note well'. Used by intellectuals making notes on
texts.
BRB - be right back (from 1980s, 90s)
FYI - for your information (from mid-20th century)
LOL - laughing out loud (early 21st century) - now pronounced either /lol/
or /el o el/; has spawned compounds like Lolcats).
ROFL - rolling on the floor laughing
ROFLMAO - rolling on the floor laughing my ass off

Reanalysis
Sometimes speakers create a new morph or making an old one
unrecognizable that happen unconsciously when change they morphological
boundaries of a word. This occurred in hamburger, which was initially
Hamburger steak 'chopped and formed steak in the Hamburg style, then
hamburger (hamburg + er), then ham + burger

Folk etymology
A common and popular idea of a word's etymology or origin that is not in
harmony with its real etymology. Some cases of reanalysis of many folk
etymologies are which the word is not only reanalysis, but it deviates under
the effect of the new understanding of its morphemes. The outcome is that
speakers think it has a different origin than it does.

Analogy
Speakers in analogy take an existing word as a model and create other
words using some of its morphemes as a fixed part, with an analogically
similar meaning they will change the other one to something new.
An example is the word cheeseburger it was formed on the analogy of
hamburger, substituting apparent morpheme ham with cheese. carjack and
skyjack were also formed by analogy.

Novel creation
In novel creation, a writer or speaker forms a word without beginning from
other morphemes. It is as if the word if formed out of 'whole cloth', without
reusing any parts.

Examples
Blimp, googol (the mathematical term), bling, which appeared in the last 200
years with no clear etymology.

Some novel creations likely to show 'sound symbolism', in which a word's

phonological form recommends its meaning in some way. Like the sound of
the word bling appears to evoke heavy jewelry making noise. Another novel
creation whose sound seems to tell its meaning is badonkadonk, 'female rear
end', a copied word which can remind English speakers of the monotonous
movement of the rear end while walking.

Creative respelling
Sometimes words are formed by changing the spelling of a word that the
speaker wants to create to a new word. Product names often involve creative
respelling, like the brand Mr. Kleen.

Activity
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the word at the end of each
sentence.
1. When my cellphone was kept on lagging, I realized that I needed to
_____________ it with a new one. (PLACE)
2. He has an _____________ resume, I will hire him. (IMPRESS) 3. He
has achieved recognition and respect as a _____________.
(SCIENTIST)
4. Life is just like a painting. Many things make it colorful and
_____________. (MEANING)
5. Do not worry it is safe. The helmet and _____________ chambers will
protect you. (INFLATE)
6. Mrs. Villegas is really _____________. She did not remember when she
placed her wedding ring. (FORGET)
7. A _____________ is a must. When you want to dine-in in that restaurant.
(SERVE)
8. Joanna changes her _____________ settings in Facebook for safety
purposes. (PRIVATE)
9. The _____________ in paying in the cashier was too slow.
10. The President’s _____________ about lockdown is to prevent the
spread of virus. (ANNOUNCE)

Analysis
Change the following words according to the given parts of speech.

1. fortunate (adverb) 11. happy (noun)

2. satisfy (noun) 12. invite (noun)
3. necessary (noun) 13. regular (adverb)
4. mountain (adjective) 14. expense (adjective)
5. entertain (noun) 15. success (adjective)
6. energy (adjective) 16. globe (adjective)
7. believe (noun) 17. grace (adverb)
8. direct (adverb) 18. frequent (adverb)
9. envy (adjective) 19. argue (noun)
10. free (noun) 20. reason (adjective)

Abstraction
Give five examples of the following in each type of word formation.

CLIPPING COMPOUND WORD ACRONYMS BLENDING

1. 1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2. 2.

3. 3. 3. 3.

4. 4. 4. 4.

5. 5. 5. 5.

Application
Research about different examples of word formation. Create your own
inforgraph or digital graphic organizer that you can use as a future educator.
Use the rubric below as your guide.

Reflection and Insights

Reflect on what you have learned about morphophonemic changes and
types of word formation. What are the implications of the way you learned in
teaching the new generation of 21 st century learners? How will you make the
lesson creative and meaningful?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test
This checklist will assess your total understanding of the concepts and
competency level for Introduction to Linguistics. You will rate yourself based
on overall evaluation as illustrated in the table.
Performance Standards Yes No
Identify the different types of word formation  
Explain the different types of word formation.  
Differentiate the different characteristics word  
of formation.

Explain the process of morphophonemic changes  

List down the types of word formation  

Give different examples of word formation according to its  

type.

Integrating different types of word formation in creating   graphic

organizer

Suggested References and Websites

Sabtu. (2013). Morphonemic Process. Retrieved from:
http://aridewi13.blogspot.com/2013/11/morphophonemic-proccess.html
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars

Introduction
Grammar means different things to different people. It may refer to set of
rules to regulate certain aspects of use. Generally, grammar can be
prescriptive or descriptive.

Objectives/Competencies

1. Explain the usage of descriptive and prescriptive grammar.

2. Differentiate descriptive grammar from prescriptive grammar.

Pre-test
This checklist will assess your understanding of the concepts of language.
You will rate yourself based on overall evaluation as illustrated in the table.

Performance Standards Yes No

Identify the different types of word formation  
Explain the different types of word formation.  
Differentiate the different characteristics of word formation.  
Explain the process of morphophonemic changes  
List down the types of word formation  
Give different examples of word formation according to its type.  
Integrating different types of word formation in creating graphic  
organizer
Lesson Proper

Descriptive Grammar
Descriptive grammar stresses the style how either native or non-native
speakers use the language on their daily lives. Therefore, the set of rules
about the language is according on how the language is spoken or used and
not how the language should be spoken or used. Descriptive approach is
usually followed by the linguists, where they can study the patterns and rules
on words and sentences used by the speakers.

Descriptive grammar does not explicate or explain which grammar is correct

or not. In this means, this approach is defined as ‘objective description of the
grammatical constructions of the language’. The principles and patterns that
underlie the use of words, phrases, and clauses, and sentences of the
specific users and speakers of the language was studied and examined by
descriptive grammarians.
According to Greenbaum and Quirk (1990), “A descriptive grammar is a
study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily life
by its speakers from all walks of life, including standard and nonstandard
varieties.”
Additionally, based on the definition provided by Edwin L. Battistella
“Descriptive grammar is the basis for dictionaries, which record changes in
vocabulary and usage, and for the field of linguistics, which aims at
describing languages and investigating the nature of language.”

Prescriptive Grammar
Prescriptive grammar views and asserts what language use ought to be by
setting some parameters on how language have to be used. In this means,
this approach has set of rules that impart and teach the speaker the most
precise and the correct way to use the language. The grammar and the
language standard can be achieved by letting the speakers learn what
should be used and what should be avoided.

The use of prescriptive grammar started in the 18th century, in which the
social elites desired to prescribe the standard form of language. This
approach attempts to impose and enforce rules regarding the “correct” usage
of a language. In addition, prescriptive grammar requires how aspects of
language should be used. This employs for teaching those who use
nonnative or nonstandard language forms. “Prescriptivism” and “normative
grammar” also denote this feature of grammar.

The prescriptivists’ view of language infers the difference between “good

grammar” and “bad grammar”. This approach of grammar usually
incorporates many opinions, ideas, and judgments about when and how
grammar rules ought to be used (Greenbaum, 1996).

According to Ilse Depraetere and Chad Langford (2012), “A prescriptive

grammar is one that gives hard and fast rules about what is right (or
grammatical) and what is wrong (or ungrammatical), often with advice about
what not to say but with little explanation.”

For instance, if someone says; “She and me were arguing about the
performance”. A descriptive grammarian will clarify this sentence as
grammatical while a prescriptive grammarian will tell this sentence is
incorrect since it has violated the standard rules of grammar with the
improper usage of ‘me’ with “She” (where it should be She and I).

Activity
Talk with one of your classmates, list information about descriptive and
prescriptive grammar. List all the information that you have and create a
Venn diagram comparing and contrasting the approaches of grammar.
Analysis
Based on your answers above, how do you come up with those answers?
Which do you think is often used and why?

Abstraction
Which do you think is more important approach in grammar? Which do you
think is the best to be learn by a future educator like you?

Application
As a future educator, how does descriptive and prescriptive grammar help
you to become an effective educator? Elaborate your answer.

Reflection and Insights

Write your key take away about the lesson prescriptive and descriptive
grammar.

Post-test
Identify the statement if it is about descriptive grammar and prescriptive
grammar. Check the box of your answer.

Statement Descriptive Prescriptive

Grammar Grammar
1. It usually avoids clichés such phrases with  
no longer interesting.
2. It usually omits contractions.  
3. The verb should always agree with subjects  

4. Using split infinitives is prohibited.  

5. It is allowed to start a sentence with  
because

Suggested References and Websites

https://pediaa.com/difference-between-descriptive-and-prescriptive-grammar/
UNIT 4. SEMANTICS

Lesson 12. Meaning: The Transformational

Generative and The Systemic Functional
Turns

Introduction
Transformational generative grammar (TGG) and systemic functional
grammar (SFG) are two of the most significant contemporary schools of
thought theoretical linguistic. Previous literature has mostly taken the two
models as two contrastive perspectives to language. These two grammatical
models focused on how they could be assured together to complement each
other in terms of linguistic competence, syntax, and pragmatics, thus creating
a more comprehensive and inclusive picture of language. This module tends
to discuss on the application of these two grammars models. SFG and TGG
complement each other and together present us a more rounded and holistic
picture of language with their own definition and meaning.

Objectives/Competencies

During the three-hour period you are expected to

1. Identify the Transformational Generative Grammar and The
Systemic Functional Turns
2. Differentiate the two grammatical models
3. Explain the impact of the grammatical model in English

Pre-test
Identify the following terms. Write your answer on the space provided.
______________ 1. It is a system of language analysis that recognizes the
relationship among the various elements of a sentence and among the
possible sentences of a language and uses processes or rules.
______________ 2. He is the one who established and developed systemic
functional grammar.
______________ 3. It categorizes our perceptive on the basis of our
experience.
______________ 4. It relates to a text’s aspects of tenor or interactivity.
______________ 5. It systematizes our understanding and experience of the
world.

Lesson Proper Transformational Generative Grammar

Noam Chomsky is one of the most influential linguists of the second half of
the 20th century and beyond. His seminal work Syntactic Structures (1957)
has initiated reconceptualization in contemporary linguistics. It challenged the
norms set by his predecessors, the so-called American Structuralism.
This new approach would put syntax at the center of the theory of language
and disregard empiricist and discovery actions put forth by recognized
structuralists.

The existence of some underlying transformational rules was advocated by

Chomsky, together with the morphophonemic rules and phrase structure,
that let us speakers of language to produce different kinds of sentences,
differing from the standard-kernel-sentence, which is simple, declarative, and
active.

BACKGROUND

Ferdinand de Saussure’s Structuralism and American Structuralism

(20th century)
Before the Chomskyan revolt struck, the linguistic theory that was mostly
acknowledged was Structuralism. The beliefs of structuralisms revolved
around the study of languages from scratch, by recognizing the smallest
linguistic units: phonemes, morphemes, phrases, clauses, sentences and so
on. As defined by Bloomfield, the practice employed was named ‘discovery
procedures. Hence, higher linguistic levels -sentences- were appealed to be
built out of lower linguistic levels.

The objective of the empiricists about the scientific approach of languages is

based on study of languages which constructed on a corpus of actual
utterances without appeal to meaning (semantic criteria). Additional
condition was the avoidance of mixing linguistic levels, e.g., not resorting to
morphology to explain a syntactic phenomenon, or else the study of any
language would be rejected and thus flawed.

At the level of science, many of their approaches were unsuccessful to

deliver a thorough study of languages, as they manifestly had to resort to
different linguistic levels and semantic standards to account for certain
phenomena. If we take the proposition that morphemes are made of
phonemes, as in the case of the past simple of look –> look-ed (/lʊkt/) , how
could we go about explaining the construction of irregular past forms such as
went? Where is the phoneme /d/, /Id/ or /t/ in that word? Here we have one of
the inconsistencies and conflicts that Structuralists had to discourse
somehow, and therefore failing in their methods and beliefs.
Syntactic Structures (1957) by Noam Chomsky
The preliminary point of this new era in linguistics was released by the
publication of this book, a linguistic current that has been painstakingly
examined and modified, though only an account of the first TGG principles
and beliefs will be provided.
• The fundamental goals in the linguistic analysis of a language L will be to
distinct the grammatical sentences from the ungrammatical ones and
study those grammatical sentences. The grammar of the language is said
to create an infinite number of grammatical sentences, excluding the
ungrammatical ones.
• One of the perplexing points at issue is to discuss what grammaticality
means and what it does not mean. The grammaticality of the sentence
centers upon the native speakers’ acceptability, i.e., their intuition, though
we should not be tricked into thinking that non-sensical sentences must
be exempted of the grammatical ones. In fact, nonsensical sentences can
be structural insofar as these sentences are suitable in grammatical terms
and adequacy. Contemplate on the following example, taken from
Chomsky’s book:
e.g. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
e.g. Furiously sleeps ideas green colorless

The first sentence, regardless of not making any meaning, it is grammatically

correct and the second one is totally ungrammatical. Semantics must be
disconnected from syntax and considered as an autonomous and
independent field.
• The grammar of any given i-language is finite i.e. involves of limited
number of phonemes, morphemes, and words- thus far these, once joint,
may generate an unlimited number of sentences.
• A theory of any i-language must account not only for the sentences that
have been said and registered in a body, but also for an infinite number of
sentences that have not been said yet.
• A kernel (or standard) sentence is painstaking a simple, declarative,
active sentence. (e.g. The boy broke the window).
• The example sentence is expected to go through several stages:
phrasestructure rules, transformational rules, and morphophonemic rules.
Phrase structure rules

S –> NP + VP
NP –> Det + N VP
–> V + NP etc.

The application of these rules denotes a derivational process, by means of

which we attain the string of constituents of a given example sentence by
applying the rules aforementioned.

Transformational rules

These can be either obligatory or optional, and their goal is to produce a new
string of elements out of a given string. An obligatory transformation could be
the S-V agreement, whereas an optional transformation would be, for
example, the formation of a negative sentence.
Considered the sentence: They have come. Negation (Tnot hereafter) is a
transformational process that would apply in this specific string NP – C +
have, adding n’t/not after the second unit of the string. The terminal string of
the abovementioned sentence is they – Ø + have-en+come, which after the
application of Tnot would appear as they – Ø + have + not – en + come,
which rendered in actual speech after the application of the morphophonemic
rules would obtain, They have not come.
Other optional transformations would be passive constructions, cleft
sentences, etc.

Systemic Functional Grammar

Michael Halliday developed and established a model of grammar which is

Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) in the 1960s. It is part of a
comprehensive social semiotic approach to language called systemic
language. The word “systemic” means interconnected sets of selections for
making meaning. The term “functional” refers to the approach that
contextualized, it is a practical use to which language is put, as different from
formal grammar, which concerned on compositional semantics, syntax, and
word classes such as nouns, pronouns, and verbs.

SFG focuses on the choices of grammar that makes available to writers and
speakers. The intentions to the concrete form of language to the choices of
speakers and writers. Conventionally the “choices” are viewed in terms of
either the structure of the language used or the content. In addition, SFG
analyzed the language in three different ways (strata): phonology, semantics,
and lexicogrammar. This model presents a view of language in terms of both
words and grammar.
Metafunction
According to SFG, the bases of grammatical phenomena are divided into
three broad areas: the interpersonal, the ideational, and the textual
metafunctions.

Ideational function
The ideational metafunction is separated into two: logical and experiential
metafunctions. The experiential metafunction organizes our understanding
and experience of the world. It is the latent of the language to interpret
figures with elements for example are screen shots of a moving picture or
pictures of a comic novel. Its potential to distinguish these elements into
processes, the contributors in these processes, and the conditions in which
the processes occur.

The logical metafunction works above the experiential. It categorizes our

perceptive on the basis of our experience. It is the potential of the language
to understand logical relations between figures; such as “this happened after
that happened” or, with more experience, “this happens every time that
happens”.

The ideational metafunction narrates to the field features of a text, or its

subject matter and context of use. Field is divided into three areas:
specialization, semantic domain, and angle of representation.

Specialization is moderately identified through attention to other technical

and vocabulary words or jargons. The semantic domain of SFG proponents
assess the subject matter of a text through organizing noun/ noun phrases
and its lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These are the words that
transmit lexical meaning in a text which the is purely grammatical in terms of
purpose, it is basically related to other words in the vicinity. Examining the
angle of representation encompasses a close look at types of participants,
processes, and circumstances.

Interpersonal metafunction
The interpersonal metafunction deals with the aspect of the text here referred
to as the tenor or interactivity. Like field, tenor contains three elements: the
speaker/writer point of view relative social status and social distance. Social
distance and relative social status are appropriate only to spoken texts. We
can scrutinize “how the individual authors present themselves to the reader”,
therefore, we are able to look at social distance and relative social status in
texts where there is only one author.

The speaker/writer persona about the bearing, personalization and standing

of the speaker or writer. This aspect contains seeing at whether the writer or
speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive
or negative use of certain language features. Social distance tells how close
the speakers are, for example is how they address each other such using of
nicknames it shows the degree to which they are intimate. Relative social
status asks whether they are alike in terms of power and knowledge on a
subject, for example, the relationship between a principal and teacher would
be considered unequal. Focuses here are on speech acts (e.g. whether one
person ask questions and the other speaker tends to answer), turn
management, who chooses the topic, and how capable both speakers are of
evaluating the subject.

Textual metafunction
The textual metafunction pertains to mode, the communicative nature and
internal organization of a text. This encompasses textual interactivity,
communicative distance, and spontaneity.

Textual interactivity is assessed with reference to disfluencies like pauses,

hesitators, and repetitions.

Spontaneity is distinguished through an emphasis

on lexical density, coordination, and grammatical complexity such how
clauses are connected together and the use of nominal groups. The study of
communicative distance focuses on looking at a text’s cohesion—that is, how
it dangles together, as well as any abstract language it uses.

Cohesion is analyzed in the context of both lexical and grammatical also the
intonational aspects with reference to lexical chains, in the speech register,
and tone. The lexical feature emphasis on sense relations and lexical
repetitions, while the grammatical feature looks at repetition of meaning
exposed through reference, substitution and ellipsis, and the role of linking
adverbials.

Post-test

Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not.

_____ 1. The merchant is an example of verb phrase.

_____ 2. Noam Chomsky examined and developed the Transformative
Generative Grammar.
_____ 3. The textual metafunction refers to our ability to create long
utterances or pieces of writing which are both cohesive and
coherent.
_____ 4. Interpersonal metafunction emphasizes that language is mainly a
social phenomenon, but apart from enabling communication with
other people it enables to project the speaker in the desired way
and to represent the speaker.
_____ 5. Transformational rules can be either obligatory or optical, and their
goal is to produce a new string of elements out of a given string.
Suggested References and Websites

Tesl, C. (2011). Systemic functional grammar (SFG) or systemic functional

linguistics (SFL). Retrieved from:
https://charttesl.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/systemic-
functionalgrammar-sfg-or-systemic-functional-linguistics-sfl/
De Niko, E.(2016). Linguistics for Dummies: Transformational-Generative
Grammar I. Retrieved from:
https://elrincondeniko.wordpress.com/2016/08/21/linguistics-
fordummies-transformational-generative-grammar-i/
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stratification-and-metafunctions-in-
asystemic-functional-linguistic-framework-following_fig1_325768921

To enrich your understanding about these two grammatical models you may
read an article Combining transformative generative grammar and systemic
functional grammar: Linguistic competence, syntax and second language
acquisition on the website below:
https://academicjournals.org/journal/IJEL/article-full-text/72EE98164411
UNIT 4. SEMANTICS

Lesson 13. Language Change: Semantic Change and

Semantic Broadening

Introduction
Traditional approaches to semantic change naturally emphasis on results of
meaning change and list types of alteration such as metaphoric and
metonymic extension, broadening and narrowing, and the development of
positive and negative meanings. Examples are usually painstaking out of
context and are lexical members of nominal and adjectival word classes.

Language is a communicative activity that heavily depends on context. Some

current work on semantic change has focused, not on results of change, but
on pragmatic qualifying factors for change in the flow of speech. The
contributions of cognitive processes have been paid of attention, such as
analogical thinking, production of cues and signs as to how a message is to
be understood, and interpretation and perception of meaning. Mechanisms of
change such as metaphorization, metonymization, and subjectification have
been among topics of distinct interest and debate. The work has been
permitted by the specific approach to relative data that electronic corpora
allow.

Objectives/Competencies
At the end of this module the students will be able to:
1. Recognize the meaning of semantic change,
2. Examine and discuss semantic changes, and
3. Create a semantic map based on your understanding about the lesson.

Pre-test
Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not.
_____ 1. Woman is the old English of the word queen.
_____ 2. Some aspects of semantic changes are cognitive and social
aspects.
_____ 3. Syntactical change happen due to the distinction of synonyms is a
slow process experiential in the course of language acquisition.
_____ 4. Elevation occurs when a word gains association with a negative
stimulus, to then hold negative connotations.
 _____ 5. The word business is an example of broadening semantic change.

Lesson Proper 1. Semantic Change

As English has grown as a language, it
has also experienced changes in the
meaning of words or semantics.
All words have a meaning and
denotation. However, English first
appeared from its main language of
Anglo-saxon, the denotation or
meaning of words have undergone
changes. These changes include a narrowing of meaning, a broadening of
meaning, or a complete shift in meaning
altogether.
2. Causes for semantic change Linguistic and extralinguistic causes
Meaning of words are relatively constant. Communication would be
impossible If they changed too frequently. Semantic changes are deliberate,
and we speak of semantic change from a diachronic point of view. But
semantic changes started in context, on the synchronic level. On the
synchronic level we speak of nonconformity of meaning only.
Linguistic factors leading to semantic change: differentiation of
synonymy, ellipsis, and fixed contexts
Semantic change due to the distinction of synonyms is a slow process
experiential in the course of language history For example time and tide used
to be synonyms.
Tide has a limited use, means the periodical shifting of water
time alone is used in the universal sense.

Fixed context
token and sign
The word sign was borrowed from French and it creates an effect on the
meaning of token.
Example: A token of love, a token of respect

Ellipsis – a syntactic phenomenon, omission of syntactic elements

Maria came into the kitchen and went to the fridge.
Jake was reading a book and Peter a magazine.
From cut-price sale to sale - succeeding words may be dropped From to
propose marriage to propose to starve originally meant to die Germany which
is sterben means to die. It replaced the whole phrase to die of hunger which
also started to mean suffer from lack of food and then it developed the
colloquial meaning to feel hungry

Extralinguistic causes for semantic change –historic, cognitive, social,

economic, political, cultural ones.
earth and heaven wealth – originally meant well-being, happiness. This
connotation is still wellkept-up in the compound word commonwealth
Modern English fee – firstly meant both cattle and money
Latin pecu meant cattle and pecunia meant money
Historic causes. Why are there so many words in English of French origin?
The name of the animal of native origin, but the word for the meat of French
origin - pig, lamb, sheep, calf, cow, deer;
castle and fortress, soil and earth, sign and token, finish, and end

TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

Narrowing and widening of meaning
Narrowing (specialization) of meaning
Word Old English Meaning Modern English Meaning

Deer Wild beast wild ruminant of a particular species

Meat Food a particular kind of food
Fowl Bird Domestic bird
Dole Part or portion money given to the unemployed’
Starve To die To die in hunger

More examples of narrowing: interest, duty, business, undertaker, newspaper, operation,

token, and sign.
Corn originally meant ‘grain’, the word became specialized locally – in England corn
means ‘wheat’, in Scotland it means ‘oats’, in the US it means ‘maize’.

Widening (generalization) of meaning

Modern English Etymology Old meaning
Space German- stadion, ‘a place for athletic events’
spadion
Place German- plateia a broad way and a courtyard
Town a fence, ‘an enclosure’
arrive arribare, adripare to bring or come to shore or
into port, ‘to land
Widening of meaning has to be well-kept separate from what is so-called
grammaticalization of lexical meaning
Do in Do you speak English? Shall in I shall come. Shall and will were full notional verbs
in OE. Have in Have you been to London?
Verbs of motion as in to ‘turn red’, to ‘go green’.
Weakening of lexical meaning in awfully, terribly, terrific, smashing.

Elevation and degradation of meaning

Elevation of meaning
Modern English Old English
Queen woman
Knight Young servant
Steward Keeper
Lord The keeper of the bread Lady The
kneader of the bread
annoy from Lat to make loathsome’; to
regret from Fr ‘to lament over the dead’
sophisticated artificial

Degradation of meaning
Modern English Old English
Silly blessed
stupid cretin in Fr. meant “Christian’
Mistress originally from French A bride

Pejoration
Modern English Old English
boor, from Du ‘a farmer
churl man, free man of the lowest rank’
villain in Old French ‘feudal serf

Metaphor-involves relationship of perceived similarity

Word Meaning
stud 'good-looking sexy man '(of slang origin) derived
from stud 'a male animal used for breeding
root (of plant) root of plant, root of word, root in algebra, source
chikk relax, calm down' of slang origin, original 'to cool’

Metonymy
Metaphor and metonymy – illustrate non-literal use of language
Metaphor - traditional and modern views. We shall discourse metaphor not
as an elaboration of language in poetry and literature but as something we
can’t do without in everyday speech.
The traditional view on metaphor
Metaphor is the result of the comparison between two
objects metaphor is observed on the word level; it is
reformed into a simile simile is literal paraphrase of metaphor
Aristotle’s view – metaphor is a transmission of name: from genus to species,
from species to genus, from species to species or as a result of analogy.
Isaac Passy on metaphor - Метафората

How we describe or explain something might also depend on the

vocabulary that is used. In English, a distinction is made between simile and
comparison that we don’t find with Passy.
“Всяка метафора е съкратено сравнение и всяко сравнение
преформирана метафора.

Metonymy – It is the inclusion of additional senses which were originally not

present, but which are associated with word's original meaning.
Word Meaning
The chair The chairman
The bar The lawyers
The pulpit The priest
The town the inhabitants of the town
the House members of the House of Commons or of Lords

symbol for the thing symbolized – the crown for the monarchy –
synecdoche;
instrument for the product – hand for handwriting; receptacle for content
– The kettle is boiling. He drank a bottle; the material for the product –
glass, iron, copper, nickel;functional relation – pen from Lat. penna (feather)
physical and technical units named after the scientist – volt, ohm, ampere,
watt;
locative relation – The White House, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Downing
Street, Fleet Street; geographical names tuned into common nouns –
china, astrakhan, bikini, boston, cardigan;
proper names for the garment the referent brought into fashion –
mackintosh, raglan, wellingtons.

Activity
Change the following words to its special meaning.
 Old Meaning Special Meaning
1. Liquor Liquid
2. Accident event
3. Angel messenger
4. governer pilot
5. disease discomfort

Analysis
Based on the answers above, how do you think time or culture affect
semantic change. Does it affect the value of a word?

Abstraction
If you are going to choose a word that you want to have a semantic change
what would it be and why? Also identify the type of semantic change that you
will use.

Application
Create a semantic map about the word “language”.
Use the example picture as your guide.

Reflection and Insights

Write your key take away about the lesson.

Post-test
Identify the following terms. Write your answer on the space provided.
___________1. It is the change in the meaning of a word by expansion, so
that the word is applicable in more contexts than it
previously was and means more than it previously did.
___________2. It occurs when a word gains association with a negative
stimulus, to then hold negative connotations.
___________3. is the result of the comparison between two objects
___________4. is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word
usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different
from the original usage.
____________5. It is a cause of semantic change about dealing the minds of
a person.

Suggested References and Websites

https://eflcourses.blogspot.com/2016/08/semantic-changes.html
https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0
001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-323
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS

Lesson 14: Language and the Brain: The Biological Dimension of

Language
Duration: 3 hours Introduction
The learning process is one of the functions of the mind. And since the
mind works in connection with the brain, knowing how it works is
significant in optimizing the learning process. In this lesson, you will go
through the biological dimension of language. In this regard, you will also
be invited to reflect on the role of maturation in language development:
acquisition and learning. As a future teacher of English, you need to
understand how the learning process takes place because our teaching
approaches, methods, and strategies largely depend on your
understanding of the nature of language and the learning process.

Lesson Objectives

During the three-hour period, you are expected to

1. have familiarity with the parts of the brain where language is processed
and produced,
2. recognize the role of maturation in language learning,
3. associate maturation and language development, and

4. discuss the implications of language development to language

instruction.

Pretest
To help you reflect on the relationship between psychology of language
and language teaching, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box of
your best choice.

No. Language Description Agree Not Sure Disagree

1 Language can be acquired much
faster at a younger age.
2 The mind of a child is more analytic
than the mind of an adult.
3 Language is biologically
conditioned.
4 Language develops through imitation.

5 Language learning weakens as one

 gets older.

Lesson Proper

Our understanding of the biological side of language, ironically, has no

from the study of normal individuals. Instead, our knowledge of psycholin
and neurolinguistics started with people whose left side of the brain, o
aspect of the ability to process and produce language, has been da
because of an accident or a disease. A French surgeon and anatomi
Broca, described in 1861 the part of the brain that is responsible for
production. At the present time, this is known as the Broca’s area, the fron
in the left cerebral hemisphere. Also, Carl Wernicke, a German ph
strengthened in 1874 the earlier studies made by Broca. These earlier
had set the foundations of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics.

Figure 14.1 shows the structure of the brain and the parts which are
responsible for the production of speech sound (Broca’s area) and
understanding of speech (Wernicke’s area).

Figure 14. The Parts of the Brain that Control Speech

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Language-specific-areas-inthe-
brain_fig1_317356553

Based on the studies made by Broca and Wernicke, succeeding scholars

and language experts have established that the human brain consists of
the right and the left hemisphere. Medical workers have also observed
that patients whose left hemisphere of the brain has been damaged or
injured because of accident or illness manifest speech difficulty or
impairment. This observation has led neurologists and psychiatrists to
postulate that the left hemisphere plays a significant role in language
development and processing.
Noam Chomsky, an American nativist and mentalist, in his theory of
Universal Grammar, has established that human beings are born with a
language acquisition device (LAD). His theory asserts that our language
ability is genetically predisposed. Hence, this ability has some biological
constraints. His theory of language has successfully challenged some
other established views including Classical Conditioning, The Tabula
Rasa, and the Behaviorist Theory of Learning. Chomsky discounts the
role of modelling in language learning and also criticized the
stimulusresponse bond. He questions the generalizability of the findings
in behaviorist experiments because the nature of language is cognitive.
Instead, he stresses the cognitive aspect of language development
which is dependent on hypothesis formation and testing. His theory has
also led to the development of Systematic Error Analysis in which errors
or lapses in a child language development are viewed as indicators of
the child’s progress. Among many other reasons, lapses in language
development result from over generalized, self-constructed rules or
interference of another language.

In extending the Innateness Hypothesis of Chomsky, Eric Lenneberg

developed his Critical Period Hypothesis. According to Lenneberg,
language development takes place rapidly from birth to childhood and
slows down after the age of puberty. Hence, learning a second language
or a foreign language appears relatively more challenging after the age
of puberty. This position is of course criticized by those who view
language development from a sociological perspective.

As a mentalist, Chomsky has succeeded in formalizing the abstract and

metal structures of language with his Transformational Generative
Grammar. This theory demonstrates that language has both surface and
deep structures. His theory of grammar is based largely on the principle
of the infinite use of the finite means of language. He rejects the role of
imitation, which is the basis of behaviorism. To Chomsky, language is
creative inasmuch as errors cannot be fully explained by the input-output
scheme of things. To him, language is a corollary of our being humans
and that we know so much about language though we do not know what
we actually know. The stages of language development, according to
Chomsky, are universal and involuntary. A child acquires language
unconsciously and automatically.

Activity
Let us compare the language development of a child and that of an adult
learner. Tick (✓) the box of your best choice.
 No. Task Child Adult
Learner Learner
1 Can easily produce native like pronunciation
2 Can analyze grammar accurately

3 Can memorize a poem faster

4 Can critically get the meaning of a written message
5 Can diagram a sentence structure

6 Can acquire a language faster

7 Can easily discern an implied message

8 Can easily show inhibition

9 Can be less self-conscious

10 Can be more tolerant with mistakes

Analysis
Based on your choices above, which do you consider is more analytic, a
child or an adult learner? Who is more tolerant to mistakes and errors?

Abstraction
Are children better language learners compared to adults? Could the
difference in the learning patterns between children and adults be an age
related factor? What does this difference indicate about the mind of a
child and that of an adult?

Application
As a future teacher of English, how do you make the learning situation
stress free? How would you practice error feedbacking? Is on the spot error
correction a good or a bad practice?

Reflection and Insights

Does being too self-conscious about the rules of grammar slow down
language acquisition?
Write your reflection below. How do you find the article relevant to your
future career as a language teacher?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________
_
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Post-test

To check your appreciation of the lesson, answer this short activity. Tick
(✓) the box of your best choice.

No. Language Description True False

1 A nativist believes that language is learned
through imitation
2 Transformational Generative Grammar is a
behaviorist theory.
3 Language errors and mistakes can be analyzed
systematically.
4 The Critical Period Hypothesis is a nativist view
of language.
5 Maturation is limited to the psychological aspects of development.

Suggested References and Websites

To enrich your reflection on the role of maturation in language
development, you may read an article The Age Factor Revisited: Timing
in Acquisition Interacts With Age of Onset in Bilingual Acquisition on the
website below:

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02732/full

UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS

Lesson 15. Language Development: Language Learning and
Language Acquisition

Duration: 3 hours Introduction

Do you remember the first word that you uttered when you were just
about eighteen-month old? If you speak a language other than English,
how did you acquire or learn it? Did you happen to know how you
acquired your first language? How did you learn English?
Most of us are trilinguals or bilinguals because we can speak three or
two languages with almost the same fluency. Those who speak only
one language, their first language (L1), are called monolinguals.

In this age of globalization, we need a second language (L2) for wider

communication. English is our L2 in the Philippines because we learn it
after our L1 and it accommodates many of the functions of Filipino in
the fields of education, arts, science, commerce, defense, business,
law, entertainment, just to name a few.

Learning Objectives

During the three-hour period, you are expected to

1. differentiate language acquisition and language learning,
2. discuss the psychological and sociological factors related to language
acquisition and language learning, and
3. reflect on the implications of the differences between language acquisition
and language learning for language teaching.

Pretest
Before reading the lesson proper, do the short activity below. Tick (✓)
the box that best describes your answer.
No. Language teaching and learning situation True False
1 Error correction can trigger learning anxiety.
2 Explicit language teaching suits L1 acquisition.
3 Implicit language teaching is exclusive to L1
acquisition.
4 Self-esteem plays an important role in language
learning.
5 The psychological environment does not have
significant effect in the teaching-learning situation.
Lesson Proper
Research studies in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics indicate that
the development of L1 has predictable milestones. Children go through
these predictable stages regardless of gender, race, social status in
life, or geographical location. Children go through these stages
unaware because they are born with language. It is this genetic
predisposition that allows them to acquire the different features of a
language that they are exposed to. With language being genetically
programmed does not give the guarantee that children inherit their
parents’ language or languages. The language that children will
develop depends on what language the parents use at home. Children
will not inherit the language of their parents if the parents do not speak
the heritage language at home. Therefore, language is a biological
capability, but its transmission is socio-cultural in nature. The
sociological and cultural aspects of language will be discussed in
separate sections of this module.
Going back to the stages of the development of the first language,
Table 15 shows their manifestations across age brackets as well as
their functions and linguistic realizations.

Table 15.1. Stages of First Language Development

Age Stage Accomplishment Examples

0-2 months Crying Expressing hunger and

discomfort
2-4 months Cooing aaa, oooo
Expressing satisfaction or
pleasure

4-9 months Babbling Gurgling or changing to echolalic gagaga,

babbling mamamama

9-18 One-word Referring to people and objects juice, mama

months utterances in baby’s life More juice.

18 months Two-word Beginning of syntax or grammar,

to 21/2 years utterances expanding to three-word Juice fall down.

utterances allowing
communicative functions Daddy go?

21/2 years Telegraphic Using expanded syntax and

– 4 years stage vocabulary, omitting key
grammatical markers and function I eated bread.
words

Source:
http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-and-second-
languagedevelopment.html

Studies in L1 acquisition have inspired scholars to investigate if the

same route of development is true in L2 acquisition. Also, the said
studies have led language researchers to contrast language
acquisition and language learning. Table 15.2 presents the comparison
of language acquisition and language learning.

Table 15.2 Comparison of language Acquisition and Language Learning

Language Acquisition Language Learning

Implicit and subconscious Explicit and conscious
Occurs in informal situations Occurs in formal situation
Uses grammatical’ feel’ Uses grammatical rules
Depends on attitude Depends on aptitude
Stable order of acquisition Simple to complex order of learning

Source: https://teachinglanguages.com.au/language-acquistion-vs-languagelearning/

Activity
Compare the following language tasks. Tick (✓) the box to indicate if it
is implicit or explicit.
No. Language Task Implicit Explicit

1. Memorizing and singing a song.

2. Role playing using formal and informal greetings.

3. Memorizing and giving examples of rules in Subject and Verb

agreement

4. Imitating the native speakers in a movie.

5. Changing sentences from active to passive voice.

6. Dramatizing a telephone conversation.

7. Using varied types of connectors in a written composition.

8. Differentiating Yes-No and Wh- interrogatives.

9. Asking or giving directions in going to a shop

10. Conjugating irregular verbs in simple past and past

participle form.
Analysis
You will find that the following tasks are implicit: items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 9.
The rest of the tasks are explicit. In the given activity, which of the sets of
language tasks can make you feel anxious? Which are less stressful and
less threatening?

Abstraction
Does anxiety play a significant role in language learning? Do children
acquire their L1 faster because they can analyze grammar better than
their adult counterparts? Do they acquire L1 faster because their
learning environment is less threatening? Write your thoughts in the
space below.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Application
List down at least five practices that you will avoid in a language
classroom.
1. _____________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________

3. _____________________________________________________

4. _____________________________________________________

5. _____________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights
Does language ability weaken simply because of maturation? Can
language learning be optimized if the learning environment is less
threatening and more friendly? As a future teacher of English, how will
you help your learners optimize their ability? Write your reflection
below.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Post-test
Before you end this lesson, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box
that best describes your answer.
No. Language teaching and learning situation True False
1 Language has biological and socio-cultural
dimensions.
2 Implicit language teaching does not suit L2
acquisition.
3 Implicit language teaching is limited to L1
acquisition.

4 Self-esteem is negligible in language learning.

5
Selective error feedbacking is a factor in effective
language teaching.

Suggested References and Websites

The interested reader may find the website below particularly useful in
extended reading on first and language development.

http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-andsecond-
language-development.html
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS Lesson
15. Language Development: Language Learning and Language
Acquisition

Duration: 3 hours Introduction

Do you remember the first word that you uttered when you were just
about eighteen-month old? If you speak a language other than
English, how did you acquire or learn it? Did you happen to know
how you acquired your first language? How did you learn English?
Most of us are trilinguals or bilinguals because we can speak three or
two languages with almost the same fluency. Those who speak only
one language, their first language (L1), are called monolinguals.
In this age of globalization, we need a second language (L2) for wider
communication. English is our L2 in the Philippines because we learn
it after our L1 and it accommodates many of the functions of Filipino
in the fields of education, arts, science, commerce, defense,
business, law, entertainment, just to name a few.

Learning Objectives

During the three-hour period, you are expected to

1. differentiate language acquisition and language learning,
2. discuss the psychological and sociological factors related to language
acquisition and language learning, and
3. reflect on the implications of the differences between language
acquisition and language learning for language teaching.

Pretest
Before reading the lesson proper, do the short activity below. Tick (✓)
the box that best describes your answer.

No. Language teaching and learning True False situation

Explicit language
1 Error correction can trigger learning anxiety. 2

teaching suits L1
acquisition.

3 Implicit language teaching is exclusive to L1

acquisition.
4 Self-esteem plays an important role in
language learning.
5
The psychological environment does not have
a significant effect in the teaching-learning
situation.

Lesson Proper
Research studies in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics indicate
that the development of L1 has predictable milestones. Children go
through these predictable stages regardless of gender, race, social
status in life, or geographical location. Children go through these
stages unaware because they are born with language. It is this
genetic predisposition that allows them to acquire the different
features of a language that they are exposed to. With language
being genetically programmed does not give the guarantee that
children inherit their parents’ language or languages. The language
that children will develop depends on what language the parents use
at home. Children will not inherit the language of their parents if the
parents do not speak the heritage language at home. Therefore,
language is a biological capability, but its transmission is
sociocultural in nature. The sociological and cultural aspects of
language will be discussed in separate sections of this module.

Going back to the stages of the development of the first language,

Table 15 shows their manifestations across age brackets as well as
their functions and linguistic realizations.

Table 15.1. Stages of First Language Development

Age Stage Accomplishment Examples

0-2 months Crying Expressing hunger and

discomfort
2-4 months Cooing aaa, oooo
Expressing satisfaction or
pleasure
4-9 months Babbling Gurgling or changing to echolalic
gagaga,
babbling
mamamama
Referring to people and objects
9-18 months One-word juice, mama
utterances in baby’s life
18 months to
21/2 years Two-word Beginning of syntax or grammar, More juice.
utterances expanding to threeword
utterances allowing Juice fall down.
communicative functions
Daddy go?

21/2 years Telegraphic Using expanded syntax and

stage vocabulary, omitting key I eated bread.
– 4 years
grammatical markers and
function words

Source:
http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-and-second-
languagedevelopment.html

Studies in L1 acquisition have inspired scholars to investigate if the

same route of development is true in L2 acquisition. Also, the said
studies have led language researchers to contrast language
acquisition and language learning. Table 15.2 presents the
comparison of language acquisition and language learning.

Table 15.2 Comparison of language Acquisition and Language Learning

Language Acquisition Language Learning

Implicit and subconscious Explicit and conscious

Occurs in informal situations Occurs in formal situation

Uses grammatical’ feel’ Uses grammatical rules

Depends on attitude Depends on aptitude

Stable order of acquisition Simple to complex order of

learning

Source: https://teachinglanguages.com.au/language-acquistion-vs-languagelearning/

Activity
Compare the following language tasks. Tick (✓) the box to indicate if
it is implicit or explicit.
No. Language Task Implici
Explici t t

1. Memorizing and singing a song.

2. Role playing using formal and informal greetings.

3. Memorizing and giving examples of rules in

Subject and Verb agreement

4. Imitating the native speakers in a movie.

5. Changing sentences from active to passive voice.

6. Dramatizing a telephone conversation.

7. Using varied types of connectors in a written composition.

8. Differentiating Yes-No and Wh- interrogatives.

 9. Asking or giving directions in going to a shop

10. Conjugating irregular verbs in simple past and past participle

form.

Analysis
You will find that the following tasks are implicit: items 1, 2, 4, 6, and
9. The rest of the tasks are explicit. In the given activity, which of the
sets of language tasks can make you feel anxious? Which are less
stressful and less threatening?

Abstraction
Does anxiety play a significant role in language learning? Do
children acquire their L1 faster because they can analyze grammar
better than their adult counterparts? Do they acquire L1 faster
because their learning environment is less threatening? Write your
thoughts in the space below.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Application
List down at least five practices that you will avoid in a language
classroom.
1. ____________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

Does language ability weaken simply because of maturation? Can
language learning be optimized if the learning environment is less
threatening and more friendly? As a future teacher of English, how
will you help your learners optimize their ability? Write your reflection
below.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Post-test
Before you end this lesson, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the
box that best describes your answer.
No. Language teaching and learning True False
situation
1 Language has biological and socio-cultural
dimensions.
2 Implicit language teaching does not suit L2
acquisition.
3 Implicit language teaching is limited to L1
acquisition.
4 Self-esteem is negligible in language learning.
5 Selective error feedbacking is a factor in
effective language teaching.

Suggested References and Websites

The interested reader may find the website below particularly useful
in extended reading on first and language development.
http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-andsecond-
language-development.html
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS

Lesson 16. Language Development: The Behaviorist, The

Cognitivist, and The Constructivist Perspectives

Duration: 3 hours Introduction

This lesson introduces you to the three primary schools of thought that have
greatly affected the teaching-learning processes through several
generations. Specifically, it provides you with the historical and philosophical
bases of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. These schools of
thought can be compared in terms of how each perceives the nature of
language, the learning process, and language teaching-learning approaches,
methods, and strategies.
Learning Objectives
During the there-hour period, you are expected to
1. Characterize the three schools of thought in terms of their philosophical
foundations,
2. Discuss the pedagogical implications of the three schools of thought, and
3. Identify their strengths and weaknesses in light of the current practices in
second language acquisition and learning.

Pretest
Before you proceed to the lesson proper, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the
box for your best choice.
No. Language teaching and learning Agree Undecided Disagree
situation
1. Children learn their L1 by imitation.
2. Children are aware of grammar rules.
3. Right practice results in mastery of a skill.
4. The mind is empty at birth.
5. The rules of grammar are pre-existent.
6. Learning is “input equals output”.
7. Intake of information is uniform and predictable.
8. Language has surface and deep structures.
9. Surface structures are syntactic.
10. The meaning of a sentence remains
the same even the surface structure is
transformed

Lesson proper
Systematic error analysis can be a good starting point to discuss the features
of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

How may learners’ errors help teachers understand the complexity of the
language acquisition and language learning? Why do learners commit errors
or mistakes? How do they acquire language?

Behaviorists believe in the role of the environment in the learning process. To

them learning can be associated with a significant change in one’s behavior
as a confluence between modelling and imitation. Behaviorists also put a
high premium on the role of the environment, both material and non-material.
Also, behaviorists assert that the connection that has been established
between stimulus and response has to be reinforced to through practice.
One classical example to support behaviorism is an experiment in which a
dog was made to salivate with the sound of a buzzer. In the said experiment,
a piece of meat was introduced to a dog. After some time, a buzzer was
sounded off while introducing meat to the dog. When the link between the
sound of the buzzer and the introduction meat was established, the latter
was withdrawn. Hence, the dog was made to salivate merely by hearing the
sound of the buzzer. This experiment is known as the Classical Conditioning
of Ivan Pavlov. This has established a frame of thinking which we now call
the S-R Bond Theory. One of the supporters of behaviorism was B.F.
Skinner.

Around the 1960s, Noam Chomsky issued his review of Skinner’s Verbal
Behavior. Chomsky critiqued the behavioral paradigm. To him, the results of
the experiment cannot be generalized. Whatever findings there have been
could not be applied to human beings because the subject of the experiment
was a dog. Besides, the experiment was conducted in a confined
environment, a laboratory. Such cannot be the case in language
development. Language cannot be acquired in a similar condition. Chomsky
asserted that what lies between the S and the R is what matters most. To
him this is the LAD or the language acquisition device.

The fame of Chomsky lies on discrediting two schools of thought single

handedly: behavioral psychology and structural linguistics.

He was able to do so by introducing cognitive psychology and

transformational generative grammar. To him, language development is not
nurture, as behaviorism puts it. To Chomsky, it is nature because we are
genetically programmed to acquire a language. He also rejects that the mind
is a blank slate. He argues that with the tremendous complexity of language,
it cannot develop from nothing. There is only one explanation to him, the
mind is preprogrammed at the onset of life. Language is an axiom of our
being human.

Also, he downplayed structuralism when he introduced Transformational

Generative Grammar (TGG). To him, language production is creative. It is
dictated by the principle of the infinite use of the finite means. To Chomsky,
grammar consists only of a handful of rules of syntax which a child
manipulates in some infinite ways provided by the parameters of language.
These parameters dictate what is possible and not possible in grammar. The
grammar rules, he asserts, are too abstract for the child to comprehend. Yet,
a child of three or four can discern the difference between a statement, a
request, and a question even without any formal background in grammar.
This capability cannot be explained by the principle of modeling and
imitation as behaviorism implies. To Chomsky, there exists an immutable
characteristic of language which his TGG strongly supports.

In this grammatical model, a single linguistic phenomenon can be expressed

in several ways. Take for example the sentences below.
John paints the wall.
The wall is what John paints.
Painting the wall is what John does.
It is John who paints the wall.
The wall is painted by John.
Does John paint the wall?
Is the wall painted by John?

Our knowledge of the syntax of English enables us to generate all and only
acceptable sentences derived from the original sentence. Could this
capability be imitational or creative?

Because of our ability to transform a sentence, we can manipulate the syntax

of the sentence without changing its basic essence. In other words, the
surface structure of the sentence can be changed without necessarily
changing the meaning of the sentence.

Obviously, the sentences below transgress the meaning of the original

sentence because they do only alter the surface structure or syntax of the
sentence, but they spoil the deep structure or semantics of the sentence.

The wall paints John.

John wall the paints.
Wall the paints John.

How many sentences can we produce during the day? What about within our
lifetime? Can these huge numbers of sentences be produced just because of
imitation? Or are they generated from a language dynamo? This is what
Chomsky calls the Universal Grammar.

Chomsky has made an indelible mark in the collective consciousness of

contemporary scholars. However, his critics point out the downsides of his
linguistic theory. As a nativist and mentalist, his theory of language concerns
the intra-organismic aspects of language. His frame of thinking discounts the
role of the environment and that language exists independent of the physical
realm. Hence, his grammar is not context sensitive. In fact, it is context free.
Following his argument, a sentence can be grammatically correct for as long
as it conforms to the prescribed syntactic rules of the target language. The
following sentence can be said to be well-formed though it does not have any
sense at all.

Green ideas sleep furiously under the chair.

His critics argue that language is a social phenomenon. As such, the

meaning of an utterance cannot be confined in the combination or order of
words in a sentence. To the sociolinguists and functional linguists, language
is inter-organismic. In other words, language is both form, use, and meaning.
In doing so, language needs to be understood beyond its syntactic or
grammatical features. It has to be appreciated in the context of the situation
and the context of culture.

This development has led scholars to reformulate the nature of language.

The third school of thought can be considered as a compromise between
behaviorism and cognitivism. The social influences and interactions need to
be factored in the teaching and learning processes. Table 16 describes the
three schools of thought very briefly.

Table 16. The Three Schools of Thought and Their Descriptions

Source: https://acjohnson205.school.blog/2019/06/05/edm-510-learning-theory-matrix/

Activity
List down some classroom activities and be able to classify each according
to the three schools of thought.
Classroom Activity School of Thought
1. ________________________________________ _______________
2. ________________________________________ _______________
3. ________________________________________ _______________
4. ________________________________________ _______________
5. ________________________________________ _______________

Analysis
Compare behaviorism and cognitivism by identifying their inherent strengths
and weaknesses. Write your answers in the next table.
School of Thought Strength Weakness

Behaviorism ____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________
____________________ ____________________

Cognitivism ____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

____________________ ____________________

Abstraction
How may constructivism fill the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism?
Write your answer in the space below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Application
List down activities in teaching the four macro-skills according to the
principles of the three schools of thought.
1. Listening
Behaviorism _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

Cognitivism _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

Constructivism _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

2. Speaking
Behaviorism _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________
Cognitivism _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

Constructivism _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

____________________________________________
3. Reading
Behaviorism _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________
Cognitivism
_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________
 _____________________________________________
Constructivism
_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

4. Writing
Behaviorism ____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Cognitivism ____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Constructivism ____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

How may the role of the teacher change according to the three schools of
thought? In the space provided, write your reelection.
School of The Changing Role of the Language Teacher
Thought

Behaviorism ______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

Cognitivism
______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

Constructivism ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________

______________________________________________

Post-test
As you are about to finish this lesson proper, categorize the statements
below according to the three schools of thought. Tick (✓) the box for your
best choice.
No. Language Teaching and Behavioral Cognitive Constructivist Learning situation
1. Children learn their L1 by imitation.

2. Children have innate and abstract rules of grammar.

3. Right practice results in mastery of a skill.

4. The mind is empty at birth.

5. The rules of grammar are pre-existent.

6. Learning assumes that input is equal to output.

7. Intake of information is uniform and predictable in the learning process.

8. Language has surface and deep structures.

9. The learner’s context is significant in the learning process.

10. The teacher has to provide opportunities of learning.

Suggested References and Websites

The interested and motivated student may visit the website below for further
reference and reflection.
https://ripslawlibrarian.wordpress.com/2017/03/14/learning-theories-and-
lawbehaviorism-cognitivism-constructivism/

UNIT 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Lesson 17. Language and Society: The Sociological Dimension of

Language Duration: 3 hours Introduction
Proactive language teachers are concerned with language issues and
challenges taking place in the classroom and beyond. They do not only put
premium on the structural and functional aspects of language teaching, but
they are also interested in what goes on in society. Though most of these
concerns are not school-related variables, still language teachers need to be
aware of the issues that may affect language teaching both directly and
indirectly. These issues concern the politics of language which are crucial in
language planning and policy implementation. Considering that language is
an economic commodity, language teachers need to be acquainted with
these sociolinguistic issues.
Learning Objectives
During the three-hour period, you are expected to
1. differentiate language and dialect,
2. differentiate dialect and register, and
3. discuss the politics of language in relation to language pedagogy.
Pretest
Before you proceed with the lesson proper, do the activity below. Tick (✓)
the box for your best choice.
No. Language teaching and learning situation Agree Undecided Disagree
1. Cebuano and Ilocano are dialects.
2. The number of speakers differentiate language and dialect.
3. British English and American English are dialects of
English.
4. Geographical boundaries differentiate language and dialect.
5. There are varieties of English as there are varieties of
professions in English.
6. The varieties of English as regards the different professions are
dialects of English.
7. American English is better than Philippine
English.
8. The difference between language and dialect is both linguistic
and political in nature.
9. English is an intranational language in the
Philippines.
10. English is a lingua franca in the ASEAN region and
beyond.
Lesson Proper
The Philippines is a linguistically diverse nation. As such, there are around
187 living languages in the country. Though we are linguistically rich, we
cannot afford, at least for this century, to completely shift from English to
Filipino as the medium of communication in education, judiciary, legislation,
science and technology, and more other disciplines.
In addition to our regional languages, we need to learn Filipino, our National
Language, as our linguistic identity. Also, we need to learn English for wider
communication in this age of ever increasing globalization, while we maintain
the use of our regional languages or vernaculars. Therefore, an ordinary
citizen of the Philippines needs to be bilingual. Ordinarily, most of us are
multilinguals because we speak not only two but three or more languages.
When you go to places outside Metro Manila, you will notice that people
speak languages other than Tagalog. And if you do not speak
Kapampangan, Ilocano, or Cebuano, you will hardly understand people in the
community because of lack of mutual intelligibility. Just the same, speakers
of Kapampangan and speakers of Ilocano or Hiligaynon do not have mutual
intelligibility because they speak different languages.
Kapampangan, just like the rest of our 187 tongues, is a language because it
has a distinct sound system, vocabulary, and grammar. Kapampangan is not
a dialect. As a language, it has other variants like those spoken in the
municipalities of Apalit, Arayat, San Fernando, Lubao, Macabebe, Mexico,
and the other parts of the province. These varieties are the dialects of
Kapampangan. Though there is mutual intelligibility, still there are significant
differences in how some words are pronounced, intonation patterns,
vocabulary, and usage. If every language is a collection of dialects, the
Philippines has more than a thousand dialects.
Though language varieties can be geographical; however, dialects can
transcend geographical boundaries just as languages can be spoken in one
place. On the one hand, the island of Negros is divided into two linguistic
territories, that is, two languages are spoken on a single island, Cebuano in
Negros Oriental, and Hiligaynon in Negros Occidental. On the other hand,
Tarlac, a province to the north of Manila is the melting pot of three
languages: Ilocano, Kapampangan, and Tagalog.
English is an international language. It is the default language of the ASEAN
region. When our national leaders meet to discuss matters that concern the
region, they use English as their bridge language, just as we use English
when we meet someone in Baguio or Davao who does not speak Tagalog.
This bridge language is a lingua franca. English is not a foreign language in
the Philippines. In fact, it has been in the country for more than a century. We
use it as one of our official languages. For example, we write our laws in
English. We can feel the presence of English across the disciplines in the
Philippines. This language provides us the opportunity to access the
knowledge that is not available in our languages. It is both a useful and
powerful language. When there is a controversy in the interpretation of the
1987 Constitution, for example, the English version shall prevail over its
Filipino version. Having been in the Philippines since 1898, English has
developed into our own variety, the Philippine English. Can this variety be
considered a dialect of English?
Caution needs to be observed in using the term dialect. If speakers of British
English and American English have mutual intelligibility, are these two
varieties considered dialects of English? Is Philippine English a language or
a dialect? Is Philippine English inferior to American English? Is British English
superior to American English? These questions cannot be answered
categorically because linguistics is a science. Whether a language is inferior,
or superior is a matter of preference. Every variety of English is unique in its
own right just as every variety of language is accorded recognition and
respect.
Do speakers of Tagalog and Filipino have mutual intelligibility? Given that
Filipino is Tagalog-based, can we consider Filipino as a variety of Tagalog?
Is Filipino a dialect of Tagalog? If it is a dialect of Tagalog, does it have
legitimacy to become our national linguistic identity?
At this point, we can say that the distinction between a language and a
dialect is not only linguistic in nature. The differences between language and
dialect can also be political.
In addition to dialects as varieties of a language, we also have other varieties
which are identified with certain professions. These varieties of a language
are what we call registers. In English, for example, there are terminologies
and usages peculiar to different professions. We have registers of English for
different professions like accountancy, arts, biology, business, computer
science, creative writing, education, engineering, forestry, journalism, law,
mathematics, and many others.
Therefore, a language teacher, in light of these developments, needs to be
acquainted with varieties and registers of English.
The above discussion emanates from sociolinguistics, the study of language
and social behaviors. As a subfield of linguistics, it is the study of language in
relation to social factors like differences of regional, class and occupational
varieties of a language.
Sociolinguistics, as a discipline, came to existence by accident. It started in
the works of William Labov, a firefighter. He had observed that language
occurs in society as it is used by the members of the community and not how
it should be used.
Rejecting intuition and contemplation, Labov developed rigorous and
scientific methods to study how language is used in society. In his works, he
succeeded in showing significant changes in language use in relation to the
social forces in society.
Sociolinguistics has achieved authenticity in language study by bringing the
outside world into the language classroom. Nowadays, we use authentic
texts, materials, activities, and assessment procedures in our language
classes. These texts, materials, classroom activities, and assessment
procedures are not intended for classroom use, but such can be used inside
the classroom for educational purposes.

Activity
Match columns A and B to show which terms belong to specific disciplines. On the
blanks, write the letter for your best choice.

Column A. Term Column B. Disciple

______ 1. Motherboard A Biology
______ 2. Foreshadowing B Computer Technology
______ 3. Integer C Economics
______ 4. Protoplasm D Law
______ 5. Hypotenuse E Linguistics
______ 6. Independent variable F Literature
______ 7. Compounded interest G Mathematics
______ 8. Allophone H Music
______ 9. Trajectory I Physics
______ 10. Crescendo J Research
K Trigonometry
Analysis
Based on the above activity, choose and discuss which of the two statements
is more valid. The different disciplines enrich English. English enriches the
different disciplines.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction
Discuss how language changes. How does a language break down into
dialects? How does language branch into registers? Write your answer
below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Application
Should we encourage teaching of the Philippine English in our school
system? Why? Why not? Write your answer below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

a. What makes sociolinguistics scientific? Write your answer below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
 b. Is there any scientific evidence that can prove that Filipino is different from
Tagalog?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test
Before you end the lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your
best choice.
No. Language teaching and learning situation
True False

1. In the Philippines, all academic subjects can be taught in

Filipino.

2. Dialectal variations can be set by geographical boundaries.

3. Philippine English is inferior to American English.

4. Registers are set by political boundaries.

5. Political boundaries and jurisdictions can determine language territories.

6. The emergence of language registers has resulted in teaching of English for

specific purposes.
7. The difference between language and dialect can be
dictated by politics.
8. Sociolinguistics is insignificant in language curriculum
design.
9. Because language is an economic commodity, language

planning needs to be part of national development and economic planning.

10. English is a Philippine language.

Suggested References and Websites

If you are interested in enhancing your knowledge in sociolinguistics, you are
encouraged to read an article online. Below is the website.

Source: https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branches-
oflinguistics/sociolinguistics/what-does-sociolinguistics-study/
UNIT 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Lesson 18. Language Varieties : Dialect, Register, Sociolect,

Genderlect, and Idiolect

Duration: 3 hours Introduction

You have heard on different occasions words like lectern, lectionary, lecture, and
lexicon. Have you noticed that these words have been described from a common
root? This kind of word analysis is known as etymology. Language learners have the
capacity to enlarge their vocabulary through derivation. Hence, the root lect- can
generate words like dialect, genderlect, idiolect, and sociolect. Observe also that the
root -lect is at the final position of the word. The words that have been derived and
generated through affixation have a
common essence. The words pertain to varieties of language.
Language, like any other living entity, changes across time and space. As future
teachers of language, you will find learning varieties of a language particularly
important.

Learning Objectives
During a three-hour period, you are expected to
1. Recognize the overlapping subcategories of language,
2. Discuss the foundations of teaching English for specific purposes (ESP), and
3. Explain the social factors that contribute to language change.

Pretest
Before you proceed to the lesson proper, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for
your best choice.
No. Concepts in language change Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree

1. Gender can tells a story. influence how a person

2. News stories and feature articles have distinct language use and structures.

3. There are terminologies that are specific to some disciplines or areas of

specialization.

4. The communicative intent of writers influences the level of formality of

language.

5. Language features reflect the time when the work or document is written.

6. Authorship attribution can be appraised and confirmed with mathematical

precision.

7. Reading vocabulary differs from writing vocabulary.

8. Not all good speakers are good writers.

9. No two authors have exactly the same writing style.

10. Language use may reflect one’s socioeconomic status. -

Lesson Proper
While it is true that human beings are born with language, socio-cultural factors also
play important roles in language transmission and language change.

The spread of English across the globe in the past 500 years can be described
exponentially. Some of the factors that have catalyzed the internationalization of
English are imperialism, military power, economic activities, intellectual advancement,
cultural exchanges, scientific development, and communication technology.

As a global language, English is now an official, second, or a foreign language in

almost all parts of the world. As such, the English language grows rapidly. Fig. 18.1
shows the spread of English and other major languages across the globe. In 2000,
compared to Mandarin Chinese, with 874 million native speakers, English had only
341 million. However, English is spoken as a native language in 104 countries,
whereas Mandarin Chinese has only 16. The figure does not include speakers of
English either as a second or a foreign language. Truly, the sun never sets in the
English language.

Used in most parts of the world, English has developed into different varieties:
dialects, registers, jargons, sociolects, and idiolects. These varieties of English
remarkably differ from general English. Some linguists also call it standard English.
This is the variety of English being used in speech and writing by educated people.
The Philippine English can be subcategorized into three: acrolect, mesolect, and
basilect varieties. While on the one hand, the acrolect variety can closely resemble
the native variety; on the other hand, the basilect, is characterized by heavy traces of
regional accents. The mesolect is obviously the midway between the two.

Language attitude and motivation play an important role in one’s language

preference. Generally, these attitudes are either integrative or instrumental.
While the first pertains to the person’s desire to become part of the community that
speaks the language, the second refers to the perceived usefulness of English both
for cultural, social, economic, and personal reasons. To avoid the pejorative or
negative connotation of dialect, scholars use the term language variety.
Figure 18.1. The spread of English and other major languages across the globe
(Source: The World Almanac and book of Facts, 20023)
Aside from geographical boundaries, language variation can also be determined by
other factors. The choice of word, tone, voice quality, or level of formality can be linked
to some situational or cultural factors. This change in language use is called style shift,
a feature of language which is used by competent speakers or writers.
For the level of formality, competent language users can easily shift from low to high
registers depending on the context of discourse. This language condition is known as
diglossia.
The study of language registers is far reaching in studying communication. This
process is far more complicated than sending and receiving information and
messages. More so, communication means negotiation.
In negotiating meaning, some other factors have to be considered: the relationship
between the speaker and the listener, the channel of communication, and the register
that is being used.
With these developments in language study, one can sense that familiarity with the
target language is only one of many other things that are needed to achieve
communicative competence. Fig. 18.2 shows the four components that are needed in
achieving communicative competence.
Fig. 18.2.Tthe Four Components of Communicative Competence
Source: https://www.learnalberta.ca/content/eslapb/understanding_the_acquisition_language
_in_stages_working_towards.html

English is such a rich language. In journalism, some terms are peculiar and identified
with sports events. If you are familiar with baseball, basketball, boxing, chess, lawn
and table tennis, swimming, taekwondo, track and fields, and volleyball, you will notice
that certain terms are identified with sports events. This language variety is called
jargon.
Lastly, the other varieties of English include sociolect, genderlect, ethnolect, and
idiolect.
Sociolect is also known as a social dialect, a variety of language that is used by an
economic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group.
Genderlect refers to the variety of language in relation to gender orientation. Members
of the gay community use peculiar registers for some social reason.
Americans of African, Asian, or Spanish ancestry also constitute a certain language
variety called ethnolect.
Language variety differs from person to person. Even in a group, certain persons do
not lose their individualities as each of them speak a personal register, variety, or
style that is known as idiolect.
Activity
Cut out from newspapers an editorial and a news article. Compare the language
features of the two journalistic write-ups in terms of (a) use of modifiers, (b) tense,
and (c) voice of verbs. Write your answers below.
Language Feature Article News Article Feature

a. Use of ______________________ _______________________ modifiers

______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________

b. Tense ______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________

c. Voice of ______________________ _______________________ verbs

______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________

______________________ _______________________ Analysis

1. Which genre uses modifiers less frequently, feature article or news

article? Why?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. Which of the two genres uses the past form of verbs more often? Why?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3. Which of the two genres uses the active voice more often? Why?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction

How do you explain “language changes across time and space”?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

Is language change the same as language evolution? Why? Why not?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test
After completing the lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best
choice.
No. Concepts in language change True False
1. Failure to style shift indicates poor linguistic competence.
2. Social exposure can help improve one’s sociolinguistic competence.
3. Linguistic competence can be achieved through formal study of language.
4. Compensatory strategy is a form of linguistic competence.
5. ESP is used in teaching idiolects.

6. A sociolect can constitute several idiolects.

7. An idiolect cannot be formally analyzed.
8. A sociolect can have recurring structural patterns.
9. A jargon can be an idiolect.

10. Sociolect can reveal a person’s education.

Suggested References and Websites

Does language progress or retrogreens as a consequence of language change? The
interested reader is encouraged to read the article available in the webpage below.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacstranscripts-and-
maps/language-change

Source:
Nordquist, Richard. (2020, February 11). Definition and Examples of Language
Varieties. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/languagevariety-sociolinguistics-
1691100 https://notesread.com/6-major-language-variation-in-linguistics/

UNIT 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Lesson 19. Language and Culture: Linguistic Relativism

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction
If you speak one or two languages in addition to your L1, you must have observed
that each language you speak has its own uniqueness. This is so because no two
languages are the same. Not only that languages differ in terms of their structural
characteristics, languages also differ in terms of their cultural characteristics.
Language and culture are very much interrelated. Studying a language is an
opportunity to study the culture of the people who speak that language. In the same
manner, studying the culture of a people enables you to have a better appreciation of
their language.

Learning Objectives
During the three-hour session, you are expected to
1. explain the difference between linguistic relativism and linguistic
determinism,
2. discuss how language, culture, and thought are connected to each
other, and
3. give the practical uses of linguistic relativism in our daily lives.

Pretest
a. Name as much as shades of red you can. How many shades of red can you
identify? Answer: _____
b. How many of the shades of red can you identify in your L1?
Answer: _____

Lesson Proper
Because language and culture are very much related to each other, there are
concepts and expressions that are language speaking. Tagalog, a major Philippine
language has some peculiarities. Rice has so many Tagalog translations: palay,
bigas, or kanin. Try to translate kalamay, sapin-sapin, bibingka, suman, palitaw, puto,
kutsinta, biko, and puto bungbong. You will find out that they are all rice cakes.

This peculiar observation may suggest the connection among language, thought, and
culture. You may find so many counterparts for the English rice cake because we live
in an agricultural community where rice is in abundance and is a staple food. Also,
brown sugar and egg yolk are translated as asukal na pula and pula ng itlog. Does
this suggest that Tagalog has a different color spectrum?

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf

hypothesized that the way we speak
influences the way we think. This
connection among language, culture, and
thought is known as the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis or linguistic relativism
By extension, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis implies that the way we view the world is
linked to our L1.
In relation to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or linguistic relativism, Ludwig Wittgenstein
has asserted that “the limits of our language are the limits of our universe.” Based on
the validity of the foregoing statement, a bilingual or a multilingual person is afforded
with a better world perspective compared to a monolingual speaker.
A stronger version of the Sapir Whorf hypothesis is linguistic determinism. This
suggests that multilinguals have different thought processes compared to
monolinguals. Does this also suggest that kids reared in multilingual families appear
to be smarter than their monolingual counterparts?

Activity
See the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors in Fig. 19.

Figure 19. Names of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors

1. Name the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors.

a. What are the three primary colors?
_______ _______ _______

b. What are the secondary colors?

_______ _______ _______

c. What are the tertiary colors? _______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______

2. What are the names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors in your L1?
a. What are the three primary colors?
_______ _______ _______

b. What are the secondary colors?

 _______ _______ _______

c. What are the tertiary colors? _______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______

3. In which language do you find the names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
colors much easier to remember? Why?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ Analysis
Does L2 help you in remembering better the names of the primary, secondary, and
tertiary colors? Yes or No? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction
What are the advantages of being a bilingual or a multilingual? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

Can we afford to be monolingual? Yes or No? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test
Does it matter if you know about 10 shades of red? How may linguistic relativism help
in the following fields: agriculture, textile industry, fashion, and cosmetics? What must
be the practical applications of linguistic relativism in our daily lives?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Suggested References and Websites

The interested student is encouraged to do an extended reading. In this regard, the
article Linguistic Relativity and Linguistic Determinism: Idiom in 20th Century Cornish
by John Mills can be a good source of information. The article is available at this
website:
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED540362.pdf
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-biolinguistic-turn/201702/howthe-
language-we-speak-affects-the-way-we-think https://sciencestruck.com/linguistic-
relativity-hypothesis
UNIT 7. LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

Lesson 20. Applied Linguistics

Duration: 3 hours Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn the relevance of linguistics in our society and daily lives.
As a discipline, applied linguistics has its legitimate place in promoting a better world.
As a growing discipline, applied linguistics becomes more relevant in providing real
life and language related problems and situations.
Learning Objectives
During the three-hour period, you are expected to
1. Explain the differences between theoretical and descriptive linguistics, 2. Identify
problems that may need intervention of applied linguistics, and 3. Discuss the
relevance of applied linguistics in language teaching.

Pretest
Before you start the lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best
choice. Identify each of the potential language issues according to their degree of
complexity: 1 - not challenging, 2 -challenging, 3- particularly challenging.
No. Potential Language Issue 1 2 3
1. Solving some reading problems of grade school students

2. Determining the grammaticality of sentences

3. Comparing the phonological rules of two varieties of a language

4. Explaining why a group of people shifts from one language to another
5. Illustrating how language is used in different discourses
6. Discussing how grammar rules can be used in a literary analysis

7. Using cohesive devices in improving writing skills

8. Designing a computer software for speech processing

9. Explaining how certain consonants are produced relative to their positions in
some words
10. Contrasting vowels in terms of their highness or lowness of pitch

Lesson Proper
Applied linguistics is one of the three major divisions of linguistics. The other two are
theoretical linguistics and descriptive linguistics. Being the third division, applied
linguistics put to use the knowledge that has been developed at the theoretical level
and has been formalized in descriptive linguistics.
With linguistics as the philosophical and scientific study of language, the first division
provides philosophical answers to what language is and its role in society.
In descriptive linguistics, we study the formal features of language. It is descriptive
linguistics that we search for some evidence as regards the formal features and
properties of the spoken language by way of searching for some generalizable
patterns that constitute its building blocks. It is descriptive linguistics that the phonetic
features of speech sounds are defined and explained. These features are then
organized into phonological rules to explain the speech patterns that are inherent in a
particular language. The same procedure applies to how words are described down
to the basic units of grammar. Such tasks are in the domain of morphology. Then,
how words are combined according to the abstract rules of the grammar of a
language is formalized in syntax. All these descriptions fall under the sentential and
sub-sentential level of analysis.

Above and beyond the sentential level is the study of language in wider contexts. For
this higher domain of descriptive linguistics, we study pragmatics, semantics, and
discourse. And since language is more than just a set of formal rules, it becomes
apparent that language needs to be studied in broader contexts. When we use our
knowledge in both theoretical and descriptive linguistics to provide solutions to some
problems in society, we make applied linguistics operational.
Some of the social fields that involve language are, but not limited to, advertising,
artificial intelligence, corporate communication, cultural studies, gender studies,
international diplomacy, language planning and development, language policy
implementation, language teaching, law, and media communication/studies, and
translation just to name a few.
Specifically, applied linguistics can provide solutions to problems in teaching
language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary approach to solving problems that involve
language use. In a language class, Applied linguistics is used in making language
teaching more effective as it uses scientific procedures based on systematic study of
language, theories of learning, and carefully designed assessment procedures.

Theoretical Linguistics

 Philosophy of
Language
 Sociolinguistics
Anthropological
Linguistics
 Psycholinguistics Social Fi
Langu
 advertising
 artificial int
 corporate
communica
 cultural stu
 gender stu
 internation
diplomacy
 language p
and develo
 language p
implementa
 language t
 law
 media
communica
 studies
 translation
 Applied
Linguistics

Descriptive Linguistics
 Phonology and
Phonetics
 Morphology
 Syntax

Fig. 20 Applied Linguistics in Different Social Fields of Language

Activity
Below are boxes containing statements related to language. Determine which of the
statements have linguistic basis: theoretical or descriptive. Tick ( ✓) the box if the
statement is valid. Cross (X) it if it is not valid.
 Language acquisition
is implicit. Language learning is
Verbs are action
words. explicit.

A sentence In English, the verb

expresses a In English, the determines the role of
complete subject controls the subject.
thought. the number of
the verb.

Language develops In every rule, there Language use is

through imitation. are exemptions. needed in language
acquisition.

Primitive
languages have
Grammar rules arefixed.
simpler grammar Context is important in
rules. communication.

Analysis
Based on the above activity, choose your three best answers and explain each
below.
1.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction
In your own words, what do you mean by scientific language teaching?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

If there is one common practice in language teaching that you have been exposed to
in the past, how would you improve such practice by using Applied Linguistics?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ Post-
test
As you are about to complete this lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for
your best choice. Identify the division of linguistics in which the following language
issues can be addressed. TL -Theoretical Linguistics, DL – Descriptive Linguistics, or
AL – Applied Linguistics.
No Potential Language Issue TL DL AL
.

1. Solving some reading problems of grade school students

2. Determining the grammaticality of sentences

3. Comparing the phonological rules of two varieties of a language

4. Explaining why a group of people shifts from one language to another

5. Illustrating how language is used in different discourses

6. Discussing how grammar rules can be used in a literary analysis

7. Using cohesive devices in improving writing skills

8. Designing a computer software for speech processing

9. Explaining how certain consonants are produced relative to their positions in

some words

10. Contrasting vowels in terms of their highness or lowness of pitch

Suggested References and Websites

The interested student may find the slides in the website below very enriching. The
article presents a broader perspective about applied linguistics.

https://www.slideshare.net/shalabymostafa/what-is-applied-linguistics-90019901

UNIT 7. LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

Lesson 21. Educational Linguistics
Duration: 3 hours Introduction
In this lesson, you will determine the borderline separating educational linguistics and
applied linguistics. Though the two coexist in a symbiotic relationship, these two
streams in contemporary linguistics have their distinct emphases which benefit allied
fields in which language takes the central role, most particularly language pedagogy.

Learning Objectives
During the three-hour period, you are expected to
1. Trace the historical backgrounds of applied linguistics and educational linguistics,
2. Identify the specific domains of applied linguistics and educational linguistics, and
3. Discuss the importance of educational linguistics in language pedagogy.

Pretest
Before starting this lesson, tick (✓) the box for your best choice to indicate the
categories of some topics in language studies: applied linguistics (AL) or educational
linguistics (EL).
No. AL EL
Gendering language in mass media
1.
2. Language cultivation in context of multiple communities
3. The language of online advertising
4. The impact of English on the school curriculum 5. Discourse
analysis of political speeches
6. Authorship attribution in literature
7. Literacy in vernacular languages
8. Using phonetics in teaching pronunciation
9. The role of feedbacking in error correction
10. The viability of using home language as medium of instruction

Lesson Proper
Linguistics, like many other disciplines, is not intended primarily for classroom use.
Its inception was primarily to develop scientific means of studying the very nature of
language. Way back in 1904, Ferdinand de Saussure, in his lectures in Geneva,
Switzerland, established the foundations of modern linguistics. His lectures were
compiled by his students and had it posthumously published in a book, General
Course in Linguistics. This book is so influential so much that generations of
linguists that followed considered it as a seminal work. From the first quarter of the
20th century, linguistics branched out into different streams in academic circles in
Europe and beyond. Fig.21.1 shows how educational linguistics descended from
theoretical linguistics.

Over the past century, linguistics Theoretical had

Linguistics
branched out into several streams. In the
1930s Leonard Bloomfield had his Descriptive
Linguistics
own
version, Descriptive
Linguistics. Zellig Harris, in the
1950s, developed Structural Applied
Linguistics
Linguistics. Noam
Educational
Chomsky laid down the Linguistics
foundations of Transformational
Generative Linguistics in
the
1960s. His contemporary, Michael Figure 21.1. Transition from Theoretical Linguistics to
Educational Linguistics
Alexander Kirkwood Halliday,
developed a sociologically
oriented version, Systemic
Functional Grammar.
Steve Pit Corder, in the early 1970s, established Applied Linguistics. And Bernard
Spolsky, in the latter part of the decade, refined it into Educational Linguistics. Each
of the offshoots of linguistics now has taken its niche in the realm of linguistics
enriching and cross pollinating other disciplines like anthropology, cognitive
psychology, sociology, philosophy, mathematics, computer science, media studies,
and pedagogy.
Applied linguistics and educational linguistics, being the relatively recent widening
or perhaps narrowing of the linguistic highway are focused on real life problems that
involve language issues. Between the two, educational linguistics is more focused
on language and education; though there exists a symbiotic connection between
the two.

As a new discipline, educational linguistics traces its foundations in neurolinguistics,

psycholinguistics, theoretical linguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,
politics of language, and education. In practice, it is present in language instruction,
bilingualism, vernacular education, language and identity, postcolonial studies,
language acquisition, language assessment, and language instruction and
technology.

Spolsky (Spolsky & Hult, 2008, p.1) first proposed the term “educational linguistics”
because of his “dissatisfaction with efforts to define the field of applied linguistics.” In
his words, he highlighted the gray areas in applied linguistics saying:
It was becoming clear, particularly with the failure of the audiolingual method
on the one hand and the refusal of transformational linguistics to accept
 responsibility for practical issues on the other, that the simplistic notion that
applied linguistics was simply linguistics applied to some practical question
was misleading. Applied linguistics as it had developed seemed to me to be
a fairly soulless attempt to apply largely irrelevant models to a quite narrow
range of problems, especially in teaching foreign languages. It produced a
couple of potential monsters in language teaching: the deadening drills of
the audio-lingual method, and the ungoverned chaos of the early natural
approach. I saw the challenge in this way: Many linguists believe that their
field should not be corrupted by any suggestion of relevance to practical
matters; for them, linguistics is a pure science and its study is motivated only
by the desire to increase human knowledge. Others, however, claimed that
linguistics offers a panacea for any educational problem that arises and
quickly offer their services to handle any difficulties in language planning or
teaching. Each of these extreme positions is, I believe, quite wrong, for while
it is evident that linguistics is often relevant to education, the relation is
seldom direct.
Hult describes educational linguistics as “an area of study that integrates the research
tools of linguistics and other related disciplines of the social sciences in order to
investigate holistically the broad range of issues related to language and education
(Spolsky & Hult, 2008, p. 10).

Activity
Based on the Fig. 21.2., discuss how educational linguistics transcended from the
other subfields of linguistics. Write your answer on the space provided.

Fig. 21.2. Schematic connection of educational linguistics to the other subfields of linguistics

Write your answer here.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Analysis
Give five reasons why educational linguistics is important to language teachers.
1.____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2.____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

3.____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
 ___________________________________________________________

4.____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

5.____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Abstraction
Observe how the development of educational linguistics has grown from an extremely
broad field to a much focused study of language. Do you think this is true to
educational linguistics alone? Explain your answer below.

Answer
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Reflection and Insights

Based on the development of educational linguistics, what must be the future of
linguistics in the next 20 years? Write your answer below.
Answer
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ Post-
test
As you end this lesson, do the short test below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice
to indicate the classroom use of educational linguistics: LP (Low Probability), MP
(Moderate Probability), of HP (High Probability) in higher level English instruction.
No Language Activity LP MP HP
.

1. Gendering language in mass media

2. Language cultivation in context of multiple communities
3. The language of online advertising

4. The impact of English on the school curriculum

5. Discourse analysis of political speeches

6. Authorship attribution in literature 7. Literacy in vernacular
languages 8. Using phonetics in teaching pronunciation

9. The role of feedbacking in error correction

10. The viability of using home language as medium

of instruction

Suggested References and Websites

The interested reader may find the eBook on educational linguistics on the webpage
below.
Spolsky, B. and Hult, F. (Eds.). (2008). The Handbook of Educational Linguistics.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Accessed from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.452.5648&rep=rep
1&type=pdf