R

Rural Development word, is also endowed with other sorts of value: it

is associated with agriculture and farming and
Christopher L. Atkinson people from outside city areas. Connections are
Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA made between people from rural areas and the
School of Public Administration, Florida Atlantic land itself. While a contrasting relationship
University, Boca Raton, FL, USA might be supposed between rural and urban,
more properly, a continuum exists between the
two as definitions of rural and agriculture are
Synonyms altered due to the forces of modern living and
ultimately bear less resemblance to historical
Agricultural development; Enhancement; identities (Friedland 2002). Nevertheless, rural
Improvement; Modernization of extra-urban areas have a rich history and identity of their
spaces own, even while they share some aspects in com-
mon with urban areas (Woods 2011). Rural devel-
opment, for purposes of this entry, encompasses
Definition efforts that are economic and social in nature,
intended to encourage growth or expansion in
Rural development involves efforts that are eco- areas outside cities.
nomic and social in nature intended to encourage This entry considers rural development from a
concepts of retention, growth, and expansion in variety of perspectives, including economic
areas outside cities, including improving quality aspects, infrastructure and service considerations,
of life for rural residents through such activity. sociocultural factors, and the role of stakeholders.

Introduction The Possibility of the New Rural

The rural, beyond being defined as that which is It would be a mistake to assume that there is
not urban, is a contested space from a definitional homogeneity in the supposed blank canvas of
standpoint. Rural can be taken to mean from or of the rural. For one, the canvas is not blank; rural
open areas – those outside cities. Rural has a areas are distinctive. The idea of a compelling
common strand of meaning with country or coun- interest in developing areas outside cities has
tryside but is more frequently encountered with been a forceful direction in many nations and is
such nomenclature in public policy. Rural, as a not recent. What is more contemporary, possibly,
# Springer International Publishing AG 2017
A. Farazmand (ed.), Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_1014-1
2 Rural Development

is the practice of forming the new rural in any Economic Aspects

given location, as the focus has shifted away from
a sectoral perspective to one informed by place It has been noted that rural places are undergoing
and context. In new rural development, place mat- transformation due to “globalisation, economic
ters. The modern conception of the rural does not downturn, public sector budgetary pressures,
harken back to times in the distant past when most demographic ageing, and climate and environ-
people in a rural community were of a single class mental change” (Steiner and Atterton 2015,
and industry, with little to differentiate them p. 30). There has been a dramatic shift in jobs in
(Marx 2000). The rural is instead a representation, rural areas: traditional rural jobs (mining, farming,
actively made more or less real by those that and manufacturing) account for only about a fifth
ponder it, as a place of opportunity and beauty of total nonmetropolitan area employment. Two-
(Woods 2011). The collective sense of rural places fifths of rural employment is in typical service-
is heavily informed by the past and shared ideals type work like what would be seen in cities (health
of pastoral sensibilities and of escapes from the care and retail, for example); the balance of
harsh reality of the urban lifescape (Marx 2000). employment is in construction, transportation,
Rural development is a seeking out for what was and other services (Irwin et al. 2010).
and what could yet be; for some, it represents a The Organisation for Economic Co-operation
defiant strike at an existence grown wearisome, and Development (OECD) put forward the ques-
and for others, it is a hand up to overcome signif- tion of whether development in rural areas was a
icant socioeconomic barriers, possibly made territorial or sectoral issue, ultimately determining
worse by geographical factors like distance from that it was a place-based question rather than a
urban areas and jobs located there. topic best dealt with through the imposition of
Rural areas have seen “improved rural-urban policies (2003). A sectoral-based approach to
income parity, farm population decline, and sig- rural policy choices would leave only a few
nificant rural economic diversification” over the well-entrenched actors in the policy arena – nota-
past century (Irwin et al. 2010, p. 523). Having bly agriculture, mining, and petroleum. Agricul-
experienced great change, rural areas are sources tural interests have historically informed policy
of both vulnerability and untapped potential. choices with respect to rural areas in many
While there are significant stresses associated regions, and the interests of agribusiness have
with transformation, understanding the great been favored over other conceptions of rurality.
potential that exists for rural development is As competing views have become more well
essential for projects to succeed. In that respect, defined, however, the view of rural areas as one
rural development is not simply about the merits and the same with farming, or merely places where
of processes and projects themselves; the possi- oil extraction occurs, have become increasingly
bility for success profoundly weighs on awareness inaccurate, if not obsolete. A major influence is
of context. Rural business is unique – it may not employment potential: agriculture has declined in
just be about making money for those that seek to its ability to support well-paying jobs in rural areas
make a living in rural spaces. Rural life can invoke and areas that focus on such business as a special-
a sense of community, of working together, and ization find themselves subject to the whims of
social change. These efforts exhibit holistic traits, commodity markets. Although rural land use for
such as “sustaining local services, maintaining the agriculture remains strong, and productivity is
local population, reducing negative climate high, employment has been reduced precipitously.
impacts of long car journeys through providing How rural areas are changing involves choices
local services and employment, and sustaining made not just by agricultural interests but multi-
local community events, social capital and a sectoral stakeholders (OECD 2003).
strong sense of local identity” (Steiner and Even as rural areas have moved away from too
Atterton 2015, p. 43). much reliance on one sort of business, some of the
standard advice for urban development, such as
Rural Development 3

diversification of industries to encourage resil- e-commerce, which has become a source of reve-
ience, industrial clustering of firms, or hesitance nue to rural areas.
on supporting entrepreneurial development, may Tourism-related business in rural areas has
not be appropriate in rural areas. Such efforts increased; this may be tied to identity, which is
might mitigate risk, but in rural areas, some risk “vital for the constitution of entrepreneurial pro-
may be acceptable if the potential harm from a cesses” (Berglund et al. 2016, p. 91). Contrary to
failed effort can be moderated. Society-wide risks convention that suggests that rural areas should
like shocks against an entire system pose signifi- imitate urban centers, rural areas could become
cant threats to both urban and rural areas; these cognizant of what is in their communities,
may prevent the taking of worthwhile risks on embracing the entrepreneurial spirit to create
what are otherwise positive potential business something unique to the place, thus forcing resi-
deals. The lack of diversification in a rural com- dents to rethink the essential identity of their com-
munity might not be a fault, as it could be in an munity (Berglund et al. 2016). In preservation
urban center, if the risk pays off. If a rural area terms, it has been offered that “effective manage-
balances the risks and rewards of its development ment of the natural heritage is required for eco-
choices, toward increasing output of interest to the nomic and well as environmental reasons”
world outside the area, it is likely on the right path (Courtney et al. 2006, p. 481). As a result, tourist
(Freshwater 2015). Putting nothing forward, how- enterprises in rural areas would do well to support
ever, will accomplish no gain. This is especially the sustainability of natural features and reduction
true in rural areas, where there may be a lack of of potential damage through effective manage-
interest in the place, as existing interests cling to ment, given the close tie of natural features to
“what was” about the locale and fail to see a the maintenance of place identity.
possible bright future for the community.
Scale and management of expectations are cen-
tral considerations in rural development. From an Infrastructure and Service Concerns
economics perspective, it may seem that agglom-
eration economies – where like businesses tend to Rural development is not entirely dissimilar from
accumulate for mutually supportive reasons – its urban counterpart. It deliberates on many of the
may be more closely aligned with urban locales, same general issues that would affect develop-
due to the fact that “macro variables such as ment decisions in urban settings but employs a
innovation, productivity, growth, and develop- perspective that considers and values the unique
ment are greater in more densely populated context of the rural environment. Resources, orga-
areas” (Naldi et al. 2015, p. 96). However, this nization of community and policy/program struc-
does not mean that rural areas lack potential for tures, and delivery of services to communities are
“matching, sharing, and learning processes,” and all concerns. While the types of issues themselves
indeed a marginal increase may be felt more might be largely the same, infrastructure is a point
strongly in a rural area than in an urban region of serious concern for rural areas, especially those
(Naldi et al. 2015, p. 97). Applying principals of with an eye toward growth.
smart development, as may be seen in urban econ- There are concerns about the ability of rural
omies, one may expect to see smaller-scale communities to handle the consequences of
agglomeration tendencies, “natural and recrea- growth, when development plans work as
tional amenities as well as creative economies,” intended. It is expected that rural development
(Naldi et al. 2015, p. 96) and networks and efforts yield results that are desirable, but the
exchanges for research and development, specifi- intricacies of the deal, such as infrastructure
cally calling for development of high-speed improvements (sanitation, education, and even
broadband connectivity to facilitate learning and access to electricity) may not have been included
sharing of knowledge. Broadband also assists in the plan. These are essential investments with
benefits that may serve other development
4 Rural Development

projects. Waste handling, sewer system capacity, not universal in rural areas, so this promise is
water supplies, and housing are significant in rural limited (Townsend et al. 2016, p. 7).
areas just as they are in urban areas, but the
resources to address needs may not be available
in the amount necessary to address concerns as Sociocultural Factors
they arise. In some cases, increased distances
between individuals living in rural areas can cre- Educational, health, and employment services are
ate infrastructure issues. Provision of police and essential in rural areas, as they are in urban areas,
fire services, as well as transportation, is made but the particular needs may be different. Educa-
more difficult by the dispersal of population over tional attainment in rural areas may be relatively
large areas. less than in urban areas; this may drive unemploy-
Transportation and housing are major develop- ment, which in turn prevents attention to resolving
ment issues facing rural areas. Where social dis- needs in the educational sector (CRS 1979).
advantage exists in rural areas, it is often stoked Enduring poverty may be the result. Even though
by a lack of transportation and housing (OECD much has been done to improve education in rural
2003). Populations in these areas can experience areas, rural areas still trail urban areas, and a gap
other symptoms of disadvantage, including high exists in secondary and college attainment. This
unemployment. As a cause for development, rural negatively impacts development prospects, as an
communities often find that they were founded educated workforce is an attracting and sustaining
because of a natural feature of some sort. This factor for business. Those with lower educational
may have driven development in the past, partic- outcomes generally have higher unemployment
ularly for manufacturing or agriculture – such as rates in rural areas. Some groups are more affected
location near a river or a place with rich soil – but than others by this disparity. In the United States,
now those features may be less important to the “minority populations in nonmetro areas have
choice to live in a location than, for example, significantly lower levels of educational attain-
proximity to existing development or location on ment” (USDA ERS 2016). Rural development
a major transportation line. efforts may not always pay adequate or due atten-
Efforts to improve the competitiveness of rural tion to the needs of disadvantaged groups. Prob-
areas for development purposes include provision lems in rural areas can be more aggravated for
of amenities and identification of industry clusters these populations for reasons of access including
for potential attraction of new businesses; focus- language, necessitating a fresh look at how devel-
ing on eco- or agritourism; place-based opment policy can be more inclusive.
approaches to development; and creating entre- Food insecurity and concerns about climate
preneurial opportunities through attention to change have driven policy discussion toward sus-
knowledge centers, such as training and especially tainable development in many instances
distance learning (OECD 2003). Scott et al. (Behnassi et al. 2011). However, rural and agri-
(2016) have applied Nussbaum’s Central Human cultural development projects have significant,
Capabilities taxonomy to the choice some artists and in some cases negative, implications for
make to locate in rural areas, contrasting with the areas where the development takes place. In addi-
view that the creative class normally chooses to tional to the educational issues noted above, some
locate in urban areas. They specifically highlight changes, such as environmental degradation,
internet connectivity as a decisive factor: “Broad- crowding, and a rise in crime rate, might also be
band connectivity potentially enables the devel- expected (Baig and Straquadine 2011). These
opment of the creative economy in areas additional considerations are not purely “rural”
previously considered too geographically remote development issues, as they are encountered in
from urban creative hubs to participate in this development generally. In the case of rural devel-
sector,” though the reality is that broadband is opment, the issue becomes one of balancing what
is being given up in favor of the benefits received –
Rural Development 5

and whether the return on investment makes sense issues beyond jobs or increased wealth (Landini
over the short and long term. Ideally, rural devel- et al. 2014).
opment takes into consideration long-range soci- Rural development shares in common with
etal goals and attempts to conserve resources as sustainable development calls for transparency,
much as possible. monitoring of efforts by local stakeholders, the
sharing of visions and ideas for development
activities, and a sense of ownership for the out-
Stakeholder-Led Views of Rural come of such efforts (Khongsatjaviwat and
Development Routray 2015). Recognition of the importance of
stakeholder involvement is essential to successful
The line between urban and rural areas has rural development projects. Stakeholder participa-
become less clear. As people from urban areas tion not only helps assure project success – it
move to rural areas, they are creating new com- creates a stronger community amongst the partic-
munities, but these communities are not necessar- ipants. Time spent identifying potential stake-
ily like those created in the traditional manner, holders and planning for their involvement is
with shared experiences and cultures. They are consequently well spent (Usadolo and Caldwel
from inception diverse and more like modern 2016). In the case of public-private partnerships,
cities in that respect. Governments of such areas, which may have positive application in rural con-
and their consequent policy environments includ- texts, an equalization of public and private actors
ing development priorities, should therefore be for management and leadership of development
reflective of a bottom-up shared vision of commu- activities may be advisable. There is a place for
nity and specifically the uniqueness of the place both developmental and regulatory roles in rural
and the people there. development. It is perhaps not sufficient to
Rural development is not a straightforward involve stakeholders at the outset, only to inform
matter. There are open questions about the best them, while failing to allow them a place in the
approach to be taken to achieve desired ends – decision-making process (Bjärstig and Sandström
whether that is a top-down, intercession-based 2017).
model, or the hands-on model that includes a
variety of viewpoints. This is not an easily
addressed question, as the nature of rural areas Concluding Thoughts
has shifted, from primarily a farming perspective
to one that encompasses a range of possibilities. The present state of rural development is not pri-
Rural development also stands at the intersection marily farm-focused; considerable emphasis has
of often unique economic, legal, and policy ques- been placed on what is an increasingly
tions. There can be distrust of outsiders, which can interdependent continuum between rural and
undermine a development effort. A psychosocial urban places. The connection of natural amenities
inability for developers to understand rural resi- and rural development remains important (Irwin
dents and their context can be devastating to both et al. 2010); opportunities that exist beyond agri-
efforts for rural development, rural places, and the culture and traditional land-use patterns are var-
residents of such areas. Rural residents might ied. Rural communities have become more
have, for example, taken themselves to be respon- creative in achieving development success by
sible for their plight, or to be individually respon- making better use of unique sense of place and
sible for failures external to their communities, fashioning vibrant combinations of the original in
including regional, national, or even international historic places and the new from elsewhere.
economic shifts. For these reasons, rural develop- In any rural development program, there is a
ment may thematically focus on bottom-up views need to ensure that programs are meeting their
and consider social change and the needs of the intent. A short-run and long-term view of devel-
neglected, to create a safety net that considers opment in a particular area is necessary to achieve
6 Rural Development

planned successes while limiting unintended and ▶ Rural-Urban Gap and Development
even harmful results. Sometimes outcomes that Administration
benefit communities more generally (i.e., that aid ▶ Small Enterprises and Development
several potential projects, through infrastructure ▶ Small Enterprises Development
improvements, or help the marketability of a
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