CHENNAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI– 600 069.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME8351- MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-1
UNIT II-METAL JOINING PROCESS

Types of Welding – Classification of welding processes

Welding is a process of permanently joining two parts by the application of heat and (or)
pressure. Filler metal may be added into the joint depending upon the welding process and the
type of joint.
Welding processes are broadly divided into two types;
Pressure Welding Process
Fusion Welding Process:
In the pressure welding process, joining is done by the application of external pressure or force
at the area of contact, which causes more or less plastic deformation of both the contact
surfaces. The facing surfaces are heated to some extent in order to permit or to facilitate
permanent bonding.
In the Fusion welding process, joining is done by melting the base metals in the area of contact.
No external pressure or force is required during fusion welding processes and very often filler
metal is also used.
Gas Welding: Types, Working Principle, Equipment, Application
Gas Welding and Types
Gas Welding is the process where two or more parts of the metal are joined or united by melting
them using the heat transmitted by flame produced by the reaction of oxygen and fuel gas.
Gas Welding is also called oxy-fuel welding. It is called oxy-fuel welding because in this
process oxygen is used with burning fuel. In this process, heat is obtained combustion of fuel
gases.
When fuel gas like acetylene (C2H2) mix with oxygen and burns to produce temperature in the
range of 3100 degree Celsius.
In gas welding, there are two cylinders: -
i) One is of fuel gas and is of maroon colour.
ii) The second one is oxygen gas and is black colour.
Both the cylinders have pressure regulators at their top. These two cylinders are connected
with welding torch via gas pipes.
The most commonly used method of gas welding is Oxyacetylene welding because in this
welding the temperature of the flame is very high.
After the completion of the welding process, the flux is used to deoxidize and cleanse the weld
metal. This flux solidifies and forms a slag skin on the welded metal.

1
Parts of Welding Torch:
1) Cylinders:
Two types of gas are stored under pressure in two different steel cylinders.
These cylinders should always be used safely in an upright position.
When the cylinders are not used, the cylinders should be covered with a valve cap.
2) Pressure Regulators:
For welding, the oxygen and acetylene are required at low pressure but in the cylinders, they
are filled in high pressure. So a pressure regulator is required to control the pressure of oxygen
and acetylene before reaching the mixing chamber.
3) Torches:
The torch consists of the handle Oxygen and the fuel gas valves and the mixing chamber.
Inside the handle, there are tubes through which the oxygen and fuel gas
flow.
4) Mixing Chamber:
In this chamber oxygen and fuel gas are mixed. In this mixing chamber, the ratio of oxygen
and fuel gas is mixed according to the type of flame required. Neutral, oxidizing or carburizing
are three types of flame used in welding.
5) Control Valves:
There are two control valves available in this torch. One is for the oxygen and the second one
is for fuel gas. These control valves are used to control the flow of oxygen or fuel gas to the
mixing chamber.
6) Gas Hoses:
The gas hoses are used to transfer oxygen and fuel gas from the cylinder to the welding torch.
These hoses are colour coded for easy identification. This colour coding varies from country
to country. For Example:- In USA the oxygen hose is green and the duel hose is red and in UK,
the oxygen hose is blue and the fuel gas hose is red.
2
7) Nozzle:
The mixture of oxygen and acetylene comes out of this nozzle. The mixture of these gases
comes out in pressure from the nozzle and then is ignited by the striker.
8) Googles and gloves :
In gas welding goggles and gloves are used for the safety of the operator who does welding.
They are used to protect the hand and eyes of the welding operator from radiation and heat of
the flame.

Working of Gas Welding:

At first, all the equipment of gas welding is fitted properly and carefully. After that, A
regulated pressure of gas and oxygen supplied to the torch where they are properly mixed.
The mixture of fuel gas and oxygen is then ignited by the striker.
Then the flame of the torch is controlled by different valves present in the welding torch.
Based on the type of flame required, the valves are operated accordingly. If the neutral flame
is required, then both the valves are opened equally. If the oxidizing flame is required then the
valve of oxygen is opened more and if the carburizing flame is required then the valve of the
fuel gas is opened more. The flame is set as neutral, oxidizing, and carburizing based on the
metal, its thickness, and some other welding conditions.
After that, the flame of the welding torch is moved along the line between the two metal plates.
Along with the metal plates, a filler rod is also used which is used to create a pool of molten
material that will fill the gap between the two metal plates interface. The filler rod is move
along with the flame. The filler rod is kept at an angle of 30 degrees to 40 degrees according
to the welding technique being used.After moving the flame and filler rod along the line of two
metal plates interface, the two metal plates join together because of the melting and
solidification of metal plates interface part and the filler rod.
This process is particularly suitable for joining metal sheets and plates having a thickness of
20 to 50 mm. The filler material of more than 15 mm thick is added to the weld as a welding
rod.
Gas Welding Flames Types
The accurate arrangement of the flame is necessary for reliable works. When oxygen and
acetylene are supplied to the torch in nearly equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced having
a maximum temperature of 3200°C.

3
This neutral flame is desired for most welding operations, but in certain cases a slightly
oxidizing flame, in which there is an excess of oxygen or slightly carburizing flame, in which
there is an excess of acetylene is needed. The condition of the flame is readily determined by
its appearance.
A Neutral Flame Has Two Definite Zones
 A sharp brilliant cone extending a short distance from the tip of the touch, and
 An outer cone or envelope only faintly luminous and of a bluish colour. The first one
develops heat and the second protects the molten metal from oxidation because the
oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere is consumed by the gases from the flame. The
neutral flame is broadly used for welding steel, cast iron, stainless steel, aluminium,
copper, etc.
Carburizing Flame Has Three Zones
A carburizing flame is one in which there is an excess of acetylene; This flame has three
zones:
 The sharply defined inner cone,
 An intermediate cone of whitish colour, and
 The bluish outer cone. The length of the intermediate cone is an indication of the ratio
of excess acetylene in the flame.
When welding steel, this will tend to give the steel in the weld higher carbon content than the
parent metal, resulting in a hard and brittle weld.
Oxidizing Flame Has Two Zones
An oxidizing flame is one in which there is an excess of oxygen. This flame has two zones:
 The small inner cone which has a purplish tinge.
 The outer cone or envelope. In the case of oxidizing flame, the inner cone is not sharply
defined as that of neutral or carburizing flame. This flame is necessary for welding
brass. In steel, this will result in large grain size, increased brittleness with lower
strength and elongation.

4
Types of Gas Welding
Following are the 5 different types of gas welding:
1. Oxy-acetylene gas welding
2. Oxy-gasoline gas welding
3. MAPP gas welding
4. Butane or propane welding
5. Hydrogen gas welding
1. Oxy-acetylene Welding
In this type of welding, oxy-acetylene welding applies a mixture of acetylene gas and oxygen
gas to supply welding torches. Oxy-acetylene welding is the most generally used gas welding
type. This gas mixture provides the highest flame temperature of available fuel gases.
Although acetylene is generally the most expensive of all fuel gases. Acetylene is a volatile gas
and requires specific handling and storage procedures.
2. Oxy-gasoline Welding
The pressurized gasoline is used as welding fuel where construction costs are an issue,
especially in places where acetylene canisters are not available. Gasoline torches may be more
useful than acetylene for torch-cutting thick steel plates.
Gasoline can be pumped by hand from a pressure cylinder, which is a common practice by
jewellery manufacturers in poor areas.
3. MAPP Gas Welding
In this, gas welding stands for Methylacetylene-propadiene-petroleum gas welding. The
(MAPP) is a gas mixture that is much more inert than other gas mixtures, making it safe to use
and store for beginner and recreational welders.

MAPP can also be used at extremely high pressures; it is used in high-volume cutting
operations.
4. Butane or Propane Welding

5
These are similar gases that can be used as separate as fuel gases or combined together. Butane
and propane have lower flame temperatures as compared to acetylene but are less costly and
easier to transport.
Propane torches are used more often for soldering, bending, and heating. Propane needs a
different type of torch tip than the injector tip because it is a heavy gas.
5. Hydrogen Welding
The hydrogen can be utilised at higher pressures than other fuel gases, making it particularly
useful for underwater welding processes.

Some hydrogen welding equipment performs electrolysis by splitting the water into hydrogen
and oxygen used in the welding process. Such electrolysis is often used for small torches, These
are used in the jewellery making process.
Advantages of Gas Welding
Following are the main advantages of gas welding:
1. It is the most portable and versatile process.
2. This has better control over temperature.
3. This weld dissimilar is suitable for metals.
4. It has better control of filler-deposition rate.
5. It has low maintenance and cost.
Disadvantages of Gas Welding
Following are the disadvantages of gas welding:
1. It is not suitable for heavy conditions.
2. Gas welding has a low working temperature of gas flame.
3. It has a slow rate of heating.
4. Gas welding is not suitable for reactive metals and refractory.
5. Flux shielding in gas welding is not so effective.
6. More problems in storage and handling of gases.
Applications of Gas Welding:

6
1) It is joining thin materials.
2) Used for joining ferrous and nonferrous materials.
3) Gas welding is used in sheet metal fabrication.
4) It is used in aircraft industries.
The arc welding process is one of the most popular welding processes, which belong to the
family of the fusion welding process. Commonly used fusion welding processes are;
1. Arc Welding
 SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding or Stick Welding)
 GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding or MIG welding)
 GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or TIG Welding)
 SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
 PAW (Plasma Arc Welding)
2. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
3. Electron beam welding
5. Thermit Welding
6. Electroslag Welding
Some of the pressure welding processes are:
1. Resistance Welding
 Spot Welding
 Seam Welding
 Projection Welding
 Flash Welding
 Upset Welding
 Percussion Welding
3. Friction welding (FRW)
shielded metal arc welding process working principle
The shielded metal arc welding process to join the metal by using electric arc. Arc welding can
be weld two metal by melting with an arc generated between electrode and base metal. Arc and
power source consist for this diagram. In this manual metal arc welding process the positive
pole of DC current is called as anode and negative terminal called as cathode. The arc should
be generated between an anode (positive pole of DC current) and cathode (Negative pole of
DC current) is connected to power source.
The electric arc is provided by touch the electrode on the base metals (work piece) and
withdraw it short distance from work piece. When the work piece and electrode in contact, the
current flow and they are separated the current continues to flow to the anode through the air
in gap between the work and electrode. When the current flow ionizes the air, these ionized
particles are electronic arc.

7
The ionized gas acts as high resistance conductor enable more ions to flow from the anode to
cathode. The strikes of work piece, that is generated heat to the base metal gap that two
conductors placed on a small distance (3mm).The current flow pass through the gaseous
media, provide from of arc. That arc is change together, energy into heat and light. That arc
welding process, 1 kwh of electricity generated 1000 J, the temperature at the arc is being 6000
to 7000⁰c.
The advantage of manual metal arc welding process than gas welding:
 High arc temperature
 Widely speed of weld operation
 Concentration of heat in small are can be welded
 Small amount of heat spread reduces bulking and wrap of work piece.
 The heat concentration will be increase the depth of penetration
 That is more economical than gas welding.
 Multiple of metal can be welded
 It control is simple and easy.
MIG Welding: Principle, Working, Equipment’s, Applications, Advantages and
Disadvantages
Principle:
MIG stands for metal inert gas welding or sometimes it is known as Gas Metal Arc welding.
MIG works on same principle of TIG or arc welding. It works on basic principle of heat
generation due to electric arc. This heat is further used to melt consumable electrode and base
plates metal which solidify together and makes a strong joint. The shielded gases are also
supplied through nozzle which protect the weld zone from other reactive gases. This gives good
surface finish and a stronger joint.
Equipment’s:

8
Power Source:
In this type of welding process, a DC power supply is used with reverse polarity. Reverse
polarity means the electrode or in case of MIG welding electrode wire is connected positive
terminal and work piece to negative terminal. It is due to principle of electric circuit which
state that 70% of heat is always on positive side. So reverse polarity ensures that the maximum
amount of heat liberate at tool side which melt the filler metal in proper way. Straight polarity
can cause unstable arc that result into large spatter. The power source consists a power supply,
a transformer, a rectifier which change AC into DC and some electronic controls which control
the current supply according to weld requirement.
Wire Feeder System:
We know that MIG welding needs continuous consumable electrode supply for welding two
plates. This consumable electrode used in form of wire. These wire is continuously supplied
by wire feed mechanism or system. It controls the speed of the wire and also pushes the wire
form welding torch to welding area. These are available in different shapes and sizes. It consist
a wire pool holder, a driving motor, a set of driving rollers and wire feed controls. The wire
feed speed is directly control the current supply through power supply. If the wire feeding speed
is high, it required more current in welding zone to produce proper heat for melting of it.
Welding Torch:
This torch is slightly different as used in TIG welding. In this torch there is a mechanism which
hold the wire and supply it continuously with the help of wire feed. The front end of the torch
is fitted with a nozzle. The nozzle is used to supply inert gases. These gases form a shielding
area around the weld zone and protect it from oxidization. The welding torch is air cooled or
water cooled according to the requirement. For high current supplied, the torch is water cooled
and for low supply it is air cooled.
Shielding Gases:
The primary function of shielding gases is to protect weld area from other reactive gases like
oxygen etc. which can affect the strength of welding joint. These shielding gases are also form
plasma which helps in welding. The choice of gas is depend on the welding material. Mostly
argon, helium and other inert gases are used as shielding gases.
Regulators:

9
As the name implies, they are used to regulate the flow of inert gases from the cylinder. The
inert gases are filled into cylinder at high pressure. These gases cannot be used at this pressure
so a regulator is used between the gases supply which lower down the gases pressure according
to welding requirements.
Working:
Its working can be summarized as follow.

 First, a high voltage current is change into DC current supply with high current at low
voltage. This current pass though welding electrode.
 A consumable wire is used as electrode. The electrode is connected to the negative
terminal and work piece from positive terminal.
 A fine intense arc will generate between electrode and work piece due to power supply.
This arc used to produce heat which melts the electrode and the base metal. Mostly
electrode is made by the base metal for making uniform joint.
 This arc is well shielded by shielding gases. These gases protect the weld form other
reactive gases which can damage the strength of welding joint.
 This electrode travels continuously on welding area for making proper weld joint. The
angle of the direction of travel should be kept between 10-15 degree. For fillet joints
the angle should be 45 degree.
Applications:
 MIG is best suited for fabrication of sheet metal.
 Generally, all available metals can be weld through this process.
 It can be used for deep groove welding.
Advantages:
 It provides higher deposition rate.
 It is faster comparing to arc welding because it supply filler material continuously.
 It produces clean weld with better quality.
 There is no slag formation.
 Minimize weld defects.
 This welding produces very little slag.
10
  It can be used to make deep groove weld.
 It can be easily automated.
Disadvantages:
 It cannot be used for welding in difficult to reach portions.
 Higher initial or setup cost.
 It cannot be used for outdoor work because wind can cause damage of gas shield.
 It required high skilled labour.
Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)
Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) is an arc welding process, which uses a non-consumable
tungsten electrode, shrouded by a protective atmosphere of inert gas, such as argon or helium.
The extra weld metal can be provided by a separate filler rod if necessary. A direct current is
used, with the electrode negative, to avoid overheating and undue erosion of the tungsten
electrode.
1. Uses a non-consumable electrode of tungsten with addition of 1% thoria (ThO2).
2. Process is particularly useful in welding thin sheet, without the need to use filler metal.
3. High purity argon gas produces welds free of oxidation, which enables reactive metals
such as titanium and zirconium to be successfully welded.
4. No slag formation eliminates post-cleaning operations.
5. Minimal weld splatter.
6. Slower than MMA or MIG processes.
7. Good control of welding current, arc length and filler metal additions.
8. Lends itself to mechanisation.
9. Power supply up to 300A a.c. or d.c.
Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding or SAW is one of the most occurring arc welding process. It needs a
electrode which may be solid of tubular (flux shielded). The electrode should be used in a
continuous approach. It should be fed continuously. The main feature of this welding is that –
The weld and the arc area is protected from environmental contamination by the application of
a granular flux which is fusible. The weld pool is protected by a blanket of flux. So that area is
actually submerged under that flux. When temperature rises and molten the flux becomes
conductive. And thus, this creates a path for electron flow between electrode and workpiece.
SAW or Submerged Arc welding can be done by manual procedure or automatic process. But
it can be done by semi-automatic process where welding gun is hold by hand. Here
pressurized gravity flux feed is given.
Both DC and AC can be used as power supply. In multiple electrode system DC – AC
combination is very common. Constant voltage power supply machines are used very
frequently.

11
Advantages
o This welding process has high deposit rate. Almost 45kg/h can be deposited.
o In mechanized applications.
o Very little welding fume is seen.
o No edge preparation is needed.
o This process is applicable indoor as well as outdoor.
o No chance of weld spatter as it is submerged in flux blanket.

Disadvantages
o Operation is limited to some specific metals.
o The application is limited to straight seams and pipes and vessels.
o The flux handling can be tough.
o Health issue can be caused because of the flux.
o Slag removal is needed after welding.
Applications
o Joining of pressure vessels such as boilers.
o Many structural shapes, earth moving equipment, pipes.
o Railroad construction, locomotives and ship building.
o Repairing machine parts.
Electroslag Welding: Principle, Working, Application, Advantages and Disadvantages
Today we will learn about Electroslag welding principle, working, application, advantages and
disadvantages with its diagram. Electroslag welding is a non-traditional welding process in
which molten metal pool is created. This method is combination of both arc welding and
resistance welding because at starting, heat is generated by establishes an arc between electrode
and base metal (as in arc welding). This heat leads to melt flux and create a molten metal pool
between the electrode and base metal. Now the current flow through this molten metal pool
and heat is developed due to electric resistance (as in resistance welding). Due to this reason,
this is called combination of arc welding and resistance welding.
12
Electroslag welding:
Electrosalg welding is an uphill welding process. Uphill welding process is a process in which
weld joints are made in vertical direction and the plates to be weld held vertically. This welding
is done both in single pass and multipass
Principle:
It works on common principle of heat generation due to arc and electric resistance. At the
starting, arc is producing between welding electrode and base metal which tends to melt filler
metal. This filler metal will fill the cavity at some extent. Now the current passes through this
extended surface and heat generate due to electric resistance. This heat further tends to melt
filler metal which is continuously fed from the roller. Filler wire is fed through the roller
continuously. This wire fed through a tube which direct its flow. This filler wire melts and fills
the weld and made a strong joint.

Working of Electroslag Welding Machine:

As we know, electroslag welding is an uphill welding process so the plates to be weld held
vertically at some distance. The weld metal or filler metal deposit between the cavities formed
between the plates by melting electrodes using heat develop by flow of current. This filler metal
forms metal pool which solidified into the weld cavity so a strong joint is created between the
plates. Electroslag welding works as follow.

 First current is flow between welding electrode and base plate. This establishes an arc
between electrode and base plate which heat the flux or filler wire. This heat leads to
melt the filler metal and deposits into the weld cavity.
 Now the cooled copper shoe comes into action and start solidified this filler metal into
weld cavity. This will made to avoid flowing out the weld metal.
 As the filler metal solidified into weld cavity, the current flow through it. It will
generate heat due to electric resistance. This heat is further use to continuous melting
down the filler metal into weld Cavity.
 The filler metal continuously provide through roller arrangement as shown in figure.

13
  During welding both the copper shoe and feed mechanism moving upward unlit the
whole cavity is formed.
 This will create a strong joint in single pass. The single or multi-pass weld is used
according to plate thickness.
Application:
It is used in heavy industries where plate thickness up to 80mm to be joint. This process is used
to joint large casting and forging to produce very large and composite structure. Welding of
thick walled large diameter pipes, pressure vessels, storage tanks and ships etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 Cooling rate is very low so there is no problem of cold cracking.
 There is no problem of slag inclusion or porosity in electroslag welding.
 The process is semi-automatic and faster.
 Heavier section can be welded in single pass.
 High productivity can be achieved.
 Low cost for joint preparation.
Disadvantages:
 Too high heat input to base.
 High temperature of welding needs cooling arrangement.
 Slow rate of cooling give columnar grain in weld.

Resistance Welding: Principle, Types, Application, Advantages and Disadvantages

Resistance welding is a liquid state welding process in which the metal to metal joint created
in liquid or molten state. It is a thermo-electric process in which heat is generated at the
interface surfaces of welding plates due to electric resistance and a controlled low pressure is
applied to these plates to create a weld joint. It is named as resistance welding because it uses
electric resistance to produce heat. It is a very efficient pollution free welding process but its
applications are limited due to its high equipment cost and limited material thickness.
In this process, there are two copper electrodes in a circuit of low resistance as shown in Figure.
When the current is passed through electrodes, the electrical resistance at the metal joints
becomes very high. So, the metals are brought to red-hot plastic condition. Now, the
mechanical pressure is applied to complete the weld. The heat developed by the current is
proportional to the electric resistance of the weld.

14
Principle:
All resistance welding like spot welding, seam welding, projection welding etc. are worked on
same principle of heat generation due to electric resistance. When a current pass through
electric resistance, it produces heat. This is same principle which is used in electric coil. The
amount of heat produced is depends on resistance of material, surface conditions, current
supplied, time duration of current supplied etc. This heat generation takes place due to
conversion of electric energy into thermal energy. The heat generation formula is
H = I2RT
Where
H = Heat generated in joule
I = Electric current in ampere
R = Electric resistance in Ohm
T = Time of current flow in second
This heat is used to melt the interface metal to form a strong weld joint by fusion. This process
produces weld without application of any filler material, flux and shielding gases.
Types:
There are four main type of resistance welding. These are
Spot Welding:
It is simplest type of resistance welding in which the work pieces are held together under
pressure of anvil face. The copper electrodes are brought in contact with work piece and current
start to flow through it. The work piece material applies some resistance in flow of current
which cause local heat generation. At the interface surfaces the resistance is high due to air
gap. The current start to flow though it which melt down the interface surface. The amount of
current supply and time should be sufficient for proper melting of interface surfaces. Now the
current stopped to flow but the pressure applied by electrode maintained for a fraction of
second, while the weld rapidly cooled. After it, the electrodes remove and brought to contact
15
at other spot. It will create a circular nugget. The nugget size depends on size of electrode. It is
generally about diameter 4-7 mm.

Seam Welding:
Seam welding is also called continuous spot welding in which a roller type electrode is used to
flow current through work pieces. First the rollers are brought in contact with work piece. A
high ampere current is passed through these rollers. This will melt the interface surfaces and
form a weld joint. Now the rollers start rolling at work plates. This will create a continuous
weld joint. The timing of the weld and movement of electrode is controlled to assure that the
weld overlap and work piece does not get too hot. The welding speed is about 60 in/min in
seam welding. It is used to create air tight joints.

Projection Welding:
Projection welding is same as spot welding except a dimple is produced on work pieces at the
location where weld is desired. Now the work pieces held between electrode and a large amount
of current pass through it. A small amount of pressure is applied through electrode on welding
plates. The current pass through dimple which melt down it and the pressure causes the dimple
flatten and form a weld.

16
Flash butt Welding:
It is another type of resistance welding which is used to weld tubes and rods in steel industries.
In this process, two work pieces which are to be welded will be clamped in the electrode holders
and a high pulsed current in the range of 100000 ampere is supplied to the work piece material.
In this two electrode holders are used in which one is fixed and other is movable. Initially the
current is supplied and movable clamp is forced against the fixed clamp due to contact of these
two work pieces at high current, flash will be produced. When the interface surface comes into
plastic form, the current is stopped and axial pressure is increased to make joint. In this process
weld is formed due to plastic deformation.

Application:
 Resistance welding is widely used in automotive industries.
 Projection welding is widely used in production of nut and bolt.
 Seam welding is used to produce leak prove joint required in small tanks, boilers etc.
 Flash welding is used to welding pipes and tubes.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 It can weld thin (0.1 mm) as well as thick (20mm) metals.
 High welding speed.
 Easily automated.
 Both similar and dissimilar metals can be weld.
17
  The process is simple and fully automated so does not required high skilled labor.
 High production rate.
 It is environment friendly process.
 It does not require any filler metal, flux and shielding gases.
Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost.
 The thickness of work piece is limited due to current requirement.
 It is less efficient for high conductive materials.
 High electric power required.
 Weld joints have low tensile and fatigue strength.
plasma arc welding process
The plasma arc welding process uses an inert gas with non- consumable electrode and during
the welding process utilize a transferred constricted arc.

Plasma is defined as gas is heated with sufficient high temperature. That transfer into an ionized
condition and it able to conduct electric current.

The plasma arc welding consists of the nozzle having two passages. One for shielding gas flow
and another plasma gas flow the arc is provided due to current supply passed between work
piece (+) and electrode (-) is known as transferred arc or between nozzle (+) and electrode (-)
is known as non- transferred. Now the plasma gas is supplied through nozzle orifice.

The orifice gas (plasma gas) is passed to the work piece by using torch; it heated by arc and
get ionized. When the gas mixture of argon to use avoid reaction with the tungsten electrode.
18
In this process the ionization created for more energy to the gas. After ionization the gas is
known as plasma. The plasma is passed through the nozzle. When the pressure, energy (due to
collision of ions) increased and temperature at 20000⁰c. The plasma strike will be melt the work
piece. In this plasma welding a DC power source voltage range of above 70 volts and current
50 to 350 amps.

For ferrous and Nonferrous metal can be welded by this plasma arc welding and thickness of
work piece as up to 6 mm. The welding speed and penetration is more them TIG welding.

Since the powerful plasma caused by turbulence in Melton puddle. The softer metal can be
welded by limit the gas flow through nozzle. This flow may not be adequate to protect molten
puddle from the atmosphere contamination and auxiliary gases are developed through outer
gas cup on torch.

Arrangement of plasma arc welding setup

Gases used in plasma arc welding process:
Two separate flow gas used
 Plasma gas
It flow through orifice and become ionized.
 Shielding gas:
The flow through outer nozzle and shields the molten weld from atmosphere.
 Back- purge and trailing gas:
It require for some of material and application.
Types of Plasma Arc Welding
Following are the two types of plasma arc welding:
1. Non-transferred PAW
2. Transferred PAW
Difference Between Transferred and Non-Transferred Plasma Arc Welding:
1. Transferred Plasma Arc Welding
In this welding process, the tungsten electrode is fixed to the negative terminal and the
workpiece is fixed to the positive terminal. It also uses a DC current. An arc is generated
between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece.

In this process, both plasma and arc are transferred to the workpiece it improves the heating
capacity of the process. It is employed to weld thick sheets.
19
Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be used for high
speed welding and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Titanium
alloys, Nickel alloys.

2. Non-transferred Plasma Arc Welding

In this welding process, DC current is used. In which, the tungsten electrode is attached to the
negative and the nozzle is attached to the positive pole. An arc is produced between the
tungsten electrode and nozzle inside the torch.

This will increase the ionization of the gas inside the torch. The torch transfers this ionized
gas for further processing. It is employed to weld thin sheets.

Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low energy density. It is used for
welding of various metals and for plasma spraying (coating). Since the work piece in non-
transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of electric circuit, the plasma arc torch may move
from one work piece to other without extinguishing the arc.

Advantages of plasma arc welding process:

 It having more energy concentration than TIG welding.

 More heat content
 No tungsten contamination
 Plasma velocity is high
 Less sensitivity to variation of arc length
 It used to join all metal

Disadvantages of plasma arc welding process:

 Torch maintenance is critical

 It require complex equipment and expensive as compared to TIG.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasma arc welding

Following are the advantages of PAW:
1. Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to misalignments.
2. High welding rate.
3. It has a High penetrating capability (keyhole effect).
4. High energy is available for welding. It can easily weld hard and rough workpieces.
5. The distance between the tool and the workpiece does not affect the arc formation.
6. It has low power consumption for welds of the same size.
7. The more stable arc produced by the plasma arc welding.
8. It can operate at low amperage.
Following are the disadvantages of PAW:
1. Expensive equipment.
20
 2. High distortion and wide as a result of high heat input.
3. It is a noisy operation so there is a chance of noise pollution.
4. It has more radiation.
5. Plasma arc welding is required high skilled labour.
6. The maintenance cost is high.
Applications of Plasma Arc Welding
You may wonder what is plasma arc welding used for, following are the applications of
PAW:
1. These type of welding is used in the marine and aerospace industries.
2. It is widely used to weld pipes and tubes of stainless steel or titanium.
3. The plasma arc welding often used in electronic industries.
4. It is usually employed to repair tools, dyes and moulds.
5. It is also used for welding or coating on turbine blades.
Thermite welding process
The Thermite welding process produces coalescence of metal by heat and super-heated a liquid
metal temperature from chemical reaction between aluminum and iron oxide with or without
pressure.

The thermite welding process is having wax pattern it placed on around the work piece ends.
The steel box (or) molding box placed around the wax pattern. The gap between molding box
and wax pattern is filled the sand and rammed to gather.

The pouring of basin, riser, runner, gates and plug to drain wax are cut with the molding sand.
The flame is connected through drain plug. The wax pattern are melt and drain out, also the
weld part is connected through drain plug. The wax pattern are melt and drain out, also the
weld part is preheated. The drain plug is plugged on sand.

Thermite welding process

21
Aluminum and iron oxide are mixture of Thermite and it combination of one part of aluminum
and three parts of iron oxide. The mixture is ignited and it exothermic reaction. During
exothermic reaction the filler metal obtained between aluminum and oxide. It generates more
heat during the process.

Thermite reaction during process:

8AL + 3Fe3O4 → 9Fe + 4AL2O3 + Heat [719.3k, 3088⁰c]

The parts are clean and lined with gap (1 to 4mm) between the ends. The mixture is stored in
crucible and ignited. If effective ignition needed, the mixtures are composed with highly
inflammable barium peroxide powder and ignited using magnesium ribbon. It is Thermite
reaction and generates heat temperature range of 3088⁰c.

During the reaction process aluminum has affinity to oxidation. The iron oxide leave from
oxygen and combine to the aluminum, provide from of aluminum oxide. When the aluminum
become the form of slag and floats. For pure iron is super-heated caused as Thermite steel. It
is used to welding of steel.

The super-heated steel is contain with crucible is placed above the weld joint. It runs in to mold
which is built around the part to be weld together.

Advantages
 In thermit welding, the weld formed has high mechanical strength and excellent
corrosion resistance as compared with other forms of weld.
 It is highly stable to repeated short circuit pulses and the electrical resistance remains
unchanged over the lifetime of the installation.
 It does not require any external power source.
 It can be used at the place where power supply is not easily available.
Disadvantages
 It is a costlier welding process in comparison with other welding processes.
 It requires the supply of replaceable molds.
 Lack of repeatability.
 It cannot be used in wet conditions or bad weather when working outdoors.
Application

The thermit welding process is mainly used for rail welding in railways. It is also used or
welding copper conductors and other metals that include cast iron, stainless steel, common
steels, bronze, brass and Monel.

Electron Beam Welding Process – Equipment’s, Working Principle with Diagram

Electron Beam Welding Process is a fusion welding process in which a high-velocity electron
beam is used to join two metals together. The high-velocity electron beam when strikes the
weld area of two metal pieces and very intense heat is generated which melts the metal and
they fuse together to form a strong weld. The whole process is carried out in a vacuum chamber
to prevent it from contamination.

22
Working Principle

It works on the principle that when a high-velocity beam of electron that has Kinetic energy
strikes the two metal pieces, the kinetic energy of the electron transformed into heat. The
intensity of heat produced is so much that it melts the two metal pieces and fuse them together
to form a strong weld.

Construction

The various Equipment of Electron beam welding is

1. Electron Gun

It is used to generate, accelerates and align the electron beam in a desired direction and spots
on the w/p. There are two types of electron guns, the first one is self accelerated and the second
one is work accelerated. In self accelerated gun, the acceleration of electron takes by applying
a potential difference between cathode and anode. And in the work accelerated gun, the
acceleration of the electron takes place by applying the potential difference between the
cathode and workpiece. The workpiece (w/p) acts as anode.

The main parts of electron gun are:

(i) Cathode (Emitter or Filament): It emits the electron.

(ii) Anode: It is a positively charged Electrode and attracts the electron produced by the
cathode. It accelerated the electrons under the influence of high potential difference. For high
voltage equipment, the potential difference ranges from 70 kV to 150 kV and for small voltage
equipment it ranges from 15 – 30 kV

(iii) Grid Cup: It is used to control the electron beam. It stops the divergence of electrons
produced by the cathode. It has applied with negative voltage with respect to the cathode.

23
(iv) Focusing Unit: Tt consists of two parts – a magnetic lens and a deflector coil. The
magnetic lens focuses the electron beam on the w/p. And the deflector coil is used to deflect or
guide the beam to the desired locations. The extent of deflection can be varied by changing the
amount of dc voltage across the deflector plate.

2. Power Supply

The power supply used in the Electron Beam Welding process is dc power supply sources. The
voltage ranges from 70-150 kV for high voltage equipment and 5-30 kV for small voltage
equipment. The current level ranges from 50 to100 mA.

3. Vacuum Chamber

It is a chamber in which the vacuum is created by the vacuum pump. Roughing mechanical
pump and diffusion pump is used to create a vacuum in the vacuum Chamber. The pressure
ranges from 100 kPa for open atmosphere to 0.13-13 Pa for partial vacuum and 0.13 to 133
mPa for hard vacuum. The extent of scattering increases with the increase in the vacuum and
this allows more penetration in the workpiece.

4. Work Handling Devices:

The fixtures are used to hold the workpiece. The workpiece motion is controlled by the CNC
(Computer Numerical Control).

Working of Electron Beam Welding Process

 In Electron Beam welding, the electron is produced by the cathode of the electron gun.
After cathode, a cup grid is provided. It prevents the divergence of electron and control
it.
 Because of the high voltage applied across the cathode and anode. The anode which is
positively charged attracts the electron from the cup grid.
 The anode accelerates the electron and its velocity increases and reaches the range of
50000 – 200000 km/s. From the anode, the high-velocity electron beam is passed through
the magnetic lens and deflector coils.
 The magnetic lens focuses the electron beam to the desired location on the workpiece.
And the deflector coil deflects the beam to the required weld area. As the high-velocity
electron beam strikes the workpiece, intense heat is produced and it melts the metal of
the two workpieces and fills the weld area. The molten weld solidifies and forms a strong
weld joint.

Electron Beam is capable to weld work pieces with thickness from 0.0004” (0.01 mm)
up to 6” (150 mm) of steel and up to 20” (500 mm) of aluminum. Electron Beam Welding
may be used for joining any metals including metals, which are hardly weldable by other
welding methods: refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum, niobium) and chemically
active metals (titanium, zirconium, beryllium). Electron Beam Welding is also able to
join dissimilar metals.

Advantages
 High welding speed.
 Welding of dissimilar metal can be done.
 High weld quality and precision.

24
  Less operating cost.
 Materials with high welding temperatures can be welded easily.
 Less distortion due to less affected heat zone.
 The cost of cleaning is negligible.
 It welds thicker sheets, ranges from .025 mm to 100 mm.
 It is capable of welding inaccessible joints.
Disadvantages
 The cost of equipment is very high.
 High skilled operator is required to operate it.
 A high vacuum is required.
 Due to operation in vacuum, large jobs can not be welded.
 High safety measures are needed to work with it.
Application
 It is used in aerospace industries for manufacturing jet components, parts of structures,
transmission parts and sensors.
 It is used in power generation industries.
 It is used in space industries to build titanium tanks and sensors.
 It is used in automobile industries to manufactures transmission systems, gears, and
turbochargers.
 It used in electrical and electronic industries to manufactures parts of copper structures.
 The other areas where it is used are nuclear industries, medical, research centers, etc.

Friction Welding : Principle, Working, Types, Application, Advantages and

Disadvantages
Friction welding is a solid state welding process. Solid state welding are those welding process
in which no external heat is applied or no molten or plastic state involves. In this type of
welding, welding occurs due to external pressure applied into the solid state. In friction welding
process, both the plates or work piece to be joint are in either rotating or moving relative to one
another. This relative movement produces friction which displaces material plastically on
contact surface. A high pressure forced applied till completed the weld. This welding is used
to joint steel bars, tubes up to 100 mm diameter.
Principle:
Friction welding works on basic principle of friction. In this welding process, the friction is
used to generate heat at the interference surface. This heat is further used to join two work
pieces by applying external pressure at the surface of work piece. In this welding process, the
friction is applied until the plastic forming temperature is achieved. It is normally 900-1300
degree centigrade for steel. After this heating phase, a uniformly increasing pressure force
applied until the both metal work pieces makes a permanent joint. This joint is created due to
thermo mechanical treatment at the contact surface.
Working:
There are many types of friction welding processes which works differently. But all different
these processes involves common a working principle which can be summarize as follow.

25
 First both the work pieces are prepared for smooth square surface. One of them is mounted on
a rotor driven chuck and other one remains stationary.
 The rotor allows rotating at high speed thus it makes rotate mounted work piece. A little
pressure force is applied on the stationary work piece which permits cleaning the surface by
burnishing action.
 Now a high pressure force applied to the stationary work piece which forces it toward rotating
work piece and generates a high friction force. This friction generates heat at the contact
surface. It is applied until the plastic forming temperature is achieved.
 When the temperature is reached the desire limit, the rotor is stopped and the pressure force is
applied increasingly until the whole weld is formed.
 This welding is used to weld those metals and alloys which cannot be welded by other method.
Application:

 For welding tubes and shafts.

 It is mostly used in aerospace, automobile, marine and oil industries.
 Gears, axle tube, valves, drive line etc. components are friction welded.
 It is used to replace forging or casting assembly.
 Hydraulic piston rod, truck rollers bushes etc. are join by friction welding.
 Used in electrical industries for welding copper and aluminum equipment’s.
 Used in pump for welding pump shaft (stainless steel to carbon steels).
 Gear levers, drill bits, connecting rod etc. are welded by friction welding.

Advantages:

 It is environment friendly process without generation smoke etc.

 Narrow heat affected zone so no change in properties of heat sensitive material.
 No filler metal required.
 Welding strength is strong in most cases.
 Easily automated.
 High welding speed.
 High efficiency of weld.
 Wide variety of metal can be weld by this process.

Disadvantages:
 This is mostly used only for round bars of same cross section.
 Non-forgeable material cannot be weld.
 Preparation of work piece is more critical
26
 High setup cost.
 Joint design is limited.
Friction Stir Welding
Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process (the metal is not melted) that uses
a third body tool to join two facing surfaces. Heat is generated between the tool and material
which leads to a very soft region near the FSW tool. It then mechanically intermixes the two
pieces of metal at the place of the joint, then the softened metal (due to the elevated
temperature) can be joined using mechanical pressure (which is applied by the tool), much like
joining clay, or dough. It is primarily used on aluminium, and most often on extruded
aluminium (non-heat treatable alloys), and on structures which need superior weld strength
without a post weld heat treatment.

It was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding Institute UK in December 1991.
TWI holds patents on the process, the first being the most descriptive.
Principle Of Operation
 In friction stir welding (FSW) a cylindrical, shouldered tool with a profiled probe is
rotated and slowly plunged into the joint line between two pieces butted together.
 The parts have to be clamped onto a backing bar in a manner that prevents the abutting
joint faces from being forced apart.
 Frictional heat is generated between the wear resistant welding tool and the material of
the work pieces.
 This heat causes the material to soften without reaching the melting point and allows
traversing of the tool along the weld line.
 The maximum temperature reached is of the order of 0.8 of the melting temperature of
the material.
 It leaves a solid phase bond between the two pieces.
 The process can be regarded as a solid phase keyhole welding technique since a hole to
accommodate the probe is generated, then filled during the welding sequence.
Advantages
1. Low distortion and shrinkage, even in long welds
2. Excellent mechanical properties in fatigue and tensile tests
3. No arc or fumes
4. No porosity

27
 5. Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.
6. Energy efficient
7. One tool can typically be used for up to 1000m of weld length in 6XXX series
aluminium alloys
8. No filler wire required
9. No gas shielding is also required for welding
Disadvantages
1. Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.
2. Less flexible than manual and arc processes
3. Work pieces must be rigidly clamped
4. Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques.
5. Cannot make joints which required metal deposition (e.g. fillet welds)
Application Of Friction Stir Welding:
1. Shipbuilding and Marine Construction
2. Aerospace Industry
 Wings, fuselages
 Cryogenic fuel tanks for space vehicles
 Aviation fuel tanks
 External throw away tanks for military aircraft
 Military and scientific rockets
3. Land Transportation
 Wheel rims
 Truck bodies & tail lifts for lorries
 Mobile cranes
 Fuel tankers
 Caravans
4. Railway Industry
 Rolling stock of railways and underground carriages
 Railway tankers and goods wagons
 Container bodies.
What is Soldering?
Soldering is the process of joining two metal pieces with the help of suitable filler material and
at a temperature below 450°C.

28
The main advantages of soldering are that two dissimilar metals can also be joined. The filler
metal used for soldering is called solder, and it is an alloy of lead and tin.
Different solder can be obtained by varying the proportions of lead and tin in the alloy.
The main characteristic of solder is that it can melt at low temperature because its melting point
is low. Soldering operation does not involve melting the workpieces.
The solders available in the market are in the form of soft solder and hard solder. Soft solder is
made up of lead and tin, and hard solder is made up of copper, tin, and silver.
These metals are mixed in different proportions to get a variety of solders.
A suitable flux is used in the soldering process to clean and remove the impurities produced
due to oxidation. Usually, zinc chloride is used as a flux for the soldering process.
Soldering finds its applications in automotive and fabrication industries and is used in
automotive radiators or tin cans.
It is also used in Electrical Connections in television and radio, joining thermally sensitive
components, and sometimes used to join dissimilar metals.
Soldering Process / Procedure.
The soldering equipment is soldering iron, solder, or filler rod, power supply. The procedure
of soldering is explained as below.

1. The workpieces must be cleaned before the soldering process. The presence of oil, grease,
dist, wetness, rust, etc., is removed.
Sometimes suitable cleaning agents are used for cleaning the soldering surfaces. Presence of
foreign materials on the surfaces to be soldered leads to weak joints lowers the strength of joint
produced.
The commonly used cleaning agent is flux, such as borax or resin. This flux helps to remove
all unwanted material from the surfaces of the workpiece and get strong bonding.
2. First, the soldering iron tip (made up of copper) is cleaned and heated. It is then applied with
solder using resin. This will create a thin film of solder on the soldering iron tip and is called
tinning.
3. Once the solder is taken in the soldering iron tip, the soldering iron tip is heated, and the
solder will be melted. This melted solder then it flows over the joining area and fills the gap.
Finally, the joint formed is allowed to cool slowly.
After complete soldering, the soldered surfaces must be cleaned. To clean the leftover flux, a
suitable chemical is used, or it is cleaned by using cotton waste.

29
Advantages of soldering:
1. Dissimilar metals can be joined.
2. It is simple, low cost, flexible, economical, and user-friendly.
3. The life of the solder will be more.
4. Low amount of power is required to heat the soldering iron.
5. The soldering can be done at low temperature, and controlling is very easy.
6. Soldered joints can be dismantled.
Disadvantages of Soldering:
1. The soldering process can not join heavy sections. It is suitable for small parts only.
2. Solders are costlier, and soldering requires proper solder to get strong bonding.
3. Skilled labor is required for soldering.
What is Brazing?
Brazing is the process of joining two metal pieces with the help of non-ferrous filler metal at a
comparatively higher temperature of about more than 450°C.
The brazing process is carried out below the melting point of the base metal and achieved by
diffusion without fusion or melting of the base.
This process is most suitable for joining dissimilar metals and filler rod used must be made up
of non-ferrous metal. The most commonly used filler metals are copper and copper alloys,
silver and silver alloys, etc.
This filler metal fills the gap during the operation. The brazing process also needs a suitable
flux to prevent the oxidation of the base metal, and commonly used fluxes are borax, fluorides,
chlorides, and boric acid.
The brazing finds its applications in automobile radiators used for cooling, containers and other
tanks, pipe fittings, heat exchangers, etc.
Brazing Process / Procedure.
To carry out the brazing process, brazing torch, filler rod, flux, gaseous fuels (oxygen and
acetylene) to get carburizing flame are required.
The procedure of brazing operation is explained below.
1. First, the surfaces to be joined are cleaned, and dist, oil, grease, oxide layers, and other
foreign substances are removed.
2. Apply a suitable flux at where the brazing is to be carried out. This is used to avoid the base
metal oxidation, and it helps to flow the filler material easily by capillary action.
3. Then, the filler material is placed at the place where brazing is to be carried out.
4. By using a carburizing flame, raise the temperature above the melting point of the filler
material.
5. After raising the temperature of filler material, then molten metal is formed, and it flows into
the gap by capillary action.
6. Allow the filler material and base metals to solidify.
30
7. Then, cool the base metals slowly to get a strong bonding.
8. The leftover fluxes are cleaned immediately after the brazing process because it is corrosive
in nature.

Advantages of Brazing:
1. The brazing is an economical and straightforward process.
2. A brazing process can join dissimilar metals.
3. Low gauge or thin section plates are joined very easily, but such workpieces can not be
joined by welding.
4. Metals with different thickness can be joined easily.
5. Joints produced with brazing process are better in appearance because stresses will not be
induced, no metallurgical damages and distortion of the plate will take place.
6. Radiators, containers, and tanks, pipe fittings, heat exchangers can be brazed easily. But this
cannot be done by welding.
7. Brazing produces leak-proof and pressures tight joints.
Disadvantages of Brazing:
1. Heavy sections can be joined by a brazing process. It is suitable for small and thin section
plates only.
2. Skilled labor is required for brazing.
3. Brazing results in low strength joints compared to welding.
Brazing vs. Soldering; What’s the Difference.
Brazing.
1. Filler metal boiling point is above 450°C.
2. The filler metals may be of copper, aluminum, nickel, silver.
3. The flux used may be borax or boric acid.
4. The brazing produces stronger joints than soldering.
5. The brazing gives better accuracy, and joints may have a good aesthetic appearance.
6. Brazing is used in radiators, containers and other tanks, pipe fittings, heat exchangers.
31
Soldering.
1. Filler metal boiling point is below 450°C.
2. The filler metals are made up from of tin and lead.
3. The flux used is usually rosin, zinc chloride, aluminum chloride.
4. The soldering process produces less stronger joints compared to brazing.
5. The soldering does not give accuracy in the workpiece.
6. Soldering is used in electronic circuit board connections.
Welding Defects, Causes and Remedies
Defects are common in any type of manufacturing, welding including. In the process, there can
be deviations in the shape and size of the metal structure. It can be caused by the use of the
incorrect welding process or wrong welding technique. So below we’ll learn about the 7 most
common welding defects, their types, causes and remedies.
Weld Crack
The most serious type of welding defect is a weld crack and it’s not accepted almost by all
standards in the industry. It can appear on the surface, in the weld metal or the area affected by
the intense heat.
There are different types of cracks, depending on the temperature at which they occur:

1. Hot cracks. These can occur during the welding process or during the crystallization
process of the weld joint. The temperature at this point can rise over 10,000C.
2. Cold cracks. These cracks appear after the weld has been completed and the
temperature of the metal has gone down. They can form hours or even days after
welding. It mostly happens when welding steel. The cause of this defect is usually
deformities in the structure of steel.
3. Crater cracks. These occur at the end of the welding process before the operator finishes
a pass on the weld joint. They usually form near the end of the weld. When the weld
pool cools and solidifies, it needs to have enough volume to overcome shrinkage of the
weld metal. Otherwise, it will form a crater crack.
Causes of cracks:
 Use of hydrogen when welding ferrous metals.
 Residual stress caused by the solidification shrinkage.
 Base metal contamination.
 High welding speed but low current.
 No preheat before starting welding.
32
  Poor joint design.
 A high content of sulfur and carbon in the metal.
Remedies:
 Preheat the metal as required.
 Provide proper cooling of the weld area.
 Use proper joint design.
 Remove impurities.
 Use appropriate metal.
 Make sure to weld a sufficient sectional area.
 Use proper welding speed and amperage current.
 To prevent crater cracks make sure that the crater is properly filled.
Porosity
Porosity occurs as a result of weld metal contamination. The trapped gases create a bubble-
filled weld that becomes weak and can with time collapse.
Causes of porosity:

 Inadequate electrode deoxidant.

 Using a longer arc.
 The presence of moisture.
 Improper gas shield.
 Incorrect surface treatment.
 Use of too high gas flow.
 Contaminated surface.
 Presence of rust, paint, grease or oil.
Remedies:
 Clean the materials before you begin welding.
 Use dry electrodes and materials.
 Use correct arc distance.
 Check the gas flow meter and make sure that it’s optimized as required with proper
with pressure and flow settings.
 Reduce arc travel speed, which will allow the gases to escape.
 Use the right electrodes.
33
  Use a proper weld technique.
Undercut
This welding imperfection is the groove formation at the weld toe, reducing the cross-sectional
thickness of the base metal. The result is the weakened weld and workpiece.
Causes:

 Too high weld current.

 Too fast weld speed.
 The use of an incorrect angle, which will direct more heat to free edges.
 The electrode is too large.
 Incorrect usage of gas shielding.
 Incorrect filler metal.
 Poor weld technique.
Remedies:
 Use proper electrode angle.
 Reduce the arc length.
 Reduce the electrode’s travel speed, but it also shouldn’t be too slow.
 Choose shielding gas with the correct composition for the material type you’ll be
welding.
 Use of proper electrode angle, with more heat directed towards thicker components.
 Use of proper current, reducing it when approaching thinner areas and free edges.
 Choose a correct welding technique that doesn’t involve excessive weaving.
 Use the multipass technique
Incomplete Fusion
This type of welding defect occurs when there’s a lack of proper fusion between the base metal
and the weld metal. It can also appear between adjoining weld beads. This creates a gap in the
joint that is not filled with molten metal.
Causes:

 Low heat input.

34
  Surface contamination.
 Electrode angle is incorrect.
 The electrode diameter is incorrect for the material thickness you’re welding.
 Travel speed is too fast.
 The weld pool is too large and it runs ahead of the arc.
Remedies:
 Use a sufficiently high welding current with the appropriate arc voltage.
 Before you begin welding, clean the metal.
 Avoid molten pool from flooding the arc.
 Use correct electrode diameter and angle.
 Reduce deposition rate.
Incomplete Penetration
Incomplete penetration occurs when the groove of the metal is not filled completely, meaning
the weld metal doesn’t fully extend through the joint thickness.
Causes:

 There was too much space between the metal you’re welding together.
 You’re moving the bead too quickly, which doesn’t allow enough metal to be deposited
in the joint.
 You’re using a too low amperage setting, which results in the current not being strong
enough to properly melt the metal.
 Large electrode diameter.
 Misalignment.
 Improper joint.
Remedies:
 Use proper joint geometry.
 Use a properly sized electrode.
 Reduce arc travel speed.
 Choose proper welding current.
 Check for proper alignment.
Slag Inclusion
Slag inclusion is one of the welding defects that are usually easily visible in the weld. Slag is
a vitreous material that occurs as a byproduct of stick welding, flux-cored arc welding and
35
submerged arc welding. Is can occur when the flux, which is the solid shielding material used
when welding, melts in the weld or on the surface of the weld zone.
Causes:

 Improper cleaning.
 The weld speed is too fast.
 Not cleaning the weld pass before starting a new one.
 Incorrect welding angle.
 The weld pool cools down too fast.
 Welding current is too low.
Remedies:
 Increase current density.
 Reduce rapid cooling.
 Adjust the electrode angle.
 Remove any slag from the previous bead.
 Adjust the welding speed.

Spatter
Spatter occurs when small particles from the weld attach themselves to the surrounding surface.
It’s an especially common occurrence in gas metal arc welding. No matter how hard you try, it
can’t be completely eliminated. However, there are a few ways you can keep it to a minimum.
Causes:

 The running amperage is too high.

 Voltage setting is too low.
 The work angle of the electrode is too steep.
 The surface is contaminated.
 The arc is too long.
 Incorrect polarity.
 Erratic wire feeding.

36
Remedies:
 Clean surfaces prior to welding.
 Reduce the arc length.
 Adjust the weld current.
 Increase the electrode angle.
 Use proper polarity.
 Make sure you don’t have any feeding issues.

37