Bridges Guidance Note BGN134 – Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

Scope
This guidance note provides an introduction to the design of prestressed concrete balanced
cantilever bridges and identifies aspects to consider early in the design, which may otherwise
be discovered too late on to address appropriately and efficiently. It does not provide
detailed rules to follow and must only be used as a prompt of items to cover. Where
suggested dimensions are given, they must only be used as an initial guide from
which to start the design iteration.

Future versions of this note will provide more specific requirements for standardised design
approaches.

1. Introduction
Using the term cantilever construction, we describe a phased construction of a bridge
superstructure. The construction starts from the piers cantilevering out to both sides in such a
way that each phase is tied to the previous ones by post-tensioning tendons, incorporated
into the permanent structure, so that each phase serves as a construction base for the
following one.

The cantilever method is the most widely used technique for the construction of large
prestressed concrete bridges throughout the world. This construction method consists of
erecting most of a bridge deck without falsework or scaffolding at ground level, by working in
consecutive sections known as segments, each of which is cantilevered out from the
preceding segment. After a segment is built, the prestressing tendons fixed to the extremities
are tensioned, firmly attaching them to the preceding segments and thus forming a self-
supporting cantilever which serves as a support for the subsequent operations.

This method has great advantages over other forms of construction in urban areas where
temporary shoring would disrupt traffic and services below, in deep gorges, and over
waterways where falsework would not only be expensive but also a hazard. It is usually
difficult to justify the capital outlay for the moulds, casting yard, and erection equipment
required for precast segmental construction in a project with a deck area of less than 5000m2.
It is generally considered that it is more economical to prefabricate a bridge deck than build it
in-situ when the number of segments to be constructed exceeds 350 to 400 units.

Cantilever construction can be:

a) Symmetrically on either side of the pier to minimise the moments transmitted to the
support during erection. The resulting double symmetrical overhand is called balanced
cantilever.

Figure 1:Symmetrical construction from a pier

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Bridges Guidance Note BGN134 – Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

b) Sometimes the span arrangements due to the restrictions for foundation locations,
contractors’ preference to repeat the segments for unsymmetrical spans or other similar
restrictions many force the asymmetry on the two sides of a balanced cantilever.

Figure 2: Unsymmetrical construction from a pier

c) Counterweight construction from abutment wherein the overturning moment exerted by

the span is compensated for by a counterweight which forms part of the deck itself.

Figure 3: Construction by the cantilever method using counterweighted spans

Counterweight hidden within the approaches

Figure 4: Dubai Merina Bridge is a classic example of such construction

Although it is possible to build an entire structure using the cantilever method, the majority of
structures include cast-on-falsework sections at the extremities of the end spans. The cast-
on-falsework can be replaced by the precast-on-falsework to expedite the construction
programme.

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Bridges Guidance Note BGN134 – Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

2. Span configuration
Typical internal span-to-depth for constant-depth girders are between 18 and 22. However,
box girders shallower than 2.0m in depth introduce practical difficulties for stressing
operations inside the box and girders shallower than 1.5m become very difficult to form. This
sets a minimum economical span for this type of construction of 25 to 30 m. Constant-depth
girders deeper than 2.5 to 3.0m are unusual and therefore for spans greater than 50m
consideration should be given to varying-depth girders through providing a curved soffit or
haunches. For haunch lengths of 20 to 25% of the span from the pier, internal span-to-depth
ratios of 18 at the pier and as little as 30 at midspan are normally used. Spans up to 300 m
can be achieved with variable depth curved soffits, usually parabolic in elevation. In such
cases span/depth of 12 – 20 can be achieved at supports together with span/depth = 30 – 50
at midspan, provided that the greatest span to depth at supports is not combined with that at
midspan.

Figure 5: Typical variable depth cantilever constructed bridge

It should be noted that if the depths are pushed to the minimum recommended values it may
become difficult to incorporate all the anchorages for the prestress required within the cross-
section, particularly for the midspan continuity tendons.

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Bridges Guidance Note BGN134 – Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

Figure 6: Typical elements of a precast segmental bridge

3. Cross-section
Construction by the cantilever method produces very large negative moments. Box girders
cross-section feature a lower slab which lowers the centre of gravity and allows for efficient
cabling on the pier in addition to the high resistance to torsion.

While developing the cross-section, it is important to investigate the efficiency of the proposed
cross-section. The section efficiency can be computed using the Guyon’s formula

Ic
ρ=
Ac Y t Y b
,
Where
Ic = Moment of inertia
Ac = Area of the section
Yt = Distance from the top fibre to the centre of gravity of the section
Yb = Distance from the bottom fibre to the centre of gravity of the section

The efficiency of the cross section for a flat slab is normally in the order of 0.33 and is
considered as inefficient. This can be used as a benchmark for the proposed cross-section.

Several different types of box girder section find their application in the cantilever method of
construction. Single-cell box girders provide the most efficient section for casting. These days
multicell boxes are rarely used in this method of construction. Inclined webs improve
aesthetics but introduce added difficulties in formwork when used in combination with varying-
depth girders.

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a) Single-cell box girders (simple)

For deck widths of typically less than

20m, the most economical solution is
a box girder with two webs. For a
width of up to 16m, the top slab is
typically reinforced. For a wider
section, they are often transversely
prestressed using low-strength
tendons but the choice to move to
transverse prestressing varies
geographically, rarely finding favour
with UK Contractors for example.

Figure 7: Single-cell box girder (simple)

An example of this type of construction

is covered in the linked presentation here on Bhairab Bridge in Bangladesh:

https://atkins.sharepoint.com/:p:/r/sites/StructuresWG/exp/Shared%20Documents/Bhairab
%20bridge.ppt?d=w8de12ebffa4d4e6fbbcafeac02945885&csf=1

b) Single-cell box girders with ribs or struts

For deck widths between 18 and 25m or more, a common solution consists of a box girder
with two webs, featuring a ribbed upper slab and a solid lower slab.

One rib is used per standard segment, i.e. one every 3 to 4 m. In the narrowest structures,
these ribs are made from reinforced concrete and they are of constant depth between the
webs. When the decks are very wide, the ribs have a more elaborate geometry and are
prestressed using medium-strength tendons.

The presence of ribs complicates the formwork for the deck and thus the construction of the
segments. Before choosing a design for the transverse ribbing, it is therefore advisable to
verify the resulting weight gain in comparison to a prestressed slab that is thicker but of
constant depth. It is also essential to check with the Contractor if this solution should be
considered as many will prefer an additional web to be used. Furthermore, the external
tendons must not strike the ribs near the cross beam on the pier. Recesses in the ribs are
therefore created close to the piers or shorter ribs are used, thus allowing the tendons to pass
freely.

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Figure 8: Wide box girder with slab featuring prestressed rib stiffeners

For deck widths of between 18 and 25 m, it is also possible to design decks featuring a slab
of constant longitudinal thickness without ribs, although this is often prestressed. The webs
are usually vertical, and the steel or reinforced concrete struts are aligned under the
cantilevers.

Figure 9: Wide box girder with struts

The struts may also be replaced by two acutely angled lateral concrete walls.

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Figure 10: Wide box girder with thin lateral walls

These structures are aesthetically very pleasing. However, they are somewhat more difficult
to construct than a box girder featuring an upper slab with ribs. Furthermore, they are
restricted in application to structures of a constant depth. Indeed, if the depth of the box girder
varies, the axes of the struts or the lateral walls must be distorted, which is extremely difficult
and costly to carry out. Because of this, their use is restricted to structures with a maximum
span of 80 to 90 m. It is also essential to check with the Contractor if this solution should be
considered as many will prefer an additional web to be used.

c) Multi-cell box girders

For large widths, it is also possible to design a bridge deck consisting of two box girders
connected by their internal cantilevers. This type of structure is particularly suitable for the
construction of wide prefabricated bridge decks, as this involves the construction of narrow
decks side by side which are then fixed together transversally by an in-situ stitch.

Nevertheless, controlling the creep induced deformations in each of the box girders made
from concrete of different ages remains a major problem during the construction of these
structures. Furthermore, in the case of structures with skew lines of support or those featuring
shifted piers for each box girder, the installation of the transverse prestressing is highly
complex.

Figure 11: Multicellular box girder joined together transversally

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d) Box girders with multiple internals webs

This type of cross-section is now rarely used due to the difficulty of constructing and removing
the internal shuttering, but the option should still be considered where ribbed or strutted deck
support options are being considered.

An example of this type of construction is covered in the linked presentation here:

New Medway Bridge presentation

Figure 12: Box girder with internal web

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Bridges Guidance Note BGN134 – Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

4. Pre-design of cross-section
4.1 Choice of tendon types
The cantilever constructed bridges consist of two types of tendons: cantilever tendons and
continuity tendons. These tendons can be internal or external. It is rare for cantilever
tendons to be external, but continuity tendons are frequently external, internal or a mixture of
both.
An example of a bridge with both external cantilever and continuity tendons is covered in the
linked presentation here:

New Medway Bridge presentation

Cantilever tendons take up the negative moments, both during construction and when the
bridge is in service. Their anchorages are often situated in the nodes between the webs and
the upper slab and the tendons run into the top slab

Internal continuity tendons are designed to take up the positive moments that occur during
construction and subsequent moments from thermal gradients, delayed concrete
deformations and live load. The tendons are usually situated in the bottom flange close to the
webs and are anchored in anchor blocks (blisters) connected to web and bottom flange.

External continuity tendons are anchored on very large anchorages (which have to resist the
full prestressing force as they do not provide a direct compression path for the prestressing
force into the concrete section) and are deflected via concrete beams called deviators.

During the preliminary design of the cross-section, the design needs to pre-plan for the type
of prestressing and its implication on the cross-section along the length of the bridge.

4.2 Thicknesses of elements of the cross-section

With the notations defined in the sketch below, we shall discuss the preliminary design for the
different elements that make up a standard single-cell box girder. Different regions have their
practices to size up the sections and are primarily based on the empirical formula.

The proposed sizings below are to provide a starting point only. The absolute
thicknesses will depend on cover requirements and design codes (through resistance
formulae) so the sizes should be seen only as an approximate starting point for
iteration.

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Figure 13: Notations

4.2.1 Top Slab

In a simple box girder, the webs are often situated at a quarter of the width of the box girder
(C ≈ B / 4). The upper slab is solid, and its thickness varies transversally in order to adapt to
the transverse forces encountered.

The thickness of the upper slab at the end e1 depends on the retaining system used. It is a
minimum of:

 160 to 180mm for a pedestrian parapet

 230mm for a normal containment barrier
 240mm for a high containment barrier

At the anchorage of the cantilever, the thickness e2 depends on the superstructures and the
functional cross section. As an initial estimate for a reinforced concrete slab, we could use 1/7
to 1/8 of the width of the cantilever for e2, measured from the start of the gusset. This value
can be reduced for prestressed concrete.

Its thickness at mid-span e4 is equal to D/25 or D/30, or even D/35 for very wide transversally
prestressed box girders, with a minimum of 200mm. At the fixed support point, the value e3
can be estimated at 100mm+D/25 (with D representing the centre distance between the webs
expressed in millimetres). In general, we also verify that: e3 > e2 – 0.10 m and e3 > 1.5 e4

The transverse prestressing makes it possible to reduce the dimensions of e2, e3 and e4 by
approximately 10% if there is sufficient space to house the cantilever tendons. It is important
to pay attention to ensuring that the transverse tendons are properly covered and that they
are correctly anchored at the ends of the slab, as the effectiveness of these operations can
also determine the thickness of the end of the slab.

4.2.2 Webs
Box girder webs are usually angled not only to improve the aesthetic appearance but also this
arrangement facilitates the removal of formwork and reduces the width of the pier heads and
bottom slab. Also, the external cladding of the webs is often of better quality when they are
angled. The angle typically adopted varies between 10 and 30%.

Longitudinally, the webs are normally of constant thickness for bridges of variable depth and
of variable thickness for decks of constant depth. Where the thickness is proposed to be

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varied, the benching is from the inside and preferably the change in web and bottom slab
shall be avoided within the same segment.

Vertically, the webs are almost always the same thickness throughout their entire height
unless a special case arises.

Web thicknesses are determined largely by shear considerations with a minimum of 250mm
when no tendon ducts internal to the concrete are present and 300mm in other cases. The
weights of webs should be kept to a minimum and to reduce the web width to the absolute
minimum will require a greater amount of shear reinforcement, particularly when designing to
the Eurocode variable angle truss model which allows a greater concrete crushing strength
when the truss angle is kept to 45 degrees. The suggestions below are a starting point
without looking into this level of detail.

a) Minimal thickness of webs in standard situations

Usually, the cantilever tendons are anchored in the upper gusset or in a high-level anchor
block. In this case, as the web is not breached by the tendons, its thickness can be reduced
to the strict minimum needed to resist shear forces when the bridge is in service, while
benefiting from the significant reduction in shear forces brought about by the raising of the
external tendons. However, during the construction phase, there is virtually no reduction of
the shear force, as the external tendons have not yet been tightened. The total thickness E a of
the two webs can be estimated at E a = L/275 + l.25 x B/L – 0.125: a relation in which L is the
main span and B is the width of the upper slab (with E a, L and B expressed in meters).

b) Minimal thickness of webs in special situations

It is sometimes desirable to pass the cantilever tendons down through the webs in order to
increase the reduction in shear forces brought about by the prestressing. If this is done it is
essential to check that the loss of shear area from the tendon doesn’t offset the benefit of
providing the extra web tendons and that the web concrete can still be placed and
compacted.

In this case, the thickness of the webs “a” must also conform to a certain number of
conditions concerning the proper concreting and anchoring of the tendons on the edge of the
segments:

i. a > 2(e + 2d + V) + ∅g, with V = 70mm minimum (concreting and vibration chute)
ii. a > 2D with D being the cover thickness of the anchor plates given by the regulations
for prestressing systems according to the strength of the concrete
iii. a > 3∅g with “∅g” being the external diameter of the duct

Figure 14: Thickness of the web

4.2.3 Bottom slab

The thickness of the lower slab is smallest at midspan and maximum at the pier. The
thickness variation laws according to the horizontal axis are either linear, parabolic or of the

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fourth degree. The latter variation law is used to maintain the minimum thickness of the slab
over a large length and to save weight. Stepped variations in thickness, also known as “on
demand” variations, are sometimes used. Parabolic is the most common. Linear contains
the undesirable feature that at midspan inside the box there will be a local rise in level from
midspan back towards the piers before the level drops again, so a local depression where
water may gather is created.

The area of the bottom slab at the pier is determined by the modulus required to keep bottom
fibre compressions below the allowable limits. In the case of internal tendons local haunches
are used at the intersection of the bottom slab and the webs to provide sufficient space for
accommodating the required number of tendon ducts at midspan. The distance between the
webs at their intersection with the top slab is determined by achieving a reasonable balance
between the moments at this node.

a) Minimal thickness

In the central section of the spans, the lower slab must be as thin as possible (180 to 220mm)
in order to limit the self-weight of the box girder. For wide structures, transverse bending
predominates, and thickness tends to be in the range of 250mm.

In structures of an older design, tendons were run out into the slab and the cover provisions
to the duct dictated the minimum flange thickness. It is therefore common to incorporate the
continuity tendons into a local thickening of the flange adjacent to the webs if possible. The
downward force exerted by the continuity tendons is significant and it is crucial to consider
how this force is carried locally in the box. For more detail on the design of the flange curved
tendons (and other curved tendons) see:
BGN088 - curved tendons

It is also recommended that this thickness should not be less than one third of the thickness
of the webs, otherwise distortion of the box girder under eccentric vertical loads may become
significant.

Figure 15: Details of lower slab

b) Maximum thickness

The thickness of the lower slab on the pier Ep is determined by the limitation of compression
in the bottom fibre when the bridge is in service. This value, which is largely dependent on the
span and widths of the slabs, varies between 350 and 800mm or even more. It is advisable to
adopt a safety margin for the maximum stress level in order to limit the redistributions due to
creep.

4.2.4 Upper gussets

The upper gussets must fulfil several functions which generally influence their dimensions:

 They thicken the slabs adjacent to the webs where the transverse moments are
greatest

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 Their funnel shape facilitates the concreting of the webs

 They house the anchorage of the cantilever tendons and ensure their cover thickness
 They allow for the deviation of the cantilever tendons into the flanges

Figure 16: Examples of the upper gussets

Conventionally in any box girder without any requirements for the ducts, small fillets (100 to
150mm) are recommended at the top of webs/top slab interface. These fillets ease abrupt
localised stresses in addition to facilitating the placement of the concrete. Using longer slab
haunches help optimise top slab concrete quantities and achieve longer slab spans.

4.2.5 Lower gussets

In addition to their mechanical role in which they act as a transition between the webs and the
lower slab, the lower gussets must also house the internal continuity tendons.

Figure 17: Details of lower gussets

The lower gussets are normally boxed in by the lower part of the central core of the formwork
for the segment. They are angled at a slope of 40 to 45° in order to facilitate the flow of the
concrete and prevent the formation of accumulations of pebbles or concreting defects. When
the lower slab is wide, the angle of the gussets can drop as low as 15 or even 10° from the
horizontal in order to improve the take-up of transverse bending forces. In these situations,
the gussets are not cast in formwork but simply smoothed over during the concreting process.

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5 Anchor blister
5.1 Geometric considerations
The choice of the blister position in
the cross-section is important to the
design of the blister and the
member as a whole. Locating the
blisters at the junction of the web
and flange is desirable as this is the
stiffest part of the cross section and
the local deformation produced by a
loaded blister is minimised. It is also
better to introduce the force close to
the web where it can be readily
coupled to the compression force in
the other flange. For blisters located
away from the web the shear lag,
which occurs between the blister
and the web, increases the distance
along the axis of the member to the
location where the force is
effectively coupled to the
compression in the other flange. Figure 18: Typical corner blister
Locating the blister at the web to
flange junction provides benefits to
the blister itself. The web and the flange provide confinement so that the blister has only two
unconfined faces. The shear forces between the blister and the member as a whole act on
two faces rather than just one. Finally, local blister moments about the horizontal and vertical
axes are to a large extent resisted by the web and flange.

The geometry of the blister is based largely on constructional considerations. Minimum edge
distances for the anchor body, minimum radius of tendon curvature and minimum tangent
length should be respected. Finally, the geometry should provide sufficient clearance for the
stressing jack. These anchor blocks are generally a little shorter than the standard segments
in segmental bridge. They are constructed at the same time as the rest of the segment and
thus becomes important to fix the geometry of the anchor block which otherwise influences
the segmentation.

Internal multistrand post-tensioning system has limitation on minimum cable radius (R min) as
suggested in fib Model Code 2010, so as the behaviour in the deviated zone is acceptable.

Rmin =2.8 √ F pk ≥2.5 meters

Where Fpk is the tendon breaking load in MN

The value of Rmin should be considered in the plane of the tendon taking into account
combined tendon curvature in elevation and plan.

1
R
2 2
1 1
√( R elevation ) (R )
+
plan

Ideally the tangent points of the minimum radius curve should be kept within the segment and
thus will restrict the minimum length of segment (to around 3.0m for 22T15 tendons). If the
segment length is reduced, the tangent point of tendon will fall outside of segment length.

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BGN088 - curved tendons provides important information on the design of anchorages.

Figure 20 : Typical tangent points in a blister for 22T15

Size of the blister at the anchorage will be

guided by the minimum edge distance for the
jack on the two edges and clearance for the
anchorage block on the other two faces. For
concrete grade of 40/50 with 22T15 tendon,
the jack type could be ZPE 580 which has an
outer diameter of 500mm and requires a
minimum edge clearance from the top of base
slab and/or inner face of web as 280mm (say Figure 19 : Jack clearance for blister
“J”).

The minimum edge distance on the free edge (say “e”) is given by the equation

X
e= +c−10+ ∅ ¯¿
2

X= 420mm for concrete 40/50

C = 50mm (say) and assuming a bar diameter of 25mm

e = 275 mm

And thus, the minimum dimension of the blister should be 280+275 = 555mm for the above
referred details.

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5.2 Design considerations

The reinforcement in a blister anchorage has to be designed for different effects in different
locations as shown below.

Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1

Figure 21: Reinforcement zones for blister

The transverse reinforcements in these anchor blocks must tie the blocks into the rest of the
section. The following reinforcements must be designed:

Zone 1: (Fig.21)

Bursting reinforcement – for example, see EN 1992-2 clause 8.10.3.1 commentary - EN

1992-2 clause 8 commentary

End face spalling reinforcement - for example, see EN 1992-2 clause 8.10.3.2 commentary -
EN 1992-2 clause 8 commentary

Zone 2: (Fig.21)

Distribution reinforcement to allow the prestress to spread out over the full cross-section - for
example, see EN 1992-2 clause 8.10.3.3 commentary - EN 1992-2 clause 8 commentary

Zone 3: (Fig.21) – Note that BGN088 recommends that the curvature of the tendons is
NOT continued onto the flange, unlike the way indicated in Figure 18, because of the
risk of flange spalling

Radial tie forces – see BGN088 - curved tendons. The radial ties need not be designed to
resist the entire radial force produced by the curved tendon since a portion of the radial force
is resisted by direct compression of the tendon on the curved concrete strut located on the
inside of the tendon curve. This portion of radial force can be deducted from the design force
required by the radial ties.

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All zones: Shear friction reinforcement to connect the blister to web and flange; essential
when the blister is cast at a different time to web and flange.

5.3 Tie-back reinforcement

Cracks may develop in the slab or web walls, or both, immediately behind blisters and ribs
due to stress concentrations caused by the anchorage force. Reinforcement proportioned to
tie back 25 percent of the un-factored jacking force is generally accepted as being adequate
to provide adequate crack control. AASHTO LRFD has a provision to reduce the tie-back
reinforcement if compressive stresses are generated behind the anchor - refer to section
5.9.5.6.7b of LRFD for additional details. For further guidance, see EN 1992-2 clause 8.10.4
commentary - EN 1992-2 clause 8 commentary

Figure 22: Length of crack control reinforcement

Figure 23: Zone of the continuing cross-section and the effective area of tie-back
reinforcement

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5.4 Shear keys

There are two types of shear keys in match-cast joints between precast segments:

a) Alignment keys –

Located in the top and bottom slabs. Alignment keys are not expected to transfer the major
shear forces; rather they facilitate the correct alignment of the two match cast segments being
erected in vertical and horizontal directions. For a single-cell box, normally a minimum of
three alignment keys are required on the top slab and one on the bottom slab.

In the case of variable height decks with vertical joints, these keys take up the vertical
component of the compression in the lower slab which slopes gradually towards the supports.

b) Web shear keys –

Located on the faces of the webs of precast box girders. Corrugated multiple shear keys are
preferred due to their superior performance.

The number of shear keys required is calculated considering the shear force taken up by the
shear keys alone in the first section at the end of polymerization. Because some of the shear
keys could break during stripping, it is necessary to foresee additional keys. Once the
adhesive has polymerized, the shear force is taken up throughout the entire height of the
web, as for cast-in-situ structures.

It is essential that the shear keys lead to a web side, for the glue to evacuate when
compressing the joint. For evident aesthetical reasons, we make the keys lead to the inner
side of the box girder.

It is advised to compress the joint section with 0.2 MPa in order to spread the glue in all the
section and both shear and alignment keys should not be located in the tendon duct zones.

Figure 24: Prefabricated segment crowns

The design of web shear keys should satisfy two design criteria:

 Geometric Design e.g.:

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 LRFD Fig. 5.14.2.4.2-1: the total depth of shear keys shall extend
approximately 75% of the section depth and at least 75% of the web
thickness;
 EN 1992-1-1:2004 clause 6.2.5: gives requirements for depths and spacings
of keys
 Shear Strength Design e.g.:

 As per AASHTO Standards Specifications, 7 th Edition, 2002, Article 9.20.1.5,

reverse shearing stresses should be considered in shear key design. At the
time of erection, shear stress carried by the shear key should not exceed
2√f’c (psi). Alternatively, strength of the shear key could also be computed in
accordance with article 12.2.21 of AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design
and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges, Second Edition, 1999.
However, the AASHTO Guide Specification Shear Key provision was
developed for dry joints only.
 EN 1992-1-1:2004: clause 6.2.5 gives requirements for shear strength of
members with shear keys
 EN 1992-2:2005: clause 6.2.3(109) gives requirements for shear checks at
ULS if joints can open under bending moment and clause 6.3.2(106) provides
requirements for torsional resistance if joints open at ULS.

When designing shear keys, only web shear keys are considered in transferring the shear
forces. However, alignment shear keys help in preventing local relative vertical displacement
on the deck slab between two adjacent precast segments due to concentrated load on one
side of the match cast joint. Therefore, in longer slabs spanning between two webs or longer
cantilevers wings, it is necessary to provide more than one alignment shear key.

Figure 25: Typical details of shear key

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5.5 Temporary prestress

After the segment on pier is accurately positioned, the first standard segment is adjusted to fit
properly against the pier segment. This process is known as dry matching. The segments are
then pulled slightly apart, and the faces are smeared with the high strength epoxy. They are
then pulled together with a required pressure (~ 0.2 MPa) on the faces. This is accomplished
using the temporary post-tensioning (PT) system which uses threaded rods anchored in
intermediate slab blister. These temporary PT bars support the segment until the permeant
cantilever tendons are stressed.

The size of the blister to support these bars is determined based on the size of the stressing
equipment (or jack) and the angle of stressing. For the ease of construction, the temporary PT
bars in the top slab could be supported through the steel brackets instead of permanent
brackets below the top deck slab. During the casting of precast segments, holes need to be
provided within the slab for the assembly which are to be grouted later.

Figure 26: Typical arrangement for temporary PT

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Figure 27: Typical details for PT bars and stressing equipment

These bars are also used for lifting the precast segment and thus need provision within the
segment as well.

Essentially, there are two load cases that need to be considered when designing temporary
PT bars:

Case 1: Dead load of the segment plus construction loads and temporary post-tensioning
bars. The erection PT bars should be stressed during the open time of the epoxy
(approximately 45 to 60 minutes). The allowable joint stresses for this load case
should conform to Article 5.14.2.4.2 of the LRFD specifications.

Case2: Case 1 plus permanent cantilever tendons. Normally, one or two hours after the
open time of the epoxy is completed, the allowable joint stress is zero tension,
preferably some compression.

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6 Segment geometry
As described earlier the haunch lengths could be 20 to 25% of the span from the pier.
However, in a project where multiple segmental bridges are intended to be built by the similar
contractor, advantage of the profile is necessary for the economy of the project. The profile for
the curved portion needs to be carefully investigated between the different bridges and the
variation need could be brought in the straight portion of the deck. After the profile, weight and
curvature of the deck become primary in deciding the segmentation for the casting and lifting
capacity of the cranes.

6.1 Standard segments

Ideally, standard segments are of constant length which varies between 2.5m and 4 or even
5m according to the structures.

The main aim when determining the length of prefabricated segments is to reduce their
weight. Indeed, as the prefabricated segments need to be moved using special equipment
which obviously has a limited capacity which thus influences the width of the segment.

However, it should be noted that the shorter the segments, the harder it is to conform to the
geometry of the cantilever, but the more faces there are to anchor off cantilevering tendons.

6.2 Segments on piers

For cast-in-situ structures, the segment on pier (SOP) generally measures at least 8m, in
order to ensure that it is capable of supporting two form travellers during the construction of
the first pair of segments. To support the installation of the pair of form travellers on the
segment on pier, it must be twice as long as the standard segments plus an additional length
of 0.5 to 1.0m.

The segment on pier represents a very large volume of concrete which can very rarely be
constructed in a single phase. Furthermore, its formwork must be designed to resist the
significant thrusts exerted by the fresh concrete. For cast-in-situ structures with a small
number of piers, it may be beneficial to reduce the length of the SOP. In this case, the second
segment of the first pair is constructed after the first form traveller has been moved. The
cantilever is highly unbalanced before the installation of the second form traveller, but this is
permissible given the small moment arms at this stage of the construction.

For prefabricated structures, the dimensions of the segment on pier are often incompatible
with the capacity of the equipment used for transporting and installing the segments. The
SOPs are therefore divided into two or three sections to be assembled by prestressing. For
integral piers, prefabricated pier segments are conventionally hollow which is then later infilled
with in-situ concrete to develop a monolithic connection.

Orientation of the skew pier becomes critical in deciding the size of the SOP for the integral
piers.

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Figure 28: Monolithic pier with hollow shell and assembly arrangement

6.3 Closing segments (stitches)

The length of the closing segments varies considerably according to the technique used.

For cast-in-situ structures, the closing segments are slightly shorter in length than the
standard segments because one of the form travellers is generally used for their construction.
However, the closing segments must not be so short that it becomes difficult to dismantle the
internal formwork from the form traveller, nor that a small misalignment in level between the
two cantilever tips leads to a sharp angular change in the soffit when connected by the stitch.
The closing segments require specific formwork, usually made from wood, which can be
broken down into components small enough to be removed via a manhole. The length of the
closing segments must also facilitate the overlapping of longitudinal reinforcements and the
tightening of the last segments cantilever tendons. Therefore, their minimum length is
approximately 2.0m.

It is common to design temporary steelwork in advance that is capable of applying a vertical

load across the gap where the stitch is to be cast in order to bring the tips more into line
before casting the stitch. This force-fitting operation needs to be included in the design and a
maximum value of misalignment correction specified.

For economic reasons, the closing of segments on prefabricated structure is carried out using
the simplest possible system. This closure is thus reduced to its simplest form, not exceeding
200mm in length. A joint of this length is made from non-reinforced concrete. Its shortness
makes it impossible to tighten the cantilever tendons usually attached to the last standard
segments. Therefore, temporary lashing provides the only form of prestressing before the
jointing takes place.

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Figure 29: Construction of a closing segment with strip formwork

7 Cantilever stability during construction

During the construction of segmental concrete bridges using the balanced cantilever method,
it is necessary to guarantee the stability of the cantilever arms on the piers before they are
joined to the neighbouring cantilever or to the cast-on-falsework section on the end span near
to the abutments/piers. During construction, out of balance loads arise from:

 Uneven weight of an otherwise symmetric cantilever (due to variations in

density and cross-section tolerances)
 Actual weight differences each side of the pier cantilever due to differences in
designed cross-section and internal anchorages and deviators etc
 Segment or parts of segments placed out of balance during construction
either side of the pier
 Travelling formworks not in balance during movement
 Wind loading (from quasi-static wind, vortex shedding excitation or turbulence
excitation)
 Construction loads
 Accidental actions such as a dropped traveller and/or a dropped segment
More details on magnitudes of these loads generally can be found in Commentary to
EN1992-2, clause 13 and more detail on wind loading in New Medway Bridge presentation.

If the deck is integral with the pier then the pier stem needs to carry these moments. If the
deck is on bearings, then a temporary tie down and/or propping system is needed to carry the

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moments until the stitch segments are completed and deck continuity is achieved. Where
propping systems are used, it is likely that the props will start to pick up some vertical loads
even from symmetrical construction and a means to release these axial force (e.g. by
depressurising hydraulic jacks or releasing sand from sand jacks) must be considered in
design. The foundations must also carry these out of balanced load cases.

It should be noted that these temporary out of balanced loads are likely to govern the design
of piers in integral construction as the piers are kept as slender as possible for the permanent
condition to allow the piers to flex under thermal cycles. Putting tight limits on the
construction loads and sequences of working to reduce out of balanced moments may be
economical for the pier design but it may be unduly limiting for construction efficiency.

Particular care is required if the bridge deck is curved in plan as the destabilising moments
occur about both plan axes and transverse bending moments will cause additional transverse
bending in piers and, where bearings are used, cause highly uneven loadings transversely on
the bearings.

The specification should describe all of the limiting loads during construction and specify what
control measures are required.

8 References
1. Balanced Cantilever Construction of Precast Segmental Bridges by Marco Rosignoli
2. Precast Balanced Cantilever Bridge Design using AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications by Teddy S. Theryo
3. Prestressed Concrete Bridges Built using the Cantilever Method by Setra
4. DETAILING FOR POST-TENSIONED; General Principales, Local Zone Design, General
Zone, Design Examples from Practice by VSL INTERNATIONAL LTD
5. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 2: General rules and rules for buildings
6. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1-1: Concrete bridges — Design and
detailing rules
7. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications 7th Edition
8. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete
Bridges

Bridge Engineering Network Document ref: Guidance Note BGN134

Issu Purpose description Originated Checked Reviewed Authorised Date
e
1 First issue Wasim Chris Chris Chris 18/11/201
Qadir Hendy Hendy Hendy 9

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Bridges Guidance Note BGN134 – Design of Balanced Cantilever Bridges

Last reviewed for currency by: Chris Hendy

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