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All rights reserved; no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording or
otherwise without prior written permission from the publisher or a license permitting
restricted copying in the Zimbabwean Copyright Act. This study material has been provided
in good faith. It is illegal to reproduce it. Should it be reproduced, we will take legal action
against that person and anyone else connected thereto.
C el l : 0 1 1 6 3 3 7 9 2
‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics
Page 3
restricted copying in the Zimbabwean Copyright Act. This study material has been provided
in good faith. It is illegal to reproduce it. Should it be reproduced, we will take legal action
against that person and anyone else connected thereto.
Cell: 011 633 792
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................... 10
INDICES AND PROPORTIONALITY ....................................... 10
1.1 LAWS OF INDICES .................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2 PRACTICE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.3 SURDS ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 PRACTICE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 16
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1.6 PROPORTIONALITY .................................................................................................................................. 16
1.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................... 19
QUADRATIC AND CUBIC FUNCTIONS ................................ 19
2.1 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 19
2.2 COMPLETING THE SQUARE....................................................................................................................... 22
2.3 SKETCHING GRAPHS OF QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................... 23
2.4 SOLVING CUBIC EQUATIONS .................................................................................................................... 26
2.5 CUBIC FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 27
2.6 CASE 3 :THREE DISTINCT ROOTS ............................................................................................................. 29
2.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................... 31
TRANSFORMATIONS ................................................................. 31
3.1 TRANSFORMATIONS OF GRAPHS .............................................................................................................. 31
3.2 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................. 40
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................... 41
FUNCTIONS ................................................................................. 41
4.1 DEFINITION ............................................................................................................................................. 41
4.2 DOMAIN OF A FUNCTION.......................................................................................................................... 43
4.3 THE RANGE OF A FUNCTION ..................................................................................................................... 43
4.4 INVERSE FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 45
4.5 THE GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES ................................................................................... 46
4.6 COMPOUND / COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................... 48
4.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................... 53
INEQUALITIES, IDENTITIES, EQUATIONS AND
POLYNOMIALS ............................................................................ 53
5.1 EQUATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 53
5.2 INEQUALITIES .......................................................................................................................................... 55
5.3 RATIONAL INEQUALITIES ........................................................................................................................ 59
5.4 POLYNOMIALS ......................................................................................................................................... 59
5.5 THE REMAINDER THEOREM .................................................................................................................... 61
5.6 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................. 63
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................... 65
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MODULUS FUNCTIONS. ........................................................... 65
6.1 MODULUS FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 65
6.2 MODULUS EQUATIONS............................................................................................................................. 69
6.3 MODULUS INEQUALITIES ......................................................................................................................... 78
6.4 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................. 82
CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................... 84
LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ............ 84
7.1 THEOREM OF LOGARITHMS ...................................................................................................................... 84
7.2 THE GRAPH OF THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION .......................................................................................... 84
7.3 THE GRAPHS OF THE LOGARITHM FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................... 88
X
7.4 EQUATIONS OF THE TYPE A = B ............................................................................................................. 89
X
7.5 INEQUALITIES OF THE TYPE A > B .......................................................................................................... 90
7.6 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY ....................................................................................................... 90
7.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................. 92
CHAPTER 8 ................................................................................... 93
COORDINATE GEOMETRY ...................................................... 94
8.1 DISTANCE AND GRADIENT ....................................................................................................................... 94
8.2 THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE .................................................................................................................... 96
8.3 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 98
8.4 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................. 98
CHAPTER 9 ................................................................................. 100
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY ....................................................... 100
9.1 THE SINE AND THE COSINE RULE........................................................................................................... 100
9.2 RADIANS ............................................................................................................................................... 101
9.3 SECTORS AND SEGMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 103
9.4 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 10 ............................................................................... 106
SEQUENCES AND SERIES ...................................................... 106
10.1 DEFINITION ........................................................................................................................................... 106
10.2 PROPERTIES OF SEQUENCES .................................................................................................................. 107
10.3 OSCILLATING AND PERIODIC SEQUENCES ............................................................................................. 110
10.4 SERIES AND SIGMA NOTATION .............................................................................................................. 115
10.5 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS (A.P.) ....................................................................................................... 116
10.6 SUM OF THE FIRST N NTERMS OF AN A.P................................................................................................ 116
10.7 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G. P.)......................................................................................................... 120
10.8 SUM OF THE FIRST N TERMS OF A G.P. .................................................................................................. 120
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10.9 INFINITE GEOMETRIC SERIES................................................................................................................. 122
10.10 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 124
CHAPTER 11 ............................................................................... 128
VECTORS ( I ) ........................................................................... 128
11.1 CONVENTIONS .................................................................................................................................. 128
11.2 POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT VECTORS ............................................................................................... 128
11.3 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION ............................................................................................................... 129
11.4 MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR ............................................................................................................. 131
11.5 THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT. ............................................................................................................. 131
11.6 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 134
CHAPTER 12 ............................................................................... 136
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ........................................... 136
12.1 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ............................................................... 136
12.2 SURDS ................................................................................................................................................... 138
12.3 ADDITION FORMULAE ............................................................................................................................ 139
12.4 THE DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE ............................................................................................................ 139
12.5 IDENTITIES ............................................................................................................................................ 140
12.6 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS.................................................................................................. 142
12.7 EXPRESSIONS OF THE FORM ACOSX + BSINX .......................................................................................... 143
12.8 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 144
CHAPTER 13 ............................................................................... 146
DIFFERENTIATION ................................................................. 146
13.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 146
13.2 THE DERIVATIVE ................................................................................................................................... 147
13.3 DIFFERENTIATION OF A CONSTANT ........................................................................................................ 149
13.4 DIFFERENTIATION OF POLYNOMIALS ..................................................................................................... 149
13.5 DERIVATIVE OF COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................ 150
13.6 DERIVATIVE OF PRODUCT OF TWO FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................... 151
13.7 DERIVATIVE OF A QUOTIENT OF TWO FUNCTIONS .................................................................................. 151
13.8 DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................ 152
13.9 DERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................ 153
13.10 DERIVATIVE OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................ 153
13.11 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION................................................................................................................... 156
13.12 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION ............................................................................................................ 158
13.13 APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION. ...................................................................................................... 159
13.14 EQUATION OF A TANGENT AND A NORMAL ............................................................................................ 161
13.15 MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND POINT OF INFLEXION. .................................................................................. 163
13.16 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS. .......................................................................................... 167
13.17 THE MACLAURIN SERIES. ...................................................................................................................... 173
13.18 RATE OF CHANGES................................................................................................................................. 175
13.19 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 176
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CHAPTER 14 ............................................................................... 178
COMPLEX NUMBERS (I) ......................................................... 178
14.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 178
14.2 COMPLEX NUMBERS .............................................................................................................................. 179
14.3 REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN THE PLANE ....................................................................... 180
14.4 OPERATIONS INVOLVING COMPLEX NUMBERS ....................................................................................... 181
14.5 CONJUGATION ....................................................................................................................................... 183
14.6 MODULUS.............................................................................................................................................. 184
14.7 THE POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ............................................................................................ 184
14.8 MULTIPLICATION COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM ........................................................................ 186
14.9 DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM ................................................................................. 186
14.10 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 187
CHAPTER 15 ............................................................................... 188
SERIES EXPANSION ................................................................. 189
15.1 THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION ................................................................................................................... 189
15.2 THE BINOMIAL SERIES .......................................................................................................................... 190
15.3 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 192
CHAPTER 16 ............................................................................... 193
INTEGRATION – AREAS AND VOLUMES OF
REVOLUTION............................................................................ 193
16.1 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 193
16.2 CHANGE OF VARIABLE TECHNIQUE........................................................................................................ 195
16.3 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.................................................................................... 196
16.4 INTEGRATION OF TYPE SIN2 X DX AND COS2X DX ............................................................................... 196
16.5 INTEGRATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................ 197
16.6 USE OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS IN INTEGRATION ...................................................................................... 199
16.7 INTEGRATION BY PARTS ........................................................................................................................ 200
16.8 DEFINITE INTEGRATION......................................................................................................................... 202
16.9 APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION ............................................................................................................. 206
16.10 VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION ................................................................................................................... 211
16.11 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 213
CHAPTER 17 ............................................................................... 217
VECTORS (II) ............................................................................. 217
17.1 THE EQUATION OF A LINE ...................................................................................................................... 217
17.2 DETERMINING THE NORMAL VECTOR TO A PLANE ................................................................................. 220
17.3 THE PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM A POINT P TO A LINE ℓ ................................................................ 221
17.4 THE PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM A POINT P(X1,Y1,Z1) TO A PLANE ............................................ 222
17.5 THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE LINE ℓ AND A PLANE .................................................................................. 223
17.6 THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES ....................................................................................................... 224
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17.7 PARALLEL LINES AND PLANES ............................................................................................................... 225
17.8 INTERSECTING LINES ............................................................................................................................. 226
17.9 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 227
CHAPTER 18 ............................................................................... 229
FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ..................... 229
18.1 FORMULATION OF ODES ........................................................................................................................ 229
18.2 SOLVING ODES ...................................................................................................................................... 230
18.3 ODES WITH SEPARABLE VARIABLES ...................................................................................................... 230
18.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SOLUTIONS ....................................................................................... 231
18.5 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 233
CHAPTER 19 ............................................................................... 235
COMPLEX NUMBERS (II) ........................................................ 235
19.1 FURTHER PROPERTIES OF THE CONJUGATE ............................................................................................ 236
19.2 DE MOIVRE’S FORMULAE ..................................................................................................................... 238
19.3 POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 240
19.4 ROOTS OF UNITY AND OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ..................................................................................... 242
19.5 LOCI ...................................................................................................................................................... 244
19.6 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 251
CHAPTER 20 ............................................................................... 253
MATRICES .................................................................................. 253
20.1 DEFINITION ........................................................................................................................................... 253
20.2 THE ADJOINT OF A 2X2 MATRIX ............................................................................................................ 254
20.3 THE DETERMINANT OF A 2X2 MATRIX .................................................................................................. 254
20.4 THE INVERSE OF A 2X2 MATRIX ............................................................................................................. 254
20.5 THE DETERMINANT OF A 3X3 MATRIX ................................................................................................... 256
20.6 INVERSE OF A 3 X 3 MATRIX ................................................................................................................. 259
20.7 SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS. ................................................................................................. 262
20.8 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 265
CHAPTER 21 ............................................................................... 267
NUMERICAL METHODS ......................................................... 267
21.1 APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS .................................................................................................................... 267
21.2 ERRORS ................................................................................................................................................. 267
21.3 SMALL ERRORS...................................................................................................................................... 270
21.4 THE TRAPEZIUM RULE .......................................................................................................................... 270
21.5 APPROXIMATION OF ROOTS. ................................................................................................................. 273
21.6 ITERATIVE METHODS ............................................................................................................................ 274
21.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 278
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CHAPTER 22 ............................................................................... 280
THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION ...... 280
22.1 THE METHOD OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION ....................................................................................... 281
22.2 PROOFS OF MATHEMATICAL RESULTS.................................................................................................... 281
22.3 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 285
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to members of staff and other outside individuals whom
through their effort made the publication of this book possible and Mr. Zuma Mguni, a head
of mathematics department at Prestige college who is also a tutor at Zimbabwe Open
University who took his time to edit and finish this book. Also not to be forgotten is my
secretary Miss Evelyn Chimufombo who typed the manuscript. Regretfully, though
unexpected, I accept any error that might have escaped our attention.
Bulawayo
‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics
Page 10
September 2005
CHAPTER 1
INDICES AND PROPORTIONALITY
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Simplify indices
Simplify surds
Solve exponential equations
Solve problems involving propotionality
1.1 Laws of indices
The student will recall from earlier studies the following laws of indices.
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pq
(i) b xb b
p q
(ii) b p bq b p q
(iii) b0 = 1
1
(iv) b p
bp
(v) (bp)q= bpq
1
(vi) b b p p
1 p
(vii) (b ) b ( b ) p
q p q q
Examples
Simplify each of the following:
a) x5 x 4 b) (4d) 2 ÷ (2d) 3 c)4 1/2 d)4-1/2
343 32 3
e) ( ) f) ( ) 2
512 11
Solution
a) x 5 . x 4 = x 5+4=x+ 9 b) (4d) 2 ÷ (2d) 3 = (2d) 4 ÷ (2d) 3 = (2d) 4-3 = 2d
1 1
1 1 1
c) 4 2 4 2 d ) 4 2 ( )2
4 2
343 32 512 23 8 1
e) ( ) ( ) ( )2
512 343 7 2
3 11 121
f) ( )2 ( )2
11 3 9
1.2 Practice Questions
1.Evaluate the following
1 100 0 1 3
i) 1
ii) ( ) iii) ( ) 2
9 9
(16) 4
1 1
125 31 9 3 27 2
iv) ( ) v) 1 2
27
3 6 3 3
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1.3 Surds
Square roots of irrational numbers when left in exact form are called surds
Examples of surds are abound.
6 4
(a) √50 (b) (c)
3 62
Simplifying surds.
Surds can be simplified by leaving them in either of the two forms.
(i) pq, where, q is a number that cannot be expressed in the form r/s i.e. a rational
number
(ii) p + q
Example
Simplify: 500
Solution
500 = 100 x 5 Express 500 as a product of
a perfect square and
= 100 x 5 another number, which is
not a prefect square.
= 10 x 5
= 105
Example:
Simplify: (5 – 1) (5 – 1)
Solution:
(5 – 1)(5 – 1)
=5. 5 - 5 - 5 + 1
=5 - 25 + 1
=6 – 2 5
Example
3 1 1 3 2
Simplify: (i) (ii) (iii)
2 2 1 3 22
Solution.
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(i) 3/2
we multiply the denominator and the numerator by 2, the process is called rationalizing.
Hence:
3 2
.
2 2
3 2
=
2
3 2
= We multiply the
2
denominator by the
conjugate of 2 – 1 ;
1 2 +1
(ii)
2 1
2 1
( 2 1)( 2 1)
1 2
2 1
1 2
(1 3 2)
(iii)
(3 2 2)
(1 3 2)(3 2 2)
(3 2 2)(3 2 2)
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3 2 2 9 2 6 2
9 2 6 2 6 2 4
9 2 20
18 4
20 9 2
14
1
(20 9 2)
14
1.4 Exponential Equations
These are equations where the variable is found in the exponent. In this case we, deal with
two types. The third type is dealt with in chapter 6.
(a) Type 1
These are solved by introducing a common base.
Example
Solve for x
93 x 4 = 27 x1
Solution
93 x 4 27 x 1
32( x 4) 33( x 1)
36 x8 = 33 x3
6x + 8 = 3x + 3
3x = -5
5
x =
3
Example
1 x
Solve for x: = 16
4 x
1
Solution: = 4x
4 x
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Hence: 4x = 16x For equal bases, equate
exponents.
(2 ) = ( 24 )x
2 x
22x = 24x
2x = 4x2
4x2 – 2x = 0
2x ( x – 2) = 0
2x = 0 or x = 2
x = 0 or x = 2
(b) Type 2:
These are solved by introducing a new variable.
Example :
2 1
y 3
– 9y 3
+ 20 = 0
1 1
2
(y 3 ) – 9y 3
+ 20 = 0
1
Let u = y 3
u2 – 9u + 20 = 0
(u – 4)(u – 5) = 0
u = 4 or 5
1 1
y 3 = 4 or y 3=5
1 1
3
(y 3 ) = 43 or (y 3 )3 = 53
y = 64 or 125
Example
1 1
2x 4 = 9 – 4x 4
1
Let y = x 4
Hence, 2y = 9 – 4/y
2
2y – 9y +4 = 0
y = 9 ±√49
4
1
y = 4 or y = 2
1 1
1/4
x = 4 or x 4 = 2
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1
x = 256 or x =
16
1.5 Practice Questions
1. Solve the following equations in x.
(i) 22x + 1 – 9. 2x + 4 = 0
(ii) 33x – 13. 32x + 13. 3x + 1 – 27 = 0
(iii) 4x – 5 .2x +1 + 16 = 0
2. Solve for x
i) x – 10x1/2+ 24 = 0
2
ii) 4x = 64
1
iii) 2x- = 16
3
3. i ) 32x + 1 = 9- (3x +4)
1 1
ii) ( ) 3 x – ( ) x 4 0
2 16
1
iii) 64 = ( ) 4 x
16
1.6 Proportionality
This topic is a requisite to the study of differential equations. It has been covered to a certain
extent at “O” level. However we are going to cover it in detail in this study pack. Variation
comes in the following ways:
a) Direct proportion
b) Inverse proportion
c) Joint variation
Direct Variation
Two variables vary directly if they increase or decrease together or if one increases and the
other decreases i.e. if the ratio of y to x is always constant y is said to vary directly as x ,
y x. The equation connecting the two quantities is y = kx.
Example
The weight (w) of a pile of this study pack varies directly as the number of packs in the pile.
This is written as:
W N which gives the general formula.
W = kN where N is the number of packs.
Where k is called the constant of variation or the constant of proportionality
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Given the 10 packs that weigh 20kgs, we can calculate the value of K:
20 = K(10)
K = 2
Giving us the particular formula.
W = 2N
From this we can calculate W given N or N given W.
Inverse Variation
This is where one variable increases as the other decreases.
Example:
The number of slices of a loaf of bread each person gets (N) decreases as the number of
people sharing it.
1
We say : N
p
k
N=
p
Joint Variation
This is when a variable is related to two or more variables.
Example
The volume of a conical sand heap is directly proportional to its height (h) and to the square
of the radius of its base.
That is: V h
2
V r
2
V hr
2
V = khr
2
Given that the volume is 200m when the radius is 2m and the height is 5m, find the volume
of the heap when the radius is 3m and the height is 8m.
2
V = khr
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2
Substituting: 200 =k (5)(2 )
k = 10
2
V = 10 hr
When h = 8 and r = 3
2
V = 10 (8)(3 )
3
V = 720m
Example
If x y and y z². How does x vary with z?
Solution:
xy
x = k1y (1)
y z2
y = k2z2 (2)
x
from (1) y = (3), k1 0
k1
sub: (3) in (2) to obtain
x = k2z2
k1
x = k1.k2z2
x = kz2; where k = k1.k2
x z2
i.e x varies directly as the square of x
1.7 Examination type questions
1. Write down the formulae to express the following.
i) The volume of a cylinder varies as the square of the radius and directly as the
height
ii) The pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly as the temperature and
inversely as the volume.
iii) The electrical resistance of a wire varies directly as the length and inversely as the
square of the radius.
2. The positive variables x, y and z are related as follows:
x is proportional to the square root of y
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y is inversely proportional to z
Express x in the form Azn, where A is a constant of proportionality and where the
value of n is to be stated. Find the factor by which x is multiplied as a result of z
being multiplied by 100.
3. The volume of a cone varies jointly as the height and square of the base. Calculate
the percentage change in volume if the base radius is increased by 70% and the
height decreased by 10%.
4. Solve the equation 2x² +3 – 7 (2x+1) – 15 = 0
CHAPTER 2
QUADRATIC AND CUBIC FUNCTIONS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Identify nature of roots
Completea square of a quadratic expression
Sketch graph of quadratic functions
Solve cubic equations
Sketch graphs of cubic functions
2.1 Quadratic Functions
These are equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c , where a 0
The expression ax2 + bx + c, a 0 is called the quadratic expression:
If y = 0 we have ax2 + bx + c = 0, which is a quadratic equation.
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2.1.1 Solving quadratic equations:
Quadratic equations can be solved either by
i. graphical method or
ii. Using the quadratic formula.
iii. Completing the square
b b 2 4ac
Recall from „O‟ level the quadratic formula: x = , the expression
2a
Let = b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant.
a) If > 0 , there are 2 distinct roots as shown below
4 y
1
x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
b) If = 0, there is a repeated root
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4 y
1
x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
c) If < 0 ,there are no real roots
4 y
1
x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
Example
Determine the number of roots in each of the following equations
i. 2x2 + 2x – 6 = 0
ii. – 3x2 – 3x – 8 = 0
iii. x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
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Solution:
2
i. = 2 – 4(2)(-6)
= 52 > 0
there are two distinct roots
2
ii. = (-3) 4(-3) (-8)
= - 87 < 0
there are no real roots
2
iii. = 2 – 4 (1)(1)
= 0
there is a repeated root
2.2 Completing the square.
If the quadratic expression is expressed/ written in the form a (x + A)2 +B where a, A
and B are real values, the process is called completing the square.
Example
Method 1.
Complete the square x2 – 4x +5
Solution
We express x2 – 4x + 5
In the form a(x +A)2 + B
i.e. x2 – 4x + 5 = a(x +A)2 + B
x2 – 4x + 5 = a (x2 + 2Ax + A2) + B, expanding (x + A)2
x2 – 4x + 5 = ax2 + 2aAx + aA2 + B, multiplying by a.
Equating coefficients of x2
1=a
Equating coefficients of x
-4 = 2aA
-4 = 2A
-2 = A
Equating independent terms of x.
5 = aA2 + B
5 = (1)(-2)2 + B, a = 1 , A = -2
5=4+B
1 = B.
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2 2
Hence: x – 4x + 5 = 1 (x – 2) + 1
x2 – 4x + 5 = (x-2)2 +1
Method 2.
Find half of – 4, the coefficient of x; which is – 2: square (-2 ) to obtain 4. Add and
subtract 4 to the quadratic expression.
i.e. x2 – 4x + 5 = x2 – 4x + 4 + 5 – 4
= x2 – 4x + 4 + 1
= (x – 2)2 + 1
Example
Complete square.
-3x2 + 6x – 5
Solution:
Method 1
-3x2 + 6x – 5 a(x + A)2 + B
= ax2 + 2aAx + aA2 +B
Equating coefficients
a = -3 ; aA2 + B = -5
6 = 2aA (-3)(-1)2 + B = -5
A = -1 B – 3 = -5
B = -2
Hence: -3x2 + 6x – 5 = -3 (x-1)2 – 2
Method 2.
In this case the coefficient of x2 is –3 different from 1, hence factor out –3 to obtain.
-3 (x2-2x +5/3); since ½ of –2 is –1 and (-1)2 = 1
-3 (x2 – 2x + 1 + 5/3 – 1)
-3 [ (x-1)2 + 2/3]; multiplying by -3.
-3 ( x-1)2 - 2.
2.3 Sketching graphs of quadratic functions
To sketch the graph of a quadratic function you need to find:
- The roots.
-
Determine the form of the graph using the value of a.
-
Find the turning point.
-
Find the y – intercept.
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Solution.
1. y = 0
x2 – 5x +4 = 0
5 (5)2 4(1)(4)
x=
2(1)
5 25 16
x=
2
5 9
x=
2
53
x=
2
2 8
x= or
2 2
x = 1 or x = 4 the graph crosses the line x –axis at x = 1 and at x = 4
Since a = 1>0, the graph open, upwards.
The turning point:
There are two methods:
Method 1
- Add the roots: 1 + 4 = 5
- Divide by 2: 5/2 = 2.5
- Find the value of y:
y = (2.5)2 – 5(5/2) + 4
25 25
= - +4
4 2
If ax2 + bx + c = a (x + A)2 + B
25 50 16
=
4 The turning point is (-A ; B)
9
=
4
Hence: the turning point is ( 2,5 ; -9/4)
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Method 2
By completing the square.
25 25
x2 –5x + 4 = x2 – 5x + +4–
4 4
= (x – 5/2)2 – 9/4.
Hence the turning point is (5/2 ; - 9/4)
The y - intercept
Set x = 0 ; hence y = 02 – 5(0) + 4
y=4
y = x² - 5x + 4
4
5/2
x
-9/4
Example
2
Sketch the graph of y = -3x + 7x + 4.
Solution.
1. y = 0
- 3x 2 + 7x + 4 = 0
b b 2 4ac
x =
2a
7 72 4(3)(4)
x =
2(3)
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7 49 48
x =
6
7 97
x =
6
7 97 7 97
x = or
6 6
x=-0,474 or 2,8
2. Since a = -3<0, the graph opens downwards.
4. The turning point.
-3x 2 + 7x + 4 = a(x + A) 2 + B
= ax 2 + 2aAx + aA 2 + B
a = -3: 2aA = 7
2(-3) = 7
7
A =
6
aA 2 + B = 4
(-3) (-7/6)² + B = 4
-3 (49/36) + B = 4
-49/12 + B = 4
B = 4 + 49/12
97 7 97
B = hence: the turning point is ;
12 6 12
2.4 Solving cubic equations
A cubic function is a polynomial where the highest power of the variable is 3 i.e. of the form
3 2
y = ax + bx + cx + d where a 0
In solving the cubic equations, we expect to find at most three roots and at least one root
i. 1 root : This occurs when we have three (3) coincident points. That is to say
when we have a cubed factor.
3
Example (x + 2) = 0
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x = -2 thrice
ii. 2 roots : This occurs when we have 2 coincident points, that is, when we have
a squared factor.
2
Example : (x – 3) (x + 1) = 0
x = 3 twice or – 1
iii. 3 different roots: This occurs when we have three distinct factors
Example : (x + 1) (x – 4) (x + 5) = 0
x = -1 , -5 or 4
3 2
Example : Solve x + 2x – 5x – 6 = 0
To solve this equation, we will have to factorise it first. In order to do this we must first find
one of its factors using the factor theorem.
3 2
If x – b is a factor of x + 2x – 5x – 6 then the possible values of b are found by
considering all the factors of the constant term, -6. These are 1, 2, 3, 6
3
Trying ƒ(-1) = (-1) + 2 (-1)2 -5 (-1) - 6
(-1) = 0
Hence: x + 1 is a factor since f(-1) = 0: this method of factorization will be explored
further in the next chapter.
To find the other factors, we divide ƒ (x ) by x + 1
2
x +x–6
3 2
x + 1 x + 2x – 5x – 6
3 2
x +x
2
x – 5x
2
x +x
- 6x – 6
- 6x - 6
2
ƒ (x) = (x + 1)(x + x – 6) = 0
(x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 3 ) = 0
x = -1 , 2 , - 3
2.5 Cubic functions
There are three basic forms of graphs of cubic functions which depend on the number of
roots of the cubic equation.
CASE 1 :
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3
The point of
If the equation is y = x then the graph will have a point of inflexion at x = 0 inflexion is a
point where
3
Example : Sketch the graph of y = x the graph
changes
4 y
concavity e.g.
x = 0 for the
3
function y = x3
2
1
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2
–3
–4
Example : y = (x – 2)3 + 3
4 y
1
x
–1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
CASE 2:
With a repeated root in the equation, the graph both touches and crosses the axis.
Example : Sketch the graph of y = (x – 1)2 (x + 2)
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Putting (x – 1) 2 (x + 2) = 0
x = 1 twice or – 2
y
2
y = (x – 1) (x +2)
-2 1 x
2
y = (x + 1) (2 – x)
x
-1 2
Example : y = (x + 1)2 (2 – x)
2.6 Case 3 :Three distinct roots
Example
Sketch the graph of y = (x + 1)(x – 2) (x – 3)
x = -1 , 2 or 3
(a)
y = (x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)
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2.7 Examination type questions
1 (a) Solve y² - 7y + 10 = 0
(b) Hence find the solution to (x² + 1)² - 7(x² + 1) + 10 = 0
8
(c ) Solve for x:: x3 + 7 =
x3
1
(d) (i) By using the substitution p = x + , show that the equation
x
x
2x4 + x3 – 6x² + x – 2 = 0 reduce to 2p² +p – 10 = 0.
(ii) Hence solve 2x4 + x3 – 6x² + x + 2 = 0.
2 (a) Write x² + 6x + 14 in the form (x + a)² + b, where a and b are constants to
be found.
(b) Find the value of x for which this minimum occurs.
1
(c) Write down the maximum value of the function .
x 6 x 14
2
3 Find the range of values of k for which the quadratic equation
( 3 + k)x2 + 4x + k = 0
has real roots
4 Show that the elimination of x from the simultaneous equations
x – 2y = 1
3xy – y2 = 8
produces the equation
5y2 + 3y – 8 = 0
Solve this quadratic equation and hence find the pairs (x, y) for which the
simultaneous equations are satisfied
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CHAPTER 3
TRANSFORMATIONS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Sketch grafphs using transformations
3.1 Transformations of graphs
To transform a graph is to change either its shape or its location or both. These techniques
come in handy when we wish to sketch the graphs of given functions.
We start with either a standard graph or a given curve.
There are several transformations of interest to you.
i. y = ƒ(x) + k
This represents a translation of the graph of ƒ(x) by k units in the direction of y
Example: Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 1
We start by sketching the graph of y = x2 and then move it upwards by 1 unit.
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y
y = x2 + 1
The graph has been
2
y =x translated by
1 unit upwards hence
T=
1
1
x
Example Given the graph of y = ƒ(x) below sketch the graph of y = ƒ(x) -1
T=T = 0
y = f(x) -1
y = f(x) - 1
ii. y = ƒ (x - k)
This represents a translation by k units in the positive direction of x.
2
Example: Sketch the graph of y = (x – 3)
y
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2
y=x 2
y = (x – 3)
T= 3
0
3 x
Example
Given the graph of y = ƒ (x) below sketch the graph of y = ƒ (x + 2)
-2
T= 0
y = ƒ (x + 2)
1 2 3 x
-3 -2 -1
y = (ƒ x)
iii. y = -ƒ (x) : This represents a reflection about the line y = 0
2
Example Sketch the graph of y = - x
y
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y = x2
y = -x2
iv. y = ƒ (-x)
3
Example : Sketch the graph of y = (-x)
y
3
y = (-x )
v. y = k ƒ (x) This represents a stretch by a factor k in the direction of y.
Example: Given the graph of y = ƒ (x) below sketch the graph of y = 2 ƒ (x)
y = 2 ƒ (x)
6-
5-
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4-
3-
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y = ƒ (x)
vi. y = ƒ (ax): This represents a shear by a factor of 1/a in the direction of x.
Example
Given the graph of ƒ (x) below sketch the graph of y = ƒ (2x)
y
- (1,2) (2,2)
-
x
1 2 3 4 5 (6.0)
Example
a) A curve whose equation is y = x3 undergoes the following successive transformations
1. A translation of 2 units in the direction of x
2. scaling parallel to the y-axis by a factor 5
3. A translation of 3 units in the direction of y
Give the equation of the resulting curve
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b) Another curve undergoes the same transformations as above and the resulting
3x 1
function is y=
x2
What is the original equation?
a) Solution
3
i. Translating by 2 in the direction of the x-axis gives us y = (x – 2)
3
ii. The second transformation leads to y = 5(x – 2)
3
iii. The final transformation gives us y = 5 (x -2) + 3
b) Solution
Method 1
3
x–2 3x – 1
3x – 6
5
3x 1 5
3
x2 x2
1
From this, we deduce that the original function was y =
x
Method 2 : In this case we reverse the transformations starting with
the last one
3x 1
y=
x2
1. Translating by -3 units in the direction of y, we get
3x 1
y=
x2
3x 1 3( x 2)
=
x2
5
=
x2
1
2. Scaling parallel to the y-axis by a factor
5
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5 1
y=
x2 5
1
=
x2
x
3. Translating by -2 in the direction of x:
1
y=
x22
1
=
x
Example
-2 3 4 5 x
-6 y=f (x)
Given the above graph of y = f (x) sketch the following graphs of
(a) y=f(x– 2)
(b) y=f(x)+3
(c) y=4f(x)
(d) y = f( –2x ) , showing clearly points of intersections.
Solution:
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1. y = f ( x – 2 ) this is a translation T = 2 i.e. only the x – value s are affected.
0
x–2=-2
x = 0 i.e. – 2 0
x–2=0
x = 2 i.e. 0 2
x– 2=3
x = 5 i.e. 3 5
x–2=4
x = 6 i.e. 4 6
x–2=5
x = 7 i.e. 5 7
y
4
y=f(x– 2)
2
0 5 6 7 x
-6
The shape does not change.
b) y = f (x) + 3 this is a translation T 0 i.e. only y – values change.
3
y=0+3=3; y=-6+3=-3 y
0 3. ; -6 -3
7
y=4+3=7
47 y=f (x)+3
3
The shape does not change..
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-2 3 4 5
c) y = 4 f (x). A stretch S.F in y – direction.
y = 4 f ( - 2) = 0
0 0
y = 4f ( 0 ) = 4x – 6 = - 24
i.e -6 - - 24
y = 4f (4 ) = 4 x 4 = 16
hence 4 16
16
y= 4 f(x)
-2 3 4 5 x
-24
d ) y = f ( -2x) y
-2x = -2
x=1
i.e. -2 1
-2x = 0
x=0 4
i.e. 0 0
-2x = 3
x = -3/2 -5/2 -2 -3/2 1 x
i.e. 3 -3/2
-2x = 4
x = -2
i.e. 4 -2
-2x = 5
x = -5/2
i.e. 5 - 5/2
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3.2 Examination Type Questions
1. The function f is defined by f (x) = 3/x, x є, x > 0. The graph of g (x) is obtained
by translating the graph of f (x) by – 4 units parallel to the x – axis, and the graph of
h (x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of g (x) in the axis.
(a) Sketch the graphs of f (x) and h (x) on the same set of axis.
(b) Find the equations of g (x) and h (x).
(c) Find an expression for the image of the function f (x) under a translation
p
q
2. The graph of y = f(x) is given below
0 2 4
Sketch the graphs of
a) y = f(x – 2) b) y = f (4 – x) c) y = f(2 – x)
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CHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
State the domain and range of functions
Compute universese of functions
Identify the graphical relationship between the function and its universe
Compute compound functions
4.1 Definition
A function is a law or instruction for producing a single number from another number. We
say a function maps one number into another number.
Consider two non – empty sets A and B. A mapping from A to B is a rule which associates
with each element of A an element of B.
Case 1.
A
B
1
-1
2
0
5
-2
4
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0
3
Page 42
In this case each element of A maps to one and only one element of B. This is called a one
to one mapping.
Case 2.
In this case two elements of A map to one element of B. This is a two to one mapping or
simple many to one mapping.
-1 2
1 4
2 1
0 3
-2
Case. 3.
In this case one element of A maps to two elements of b. This is a many to many mapping.
1 3
4 4
A one to one or a many to one mapping is called a function. Hence cases 1 and 2 represent
functions, whilst case 3 does not represent a function.
We denote rules, which associates each element of A to elements of B by small letter e.g. f,
g, h etc.
Example: f (x) = x + 2 or f: x x + 2
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4.2 Domain of a function
The set A is called the domain of the function. These are input values of x, such that f(x) is
defined – “meaningful ”.
Example
f (x) = ( x – 2 ) is “meaningful” for x – 2 0 , hence all the real values of x for which
x – 2 0 constitute the domain of the function f ( x )
Example f ( x) = 1/(x – 1), f (x) is “meaningful” for
x – 1 0, hence x 1, x
i.e.all real values for which x 1 constitute the domain.
4.3 The range of a function
The points of set B, where x has corresponding values, is called the range of f (x), i.e the
range of f (x) is the set of all images of the pre images of the function.
For example;
Example: add 4 to a given number
Example: find the square root of a given number
These are written as:
(i) ƒ : x x + 4: read as ƒ is the function such that x is mapped onto x + 4
(ii) ƒ : x x : read as f is the function such that x is mapped onto x
The output values could be written as:
ƒ (x) = x + 4
ƒ (x) = x
Example:
Find the domain ƒ : x 1/ ( x + 2)
Solution
x +2 0
x -2
Example ƒ : x x2 , 1 < x < 10
For each domain there is a corresponding set of output values. This set is called the image
set on the range.
Example: Sketch the following functions stating their range
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(i) ƒ: x x 2
0x5
y
25
5
The range is 0 ƒ 25
(ii) ƒ : x (x – 3 )2, x IR, x 1
y
1 3 x
The range is ƒ 0
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Example
(iii) ƒ: x 1/ ( x-3), x 3, x
Range: y 0, y
The range is ƒ 0
y
(iv) ƒ : x x3 + 2 , -2 x 5
127
-2 5 x
-6
The range is -6 ƒ 127
4.4 Inverse functions
The inverse of a function (written as ƒ-1) is a function that reverses or undoes the effect or
mapping of a given function. It has the effect of mapping the range of a given function back
onto its domain.
If ƒ : x 2x + 5 , find the inverse
Let y = 2x + 5
y 5
x =
2
Interchanging x for y we get
x5 x5
y= , i.e. f –1 : x
2 2
That is ƒ- : x – (x + 3)3 find ƒ-1
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Solution: y = (x + 3)3
x = y 1/3 – 3
ƒ-1 x x1/3 – 3
Not every function has an inverse. The inverse function exists if and only if the
function is a one to one function.
Example: Does ƒ : x x2 have an inverse?
Testing for one to one function:
Solution: y = x 2 draw a line parallel to the x – axis.
If it crosses the graph more than
x = ± y once, the function is not one to one.
y = ± x
y
y = x2
The function is one to
one if for f (x1) = f (x2)
The line crosses at two different points then x1 = x2.
ƒ : x ± x is not a function. Hence ƒ : x x2 has no inverse
f (x1) = f(x2)
x12 = x22
x1 = x22 hence: x1 equals to the different points.
4.5 The graphs of functions and their inverses
The graph of ƒ –1 is found by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x and vice versa
Example: If ƒ : x3 sketch the graph of ƒ –1
y
f(x) = x3 y=x
y = f–1(x)
0 x
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Example
If ƒ : x ex , , Sketch the graph of ƒ -1
ƒ -1
Example : Is ƒ : x (x – 1)2 a one to one function?
Solution
ƒ : x (x – 1)2 is not a one to one function
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Example : Is ƒ : x x3
y
0 x
ƒ is a one to
one function
4.6 Compound / composite functions
Consider the two functions f (x) and g (x) = 2x + 3 where the domain of f is 1,2,3,4
and the domain of g is the range of f.
1 1 5
2 2 7
3 3 9
4 4 11
Domain of gof(x) g f (x) Range of gf( x )
The function of g of (x) whose domain is that of f and range is that of g, is called a
composite function. It is denoted by either g f(x), g of (x), or g [f(x)].
Hence: g f(x) = g f(x) = g[f(x)]
g f(x) = 2x + 3.
g.f(x) exist if Domain g Range f
Now: fog (x) = f [g (x)]
f.f(x) = f2(x) = f of (x) = f[f(x)]
Example
Functions f(x) and g(x) are designed by f: x 3 ; g: x x + 5
x
a) Write down an expression for f g (x) and hence solve the equation f g (x) = 2.
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b) Write down an expression for g f(x) and hence solve the equation of g f(x) = 7.
Solution:
x
a) f:g(x) = f [g(x)] =
x3
3
Hence .=2
x5
3= 2x + 10
2x = -7
x = -3.5
b) g f (x) = g[f(x)]
= 3 + 5
x
3 + 5x = 7x
2x = 3
x = 1.5
Example
Functions p(x) and q(x) are defined such that q(x) = x2 + 7, and qp(x) = 9x2 + 6x + 8. find
possible expressions for p(x)
Solution.
qp(x) = q[p(x)] = 9x2 + 6x + 8, from the composite function 9x2 + 6x + 8. p(x) = a x+ b.
We find the value of a and b.
Now: a2x2 + 2abx + b2 + 7 = 9x2 +6x + 8, equating coefficients.
a2 = 9 i.e a = 3
b2 + 7 = 8
b2 = 1 , hence p(x) (3x + 1)
b = 1.
Example
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x
The function f is designed by f (x) , , x1
x 1
(i) Find and simplify an expression for f.f(x).
(ii) Hence or otherwise, find an expression for f-1 (x).
(iii) State the range of f.
(iv) Suggest the rule for f n(x).
Solution.
(i) f.f (x) = f (f (x)) = x
x
(ii ) Since f.f(x) = x, hence f-1(x) =
x 1
x
(iii ) The range of f is the domain of f-1(x) = hence, range f: y 1, y
x 1
(iv) ff(x) = x
x
f0f(x) = .
x 1
f0f0f0f (x) = x
x
f5 (x) = .
x 1
x, n even
x
Hence. fn (x) = , n odd
x 1
4.7 Examination type questions
1. The functions f and g are defined with their respective domains by:
4
f: x → xε, x ≠ 1/3 and g: x → 2x² + 3 , xε,
3x 1
(a) Find the values of x for which f(x) = 3x
(b) Find the range of g.
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(c) The domain of fg is 1. Find fg(x) and state its range.
(d) Find f-1(x), the inverse of f(x)
2. The functions f and g are defined by f: x → x² - 9, xε,
(a) Find ff(x). Find all the values of x for which ff(x) = 40.
(b) Find gf(x). Sketch the graph of gf(x). Hence or other wise, solve the
equation gf(x) = 5x
3. Given that f ( x ) = x2 + 3, g(x) = 2x + a and fg(x) = 4x2 – 8x +7, calculate the value
of the constant a
4. i) Show that x2 + 4x + 7 = ( x + 2 )2 + a, where a is to be determined.
ii) Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 4x + 7,giving the equation of the axis of symmetry
and the coordinates of its vertex
The function f is defined by f : x x2 + 4x + 7 and has its domain the set of all real
numbers.
iii) Find the range of f.
iv) Explain, with reference to your sketch, why f has no inverse with its given
domain. Suggest a domain for f for which it has an inverse.
5. The function f with domain { x: x 0} is defined by f(x) = 8 / ( x + 2 )
(a) Sketch the graph of f and state the range of f
(b) Find f – 1 (x), where f – 1 denotes the inverse of f
(c) Calculate the value of x for which f(x) = f- 1 (x).
6. The function f is given by
f:x x2 – 8x , x , x 4
(i) Sketch the graph of f(x) .
(ii) Determine the range of f(x)
(iii) Find the value of x for which f(x) =20
(iv) Find f – 1 (x)
y = Inx
0 1 x
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7. The diagram shows the graph of y =1nx, sketch the graph of y=1n(x +a) , where a
is a constant such that a >1, and state the co –ordinates of the points of
intersection of the graph with the axis.
8. Functions f and g are defined by
3
f: x , x , x 0
x3
g:x x +1 x , ; x 0
Show that.
x6
gf : x: , x , ; x 0
x3
Express fg in a similar form.
Find (fg)-1 (x)
4.
o i x
The diagram shows the graph of y = 1nx, Sketch the graph of y = 1n (x+a), where a is a
constant such that a > 1, and state the co-ordinates of the points of intersection of the
graph with the axes.
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CHAPTER 5
INEQUALITIES, IDENTITIES, EQUATIONS AND
POLYNOMIALS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Solve disguised quadratic equations
Solve simultaneous equations where one is at least quadratic
Solve quadratic inequalities
Solve rational inequalities
Factorise polynomials using the remainder theorem
5.1 Equations
Disguised quadratic equations
We will now look at equations which do not appear to be quadratic, but in fact are.
Example
Solve for x :x4 – 13x2 + 36 = 0
Solution
Let y = x2, then y2 – 13y + 36 = 0
( y – 4)( y – 9) = 0
y = 4 or y = 9
hence x2 = 4 or x2 = 9
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x = 2 or x =3
Example
Solve for x :x6 = 8 + 2x3
Solution
Letting y = x3, then y2 = 8 + 2y
i.e y2 – 2y – 8 = 0
( y – 4)(y + 2) = 0
y = 4 or y – 2
hence x2 = 4 or x2 = - 2
We see that x2 = - 2 gives no real solutions.
However, x2 = 4 gives x = 2
Practice Questions
In each case solve for x
1. x4 – 2x2 – 3 = 0
2. x - 6x + 5 = 0
3. x8 + 16 = 17x4
Simultaneous Equations
We now look at simultaneous equations where one is at most quadratic.
Example
Solve the simultaneous equations y = 3x – 4 and y = x2 – 4x + 6
Solution
We eliminate y by substituting in the second equation 3x – 4 for y. to obtain
3x – 4 = x2 – 4x + 6
x2 – 7x + 10 = 0
(x – 5)( x – 2 ) = 0
x = 5 or x = 2
When x = 2: y = 3(2) – 4 = 2
When x = 5: y = 3(5) – 4 = 11
The solutions are x = 2, y = 2 and x = 5, y = 11
Example
Solve the simultaneous equations x + y = 2, x2 + 2y2 = 11
Solution
x + y = 2 y = 2 – x …(1)
x2 + 2y2 = 11……(2)
Substituting equation (1) in (2) gives
x2 + 2(2 – x)2 = 11
x2 + 2( 4 –4x + x2) = 11
x2 + 8 – 8x +2x2 – 11 = 0
3x2 – 8x – 3 = 0
( 3x +1)( x – 3) = 0
x = - 1/3 or x = 3
1 1
When, x = - , y = 2 – (- ) = 7/3
3 3
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When, x = 3, y = 2 – 3 = -1
1 7
S = {(- , ), (3, - 1)}
3 3
Practice Questions
1. Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations
a) y + 2x = 3 y2 + xy = 13 – 16x
b) x + y = 5 xy = 6
2. A right- angled triangle has sides of length x cm,y cm and (y – 2)cm, as
shown in the diagram. Given that the perimeter of the triangles is 60cm and
its area is 120cm2, derive the equations.
x + 2y = 62 [1]
xy – 2x = 240 [2] (y –2)cm y cm
x cm
Find the pairs of values of x and y which satisfy these equations. Which of
the answers works in practice.
5.2 Inequalities
5.2.1 Quadratic Inequalities
Definition: Every inequality, which patterns in either of the forms:
ax 2 + bx + c 0 or ax 2 + bx + c 0, where a 0 is called a quadratic inequality.
The following properties help to solve quadratic inequalities
1. a .b 0 a 0 and b 0 or a 0 and b 0
2. a. b 0 a 0 and b 0 or a 0 and b 0
Example: Solve for x: x 2 +2x - 8 0
Solution: and b2
(x + 4) (x – 2) 0
hence, x + 4 0 and x – 2 0 or x + 4 0 and x – 2 0
x - 4 and x 2 or x - 4 and x 2
x 2 or x - 4
Example: Solve for x: x 2 -3x - 10 < 0
Solution: x 2 -3x - 10 < 0
x + 2 > 0 and x – 5 < 0 or x + 2 < 0 and x – 5 > 0
x > - 2 and x < 5 or x < - 2 and x > 5
x > - 2 and x < 5
Given (x – a)(x – b) with a < b, the solution : (x – a)(x – b) > 0 is x < a or x > b and the
solution of (x – a)(x – b) < 0 is a < x < b.
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Example: Solve 2x 2 + 5x > 12
Solution: 2x 2 + 5x - 12 > 0
(2x - 3) (x – 4) > 0
2(x – 3/2) (x – (- 4)) > 0
x < - 4 or x > 3/2
However, a more elegant method is abound. From the notion of the graphs of quadratic
functions, we know that:
(a) if a > 0 the graph of the quadratic functions takes the following three forms
(i) y (ii) y
rr r2 x r1
b 2 – 4ac > 0 b 2 – 4ac 0
y
(iii)
b 2 – 4ac < 0
For part (i) f(x) > 0 for x < r1 x > r2
f(x) < 0 for r1 < x < r2
For part (ii) f(x) 0, x /{r1}
f(x) < 0 for no real value of x
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f(x) = 0 for x = r1
For part (iii) f(x) > 0 for x
f(x) < 0 for no value of x.
(b) If a < 0 the graph of the quadratic functions takes the following three forms.
y y
(i) (ii)
r1
r1 r2 x
b 2 - 4ac 0 b 2 - 4ac = 0
(iii) y For part (i) f(x) > 0 for r1 < x < r2
f(x) < 0 for x < r1 or x > r2
For part (ii) f(x) < 0, x /{r1}
f(x) > 0 for no real value of x
f(x) = 0 for x = r1
For part (iii) f(x) < 0 for x
f(x) > 0 for no value of x.
Summary
1. If a > 0 and b2 - 4ac > 0 the sign of the quadratic expression, ax 2 + bx + c changes over
the roots of the quadratic equation, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as shown in the number line below
+(plus) - ( minus) +(plus)
2. . If a > 0 and b2 - 4ac = 0 the sign of the quadratic expression, ax 2 + bx + c changes
over the roots of the quadratic equation, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as shown in the number line
below
+(plus) (equals) +(plus)
3. . If a > 0 and b2 - 4ac > 0 the sign of the quadratic expression, ax 2 + bx + c changes
over the roots of the quadratic equation, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as shown in the number line
below
+(plus)
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2 2
4. . If a < 0 and b - 4ac > 0 the sign of the quadratic expression, ax + bx + c changes
over the roots of the quadratic equation, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as shown in the number line
below
- ( minus) +(plus) - ( minus)
5. If a < 0 and b2 - 4ac = 0 the sign of the quadratic expression, ax 2 + bx + c changes over
the roots of the quadratic equation, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as shown in the number line below
- ( minus) =(equals) - (minus)
6. If a < 0 and b2 - 4ac < 0 the sign of the quadratic expression, ax 2 + bx + c changes over
the roots of the quadratic equation, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as shown in the number line below
- ( minus)
Example: Solve for x
1. (x + 4)( x – 3) 0
2 . (3 + x)( 6 –x) 0
3. x + 1 > 6x2
4. 5x 2 +11x + 6 0
Solution:
1. (x + 4)( x – 3) 0 + - +
a = 1 > and b2 - 4ac =49 > 0,
hence, -4 3
-4<x<3
2. (3 + x)( 6 –x) 0
a = -1 < 0 and b2 - 4ac = 81 > 0, hence,
- + -
-3 6
x -3 or x 6
3. x + 1 > 6x2
0 > 6x2 - x -1
6x2 - x –1 < 0
a = 6 > 0 and b2 - 4ac = 25 > 0, hence,
+ - +
-⅓ ½
- 1/3 < x < 1/2
4. 5x 2 +11x + 6 0
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2
a = 5 > 0 and b - 4ac = 1 > 0, hence,
+ - +
-6/5 -1
x - 6/5 or x - 1
5 5x 2 +5x + 6 < 0
a = 5 > 0 and b2 - 4ac = -95 < 0, hence, S = { }
5.3 Rational Inequalities
An inequality of the form f(x) / g(x) < 0 (or >), where g(x) 0 is called a rational
3x 3
inequality, e.g. >3
2x 1
Let f(x) / g(x) < 0, hence multiplication by (g ( x ) )2 does not affect the inequality
sign
Example
Solve for x
x3
>2
x 1
Solution
x3 x3 x 3 2( x 1) f 2
> 2 -2 >0
x 1 x 1 x 1
x5
> 0 ( -x - 5 )( x + 1) > 0
x 1
The critical points are - 5 and – 1
- + -
-5 -1
-5 < x < -1
5.4 Polynomials
Definition
A polynomial is an algebraic expression of the form a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + a3 x 3 +….+ anxn,
where , ai are constants.
Polynomials can be added, multiplied or subtracted using the methods learnt at “O” level.
In this chapter we will only be concerned with the division of the polynomials
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5.4.1 Division of Polynomials
17
One way of writing if 17 divided by 3 is = 5 remainder 2
3
OR
19 = 3 x 5 + 2
called the quotient called the remainder
We apply the same method to polynomial division.
Example: Find the quotient and the remainder when the polynomial x 3 + 4x 2 – 3x + 2 is
divided by x – 1.
Solution:
Writing x 3 + 4x 2 – 3x + 2 in terms of a quotient and a remainder gives an expression of
the form.
x 2 + 4x 2 – 3x + 2 ≡ (x –1) ( )+ ( ).
Quotient Remainder
We can see, that the quotient, q (x) is of the form q (x) = ax 2 + b x + c. Therefore,
x 3 + 4x 2 - 3x + 2 ≡ (x –1) (ax 2 + bx + c) + r
Expanding and collecting like terms.
x 3 + 4x 2 - 3x + 2 ≡ a x 3 + b x 2 + cx – ax x 2 – bx –c +r
≡ a x 3 + (b- a)x 2 + (c –b)x + r – c
Comparing the coefficients of the x 3 terms gives: a = 1
Comparing the coefficients of the x 2 terms gives:
5= b –a …(1)
Comparing the coefficients of the x terms gives:
-3 = c – b. …(2)
Comparing the constant terms gives
1= r –c …(3)
b –a = 5 b- c = 3
c–b=-3 -c=3-b
r –c = 1 c=2
b=4+a r- c = 2
b=4+1 r=2+c
b=5 r=4
Therefore q (x) = x 2 + 5x + 2 and the remainder is 4. Now,
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3 2
let f (x) = x + 4x - 3x + 2,substituting x = 1 in f (x), we obtain: f (1) = 4.
It is not a coincidence that the remainder is equals f (1).
Alternatively, we can use long division.
x 2 + 5x + 2
x –1 x 3 + 4x 2 - 3x + 2
x 3 - x 2 (subtract)
5x 2 - 3x + 2 (subtract)
5x 2 - 5x
2x + 2
2x - 2 (subtract)
4
hence, q (x) = x 2 + 5x + 2 and the remainder: r = 4
Let f (x) be a polynomial of degree n, and g (x) = ax + b be the divisor and q (x) a
polynomial of degree (n –1), be the quotient and r, the remainder, hence:
f(x) = g(x) . q(x) = r.
If g(x) =0 i.e. ax + b = 0, then x = - b/a, a ≠ 0
Hence,f( - b/a) = 0 . q( - b/a) + r
Then:
f(- b/a) = r
Note:
1.f (- b/a) is the remainder, if the polynomial f (x) is divided by ax +b
2.If f (-b/a) = 0, then ax + b is the factor of the polynomial f (x)
5.5 The Remainder Theorem
If the polynomial f (x) is divided by ax + b, the remainder is
f (- b/a)
Example:
The expression 2x 3 -3x 2 + ax – 5 gives a remainder of 17 when divided by
x – 2. Find the value of the constant a.
Solution
f (x) = 2x 3 -3x 2 + ax – 5
x–2=0
x=2
f(2) = 17
2(2) 3 –3(2) 2 + a (2) – 5 = 17
16 – 12 – 2a – 5 = 17
- 2a = 18
a=-9
Example:
The expression x 3 +px 2 + qx – 10 is divisible by x – 2, and leaves a remainder of 5 when
divided by x + 3. Find the values of the constants p and q
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Solution
f(x) = x 3 +px 2 + qx – 10
f(2) = 0
(2) 3 +p(2) 2 + q(2) – 10 = 0
8 + 4p + 2q – 10 = 0
2p + q = 1 …..(1)
f( - 3) = 5
( - 3) 3 +p( - 3)2 + q( - 3) – 10 = 5
- 27 + 9p – 3q – 10 = 5
9p – 3q = 42
3p – q = 14 …..(2)
2p + q = 1
3p – q = 14
5p = 15
p=3 2(3) + q = 1, i.e. q = - 5
Example
Show that the equation x 3 – 5x 2 +2x- 10 = 0 has only one real solution, and state its value.
Solution
Let f(x) = x 3 – 5x 2 + 2x - 10
Try, factors of - 10, i.e. ± 1, ± 2, ± 5, ± 10
x2+2
x-5 x 3 – 5x 2 + 2x - 10
x 3 – 5x 2
2x – 10
2x – 10
Hence x 3 – 5x 2 + 2x - 10 ≡ (x – 5) (x 2 + 2)
i.e. (x – 5) (x 2 + 2 ) = 0
x – 5 = 0 or x 2 + 2 ≠ 0
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x=5 is the only root
Example
f(x) ≡ 2x 3 – 9x 2 + 7x + 6
(a) Factorise f(x) into its linear factors
(b) Solve the equation f(x) = 0
(c) Solve the in equation f(x) ≤ 0
Solution
(a) f(x) ≡ 2x 3 – 9x 2 + 7x + 6
Try the factors of 6, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6
f(2)= 2 4 – 9 x 4 + 7 x 2 + 6
f(2) = 0
hence : x - 2 is a factor.
f(3) = 2(3)3 – 9 (32 ) + 7 (3) + 6
f(3) = 0: x –3 is a factor. Therefore (x –2)( x –3) is also a factor i.e x 2 -5x + 6
2x + 1
5x 2 -5x + 6 2x 3 – 9x 2 + 7x + 6
2x 3 – 10x 2 + 12x
x 2 -5x + 6
x 2 -5x + 6
b) f(x) = 0 i.e. (2x +1)(x –2)(x –3) =0
2x +1=0 or x –2 = 0 or x –3 =0
x – ½ or x =2 or x =3
c) f(x) 0: . (2x +1)(x –2)(x –3) =0
- + - +
-1/2 2 3
S = { x: x - ½ or 2 x 3}
5.6 Examination type questions
1. Show that (x- 2) is a factor of x 3 – 9x 2 + 26x – 24. Find the set of values of x
for which x 3 – 9x 2 + 26x -24 < 0
2. The cubic polynomial x 3 +Ax - 12 is exactly divisible by x +3. Find the constant
A, and solve the equation x 3 +Ax - 12 = 0 for this value of A.
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3 2
3. Given that f(x) = m x + (m +n) x + (m + n)x +2 is exactly divisible by
(x +1), express n in terms of m. Show that,if in this case, the equation f(x) = 0
has only one real root then m2 – 6m + 4 < 0
4. Show that x + 1 is a factor of x3 – 3x² + 4. Hence solve the equation
x3 - 3x2 + 4 = 0.
Given that x = 3y, show that x3 - 3x² + 4 = 33 y – 32 y + 1 + 4
Hence, solve the equation 33 y – 32 y + 1 + 4 = 0
Giving your answer to 3d.p.
5. A function is defined as f(x) = 2x4 – 3x3 – 12x² + 7 x + 6
(i) Find f(1) and f(-2), hence state a factor of f(x).
(ii) Express f(x) in the form (x + a)(x + b)(cx² + dx + e) where a, b, c, d, and e
are constants to be determined.
(iii) Solve the equation f(x) = 0
(iv) Solve the inequality f(x) ≤ 0
(v) Without further calculations, sketch the graph of y = f(x).
6. The cubic polynomial x3 + Bx – 9 is exactly divisible by x + 2. Find the constant
B, and solve the equation x³ + Bx – 9 for this value of B.
7. Solve the inequality
3x + 1 > 3
x–1 x- 2
2
8. Solve y – 7y +10 = 0
Hence find the solutions to (x2 +1)2 – 7(x2 + 1) + 10 = 0
9. In order to make a new type of beer, a brewer decides to mix x kg of malt with y
kg
of hops, in such a way that x and y satisfy the following equations:
x+y=8 x – y = 24/x
Find the pairs of values of x and y which satisfy these equations. Which of
these answers can the brewer use in practice?
10. If x + 2 and 2x – 1 are factors of fc(x) = 2x3 +ax2 +bx +6, find a and b
determine the third factor.
11. If x +2 and 2x –1 are factors of f(x) = 2x3 +ax2 +bx +6, find a and b and
determine the third factor.
12. Show that both (x - 3) and (x +3) are factors of x4 +x3 – x2 – 3x - 6.
Hence write down one quadratic factor of x4 +x3 – x2 - 3x –6,and find a second quadratic
factor of this polynomial.
13. Express 2x² +5x +4 in the form a(x +b)2 +c, stating the numerical values of a,
b and c. Hence, or otherwise, write down the co – ordinates of the minimum
point on the graph of y= 2x2 +5x +4
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14. Express in partial fractions
x2 +3x + 1
(x +1) (x +2)
15. Solve the simultaneous equations
2x +3y =5
y2 –yx =5
CHAPTER 6
MODULUS FUNCTIONS.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Define the basic modullus functions x
Sketch graphs of modulus functions
Solve modulus equations
Solve modululs inequalities
6.1 Modulus functions
The term modulus means the size or magnitude or absolute value
So 8 8
and 8 8
The graph of y= |ƒ(x)|
To sketch the graph of y = |ƒ(x)|, we should first sketch the graph of y = ƒ(x) and then
reflect the negative part about the x-axis all the parts of this graph which lie below the x-axis.
The modulus function is given by the equation y = | x |
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The graph.
y Sketch the graph of y = x
and reflect its negative point
about the x – axis.
0 x
x for x 0
Def: |x|=
- x for x < 0
Properties.
Domain: x *
Range: y 0
Min point (0,0)
Not one to one, hence does not posses an inverse.
Example Sketch the graph of y = x 1
Solution:
Sketch the graph of y = x and translate it through 1 unit in
the positive x – direction, the resultant graph is the graph of
y = x 1
y
y = x 1
1
x
0 1
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Example Sketch the graph of y = x 4 2
y
Solution
2
The graph of y = x – 4 is
2
y=x –4
2
x
-2
-4
The graph of y = x 2 4 is
y 4
2
y=|x –4|
x
-2 2
Example
Sketch the graph of y = 2 x 1
Solution y
y = 2x 1
1/2 x
-1
Example
Sketch the graph of y = x3 2 x 2 5 x 6
Hence y = ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3)
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The graph of y = (x – 1)(x +2)( x – 3) is
10 y
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–5
3 2
The graph of y =| x – 2x – 5x + 6| is
10 y
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–5
-2 1 3
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Example
Sketch the graph y = x 2 + x 1
-1 2
x<-1
y = -(x-2) – (x+1) y
= -x + 2 – x – 1
= -2 x + 1
-1 x < 2 y = x 2 x 1
3
y = -x(x – 2) + (x +1)
= -x + 2 = x + 1
=3
x2 -1 2 x
y=x–2+x+1
=2x - 1
6.2 Modulus equations.
CASE 1: Modulus on both sides
(a) Algebraic Method
Method 1: Squaring both sides
Example
: Solve 2 x 3 x 1
2 2
(2x + 3) – (x – 1)
2 2
4x + 12x + 9x – 2x + 1
2
3x + 14x + 8 = 0
(3x + 2)(x + 4) = 0
x = - 2/3 and - 4
Method 2: The analytic method
Solve 2 x 3 x 1
Solution: The critical points are: 2x + 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0
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The method
uses the
definition of
Page 70
i.e. x = -3/2 or x = 1
-3/2 1
Case 1. x - 3/2
-( 2x + 3) = 3 – ( x – 1)
-2x - 3 = -x + 1
2x – x = -3-1
x = -4
Hence: x = -4 is admissible since –4< -3/2
Case 2.
-3/2 x 1
2x + 3 = - (x –1)
2x + 3 = -x +1
3x = -2
x = -2/3
x = -2/3 is admissible since –2/3 [-3/2;1]
2x + 3, x -3/2
Note: 2 x 3 =
-2 x –3 , x < -3/2
And. x 1 = x–1 , x 1
-x + 1 , x < 1
2x + 3 = -x + 1
3x = -2
2
x=
3
S = -2/3 , -4
Case 3.
x1
2x + 3 = x –1
2x – x = -1-3
x = -4
x = -4 is admissible since x = -4 1
Hence: S = -4; -2/3
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(b) The Graphical Method
Sketch the graphs of y = 2 x 3 and y = x 1 on the same axis. It is important to
make them realistic.
We note that the line segments which intersect are
(i) y = x + 1 and y = 2x – 3
at the point of intersection: -x + 1 = - 2x – 3
x=-4
y = 2x +3
y = -x +
1 y=x-1
y = 2x - 3 -
-
-
-
-
-½
(ii) y = -x + 1 and y = 2x + 3
- x + 1 = 2x + 3
x = - 2/3
Example
1 2x
: Solve the equation 1
3x 6
2 2
(a) (1 - 2x) = (3x + 6)
2 2
1 – 4x + 4x = 9x + 36x + 36
2
5x + 40x + 35 = 0
2
x + 8x + 7 = 0
(x + 1)(x + 7) = 0
x = -1 and -7
Alternatively.
|1-2x | = 1 – 2x ; x < ½ and 2x – 1 ; ½
|3x + 6| = 3x + 6 ; x -2 and -3x – 6 ; < -2
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-2 ½
x< -2
-3x –6 = 1 –2x
-3x + 2x = +7
-x = +7
x = -7 is admissible.
-2 x < ½
3x + 6 = 1 – 2x
5x = -5
x = -1 admissible
x½
3x + 6 = 2x – 1
x = -7 is admissible.
Hence: s = -7 ; -1
Method 3.
1 2x
1
3x 6
1 2 x 3x 6
1 – 2x = ( 3x +6)
1 – 2x = 3x + 6 or 1- 2x = -(3x + 6)
-2x –3x = 6 – 1 -2x + 3 = -6 –1
-5x = 5 x = -7
x = -1
S = -7 ; -1
The graphical method
y
y = 3x - 6
y = 3x + 6
y = 2x + 1
y = 2x - 1
6-
4-
2-
½-
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-2
½
-
-
Page 73
(i) 1 – 2x = 3x + 6
5x = - 5
x=-1
(ii) 1 – 2x = 3x – 6
x=-7
x = -1 and - 7
CASE III : Modulus on one side only
Example
Solve 3x 3 2 x 1
Method 1: squaring both sides.
Since 3x 3 2 x 1
Hence: 2x +10
i.e. x -½, this is the domain of the equation
then 3x 3 2 x 1 for values x -1 hence square both sides.
|3x - 3|2 = (2x +1)2
Square both sides only if
(3x – 3)2 = (2x +1)2 both sides are positive or
9x2 – 18x + 9 = 4x2 + 4x + 1 both sides are negative.
9x2 – 4x2 – 18x – 4x +8 = 0
5x2 – 22x + 8 = 0
(3x 3)(3x 3) 9 x 2 9 x 9 x 9
9 x 2 18 x 9
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b b 2 4ac
x
2a
22 222 4 5 8
x
2(5)
22 484 16
x
10
22 324
x
10
22 18
x
10
4 40
x orx
10 10
2
x or 4
5
2 1
Since , 4
5 2
S 0, 4, 4
Method 2
3x 3 2 x 1
3x – 3 = 0 ; 2x + 1 = 0
x=1 x = -½
-½ 1
We only analyse for x -½
Case 1:
-½ x < 1
2x + 1 = -3x + 3
5x = 2
x = 2/5 > -½ admissible.
Case 2.
x1
3x – 3 = 2x + 1
x = 4 > 1 admissible
Hence: S = { 2/5 ; 4}
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Method 3.
x -½
3x 3 2 x 1
3x – 3 = (2x + 1)
3x – 3 = 2x + 1
x=4
3x – 3 = 2x - 1
5x = 2
x = 2/5
S = { 2/5 ; 4}
The graphical Method
y
y = 2x + 1
y = 3x + 3
3- y = 3x - 3
1-
½(i) 2x + 1 = 3x – 3 x
1
(i) 2x + 1 = 3x - 3
2x - 3x = -4
x =-4
(ii) 2x + 1= -3x +3
5x = 2
x = 2/5
x = 2/5 or x = 4
Example
Solve 2 x 1 3x 1 y
y = 2x + 1
y = 2x - 1
y = 3x - 1
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-½ 3
3x – 1 = 2x + 1
x=2
Squaring both sides
3x – 1 0
x 1/3
Hence: 2 x 1 (3x 1)2
2
(2x + 1)2 = 9x2 – 6x + 1
4x2 + 4x + 1 = 9x2 – 6x + 1
9x2 – 4x2 – 6x –4x = 0
5x2 – 10x = 0
5x(x-2) =0
x =0 or x = 2
S = {2}
Alternatively.
2 x 1 3x 1
2
2x + 1 = ( 3x – 1)
2x + 1 = 3x – 1
-x = -2
x=2
2x + 1 = -3x + 1
5x = 0
x = 0< 1/3
Since 0<1/3, inadmissible hence S = 2
Example
Solve x2 5x 6 x 1
Solution:
You may square both sides, but algebraic calculations are tedious we apply the second
method, that of considering cases.
x2 5x 6 x 1
( x 2)( x 3) x 1
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Method 3.
x2 5x 6 x 1
x2 – 5x + 6 = ( x + 1)
x2-5x + 6 = x + 1 OR x2 – 5x + 6 = -x –1
x2 –5x – x + 6x – 1 = 0 x2 – 4x + 7 = 0
x2 – 6x + 5 = 0 x = 4 16 – 28
x = 1 or 5 2
s = 1;5 no real solutions.
-1 2 3
Case 1:
x < -1
x2 – 5x + 6 = - (x + 1)
x2 – 5x + x + 6 + 1 = 0
x2 –4x + 7 =0
b 16 28
x=
2
16 – 28 <0
No real solutions
S1 =
Case 2.
-1 x < 2
x2 – 5x + 6 = x + 1
x2 – 5x – x + 6 – 1 = 0
x2 – 6x + 5 = 0
(x – 1)(x – 5) = 0
x = 1 or x = 5 inadmissible.
S2 = 1
Case 3.
2x<3
-(x2 – 5x + 6) = x + 1
-x2 + 5x – 6 = x + 1
-x2 + 5x – x – 6 – 1 = 0
-x2 + 4x – 7 = 0
= 16 – 28 < 0
No real solutions
S3 =
Case 4.
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x 3
x2 – 5x + 6 = x + 1
x2- 5x + 6 – x – 1 = 0
x2 - 6x + 5 = 0
(x-1)(x – 5) = 0
x = 5 or x = 5
x = 5 admissible
S4 = 5
Hence: S = S1 S2 S3 S4
S = 1;5
6.3 Modulus Inequalities
These can be solved using similar methods used in modulus equations The algebraic method
is preferable.
6.3.1 Properties of the modulus inequalities
(i) | x | a - a x a
(ii) | x | a x - a or x a Used for solving
modulus
inequalities.
Example: |x| < 3
-3<x<3
Example: |4x - 3| < 5
- 5 < 4x- 3 < 5
-2 < 4x < 8
-½<x<2
Example | x| > 7
x >7 or x < -7
Example |2x + 1| > 9
2x + 1 < - 9 or 2x + 1 > 9
2x < - 10 or 2x > 8
x < -5 or x > 4
Example
Solve x 1 f x 2
Squaring both sides : (x - 1)2 > (x + 2) 2
x2 – 2x + x2 + 4x + 4
6x < 3
x<-½
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Example
Solve 2 x 1 f 3x 2
(a) Squaring both sides (2x – 1) 2 > (3x – 2) 2
4x2 – 4x + 1 > 9x2 – 12x + 4
5x2 – 8x + 3 < 0
(5x- 3)(x – 1) < 0
Changing this to an equation (5 x- 3)( x- 1) = 0
x = 3/5 and x = 1
These are the critical values of x.. These divide the number line into three regions as shown
below.
x < 3 /5 3
/5 < x < 1 x>1
3
/5 1
S ={ x: x real: 3/5 < x < 1}
Alternatively.
We make the following table determining the sign of each factor in each region by
substitution.
x < 3/5 3
/5 < x 1 x>1
5x - 3 - + +
x–1 - - +
(5x – 3)(x-1) + - +
3
From the last row (5x – 3)(x-1) < 0 (that is to say is negative when /5 < x < 1 which is our
solution.
If the question was changed to:
Solve 2 x 1 f 3x 2
The solution set would be where
(5x – 3)(x-1) > 0 and this would be
x < 3/5 or x > 1
Example
Solve 2x 5 f x 4
4x2 + 20x + 25 > x2 – 8x + 16
3x2 + 28x + 9 > 0
(3x + 1) (x + 9) > 0
1
The critical values are x = and x = -9
3
x < -9 - 9 < x< - ⅓ x>-⅓
3x + 1 - - +
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x+9 - + +
f(x) + - +
2x 5 f x 4 if x < -9 or x > - ⅓
Example
Solve 2 x 1 p 3x 2
We will start by sketching the two graphs: y = 2 x 1 and y = 2 x 1
4 y
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
Solving for x at P : 2x – 1 = -3x + 2
5x = 3
x = 3/5
Solving for x at Q : 2x – 1 = 3x – 2
x= 1
From the question we want to find the range of values of x for which the graph of
y = | 2 x – 1| lies below the graph of y =|3x – 2|. This is 3/5< x < 1 as we found earlier.
The Analytic Method
Solve for 2 x 1 p 3x 2
Solution
The critical points are 1/2 and 2/3
1/2 2/3
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x<½ ½ < x< 2/3
- (2x – 1) < - ( 3x –2) 2x – 1 < - (3x –2)
x<1 5x < 3
S1 ={ x: ½ < x < 1} x < 3/5
S2 = {x: ½ < x < 3/5}
x > 2/3
2x –1 < 3x -2
-x < - 1
x>1
S3 = { x:x >1}
S = S1 S2 S3
S = { x: = ½ < x < 3/5}
Example
Solve 2 x 2 f 3x 6
Solution:
Squaring both sides: since 2 x + 2 > 0
i.e. x -1.
(2x + 2 )2 > (3x – 6)²
4x2 + 8 x+ 4 > 9x2 – 36x + 36
-5x2 + 44x – 32 > 0
5x2 – 44x + 32 < 0
x = -b b2 – 4ac
2a
x = 44 (442 – 4 x 5 x 32)
2(5)
x = 44 (1936 – 640)
10
x = 441296
10
x = 44 36
10
x = 8 or 4/5
+ - +
4/5 8
4/5 < x < 8
-1 4/5 8
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6.4 Examination Type Questions
1. The diagram shows the graph of y = f(x)
4 y
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
y = f(x)
On separate diagram sketch the graphs of: (i) y = f(x)
(ii) y = f(|x|)
(iii) y = f(- 1 x 1)
2. (a) Solve the inequality x p x 2
(a) The function f is defined by f(x) = x 3 , xє, sketch the graph of f. Solve
the inequality x 3 < ½x.
1
3. (a) On the same diagram. Sketch the graphs of y = and y = 4 x 2
x2
show clearly the coordinates of any points of intersection with the coordinate
axes.
1
(c) Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which < 4| x 2
x2
4. The figure shows the graphs of y = f(x) with f(x) = 0 for x ≥ 2.
On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of:
(a) y = f(x + 2) (b) y = f(2x) (c) y = 2 f(½x)
(d) y = f(x (f) y = f(1 x 1) (g) y = f(x) – 3
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5. Sketch the graph of y = x +2 and hence, or otherwise, solve the inequality.
x 2 > 2x +1 , X.
6. Find the set of values of x for which
2x 1 > x 1
7. Sketch the graph of y = 1x + 2l and hence, or otherwise, solve the inequality
1x + 2l > 2x +1, X.
8. The curve y = ¼x² – 1 and the line 2y = x+10 intersect at the points A and B, O is
the origin. Calculate the co-ordinates of A and B, and hence show that OA and
OB are perpendicular.
11. The position vectors of three points A, B and C with respect to a fixed origin O are
2i – 2j + k, 4i + 2j + k and i + j + 3k respectively. Find the unit vectors in the directors
of CA and CB. Calculate angle ACB in degrees, correct to 1 decimal place.
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CHAPTER 7
LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Sketch graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions
Solve equations of type a x b
Solve inequalities of type a x f b
Solve problems involving exponential growth and decay
7.1 Theorem of logarithms
The student should recall that:
x
(i) If a = n log an = x
(ii) log (a .b) = log a + log b
(iii) log (ab) = loga – log b
m
(iv) log a = m log a
-1
(v) log a = - log a
7.2 The graph of the exponential function
An expression of the form y = ax is called an exponential function. When the base is the
number e, that is when y = ex, this is called the exponential function. Its graph is as
shown below:
y y = ex
1-
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By transforming this standard graph, we can sketch the graphs of related functions
Example: Sketch the graph of y = e x + 3
20
10
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x + 2
Example: y = e
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10 y
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
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Example: y = 3e x
6 y
1
x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
Example :
y = e x
10 y
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
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7.3 The graphs of the logarithm functions
Logarithms to base e are called Natural or Naperian logarithms while those to base 10
are called decimal logarithms. Earlier we stated that:
If ax = n log an = x
Hence ,e = n ln n = x
x
y = ex and y = ln x are universe functions. The graph of y = ln x is therefore a reflection
of the graph of y = ex about the line y = x
y
y = ex
y=x
y = lnx
NB: y = ln x exists if and only if x > 0
From the standard graph of y = ln x we can obtain the graphs of other logarithms
functions by transformations.
Example : y = ln(x + 2)
y
y = ln(x + 2)
y = ln x
Example : y = ln x + 2
-2 -1 0 1 x
y
y = ln x + 2
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y = ln x
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Example : y = 5 lnx
y = 5 lux
y = lux
0 1 x
Example : y = 3 ln (x + 1) + 2
6 y x
5
1
x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
x
7.4 Equations of the type a = b
These are solved by taking logarithms on both sides.
x
Example: Solve : 3 = 10
x
Taking logs : ln 3 = ln 10
x ln 3 = ln 10
x = ln 10
ln 3
= 2.1
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2x+1 3x
Example Solve : 3 = 10
2x+1
Solution : ln (3 ) = ln 10
(2x + 1) ln 3 = 3x ln 10
2x ln 3 + ln 3 = 3x ln 10
ln 3 = 3x ln 10 – 2x ln 3
x = ln 3
3ln 10 – 2 ln 3
= 0.23
x
7.5 Inequalities of the type a > b
NB: It is important to remember that when you divide or multiply an inequality by a negative
number, the sign of the inequality changes.
x–3
Example : Solve 2 > 43 where x is an integer and find its least value.
Solution : (x – 3) ln 2 > ln 43
x ln 2 > ln 43 + 3 lu 2
x > ln 43 + 3 ln 2
> 8.4
The least value of x is 9.
n-10
Example : Solve (0.34) > 12
Solution : (n – 10) ln 0.34 > ln 12
n ln 0.34 > ln 12 + 10 ln 0.34
n < ln 12 + 10 ln 0.34
ln 0.34
n < 7.69
7.6 Exponential growth and decay
An exponential growth or decay function is a special case of a geometric progression. It
represents a function, which increases or decreases by a constant factor (the growth
factor) over fixed line intervals. It is of the form, x = x0e-kt for a decay function and
x = x0ekt for a growth function.
Example
The number of people (N) who visited a New Start Center t months after it opened is
0,4 (t – 2)
given by 48e
(a) State the value of N when t = 3
(b) Determine the value of t to the nearest whole number when N has risen to 95.
0,4 (t – 2)
Solution : (a) N = 48e
0,4
when t = 3, N = 48e
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= 71.6
= 72 people
0,4 (t – 2)
(b) N = 48 e
0.4 (t – 2)
when N = 95 => 95 = 48e
95 0.4 (t – 2)
= e
48
ln 95 – ln48 = 0.4 (t – 2)
1
t–2 = ( ln 95 – ln48)
0.4
1
t = 2 + (ln 95 – ln48)
0.4
= 3.71 months
= 4 months (to the nearest whole
number)
Example:
At time t days, the number of radio active atoms present when a particular element decays
16 –4 t
satisfies the equation N = 10 e
(a) State the number of radio-active atoms present initially.
(b) Determine the time for the number of atoms to be reduced to half their initial
number (that is the half-size of the element)
16
Solution (a) when t = 0 , N = 10
16
(b) at the half-life N = ½ (10 )
=> ½ = - 4t
ln (½) = - 4t
t = - ¼ ln 0.5
= 0.17 days
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7.7 Examination Type Questions
1. The function f (x) = 2 – ex
has an inverse function f – 1.Find
a) f – 1 ( x ) b) the domain of f - 1
2. The amount of radioactive element decreases spontaneously over time because of
the process of radioactive decay. The increase is known to be exponential, so that the
amount y, in grams of a particular element present after time t, in years of decay can
be described by the equation
y = Ae - kt
where A and k are positive constants.
a) The amount (y grams) present at time t (years) in a sample of the radio
active element radium is given approximately by
y = 1000e – 0.0005t
(i) Calculate the initial amount of radium in the sample
ii) Calculate the amount of radium in the sample after 15 years.
iii) What is the average rate of decay (in grams per year) of the radium
sample over the first 500 years?
iv) Write down an equation for the instantaneous rate of change at any
time t of the amount of the given sample of radium.
v) Sketch the graph of the rate of change of the amount of radium versus
time in the sample as it decays radioactively.
(b) A sketch of the equation for the amount of a sample of the
Radioactive element uranium is shown below.
y
600
500
400
300
200
100
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 t
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It is known that the half-life of this element is 50 years. that is it takes 150 years for a given
sample of uranium to decay to half its initial amount. The equation which models the
amount of uranium (y grams) present in a given sample at any time (t years) is given by
y = ae - bt
From the information given above, find a and b for the element uranium. Give the value b
to four decimal places.
3. Solve the inequality (0,96) n-1 < 56 giving the least or largest value.
CHAPTER 8
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COORDINATE GEOMETRY
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Calculate distance and gradient between two points
Identgify relationships between lines using gradients
State te equation of a circle
State the centre and radius of a circle
Convert parametric equatons to Cartesian equations and vice versa
8.1 Distance and gradient
The student should recall that given two points A (x1; y1) and B (x2; y2) on a line as shown
below:
(i) The distance AB = |AB| = ( x1 x2 )2 ( y1 y2 )2
y3 y1
(ii) The gradient of AB (m) =
x2 x1
(iii) The midpoint (M) of x
x1 x2 y1 y2
AB = ;
2 2
(i) perpendicular lines: If two lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular,
then m1 . m2 = -1
(ii) parallel lines: If two lines are parallel then m1 = m2
(iii) the equation of a line is: y = mx + c
Example:
Given the points A (2,2); B (3,4) and C (1,5). Find (i) the equation of the line joining C to the
midpoint (m) of AB. (ii) its length
Solution:
2 3 2 4
M 2 ; 2
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5
= M ;3
3
53
Gradient of CM =
5
1
2
4
G=
3
y 5 4
Finding the equation:
x 1 3
3 (y – 5) = -4(x – 1)
3y = -4x + 19
5
|CM| = ( 1) (5 3) 2
2
= 2,5
Example Show that 5y = -2x + 5 and 2y = 5x + 6 are perpendicular.
Solution: 5y = 2x + 5
2x
y= +1
5
2
m1 =
5
2y = 5x + 6
5x
y= +3
2
5
m2 =
2
2 5
m1 x m2 = x
5 2
= -1
5y = -2x + 5 and 2y = 5x + 6 are perpendicular
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Example:
(i) Find the points of intersection of the line 2x + y = 5 and the circle
2 2
x + y = 50
(ii) How far apart are they ?
Solution: 2x + y =5
y = -2x + 5
2 2
Substituting for y in x + y = 50
2 2
x + (-2x + 5) = 50
2 2
x + 4x – 20x + 25 = 50
2
5x – 20x – 25 = 0
2
x – 4x – 5 = 0
(x + 1)(x - 5) = 0
x = -1; 5
when x = -1, y = -2 (-1) + 5 = 7
y = 5, y = -2 (5) + 5 = -5
The points of intersection are = (-1. 7), (5. -5)
2 2
(ii) The distance apart = {(5 - - 1) + (-5 -7) }
2 2
= {6 + 12 }
= 13.4 units
8.2 The equation of a circle
2 2 2
This is of the form (x – a) +(y – b) = r where the coordinates of the centre are (a, b) and
the radius is r.
Example. Find the centre and radius of the circle
2 2
x + y + 2x + 4y – 4 = 0
2 2
rearranging: x +2x +y + 4y – 4 = 0
2 2 2 2
completing the square: (x +1) – 1 + (y + 2) – 2 – 4 = 0
2 2 2
(x + 1) + (y + 2) = 3
C (-1, -2), r = 3
The student should recall that in an equation of a circle, the coefficients of x2 and y2 must be
equal.
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Example:
Given that x2 + y2 + 2x + 2y – 2 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 6x +8y = 0. Find the length of the line
joining the two centres.
Solution: x2 + y2 + 2x + 2y – 2 = 0
x2 + 2x + y2 + 2y – 2 = 0
(x + 1)2 – 12 + (y + 1)2 -1 -2 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4
C (-1, -1), r=2
x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y = 0
x2 + 6x + y2 + 8y = 0
(x + 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 42 = 0
(x + 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25
C (-3, -4), r=5
The distance between the two centres
= (3 1)2 (4 1)2
= (2)2 (3)2
= 3.606
The general equation of a circle is given by x2 + y2 + 2fx + 2gy + c = 0, where the
coordinates of the center are given by (- f, - g) and r = f 2 g 2 c
Example
Show that the following equations are equations of a circle.
i) 2x2 + 2y2 -10x + 6y - 15 = 0
ii) 36x2 + 36y2 + 48x –108y + 97 = 0
iii) x2 + y2 -8x + 6y + 29 = 0
Solution
i) 2x2 + 2y2 -10x + 6y - 15 = x2 + y2 -5x + 3y - 7.5
f = 5/2, g = -3/2 and r = {2.52 + (- 1.5)2 +7.5} =16 = 4 > 0. It is an equation of
a circle centre (5/2, - 3/2) and radius r = 4
ii) 36x2 + 36y2 + 48x –108y + 97 = x2 + y2 + 4/3x –3y + 97/36 = 0
f = - 2/3, g = 3/2 and r = {-2/3)2 + ( 1.5)2 – 97/36} = 0.It is not an equation of a
circle. It is a point (- 2/3,3/2)
iii) x2 + y2 -8x + 6y + 29 = 0
f = 4, g = -3 and r = {42 + (- 3)2 – 29} = {16 + 9 – 29} = - 4 < o
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It is not an equation of a circle
8.3 Parametric equations
A Cartesian equation gives us a direct relationship between two variables x and y. sometimes
this relationship is given indirectly through a third variable called a parameter
Example
Given two parametric equations x = 3t + 4 and y = t2 , find the Cartesian relationship of x
and y
Solution: x = 3t + 4
x4
t =
3
Substituting for t in y = t2
x 4
y = 3
x 2 8 x 16
=
9
9y = x2 – 8x + 16
Example x= 3 cos
y= 5 sin
Solution
cos = x/3
sin = y/5
using sin2 + cos2 = 1
2 2
x y
1
3 5
x2 y 2
1
9 5
25x2 + 9y2 = 225
Please note that the identity 1 + tan2 = sec2 may also prove useful.
8.4 Examination Type Questions
1. Given the coordinates of the points A (6; 2), B (2; 4), C (-6; - 2) and D (-2, - 4).
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(i) Calculate the gradients of the lines AB, CB, DC, and DA. Hence describe
the shape of the figure ABCD.
(ii) Show that the equation of the line DA is 4y – 3x = - 10 and find the length
DA.
(iii) Calculate the gradient of a line, which is perpendicular to DA, and hence find
the equation of the line ℓ through B, which is perpendicular to DA.
(iv) Calculate the coordinates of the point P where ℓ meets DA
Calculate the area of the figure ABCD
2. A circle touches the line y = ¾ x at the point (4,3) and passes through the point (-12, 11).
Find (i) the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line passing through the
points (4,3) and (- 12, 11)
(ii) the equation of the circle
3. In each of the following parametric equations, sketch the curve and obtain the
Cartesian equation represented by the parametric equation
i. x = 2t, y = 4t
ii. x = t + 2, y = 2t + 3
iii. x = 2 t2, y = 3/ t2
iv. x = 2sin - 3 , y = 4cos - 4
4. You are given the coordinates of the four points A( 6,2), B( 2,4), C( - 6, - 2) and
D( - 2, - 4).
Calculate the gradients of the lines AB, CB, DC and DA. Hence
describe the shape of the figure ABCD.
Show that the equation of the line DA is 4y – 3x = - 10, and the length
DA
iii) Calculate the gradient of a line which is perpendicular to DA, and
find the equation of the line ℓ through B which is perpendicular to DA.
iv) Calculate the coordinates of the point P where ℓ meets DA.
v) Calculate the area of the figure ABCD
5. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points A(1,2), B(2,5) and
C( - 3, 4)
6. The points P, Q and R have coordinates (2,4), (8, - 2) and (6,2) respectively.
a) Find the equation of the straight line ℓ whish is perpendicular to the line PQ and
which passes through the mid- point of PR.
b)The line ℓ cuts PQ at S. Find the ratio PS:SQ.
c) The circle passing through P<q and R has center C. Find the coordinates of C and
the radius of the circle.
d) Given that angle PCQ = radians, show that tan = 24/7
Prove that the smaller segment of the circle cut off by the chord PQ has area
25 - 24
7 A circle has center at the point with co-ordinates (-1, 2) and has radius 6. Find the
equation of the circle, giving your answer in the form x² + y² + ax + by +c =
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CHAPTER 9
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
State the sine rfule
State the cosine rule
Calculate lengrus of sides of triangles using the cosine and sine rfule
Calculate angles of triangles using the sine and lor cosine rule
Convert radius to degrees and vice versa
Compute areas of sectors
Compute lengths of segments
9.1 The Sine and the Cosine rule.
(i) The Sine Rule
B
c a
A C
b
a b c
SinA SinB SinC
Example :
In triangle EFG, e = 6 , g = 4 and G = 35o
From the sketch, two triangles can be drawn using the same rule;
SinE Sin35o
6 4
Sin E = 0.8604
E = 59. 36 o or 120.64 o
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In this case, we have two perfectly acceptable answers because sin = sin (180 - ). The
student should also remember that cos(180 - ) = - cos and tan (180 - ) = - tan
(ii) The Cosine Rule
2 2 2
a = b + c – 2bc cos A
2 2 2
b = a + c – 2ac cos B
2 2 2
c = a + b – 2ab cos C
(iii) Area of a triangle
= ½ ab sin C
= ½ bc sin A
= ½ ac sin B
Example
A, B and C are points on level ground such that ABC = 110,
AB =2km and BC = 6km. Find (i) AC and (ii) the area of triangle ABC.
Solution
B
O
110 12
6
A C
2 2 2
(i) AC = a + c – 2ac cos 110 O
2 2 O
= 6 + 12 – 2 (6)(12) cos 110
= 229,25
= 15.km
(ii) = ½ ac sin1100
= ½ (6)(12)(0.93969262)
= 33.83km2
9.2 Radians
A radian, like a degree is a unit for measuring angles.
r r
1c
0
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One radian (1c) is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to
the radius.
o
180 = rad
o
360 = 2 rad
Angle in radians = (angle in degrees)
o
180
Example:
Convert the following angles to degrees
2
(a) 3rad (b)
3
Solution
180o
(a) 3 rad = 3
o
= 540
2 rad 2 180o
(b) =
3 3
o
= 120
Example
Convert the following angles to radians
o o
(a) 45 (b) 300
o
Solution: (a) 45 =
45o rad
180o
rad
4
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300 rad
o
(b) 300
o
= 180o
5 rad
3
9.3 Sectors and segments
With reference to the diagrams below the essential formulae are:
r
(i) Arc length (s) = r
2
(ii) Area of a sector = ½ r
2
(iii) Area of a segment = ½ r ( - sin ), where is in radians.
Example R
P 0 Q
Given the semi-circle above and that the area of the shaded part is a quarter of the area
of the sector ROP, show that = 4 ( - - Sin )
Solution:
2
Area of shaded segment = ½ r ( - sin )
2
In this case Area = ½ r { ( - - sin )
2
Area of sector ROP =½r
Area of sector ROP = 4 (Area of shaded segment)
2 2
= ½ r = ½ 4r ( - - sin ), hence,
= 4( - - sin )
9.4 Examination Type Questions
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1. A
O r X
The left edge of the shaded crescent- shaped region, shown in figure, consists of an
arc of a circle of radius r cm with centre O the angle AOB = 2/3 radians. The right
edge of the shaded region is a circular arc with centre X, where OX = rcm.
a) show that angle AXB = 1/3 radians.
b) show that AX = r3cm
c)calculate, in terms of r, and 3, the area of the shaded region.
3.
A
B C
The diagram shows a shape ABC, which has a triangular hole in the middle. The hole
is an equilateral triangle ABC of side 8cm. AB, AB and CA are circular arcs with
centers at C, A and B respectively,Calculate
a) the area of the triangle ABC
b) the area of the sector ABC
c)the area of the area outside the triangle
4. a) Express the length ℓ of a chord of a circle
with radius r cm as a function of the
central angle
b) If ℓ = 6cm when =/3 radian,
find the value of r. Hence show that
ℓ = 12 sin r
ℓ
2
c) Sketch the graph of ℓ = 12 sin
2
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where 0 < < . Hence state the range of ℓ.
d) Find:
i. dℓ/d
ii. the maximum value of ℓ
B
A C
5cm
3
O
In the diagram, ABC is an arc of a circle with center O and radius 5cm. The lines Ad and
CD are tangents to the circle at A and C respectively. Angle AOC = radius.
3
(i) Show that the exact length of AD is (53) cm
(ii) Find the area of the sector A
Calculate the area of the region enclosed by AD, DC and arc ABC, giving your answer
correct to 2 significant figures
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CHAPTER 10
SEQUENCES AND SERIES
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Write down terms of a sequence
Determine whether a sequence is convergent or divergent
State whether the sequence is oscillating or periodic
Write firsyt few terms of an A-P
Compute the general term and sum to terms of an A-P
Write first few terms of G.P
Compute the general term and sum to terms and sum to infinity of A-G-P
Solve problems involving A.Ps and G.Ps
10.1 Definition
A sequence is a set of numbers in a particular order with each number in the sequence being
derived from a particular rule. For example, consider the sequence 1,2,4,8,16,
th n
The first term is 1, the second term is 2, the n term is 2
We write the n term as Un. In this example, Un =2 , n 1.
th n
Sequences can be given / defined in the following three ways:
a) By listing the terms of a sequence. For example 2, 4, 6, 8,….
b) By giving an nth term, for example Un = 3n – 1, n 1
c) By using a recurrence formula, f (n) = f (n –1): e.g. Un = Un-1/(3 -Un –1) , U1 = 2.
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Example :
Write down the first 4 terms of the following sequences.
a. Un+1 = ( Un-1- 1) / Un, U1 = 7 and U2 = 3
b. Un = 3 + 1 , n 1
n(n 1)
c. Un+1 = Un+ 1 U1 = 2
Un
Solution
a. Un+1 = ( Un-1- 1) / Un b Un = 3 + I / (n + 1)
U1 = 7 U1 = 3 + ½ = 7/2
U2 = 3 U2 = 3 + 1/6 = 19/6
U3 = (U1 – 1)/ U2 = (7 -1)/3 = 2 U3 = 3 + 1/12 = 37/12
U4 = (U2 – 1)/ U3 = (3 – 1)/ 2 = 1 U4 = 3 + 1/20 = 61/20
Hence the sequence is : 7, 3, 2, 1, …. The sequence is : 7/2, 19/6,
37/12, 61/20 ….
c. Un+1 = Un+ 1
Un
U1 = 1
U2 = U1 + 1/U1 = 1 + 1 = 2
U3 = U2 + 1/U2 = 2 + ½ = 5/2
U4 = U3 + 1/ U3 = 5/2 + 2/5 = 29/10
The sequence is : 1, 2, 2.5, 2.9, ……
10.2 Properties of Sequences
We now investigate the behaviour of sequences as n gets bigger and bigger i.e. as n tends to
infinity. In mathematical symbols:
Lim Un
n
If lim U = a, the sequence Un is said to be convergent, other wise , Un is divergent.
n
n
Note:
a is called the limit of the sequence Un as n tends to infinity
a
a is unique i.e the limit , if it exists, it is only one.
Example
Write down the first six terms of the following sequences and determine which of the
sequences are convergent and which are divergent.
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(a) Un = n / ( n + 1)
(b) Un = ( -1 ) n +1
n2
(c ) Un = (-1)nn
(d) Un + 1 = 1 + 2Un , , U1 = 3
( e) Un + 1 = 2/ U2n , U1 = 1
( f) Un + 1 = Un ( Un –1 – 2), U1 = 3, U2 = 1
( g ) Un + 1= Un/ Un – 1 , U1 = 4, U2 = 2
Solution
(a) Un = n / ( n + 1)
U1 = 1/2
U2 = 2/3 1
U4 = 4/5
U5 = 5/6
U6 = 6/7
fig. 1
The sequence is convergent and it approaches 1 as n tends to infinity, hence
Lim n n / ( n + 1) = 1
Un
b) Un = ( -1 ) n +1
n2
U1 = 1
U2 = - 0.25 fig.2
U3 = 1/9 n
U4 = - 1/16 0
U5 = 1/25
U6 = - 1/36
The sequence is convergent and Lim n ( - 1 )n + 1 = 0
n2
( c ) Un = (-1)nn Un
U1 = - 1
U2 = 2
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U3 = - 3 2 fig. 3
U4 = 4
U5 = - 5
U6 = 6 -1
The sequence is divergent
+ , for n even
n
Lim n (-1) n =
-, for n odd
( d ) Un + 1 = 1 + 2Un
, U1 = 3
U2 = 7
U 3 = 15
U4 = 31
U5 = 63
U6 = 127
The sequence is increasing indefinitely hence it is divergent.
Un
( e) Un+1 = 2/ U2n
U1 = 1
U2 = 2
U3 = ½
U4 = 8
U5 = 1/32
U6 = 2048 fig.4
0 , for n odd
lim n 2 / U2n =
, for n even
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The sequence is divergent
( f) Un + 1 = Un ( Un –1 – 2)
U1 = 3
U2 = 1
U3 = 1 fig. 5
U4 = - 1
U5 = 1
U6 = - 3
The sequence is divergent
( g ) Un + 1= Un/ Un – 1
U1 = 4
U2 = 2
U3 = 0.5
U4 = 0.25
U5 = 0.5
U6 = 2
U7 = 4
The sequence is divergent.
10.3 Oscillating and Periodic Sequences
10.3.1 Oscillating Sequences
Consider the sequences
(a) Un = ( - 1) n + 1
n2
(b) Un = ( - 1) n n
(c) Un = 2/ U2n, U1 = 1
For sequence (a ),as n tends to infinty the sequence oscillates about the value
0, see fig. 6 below
1
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fig. 6
In this case the sequence is convergent to a limit 0
The sequence can oscillate and converge
For the sequence (b),as n tends to infinity the sequence oscillates about the value 0,
see fig. 7 below.
fig. 7
In this case the sequence is divergent
The sequence can oscillate and diverge
For the sequence (c),as n tends to infinity the sequence oscillates. See fig.8 below
Un = 2/ U2n
U1 = 1
U2 = 2
U3 = ½
U4 = 8
U5 = 1/32
U6 = 2048 fig.8
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The sequence is also oscillating , but it is divergent.
Periodic Sequences
Consider the sequences:
(a) Un + 1 = Un , U1 = 4, U2 =2
Un-1
(b) Un + 1 = 1 , U1 =7
Un
For the sequence (a) Un + 1 = Un ,
Un-1
U1 = 4
U2 = 2
U3 = 1/2
U4 = 1/4
U5 = 1/2
U6 = 2
U7 = 4
The sequence is periodic i.e. it repeats itself after a period of six, hence the sequence is
divergent
For the sequence (b) Un + 1 = 1
Un
U1 = 7
U2 = 1/7
U3= 7
U4 = 1/7
The sequence is also periodic, hence it is divergent.
A sequence can be convergent or divergent. It can be also oscillatory divergent or
oscillatory convergent. But all periodic sequences are divergent. A constant sequence
is always convergent.
Example
The sequence {Un} is defined by the recurrence relation Un + 1 = Un + Un- 1
(a) Given that U11 = 683 and U8 = 85, deduce the equations;
U10 + 2U9 = 683 and U10 – U9 = 170
(b) Hence find the value of U9
Solution
(a) Un + 1 = Un + 2 U n-1 U10 = U9 + 2U8
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U10 = U9 + 2x 85 (b) U10 + 2 U9 = 683
U10 - U9 = 170 (shown) U10 - U9 = 170
U11 = 683 3U9 = 513
U11 = U10 + 2U9 U9 = 171
U10 + 2U9 = 683 (shown )
Example
The sequence {Vn} is defined by Vn = 3V n – 1 - 2Vn – 2 , where V1 =1 and V2 =2. Find an
expression for Vn in terms of n
Solution
Vn = 3V n – 1 - 2Vn – 2
V1 = 1
V2 = 2
V3 = 3 x 2 – 2 x 1 = 4
V4 = 4 x 4 – 2 x 2 = 8
{ 1, 2 , 4, 8, ….}
Vn = 2n – 1, n 1
Example
Show that Un = 3 + 2n satisfies the recurrence relation Un + 1 = 3Un – 2Un – 1, where
U1 =5 and U2 = 7. Hence find the value of U16
Solution
Un = 3 + 2n
U1 = 5
U2 = 7
3Un – 2Un – 1 = 3 ( 3 +2n ) – 2(3 +2 n – 1 )
= 9 + 3 x 2 n – 6 – 2n
= 3 + 2 n+1
= Un +1
hence Un +1 = 3Un – 2Un – 1, U 1 = 5, U2 = 7
U16 = 3 + 216
U16 = 65539
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Alternatively, U16 = 3U15 – 2U14
= 3(3 + 215) – 2(3 + 214)
= 9 + 3 x 215 – 6 – 215
= 65539
Example
The sequence U1, U2 ,U3 , …. is defined by Un + 1 = U2n – 1.
(a) Describe the behaviour of the sequence for each of the following cases.
(i) U1 = 0
(ii) U2 = 2
(b) Given that U2 = U1 , find the two possible values of U1 in exact form.
(c) Given also that U3 = U1, show that U41 – 2U21 – U1 = 0
Solution
(a) (i) Un + 1 = U2n – 1
U1 = 0
U2 = -1
U3 = 0
U4 = - 1
The sequence is periodic, hence it is divergent.
(ii) Un + 1 = U2n – 1
U1 = 2
U2 = 3
U3 = 8
U4 = 63
The sequence is increasing indefinitely ,hence it is divergent
(b) U2 =U1 (c) U3 = U 1
U2 = U21 – 1 U3 = U22 – 1
Hence U21 – 1 = U1 U2 = U21 – 1
U21 – U1 – 1 = 0 U3 = ( U21 – 1 )2 – 1
U1 = 1 5 U3 = U41 – 2U21 +1 – 1
2 U3 = U41 – 2U21
U41 – 2U21 = U1
U41 – 2U21 – U1 = 0
Practice Questions
1. Write down the first six terms of each of the following sequences, and determine
their behavior as n tends to infinity
(i) Un+1 = 2 + Un. U1 = 5
(ii) Un + 1 = 1 – 1/Un, U1 = 2
(iii) Un + 1 = Un/ Un – 1, U1 = 4, U2 = 2
(iv) Un = 1/ ( n2 + 1)
2. For the sequence U1, U2, U3, … the terms are related by
Un + 1 = Un – Un –1, where U1 = 1 and U2 = 3
(a) Show that the sequence is periodic.
(b) Find the values of U13, U63 and U89
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10.4 Series and Sigma Notation
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. We write the sum of the first n terms of a
sequence as Sn, where :
Sn = U1 + U2 + U3+ U4 + ….. + Un
n
Hence U! + U2 + U3 + …. + Un = ui, is the summation sign and is called sigma
i =1
n
Sn = u
i 1
1
Example
i1
( 6i – 1) = 5 + 11 + 17 + 23
Ui =
i 1
U1 + U2 + U3 + ….………
Example
Write each of the following series in sigma ( ) notation
2 5 8 11 14 17
(a)
3 9 27 81 243 729
1 2 3 n
(b) ............
2 3 3 4 4 5 (n 1)(n 2)
(c) 4 – 8 +16 - 32 + +64 – 128 + 256 – 512 + 1024
Solution
6
2 5 8 11 14 17
(a) = (3n 1) / n 2
3 9 27 81 243 729 n 1
n
1 2 3 n
(b) ............ r / (r 1)(r 2)
2 3 3 4 4 5 (n 1)(n 2) r 1
9
(c) 4 – 8 +16 - 32 + +64 – 128 + 256 – 512 + 1024 = (1)
r 1
r 1
2r 1
Practice Questions
1. Write down all the terms in each of these series
‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics
6 7 10
(a) r3
r 3
( b) (1)r 1/ r
r 1
c) 1 (1) r r 2
r 1
2. Write each of these series in notation
(a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
(b) 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 19 + 22 + 25
(c) 34 +44 +54 +……… + n4
2 5 8 11 14 17
(d)
3 9 27 81 243 729
10.5 Arithmetic Progressions (A.P.)
An arithmetic progression (A.P) is a sequence of numbers in which any term can be
obtained from the previous term by adding a certain number called the common difference
The fisrt term of an A.P. is denoted by a
Its common difference is denoted by d
The terms of an A.P. are given by
a + (a + d) + ( a +2d ) +(a +3d ) + ……….+ a + (n – 1)d + …,
where Tn = a + (n – 1)d.
Tn is also called the last term and is denoted by ℓ,i.e. ℓ = a + ( n – 1)d
10.6 Sum of the first n nterms of an A.P.
Sn = a + (a + d) + ( a +2d ) +(a +3d ) + ……….+ a + (n – 1)d. 1
Sn = a + (n – 1)d + a + ( n- 2 )d + ………………+a + d + a 2
Adding 1 and 2 term to term we obtain:
2Sn = 2a +(n –1)d + 2a + ( n-1)d + …..2a +(n – 1)d
2Sn = n( 2a +(n –1)d )
Sn = ½ n (2a +(n –1)d ) --- the formula of the sum to n terms
Sn = ½ n ( a + ℓ )
n
If n is an A.P. hence
n 1
n coverages if and only if S n = r
n 1 r 1
Where lim lim Sn n conversely if S n diverges, n also diverges
x
n 1 n 1
Example
(a) Write down the term indicated
1.25x + 1.5x + 1.75x + …….. 10th term
(b) Find the sum as far as the indicated term
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th
14c +4c – 6c - ….. 30 term
(c) Find the number of terms
7 + 9 + ………. …+ (2n + 1)
(d) Find the sum of the following A. P.
1 +2 + 3+ 4+ ………..+ 2n
‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics
Solution
(a) Write down the term indicated
1.25x + 1.5x + 1.75x + ……..
d = 1.5x – 1.25x = 0.25x
a = 1.25x
Tn = a + ( n –1 )d
T10 = 1.25x + 9( 0.25x )
T10 = 3.5x
(b) 14c +4c – 6c - …..
a = 14c
d = 4c – 14c = - 10c
Tn = a + ( n –1 )d
Tn = 14c + (n – 1)( - 10c )
T30 = - 276c
Sn = ½ n ( a + ℓ )
S30 = 15 (14c - 276c )
S30 = - 3930c
(c) 7 + 9 + ……….. + ( 2n + 1 )
a=7
d=2
N=?
TN = a + ( N – 1 )d
a + ( N – 1 )d = 2n + 1
7 + ( N – 1 ) 2 = 2n + 1
N – 1 = ½ ( 2n + 1 – 7)
N=n–2
(d) 1 + 2 + 3 + + ……… + 2n
a=1
d=1
TN = 2n
1 + ( N – 1 ) = 2n
N = 2n
SN = S2n = ½ (2n ) ( 1 + 2n )
SN = 2n2 +n
Example
2n
Given that
r n 3
= 312. Find the value n
Solution
N = 2n – n – 3 + 1 = n – 2; there are n – 2 terms
a=n+3
d=1
SN = ½( n – 2) [ 2n + 6 + (n – 2 – 1)]
SN+= ½(n – 2)( 3n + 3)
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312 = ½(n – 2)( 3n + 3)
624 = (n – 2)( 3n + 3)
624 = 3n2 – 6n + 3n – 6
630 = 3n2 – 3n
3n2 –3n – 630= 0
n2 – n – 210= 0
n = ½(1 841)
n = - 14 (reject) or 15
n = 15
Example
A child is collecting bottle tops. He collects six bottle tops on the first day of the month
and stores them in a box. On the second day of the month he collects another 10 bottle
tops, and adds them to his box. He continues in this way, each day collecting four more
bottle tops more than he collected on the previous day. Find the day of the month on
which the number of bottle tops in his box will first exceeds 1000
Solution
a=6
T2 = 10
T3 = 14
It is an A.P.
Tn = a + ( n – 1)d
Tn = 6 + (n – 1 )4
Tn = 4n + 2
Sn = 1/2n ( a + ℓ)
Sn = 1/2n ( 6 + 4n + 2 )
Sn = 1/2n ( 8 + 4n )
Sn = 1000
n (4 + 2n ) > 1000
2n2 + 4n – 1000 > 0
n2 + n – 500 > 0
n = ½(1 2004 )
n > 2138
n = 22
i.e on the 22nd day of the month
Example
The 8th term of an arithmetic series is 5 and the sum of the first 16 terms is 84. Calculate
the sum of the first ten terms
Solution
Tn = a + ( n – 1 )d
T8 = a + 7d
a + 7d = 5 ….(1)
S16 = 8 ( 2a + 15d )……Sn = ½ ( n ) ( 2a + ( n – 1 )d )
8 ( 2a + 15d ) = 84
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16a + 120d = 84
8a + 60d = 42
4a + 30d = 21…..(2)
a + 7d = 5
4a + 30d = 21
4a + 28d = 20
4a + 30d = 21
2d = 1
d=½
a + 3.5 = 5
a = 1.5
Sn = ½ (n ) ( 2a + ( n – 1 )d )
S10 = 5 ( 2 x 1.5 + 0.5 x 9 )
S10 = 15 + 22.5
S10 = 37.5
10.7 Geometric Progression (G. P.)
A geometric progression (G. P) is a sequence of numbers in which any term can be
obtained from the previous term by multiplying by a certain number called the common
ratio
the first term is denoted by a
the common ratio by r
hence
a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ……. + arn + ……..
is a geometric progression, where
Tn = arn – 1, n 1 or
Tn = arn, n 0
10.8 Sum of the first n terms of a G.P.
Let Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ……. + arn
and rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ……. + arn –1 , hence
Sn - rSn = a - arn
Sn( 1 - r ) = a - arn
a(1 r n ) a(r n 1)
Sn = , r 1 or Sn =
1 r r 1
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Example
In a G. P. the second term is - 12 and the fifth term is 768. Find the common ratio and
the first term
Solution
T2 = ar, hence ar = - 12 … (1)
T5 = ar4 , hence ar4 = 768 … (2)
Divide (2) by (1) to obtain
ar4 /ar = - 768 / 12
r3 = - 64
r = - 4 , hence
ar = - 12
a ( - 4 ) = - 12
a=3
Example
A child tries to negotiate a new deal for her pocket money for the 30 days of the month of
May. She wants to be paid $ 10000. 0n the first of the month, $ 20 000 on the second of
the month and in general $ 2 n – 1 0000 on the nth day of the month. Calculate how much
she would get, in total , if this were accepted.
Solution
a = 10000
T2 = 20000
T3 = 40000
r= 2
Sn = a ( rn – 1)
r–1
S30 = 10000 ( 2 30 – 1 )
2–1
S30 = $1.073741823 x 10 13
Example
Given that x – 5 , x – 2 and 3x are the first, second and fourth terms of a G.P. Find the
possible values of x
Solution
a = x – 5 , ar = x – 2 and ar3 = 3x, hence
(x – 5 ) r = x – 2
r = (x – 2 ) / ( x – 5 )
ar3 = 3x
( x – 5 )( x – 2)3/( x – 5 )3 = 3x
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3 2
( x – 2 ) = 3x ( x – 5 )
x3 – 6x2 + 12x – 8 = 3x2 – 30x2 + 75x
2x3 – 24x2 + 63x + 8 = 0
Let f ( x) = 2x3 – 24x2 + 63x + 8
f (8 ) = 2 ( 8 )3 - 24 ( 8 )2 + 63 x 8 + 8
f (8 ) = 0, hence x – 8 is a factor
2x2 – 8x - 1
x- 8 2x3 – 24x2 + 63x + 8
2x3 – 16x2
- 8x2 + 63x + 8
- 8x2 + 64x
- x+8
-x + 8
2x2 – 8x – 1 = 0
x = ½( 8 72 ), hence the values of x are 8, 2 4.5
10.9 Infinite Geometric Series
S = lim n a ( 1 - rn) / ( 1 – r ) = a/ ( 1 –r ) , for – 1 < r < 1
Example
Given that 5 x ar = 15, find the value of a
r=0
Solution
T1 = 5
T2 = 5a
T3 = 5a2
r=a
S = a/ ( 1 – r )
15 = 5/( 1 – a )
15 – 15a – 5 = 0
15a = 10
a = 2/3
Example
(a) Find the third term of the geometric series whose first two terms are 3 and 4
(b) Given that x, 4, and x + 6 are consecutive terms of the geometric series, find
i) The possible values of x
ii) The corresponding values of the common ratio of the geometric series
Given that x, 4, and x + 6 are the sixth, seventh and eighth terms of a geometric series and
that the sum to infinity of the series exists, find
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iii) The first term
iv) The sum to infinity
Solution
(a) a=3
T2 = 4
r= 4/3
T3 = 3(4/3)2
T3 = 16/3
(b)
(i) 4 /x = (x + 6 ) / 4
16 = x2 + 6x
x2 + 6x – 16 = 0
x = ½( - 6 100 )
x = - 8 or x = 2
(ii) T6 = - 8 or 2, hence r = - 0.5 or 2
( iii) T6 = ar5 r = - 0.5 for sum to infinity to exist, hence
a( - 0.5 )5 = - 8
a = 256
S = 256/ (1 – ( - 0.5))
S =512/3
Example
A savings scheme pays 5 % per annum compound interest . A deposit of $ 100 is
invested in this scheme at the start of each year.
(a) Show that at the start of the third year, after the annual deposit has been made, the
amount in the scheme is $ 315.25
(b) Find the amount in the scheme at the start of the fortieth year, after the annual
deposit
has been made.
Solution
(a) a = 100
T2 = 100 x 1.05 + 100 =205
T2 = 205 x 1.05 + 100 = 315.25
(b) a = 100
T2 = 100 x 1.05 + 100
T3 = (100 x 1. 052 + 100 ) 1.05 + 100, hence
Tn = 100 x 1.05n + 100 x 1.05n – 1 + 100 x 1.05n – 2 + …..+ 100
Tn = 100( rn +r n- 1 + ….+ 1)
Tn = 100 ( 1 +r + r2 + …. +rn)
T40 = 100( 1.0540 – 1)
0.05
T40 = $ 12079.98
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Example
. .
Express the recurring decimal 0. 1 2 in the form a/b, where a and b are integers
Solution
. . . . . .
0.1 2 = 0. 1 2 1 2 = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + …………..
. .
0.1 2 = 12/100 + 12/1000 + 12/10000 + …………….…
a = 12/100
a = 3/25
r = 0.01
S = a/ ( 1 – r )
S = 3/25 ( 1 – 0.01)
S = 4/33
Summary
To differentiate between an A.P and a G.P , find the first three terms of the series,
if there is a common difference , the series is an A.P, if there is a common ratio the
series is a G.P. This comes hand when dealing with word problems
10.10 Examination Type Questions
1. The nth terms of two sequences are defined as follows:
a) un = 1 – 1/n b ) un = 1 – 1/un- 1 where u1 = 2
Decide in each case whether the sequence is convergent, divergent, oscillating or
periodic, giving reasons for your answers
2. Determine the behaviour of the following sequences
a) Un + 1 = Un( Un – 2 ), U1 = 1
b) Un + 1 = U2n – Un – 1, U1 = 8, U2 = - 3
c) Xn + 1 = Xn + X n – 1, X1 = X2 = 1 ( the famous fibonacci series)
3. A woman saves $120 during the first year, $150 in the second year and $180 in the
third year. If she continues her savings according to this scheme, in which year will
she save $1020?
4. The price of a loaf of bread is $65000. If the price of a loaf of bread increases by
$25000 every month , find how long it will take for the to be $5750000.
5. The 1st term of an arithmetic series is 38 and the tenth term is 2. Given that the sum
of
the first n terms of the series is 72, calculate the possible values of n
6. The first term of a geometric series is 5 and the common ratio is 1.2. Find for this
series:
a) the 16th term, giving your answer to the nearest integer
b) the sum of the first 30 terms, giving your answer to the nearest
integer
c) Give a reason why this series has no sum to infinity
7. A proprietor of a certain industry makes a list of her five favourite charities, donating
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$6million to the first on the list. If each remaining charity receives half of the amount
donated to the preceding charity on the list, how much money does she donate?
altogether?
8. Express 0.3 4 5 as a rational fraction
9. In 1996, a certain school had a population of 950. Students had been leaving the
school at a rate of 25 per year. Also, because of a false rumour that the school was
closing down there was a decrease in the population of the school at the of 5% of
the previous year‟s population:
a) Set up a recurrence equation representing the given data. Hence create a
mathematical model for projecting the population of the school
b) Determine when the population of the school will be less than 500
10. In a potato race, the first potato is 5m from the finishing line, the second is a
further 10m away, the third a further 10mm away, and soon. There are 6 potatoes
per competitor. If a competitor starts at the finishing line, runs to the first potato,
brings it back to the finishing line, runs to the second, and brings it back, etc. how
much distance will the competitor cover?
11. A car manufacturing company is planning to manufacture a new car with expected
sales of 3000 in the first year. The plan for market penetration of this car is to
increase the sales by 650 cars per year. Assuming that such a program for
expansion of sales is feasible, determine:
(a) the first year in which the number of cars sold will exceed 5550.
(b) how long it will take to sell 42200 cars.
12. You and five other students each bring a cake to a birth day party. These cakes are
cut into pieces as follows:
the first cake is served whole (i.e. in one piece).
The second cake is divided (by one single cut) into two pieces.
The third cake is divided (by two intersecting cuts) into 4 pieces.
This process continues until the sixth cake, which receives five cuts.
(a) Calculate the total number of pieces produced using all the cakes.
(b) How many pieces would be produced if 51 students attended the birth day
party?
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(c) Create a general formula which will enable you to compute the total
number of pieces produced if n students attended the party.
(d) How many students attended the party if the total number of pieces
generated is 9901.
2n
13. Given that
r n 3
= 312, find the value of n
14. In an A. P. the nth term is 11, the sum of the first n terms is 72, and the first term is 1.
Find the value of n.
15. The nth term of two sequences are defined as follows:
1 1
(b) tn = 1 – (b) un = 1 – .
n un 1
where u1 = 2
Determine in each case whether the sequence is convergent, divergent oscillating
or periodic.
x2 x2
16. If the sum of the infinite geometric series x² + ..............is380
1 x (1 x)2
what are the two possible values of x?
500
(i) Evaluate (3r 2)
r 1
(ii) Find the consonants a and b.
A sequence Ur is defined by Ur = (n-3r)
(i) Write down the first 3 terms of the sequence.
(ii) Find in terms of n a formula for
2n
ur
r n
Three sequences are defined below, for
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(a) n = 1, 2, 3…. Describe the behaviour of each sequence as n tends to infinity.
(i) an = (-1) n
(ii) bn = 2 –n
(iii) Cn = (-1) n + 3n
(b) A sequence U1, U2, U3, … is defined by U1 = 2 and Un+1 = Un + 3 for n > 1
(i) Write down the first four terms of the sequence.
(ii) State what type of a sequence it is and express Un in terms of n.
(c) Geometric progression of possible terms is such that the sum of its first two
terms is 24 and the third term is 2. Find the common ratio and the sum to
infinity of this P.
17. In the sequence 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, …., 99.9, 100.0 each number after the first is 0.1
greater
than the preceding number. Find
(i) How many numbers are there in the sequence
(ii) The sum of all the numbers in the sequence
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CHAPTER 11
VECTORS ( I )
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Add and subtract vectors
Calculate unit vectors
Calculate a scalar product
Calculate an angle between two line segments
Solve problems involving vectors in space
11.1 CONVENTIONS
There are two types of quantities that the student meets in life. Vector quantities and
scalar quantities. Vector quantities are those that have both magnitude and direction
whereas scalar quantities have magnitude only.
There are a number of ways of denoting a vector.
(i) AB
(ii) a
x
(iii) y
z
(iv) xi + yj + zk
11.2 Position and displacement vectors
On the Cartesian plane vectors are represented by lines
(i) Position or localized vectors are those that are fixed in space. They are usually
written as OA, OB e.t.c where O is the origin
They are drawn with one end at the origin (see the diagram below)
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y A
O x
Free or displacement vectors are not fixed in space. In the diagram below CD and EF
are equivalent vectors.
CD and GH are opposite vectors as they have the same magnitude but are opposite in
direction.
11.3 Addition and Subtraction
y C D
B
A
O x
E F
G H
Vectors can be added and subtracted.
Example. If AB = 2i + 3j + 4k
CD = 5i + 2j + k
AB + CD = 2i + 3j + 4k + (5i + 2j + k)
= 7i + 5j + 5k
AB – CD = 2i + 3j + 4k - (5i + 2j + k)
= - 3i+ 2j + 3k
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Zero vectors
0
=0
0
Magnitude of a vector
I f a = a1i + a2j + a3k , then a = a12 a2 2 a32
Example
If
2
AB = 4
5
then │AB│ = (22 42 52 )
= 3 5
The unit vector
A unit vector is a vector with magnitude of 1. A unit vector in the direction of vector a
is given by
a i a2 j a3k
e$ 1
a12 a2 2 a32
Example
Given that
1
CD = 2
3
The unit vector in the direction of CD
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i 2 j 3k
CD =
12 22 32
i 2 j 3k
CD =
14
11.4 Multiplication by a scalar
If
2
a = 3
5
then
2 6
3a = 3 3 = 9
5 15
11.5 The dot or scalar product.
Given two vectors a and b, we define multiplication of vectors.
a .b= ab cos , where = angle between vectors a and b
Example
If a = 2i +3j – k and b = 4i + 5j – 3k and (a,b) = 300, find the scalar product of a
and b.
Solution.
a.b = ab cos
A scalar
product is a
a = 22 32 (1)2 number.
= 4 9 1
= 14
b = 42 52 (1)2
= 16 25 1
=42
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Hence: a.b = 14 . 42 cos 30 o
3
a.b = 14 . 42
2
14.3
a.b =
2
a.b = 21
11.5.1 Angle between two vectors a and b.
a) a = (a, b)
b
b) a 180 - = ( a, b)
b
c) = (a,b)
11.5.2 Properties of the scalar product.
a b if and
a) a.b = 0 if = 90 0 only if a . b = 0
b) a.b = a.b if = 00
c) a.b = -ab if = 1800.
i j, i k, j k. hence i.j = i.k = j.k = 0 and i.i = j.j = k.k = 1
Given that vectors a = x1i + y1j + z1k
and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
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ab = (x1i + y1j + z1k)(x2i + y2j + z2k
=x1 x2 i.i + x1y2 i.j + x1z2i.k+y1x2 i.j + y1y2 j.j + y1z2 j.k + z1x2 i.k + z1y2 j.k +z1z2 k.k
= x1x2 + y1y2 + z1z2
Hence.
ab = x1x2 + y1y2 + z1z2.
Example Find a b, if a = 2i + 3j – 3k and b = -4i + 5j - k
Solution.
A (2,3, - 3) ; B = (-4,5,- 1)
Hence: ab = 2(-4) + 3(5) + (-3)(-1)
ab = -8 + 15 + 3
ab = 10
Example
Let AB = 4i + j – k; CD = 3i – j – 2k find the angle between AB and CD.
Solution.
ab = a b cos < (a ,b)
a.b
< (a,b) = cos-1
a b
ABCD = 4(3) + 1(-1)+ (-1)(-2)
=12 – 1 + 2
= 13
AB = 42 12 (1)2
= 18
CD = 32 (1)2 (2)2
= 9 1 4
= 14
AB.CD
hence: = cos-1
AB CD
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13
= cos-1
18 14
= 35
Example
If a = 4i + j – k and b = 3i – j + k, find the values of , if a is perpendicular to b.
Solution.
Given a b then ab = 0
ab = 4(3) + (-1) + (-1)(1)
= 12 - - 1
=11 -
Hence 11 - = 0
i.e. = 11
11.6 Examination Type Questions
1. Given that O (3,4,1), Q (2,- 3, 1) and R (3, - 1, 2), find the scalar product of OQ
7 13
and OR and show that cos QÔR =
26
Hence find the exact area of triangle OQR
2.
G N F
D E
C B
k j M
O i A
In the diagram OABCDEFG is a cube in which the length of each edge is 4
units. Unit vectors i, j, and k are parallel to OA, OC, OD respectively. The mid
points of AB and FG are M and N, respectively
i) Express each of the vectors ON and MG in terms of i, j and k
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ii) Find the acute angle between the directions of ON and MG, correct
to the nearest 0.10
3. The points A and B have positions vectors i + 2j + 2k and 4i + 3j, respectively
relative to an origin O
a) Find the lengths of OA
b) Find the scalar product of OA and OB and hence find angle AOB
c) Find the area of the triangle AOB, giving your answer correct to 2 d.p.
d) The point C divides AB in the ratio : 1 - .
(iii)Find an expression for OC
(iv) Show that OC2 = 142 + 2 + 9
(v) Find the position vectors of the two points on AB whose distance from
O is 21
(vi) Show that the perpendicular distance of O from AB is approximately
2.99.
4. The points A, B, C have position vectors
a = 2i + j – k b = 3i + 4j – 2k c = 5i – j + 2k
respectively, relative to the origin O.
a) Evaluate the scalar product (a – b ) . (c – b).
Hence calculate the size of angle ABC, giving your answer to the nearest 0.10
b) Given that ABCD is a parallelogram:
i) determine the position vector of D
ii) calculate the area of ABCD
c) The point E lies on BA produced so that BE = 3BA. Write down the position
vector of E. The line CE cuts the line AD at X. Find the position vector of X.
5. The position vectors of three points A, B and C with respect to a fixed origin O
are 2i – j + k, 4i + j + k and i + j + 3k respectively. Find the unit vector in the
directions of CA and CB. Calculate angle AĈB in degrees, correct to 1 decimal
place.
G N F
D E
C B
k
j M
O c A
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6.. In the diagram, OABCDEFG is a cube in which the length of each edge is 2 units.
Unit vectors i, j, k are parallel to OA, OC, OD respectively. The mid points of AB and
FG are M and N respectively.
(i) Express each of the vectors ON and MG in terms of i, j and k.
(ii) Find the angle between the directions of ON and MG, correct to the nearest 0,
1.
CHAPTER 12
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Sketch graphs of trig functions
Prove trig identities
Solve trig equations
12.1 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
We are interested in the functions Sine, Cosine and tangent, secant , cosecant and
cotangent.
1.1 y = sine
-3 -2 - 0 2 3 4 5
This graph repeats itself after every 2 radians. This is called the period of the
graph.
- 1 sin 1
sin = 0 for = n, n is an integer
the function is not one to one, however, if the domain is restricted to
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- , the function becomes one to one and posses an inverse.
1.2 y = cosine
-
-2 - 2 3 4 5
The cosine function has a period of 2
- 1 cos 1
cos = 0 for = ½ 2n
the function is not one to one, but if the domain is restricted to 0 , the
function becomes one to one.
1.3 y = tan
-2 - 0 2
(i) The period is
(ii) - < tan <
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12.2 Surds
The student should recall the following
(a) Sine positive all positive
180 -
tan positive cos positive
180+ 360 - or
(b)
180 -
180 + 360 - or -
Where is the principal angle to be calculated?
( c)
30o
2 3 2
60o
1 1
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(d)
1
2
45º
1
Example
o
sin 60 = 3
2
o
cos 45 = 2/2
12.3 Addition formulae
These are:
(i) cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
(ii) sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
tan A tan B
(iii) tan (A ± B) =
1 tan A.tan B
12.4 The double angle formulae
(By putting B = A in the formulae above)
(iv) sin 2A = 2sin A cosA
2
(v) cos 2A = cos²A – Sin A
2
= 1 – 2 sin A
2 2 2
2cos A – 1 using sin A + cos A = 1
2 tan A
(vi) tan 2A =
1 tan 2 A
12
Example Given that sin A = 0 < A < 90° and
13
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Cos B = -4/5 , 180° < B < 270° find, without using a calculator, sin (A – B)
Solution:
It is important to draw appropriate sketches in the correct quadrants.
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
From the diagram below
13
12
4 B
B
3
5
5 3
cos A = , sin B =
13 5
12 4 5 3
sin (A – B) =
13 5 13 5
33
=
65
12.5 Identities
In proving identities the student should recall that
Sinx
(i) tan x =
Cosx
1 cos x
(ii) cot x =
tan x sin x
1
(iii) sec x =
cos x
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1
(iv) cosec x =
sin x
2 2
(v) sin x + cos x = 1
2 2
(vi) tan x + 1 = sec x
2 2
(vii) 1 + cot x = cosec x
We prove them by following three basic steps.
Example
Prove the identity cot + tan = sec cosec
Solution:
LHS = cot + tan
Step 1 : Introduce sin and/or cos
cos sin
LHS =
sin cos
Step 2 : Find the LCM
cos 2 sin 2
LHS =
sin cos
2 2
Step 3 : since cos + sin = 1
1
Then LHS =
Sin cos
= cosec sec = RHS
Example
1 cos 2 A
Prove that tan A
sin 2 A
Proof
1 cos 2 A
LHS =
sin 2 A
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1 (cos A sin A)
2 2
=
2sin A cos A
1 cos 2 A sin 2 A
=
2sin A cos A
1 (1 sin 2 A) sin 2 A
=
2sin A cos A
2sin 2 A
=
2sin A cos A
sin A
=
cos A
= tan A
= RHS
12.6 Solving trigonometric equations
There are various techniques
3
Example Solve sin x =
2
Solution: Always think about the quadrants in which x lies. In this case, sin is positive
therefore x lies in the first and second quadrants.
x = 60° , 120°
Example.
1
Solve Cos3x = 0 < x < 360°
2
Solution:
The range of x is 360° therefore the range of 3x is 0 3x 1080°
3 x = 60° , 330° , 420° , 690° , 780° , 1050°
x = 20° , 110° , 140° , 230° , 260° , 350°
Example.
1
tan ( + 10° ) = . 0 360°
3
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1
Solution: tan ( + 10) =
3
+ 10° = 30° , 210°
= 20° , 200°
Example
2
5 cos - 4 sin = 2
2 2
using cos + sin = 1
2
5 cos - 4(1 – cos ) = 2
2
5 cos - 4 + (4 cos ) = 2
2
4 cos + 5 cos- 6 = 0
(4 cos - 3)( cos + 2) = 0
3
cos = cos = -2
4
= 41.4° , 318.6°
= 41.4° , 131.8°
2
Example Solve sin x - 3 sin x cos x = 0
Sin x (sin x – 3 cos x) = 0
Sin x = 0 or sin x – 3 cos x = 0
sin x = 3 cos x
sin x
= 3
cos x
tan x = 3
x = 0° , 180°, 360º , 71.6° , 251.6°
x = 0° , 71.6° , 180° , 251.6°, 360º
12.7 Expressions of the form acosx + bsinx
We will look at how to express the function f(x) = acosx + bsinx
in the form
Rcos(x ) or Rsin(x )
Where R >0 is a constant and is acute.
This alternative form will enable us to solve equations of the form
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acosx + bsinx
and to find the maximum and minimum values of such functions.
Results
Rcos(x - )
acosx + bsinx
Rsin(x +)
Rcos(x +)
acosx – bsinx
Rsin(x - )
-acosx + bsinx Rsin(x - )
Practice questions
a. Express 7sinx – 4cosx in the form Rsin(x -)
b. Solve the equation 7sinx – 4cosx = 3, for 0< x < 3600
c. Find
i) the maximum and the minimum values of 7sinx – 4cosx
ii) the maximum and the minimum values of (7sinx – 4cosx) – 1
12.8 Examination type questions
1. Express 35 cosx + 12 sinx in the form R cos (x – α ) where R > 0 and α is an
acute angle. Find the solutions of 35 cos x + 125 sin x = 20 in the range
0º ≤ x≤ 360º.
2. Prove the following identities
Sinx sin 2 x sin 3x
(i)
Cosx cos 2 x cos 3x
(1 sin x)
(ii) ≡ Sec x – tan x
1 sin x
1 sin x
(iii) ≡ 1 /( sec x+ tan x)
cos x
4. Solve the following equations for – 180 ≤ x ≤ 180º
(i) 3 sin3 x + 10 cos²x + 9 sin x= 12
(ii) 25 cos x = 16 sin x tanx.
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5. The diagram shows part of the
Graph of y = sinx, where x is y
measured in radians, and values on
the x – axis and k on the y – axis k
such that sin = k . Write down, in
terms of
i) a value of x between ½ and
such that sinx = k. 2 x
ii) two values of x between 3 and
4 such that sinx = - k
6.The function f is defined for real values of x by
f(x) = ( cosx – sinx) (17cox – 7sinx)
a) By first multiplying out the brackets, show that f(x) may be expressed in the form
5cos2x – 12sin2x + k, where k is a constant, and state the value of k.
b) Given that 5cos2x – 12sin2x Rcos(2x +), where R > 0 and 0 < < ½ , state
the value of R and find the value of in radians to three d.p.
c) Determine the greatest and least values of 39/( f(x) + 14) and state a value of a x at
which the greatest value occurs.
7. Assuming the identities sin3 3sin - 4sin3 and cos3 4cos3 - 3cos, prove that
cos5 5cos - 20cos3 + 16cos5
Find the set of all values of in the interval 0 for which cos5 > 16cos5
8. (i) Prove that tan + Cot 2 Cosec 2
(i) Hence solve the equation; tan + Cot = 4 giving all values of such that
0 < < 90.
9. Given that Sin ( - 30) + Cos ( + 45) = 0
22
Show that tan =
62
and hence solve the given equation for 0 ≤ ≤ 180.
10.Given Cos = 3/5, Cos ( + ) = 5/ 13 and that and are acute, evaluate Sin
without using a calculator.
11. Find all values of , where 00 < < 3600, satisfy cos 2 = 2 cos giving your
answer correct to the nearest 0,10.
12. Solve the equation
3 cos x – 4 sin x =2 ; where 00 < x < 3600, giving your answer correct to the
nearest 0,10.
Page 146
CHAPTER 13
DIFFERENTIATION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Differentiate polynomials
Differentiate comoposite functions
Differentiate log,trig and exponential functions
Differentiate parametric and imoplicit functions
Find the equation of tangent and nominals
Find stationary points and investigate their nature
Investigate whether the functionbs in increasing or decreasing
Compute the Maclaurin series of given functions.
13.1 Introduction
In this unit, we are going to examine the process of differentiation. Beginning by
considering how the gradient to a curve at a given point is obtained, we define precisely
what is meant by saying a function has a derivative or is differentiable at a given point. You
will see that not every function has a derivative at each point in R. Indeed, there are
functions that have no derivatives at every point in R.
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13.2 The Derivative
Intuitive Ideas
(x, f(x))
p
f(c) tangent at point P
C x
Suppose we are given a curve whose function is y = ƒ (x) and we want to find the
gradient or slope of the curve at a point P (c, ƒ(c). We can do it by finding the
slope or gradient of the tangent at P. Now to get the tangent at P, we consider
what happens to the chord PQ where Q is some point (x, ƒ (x) on the curve seen
below. We see that as Q moves towards P on the curve and eventually approaches
P, the chord PQ gradually becomes a tangent to the curve at P.
Thus the tangent at P is the limit of the chord PQ as Q tends to P on the curve.
Note that::
( x ) f (c )
Gradient of PQ = lim f
x c xc
( x ) f (c )
Grad at P = lim lim f
x c xc
Definition: The process of finding a general expression for the gradient of a curve
at any point is known as differentiation
Note:
( x ) f (c )
1. The gradient of a function at a point exist if and only if lim lim f
x c xc
exists and is unique
2.Findingthe gradient using this method is known as differentiation from first
principles.
Notation
( x ) f (c )
f1(c) = lim lim f
x c xc
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Other notations for f1(c) are df/dx, dy/dx, f1 and y1
( x ) f (c )
Now: f1(c) = lim lim f
x c xc
Let h = x – c, hence if x c, then h 0, i.e.
f (c h ) f (c )
f1(c) = lim lim
b 0 h
But c is an arbitrary real number, for convenience, we substitute c for x and use the
expression:
f ( x h) f ( x )
f 1(x) = lim lim
h 0 h
1
f (x) is called the gradient function, or simple the derived function or the first derivative of
f(x)
Example
If f ( x ) = 2x, find df/dx
Solution
f ( x h ) f (c )
f 1(x) = lim lim
b 0 h
limh 0= 1/h( 2(x + h ) – 2x)
2 x 2h 2 x
f 1(x) = lim lim
h 0 h
2h
f 1(x) = lim lim
h o h
=2
hence f 1(x) = 2
Example
If y = 1/x, find f 1(x)
Solution
f ( x h ) f (c )
f 1(x) = lim lim
h 0 h
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1( x h) 1( x)
f 1(x) = lim lim
h 0 h
1 x xh
f 1(x) = lim lim
h o h x ( x h)
1
f 1(x) = lim
h o x xh
2
1
f 1(x) =
x2
Derivation from first principles involves too many complicated calculations. However,
through its use, many easy techniques have been developed. We will explore these
techniques in the subsequent sections
13.3 Differentiation of a constant
If y = c ~ a constant, hence dy/dx = f 1(x) = 0
Example
If f ( x ) = e2, find f 1(x)
Solution
f 1(x) = 0 , since e2 is a constant
Differentiation of y = axn
If y = axn ,then y1 = anxn- 1
Example:
Differentiate w.r.t. x
(a) y = 4x3 (c) y = x – 1/3
(b) y = 1/x (d) y = 3x2.5
Solution
(a) y = 4x3 : y1 = 4.3x3-1 =12x2
(b) y = 1/x : y = x –1 : y1 = -1. x –1 –1 = - x –2
(c) y = x – 1/3: y1 = - 1/3 x – 4/3
(d) y = 3x2.5 : y1 = 3•5/2x5/2 – 1 = 7.5x3/2
13.4 Differentiation of polynomials
Let f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + ….+ anxn, hence
f1(x) = a1 + 2a2x +3a3x2 + …..+nanxn-1
Example
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Find dy/dx
a y = x3+x4 + 3
x5 x 2
b y=
x
c y =(2x + 5) 2
Solution
(a) y = x4 + x3 +3: dy/dx =4x3 +3x2
x5 x 2
(b) y = = x5-1 + x2-1 = x4 + x : y1 = 4x3 + 1
x
(c) y = (2x + 5)2 = 4x2 +20x + 25: y1 = 8x +20
Practice Exercise
Differentiate with respect to x
1. y = x5 + x8 + 1
2. y = 3 – 2x4
3. y = (5x2 – 2)3
5. y = (x2 – 1) 4
Result
If y = f1(x) + f2(x) +…………….+fn(x),then
y1 = f11(x) + f21(x) + ….+ fn1(x)
13.5 Derivative of composite functions
Let y = f[g(x)], hence y1 = f 1[g(x)]•g1(x)
i.e. dy/dx = dy/du • du/dx
This result is achieved by the change of variable technique. In this case we let
u = g(x)
Example
If y = (2x + 5)4, find f1(x)
Solution
Let u = 2x + 5, hence y = u4 , then du/dx = 2, dy/du = 4u3
y1 = 4u3 x 2 = 8(2x + 5)3
Example
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2 3 1
If y = 4(3x – 2x + 1) , find y
Solution
Let u = 3x2 – 2x + 1,du/dx = 6x – 2,y = 4u2 , dy/du = 8u
dy/dx = dy/du•du/dx = 8u . (6x – 2) = 8(3x2 – 2x + 1)(6x –2)
13.6 Derivative of product of two functions
If y = u(x) . v(x), then dy/dx = vdu/dx + udv/dx
Example
dy
vu1 uv1
dx
If y = x2(2x2 – 3)4 ,find y1
Solution
y = x2(2x2 – 3)4
u = x2 v = (2x2 – 3)4
du/dx = 2x dv/dx = 16x(2x2 – 3)3
y1 =(2x2 – 3)4(2x) + x2(2x2 – 3)3(16x)
y1 =2(2x2 – 3)3(10x3 –3x)
Practice Questions
Find dy/dx if;
1. y = (x2 +2)(x3 +7)
3
2
–5
2. y= x +x
3. y = (3x5 + 4x + 2)6
( x 1)3
4. y =
x
5. Derivative of a quotient of two functions
Let y = u/v, v 0, then dy/dx = xdu/dx – udv/dx
V2
These formulas are derived using differentiation from first principles
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Example
2x
If y =
2 x2 4
Solution
2x
y =
2 x2 4
u = 2x v = 2x2 + 4
du/dx =2 dv/dx = 4x
1 2(2 x 2 4) 4 x(2 x) 2 x2
y = =
(2 x 2 4)2 (2 x 2 4) 2
13.7 Derivative of trigonometric functions
y = sin x ,then y1 = cos x
y =cos x , then y1 = - sin x
y = tan x, then y1 = sec2 x
Example
Find dy/dx in each of the following cases:
(a) y = cos 3x (b) y =sin 52x (c) y = tan3 (2x + 1)
Solution
(a) y = cos 3x :dy/dx =- sin 3x d/dx (3x)
=-3 sin 3x
(b) y = sin 52x
To differentiate this function, we must follow the P.T.A rule, where P = Power, T
= Trigonometric function, A = Algebraic function.
Now: dy/dx =5 sin 4 2x . d/dx (sin 2x)
=5 sin 4 2x . cos 2x . d/dx (2x)
=10 sin 4 2x cos 2x
(c) y = tan 3 (2x + 1)
dy/dx = 3 tan2 (2x + 1) d/dxx [tan (2x + 1) }
=3 tan2 (2x + 1) sec2 (2x + 1) . d/dx (2x + 1)
=6 tan2 (2x + 1) sec2 (2x + 1)
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Practice Questions
Differentiate with respect to x
1. y = cos 2x
2. y = tan (5x + 1)
3. y = cos2 (3x + 2)
4. y = sin7 x
5. y = sin10 (3x)
6. cos (2x - /3)
13.8 Derivative of exponential functions
If ƒ (x) = ex, ƒ 1(x) = e x.
Example
Differentiate (a) e3x (b) exp(4x2)
Solution
(a) Let ƒ (x) = e3x:ƒ 1(x)= 3e 3x
(b) Let y = exp(4x2): ƒ 1(x)= 8x exp(4x2)
Result
If y = e g(x) , then y e g ( x ) .g ( x) =
Practice Questions
Differentiate with respect to x.
1. e2x 5. esin x 9. ecos 3x
2. e3x + 1 6. esin2x 10. e1 – 3x
3. e1 – 4x 7. ecos2x
2 2
4. e2x + 5 8. e8x + 4
13.9 Derivative of logarithmic functions
1
If y = lnx, then y y
x
Result
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g ( x)
If f(x) = ln{g(x)}, then f ( x)
g ( x)
Example
Find dy/dx in each of the following cases
(a) y = In 3x
(b) y = In (x2 + 1)
Solution
(a) y = In 3x: then dy/dx = 1/3x . d/dx (3x) 1/3x . 3 = 1/x
1 d 2
(b) y = In (x2 + 1 )then: dy/dx = ( x 1)
x 1 dx
2
= 2x
2
x +1
Practice Questions
Differentiate with respect to x
1. In (1 + x)
2. In (x2 + 1)
3. In (2 – 3x)
4. In cos x
5. In sin 2x
6. In (x2 + 2x)
7. In tan x
8. In (x2 + 5x)
Example
Find dy/dx in each of the following cases
(a) y = x2 (3x + 2) (b) y = 2x sin 3x
Solution
(a) y = x2 (3x + 2)
dy/dx = x2 d/dx (3x + 2) 3x + 2) d/dx (x2)
= 3x2 + 2x (3x + 2)
Hence, dy/dx = 9x2 + 4x
(b ) y =Sin3xe 2x
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dy/dx = e 2x d/dx (sin 3x) + sin 3x d/dx (e2x )
= e 2x . cos 3x . 3 + sin 3x . e 2x .2
= 3 (e 2x cos 3x + 2 e 2x sin 3x
Hence dy/dx = e 2x ( 3cos 3x + 2 sin 3x)
Practice Questions
Differentiate with respect to x.
1. y = x (x3 + 1) 9. y = sin x ln x
2. y = x2 (3x + 4) 10. y = 5x cos 3x
3. y = (2x3 + 1) (x² + 4) 11. y = 2x ax
4. y = (x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 12. y = x (4 – x)3
5. y=xex
6. y = 3x sin 3x
7. y = x3 e 2x
8. y = cos 2x ln x
Example
Find dy/dx in each of the following cases
x2 sin x
(a) y = (b) y =
2x 1 x
Solution
x2
(a) y=
2x 1
(2 x 1)d / dx( x 2 ) dy / dx(2 x 1)
dy/dx =
(2 x 1) 2
2 x(2 x 1) 2 x 2
=
(2 x 1) 2
4 x2 2 x 2 x2
=
(2 x 1)2
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2x 2x
2
=
(2 x 1) 2
sin x
(b) y =
x
xd / dx(sin x) sin xd / dx( x)
dy/dx =
x2
x cos x sin x
Hence dy/dx =
x2
Practice questions
Differentiate with respect to x
2x 5 3x 2
1. 5.
3x 1 2x
ln x 3x 2
2. 6.
ln( x 1) x 1
2x Sinx
3. 7.
Cosx 2 cos x
sin x 1 x2
4. 8.
cos x x2
13.10 Implicit Differentiation
The functions we‟ve differentiated so far have given one variable usually y, explicitly in
terms of other variables, usually x, in the form of y = ƒ(x). However, when y is mixed with
the x‟s, given implicitly, we have to expand technique of differentiation so that we can still
find the gradient function dy/dx at any point.
Consider the function x2 + y2 = 2. we differentiate each term w.r t. x
d ( x 2 ) d ( y 2 ) d (2)
Hence: (1)
dx dx dx
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By the chain rule.
d ( x 2 ) d ( y 2 ) dy
. 0
dx dx dx
dy
Hence: (1) becomes 2x + 2y =0
dx
dy dy x
Rearranging for gives =
dx dx y
Alternatively:
Let F = x2 + y2 – 2
df
Hence: = 2x, (y2 , 2 is a constant)
dx
df
= 2y, holding x2-2 as a constant.
dx
dy df / dx
Hence: =
dx df / dy
2 x
=
2y
x
=
y
Example
Given that x2 + xy + y2 – 3x – y = 3
dy 3 2x y
Show that =
dx x 2 y 1
Set F = x2 + xy + y2 – 3x – y – 3
df
= 2x + y – 3
dx
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df
= x + 2y – 1
dy
dy df / dx
Hence: =
dx df / dy
dy (2 x y 3)
i.e. =
dx x 2 y 1
dy 3 2 x y
dx x 2 y 1
Practice Questions
Find dy/dx in terms of x and y
1. x2 + 2y2 + 6x = 1
2. x2 + 3xy – 2x = 1
3. 2x3 + 3y3 + 5xy – 3 = 0
4. x2 + y2 + 4y = 21
5. x2 + y2 – 8x + 4y + 2 = 0
6. x2 + xy + y2 + 3y = 0
7. y2 = 2y + 8x – 17
8. x2y + y2 = 10
13.11 Parametric Differentiation
In this section we are going to see that x and y are given separately as a function of a
third variable, usually t or , and we have to find the gradient function at a given
parameter.
dy dy dt
In this case
dx dt dx
Example
If x = 2 + t2 and y = 3 + t3, find dy/dx
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Solution
We differentiate x and y separately with respect to t and replace in the above formula.
Now x = t2 and y = 3 + t3
dx dy
= 2t = 3t2
dt dt
dy dy dt 1 3t
We have = x = 3 t2 x =
dx dt dx 2t 2
Example
If x = a cos and y = b sin , find dy/dx
Solution
x= a cos and y = b sin
dx dy
a sin b cos
d d
dx b cos b cot
dx a sin a
Practice Questions
Find dy/dx
1. x = t3 – t , y = t2 + t
2. x = a cos , y = a sin
3. x = a (1 + cos ) , y = a (1 – Sin )
1 3t
4. x = , y=
1 t 1 t
5. x = t2 – 2t , y = 2t – 1
6. x = 3 sin , y = cos t
7. x = 3 – 2 cos , y = 4 sin - 1
8. x = 2 sin , y = 3 cos
13.12 Application of differentiation.
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4 x 3
Example Find the gradient of the curve f(x) = , at ( -2,3)
x2
= 4x-2 – x
Hence: f1(x) = 4(-2) x –2 +1 - 1
8
= –1
x3
Hence: m = f1(-2)
8
= -1
(2)3
= 0
The gradient is 0
Example
A curve whose equation is y = a /x+ c passes through the point (3,9) with gradients 5.
Find the values of the constraints a and c.
Solution:
a
y= +c
x
a
y1 =
x2
m=5
a
Hence: =5
x2
a
= x2
5
-a = 5(32)
a = -45.
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45
Now y = +c
x
45
i.e. a= +c
3
a + 15 = c
c = 24
13.13 Equation of a tangent and a normal
The equation of a straight
line is
y = mx + c
where m = gradient and c
and y the intercept.
Example
1
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the curve y = 3x +
x
1
where x =
4
Since the tangent and normal are perpendicular, if the gradient is m =f1(x0) then
the gradient of a normal is 1 = - 1
m f1 (x0)
y = 3x + 1 (1)
x
1 1
2 2
y=3x +x
1 1 1 1
y1 = 2
x3 x 2 1
+ 2
x 2 -1
1 3
y1 = 3/2 x 2
-x 2
2
1 1 1 1 3
3 4
y1 4 = ( ) 2
(4 2
2
y1(¼) = 3/2 4½ - ½ 43/2
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1 x2 3
y (¼) = 3/2 - ½·2
y1 (¼) = 3-4
y1(¼) = -1
Now y(¼) = 3(¼)y2 + (¼) -½
= 3/2 + 2
7
=
2
Hence. y = mx + c
y = -x + c
7 15
= -¼ =
2 4
15
i.e. y = -x +
4
4y + 4x = 15. equation of the tangent.
The gradient of the normal is 1.
Hence. y = x+c
1
7
= 4
+c
2
1
7 13
C= 4
=
2 4
13
y=x+
4
4y – 4x = 13 equation of the normal.
Example
A curve has equation y = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + d. where A,B,C and D are constants. Given
that the curve has a gradient –4 at the point (1,2) and gradient 8 at the point (-1,6) find
A,B,C and D.
Solution.
y= Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D
y1 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + c
y(1) = A + B + C + D
Hence. A + B + C + D = 2 (1)
y (-1) = -A + B – C + D
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Hence. –A + B – C + D = 6 (2)
y1 (1) = 3A + 2B + C
Hence. 3A + 2B + C = -4 (3)
y1(-1) = 3A – 2B + C
Hence. 3A – 2B + C = 8 (4)
From (1) D = 2 – A – B – C (5)
Sub (5) in (2)
-A + B – C +2 – A – B – C = 6
-2A – 2C = 4 (6)
From 6
A = -C –2 (7)
Sub (7) in (4)
3(-c-2) – 2B + C = 8
-3 –6 –2B +C =8
-2B – 2c = 14 #
Sub (7) in (3)
3(-c-2) + 2B +C = -4
-3c – 6 + 2B + c = -4
-2c + 2B = 2 @
Taking # and @ and solving simultaneous equation.
-2B – 2C = 14 -2B = 14 + 2C
2B – 2C = 2 -2B = 14 - 8
-4C = 16 -2B = 6
C = -4 B = -3
A = -c –2 D=2–A–B-C
A = -(-4) –2 D = 2 – 2 + 3+4
A=2 D=7
13.14 Maximum, minimum and point of inflexion.
A point on a curve at which the gradient is zero i.e. dy/dx= 0 is called a stationary point.
There are three types of stationary points, which are maximum, minimum and point of
inflexion. We will not deal with conditions of obtaining stationary points in this course.
Minimum point.
y y = f(x)
If P is a minimum point
Prestige College – ‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics then dy/dx changes from
negative to positive.
Page 164
dy/dx <0 dy/dx >0
min point dy/dx = 0
y1
Hence y11 = d2y/dx2 >0
1
y1 = f1(x)
0 x
Maximum point.
f(x) If P is a maximum point
dy/dx changes from positive
dy/dx = 0 to negative.
dy/dx>0 p
dy/dx<0
0 x
f1(x)
dy/dx <0
0 x
Summary of results.
Maximum Minimum
Sign of dy + 0 - - 0 +
dx
Sign of d2y Negative (or zero) Positive (zero)
dx2
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Example
Find the co-ordinates of the stationary points and determine their nature.
1
y=x+
x
Solution.
1
y=x+
x
1
y1 = 1 –
x2
dy
=0
dx
1
1– =0
x2
x2 1
=0
x2
x2 – 1 = 0
x=1
1
For x = 1 , y = 1 + =2
1
1
For x = -1 , y = -1 + = -2
1
Hence the stationary points are (1;2) and (-1;-2)
x2 1
f1(x) = the sign of the numerator x2 -1
x2
+ - +
-1 1
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Hence. At x = -1, the point (-1,2) is a maximum point at x = 1, the point ( 1,2) is a
minimum point.
Example
A large tank in the shape of a cuboid is to be made from 54m2 of sheet metal. The
tank has a horizontal rectangular base and no top. The height of the tank is x meters.
Two of the opposite vertical faces are squares.
a) Show that the volume, vm3, of the tank is given by v = 18x – 2/3.
b) Given that x can vary, find the maximum value of v.
c) Justify that the value of v you have found is a maximum..
Solution.
V = length x breath x height.
Let the height of the tank be x meters surface area of the tank = 2bx + 2ℓx + bℓ
2bx + 2ℓx + bℓ = 54m2.
Since two of the opposite vertical faces are squares we assume b = x , hence
2x2 + 2ℓx + ℓx = 54
ℓ(2x + x) = 54 – 2x2
54 2 x 2
ℓ=
3x
18 2 x
ℓ=
x 3
Hence. V = (18/x – 2x/3)x2
V = 18x – ⅔x3
b) V = 18x – 2x3
3
V1 = 18 – 2x²
V1 = 0 i.e.18 – 2x² = 0
2x² = 18
Hence. x = 3
2 33
Hence. Vmax = 18 x 3 –
3
= 36m3
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c) Since v11 = -12 <0 hence at x = 3 there is a maximum.
13.15 Increasing and decreasing functions.
Consider the graph of the function y = x3 drawn below.
y =x3
The graph of y = x3, is always increasing for all values of x. Check dy = 3x2 0
For all values f x. dx
Now consider the graph of y = x2.
y = x2
0 x
The graph above show a decrease when x < 0, and increases when x >0.
Check: dy < 0 for x <0 and dy >0 for x>0
dx dx
dy = 2x, depends on the sign of x.
dx
Example Determine the intervals of increase and decrease given that
y =x4 + 4x3 – 8x2 – 48x2 –48x + 20
Solution.
y = x4 = 4x3 – 8x2 – 48x + 20
y1 = 4x3 + 12x2 – 16x – 48
Let g(x) = 4x3 + 12x2 – 16x – 48
We factorise g(x)
g(2) = 4(2)3 + 12(2)2 – 16x2 – 48
=32 + 48 – 32 – 48
=0
Hence. x – 2 is a factor of g (x). Since g(2) = 0
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4x2 + 20x + 24
x–2 4x3 + 12x2 – 16x – 48 Start with a negative since
4x3 – 8x2 a = 4>0 for cubic
20x2 – 16x – 48 functions.
20x2 – 40x
24x – 48
24x - 48
(x-2)(4x2 + 20x + 24) = 4(x – 2)(x2 + 5x + 6)
= 4 ( x-2)(x + 2)(x + 3)
For: g(x) = 0
4(x – 2)(x + 2) (x + 3) = 0
x = -3 , x = -2, x = 2.
- + - +
-3 -2 2
Hence. dy < 0 for x < -3 -2<x<2
dx
dy > 0 for –3 <x< -2 x > 2
dx
The function increases for –3 < x < -2 x > 2 and decreases for x < -3 -2 < x < 2.
Example
given that x2 + xy + y2 – 3x – y = 3
dy 3 2 x y
a) Show that
dx x 2 y 1
b) Find, and classify, the maximum and minimum values of y.
c) Determine the co –ordinates of the points on the curve where the tangents to the curve
are parallel to the y – axis.
Solution for part (a)
dy 3 2 x y
Now:
dx x 2 y 1
d 2 y ( x 2 y 1)d / dx(3 2 x y) (3 2 x y)d / dx( x 2 y 1)
d 2x ( x 2 y 1)2
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d 2 y ( x 2 y 1)(2 dy / dx) (3 2 x y)(1 2dy / dx)
Hence. 2
d x ( x 2 y 1)2
solution.
a) x2 + xy + y2 – 3x – y = 3
d ( x 2 ) d ( x y) d ( y 2 ) 3d ( x) d ( y) d (3)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
2x y 2y 3 0
dx dx dx
dy
( x 2 y 1) 3 2 x y
dx
dy 3 2 x y
dx x 2 y 1
Hence. We evaluate d2y/dx2 at stationary points.
(3 2 x(3) 1)(2 0) (3 2x 3 ( 3)(1 0)
i.e. =
(3 2(3) 1)2
(3 6 1)(3) (3 6 3)
=
(3 6 1)2
8
=
16
1
= 2
<0
Hence. (1/3, 7/3) is a maximum point?
dy 3 2x y
b) = 0 i.e. =0
dx x 2 y 1
3 – 2x – y = 0
y = 3 – 2x
sub: y = 3 – 2x onto x
x2 + xy + y2 – 3x – y = 3
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x2 + x (3 – 2x) + (3 – 2x)2 – 3x – (3 – 2x) = 3
x2 + 3x – 2x2 + 9 – 12x + 4x2 – 3x – 3 + 2x = 3
3x2 – 10x + 3 = 0
b b 2 4ac
x=
2a
(10) (10)2 4 3 3)
x=
23
10 (100 36)
x=
6
10 8
x=
6
1
x = 3 and x =
3
Hence. for x = 3; y = 3 – 2x3 = -3
1 1
for x = ; y = 3 – 2x = 7/3
3 3
Hence the stationary points are (3;3) and (1/3; 7/3)
Alternatively.
Let F = x2 + xy + y2 – 3x – y – 3
df = 2x + y – 3, freeze y
dx
dy df / dx
Hence:
dx df / dy
dy (2 x y 3)
i.e
dx x 2 y 1
dy 3 2 x y
dx x 2 y 1
If the tangents are parallel to the y – axis , their gradients are equal to infinity.
dy
Hence:
dx
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3 2x y
i.e
x 2 y 1
? x+ 2y – 1 =0
2y = 1 – x
1 x
y= -
2 2
1 x
sub y = - onto x2 + xy + y2 – 3x- y = 3
2 2
1 x 1 x 1 x
i.e x2 + x( - ) + ( - )2 – 3x- ( - ) = 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
x x2
x2 + – + ¼ - x/2 + x2/4 – 3x - ½ + x/2 = 3
2 2
4x2 +2x - 2x2 + 1 – 2x + x2 – 12x – 2 + 2x = 12
3x2 – 10x – 13 =
b b 2 4ac
x=
2a
(10) (10)2 4(3)(13)
x=
23
10 256
x=
6
26 6
x= or
6 6
13
x= or 1
2
1 1
for x = -1; y = ( ) 1
2 2
13
x= ;y=
2
hence, the points are ( 13/5; -5/3) and (-1;1)
Example
3t 1 t2 4
a) For the curve x = ;y= ; show
t t
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dy
that (i) = t2 – 4
dx
d2y
(ii) 2
= 2t3
dx
b) Hence find and classify any stationary values on the curve.
Solution
3t 1
a)(i) x =
t
dx t (3) (3t 1)(1)
dt t2
dx 3t 3t 1 1
2
dt t2 t
t 2 4 dy 2t (t ) 1(t 2 4)
y ;
t dt t2
dy 2t 2 t 2 4 t 2 4
2
dt t2 t
dy dy dt t 2 4
hence, . 2
dt dt dx t
= t2 –4
d 2 y d (dy / dx) d (t 2 4)
(ii)
dx 2 dx dx
d (t 2 4) d (t 2 4) dt
but .
dx dt dx
d2y dt dt 1/ dx 2
hence , 2
2t. ; t
dx dx dx dt
hence, d2y = 2t ·dt ; dt = 1 = t2
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2
d y
hence, 2
2t (t 2 )
dx
= 2t3
dy
0
dx
i.e t2 – 4 = 0 i.e t = 2
for t = 2.
d2y
2
2(2)3 16 f 0
dx
5 22 4
Hence, at t = 2, there is a minimum i.e for t = 2; x = 3(2) –1 = and y = =4
2 2
5
hence, ( ; 4) is minimum point.
2
For t = -2
d2y = 2(-2)3 = - 16<0, there is a maximum point
dx2
3(2) 1 7
x= = ; y = -4
2 2
7
hence, (- ; -4) is a maximum point
2
13.16 The Maclaurin Series.
Let f(x) be a defined function, such that it is possible to express:
f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4 + a5x5 + ---------------
Where a1, a1, a2--- are unknown constants.
Hence f(0) = a0
f ( x) = a1 + 2a2x + 3a3x2 + 4a4x3 + 5a5x4 + -----
f (0) ) = a1
f11(x) = 2a2 + 23a3x + 34a4x2 + 4.5a5x3 + ----
f11(0) = 2a2
i.e a2 = f11(0)
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2
f111(x) = 123a3 + 234a4x + 345a5x2+ -----
f111(0) =123 a3 i.e a3 = f111(0) = f111(0)
123 3!
a. y = 1n (1 + x ) ; y (0) = 1n1 = 0
y1 = 1 ; y1(0) = 1
1+x
y11 = - 1 ; y11(0) = -1
(1 +x)2
y111 = 2(1 + x) ; y111(0) = 2
(1 +x)4
hence, 1n(1 + x) = x – x2 + x 3 - x4 +-----
2 3 4
2 3 4
= x – ½ x + 1/3 x – ¼ x +-------
(b) y = 1n(4 + 5x) , we use the expression for : y = 1n(1 + x )
hence y = 1n(4 + 5x) = 1n[4(1 + 5x/4)]
= 1n4 + 1n(1 + 5x/4) Addition law of logs.
1n ( 1+5x/4) = 5/4x - ½ (5/4x)2 + 1/3(5x/4)3 +-----
= 5x– 25x2 + 125x3 + -----
4 32 192
hence 1n(4 +5x )= 1n 4 + 5x – 25x2 + 125x3 + ----
4 32 192
(c) y = sin x ; y(0) = 0; y1 = cosx; y1(0) = 1
y11 = -sinx; y11(0) = 0; y111=-cosx ; y11(0) = -1
hence: sinx = x – x3 + x5 +-----
3 5
hence, cosx = 1 – x2 + x4+ ---- Differentiate sin x and its
expansion.
2 4
(d) hence,
sin2x = 2x – (2x)3 + (2x)5 +--------
3 5
= 2 x – 8x3 + 32x5 +----
6 120
= 2 x - 4x3 + 4x5 +-----
3 15
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13.17 Rate of changes.
We know that dy ≈ δy
dx δx
Example
If dy = 4, then y is increased 4 times as fast as x..
dx
Example
Air is pumped onto a ball at the rate of 250cm3 per second. When the radius of the ball is
15cm, calculate:
1) The rate at which its radius is increasing?
2) The rate at which its surface area is increasing?
Solution.
(i) Assume the ball is perfectly spherical, hence v = 4r3 and s = 4r2.
3
3
dr = 250, v = 4r
dt 3
dr = 4r2
dt
And dr = dr dr
dt dr dt
= 1 250
4r2
= 250
4r2
hence, dr = 250 = 5 cm/s
dt 4xx152 18
(ii) S = 4r2
ds = 8r
dr
ds = ds dr
dt dr dt
= 8rr x 5 cm2/s
18
= 8x15 x 5 cm2/s
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18
=8x25cm2/s
6
= 100 cm2/s
3
13.18 Examination type questions
1. Use differentiation to find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve
y=x+9
x
and determine whether each stationary point is maximum point or a minimum
point. Find the set of values of x for which y increases as x increases.
2. Express 14x + 2 in partial fractions. Hence find the value of
(x – 1)( 2x + 3)
d 4x 2
( )
dx ( x 1)(2 x 3)
when x = 3.
3. (i) Show that d (ln(sec x + tan x)) = sec x
dx
(ii) Show that d (ln(tan ½x)) ≡ cosec x
(iii) Find and classify all stationary values on the curve y = ex cosx, in the range
4. (i) Show that d ( ln (Sec x + tan x)) = Sec x.
dx
(iv) Show that d (ln(tan ½x)) ≡ cosec x
dx
(v) Find and classify all stationary values on the curve y = ex cosx, in the range
5. The inside of a glass is cylindrical in shape, the height of the glass is 8cm and radius
4cm. Wine is poured into the glass at the rate of 5cm3/s. Find the rate at which
the depth of the wine in the glass is increasing.
6. It is given that y = 1 . Show that when x = 0, d²y = 2
1 + Sin x dx ²
Find the first three terms in the Madaurin series for y.
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8. The parametric equations of a curve are x = t – e2t, y= t + e2t, where
(i) Express dy in terns of t.
dx
(ii) Hence find the value of t for which the gradient of the curve is 3, giving
your answer in logarithmic for m
(iii) Show that , for points on the curve, the greatest value of x is ½ (1n½ - 1)
9. A curve C is given by the equation
y3 y 2 y x2 2 x
(i) Show that the point (3,1) is the only point of intersection of the line x = 3
and the curve.
(ii) Show that the tangent to C at the point (-1, 1) has equation 2x +3y – 1 = 0.
10. Wheat is dropped from an elevator shaft on to the ground at a steady rate of
20m³/ min. It forms a conical pile whose height remains equal to the radius of its
base. At what rate is the height increasing?
(a) When the height is 10 meters
(b) After 10 minutes
11. The parametric equations of a curve are
x=t–1 y=t–2 where t > 0
t t
(i) Find dy in terms of t and hence find the value of dy when x = 0
dx dx
(ii) Write down the first two terms of the Maclaurin’s series for y in terms of
x.
12. A rectangular block has a base which measurers 2x cm by 3x cm. Given that its
volume is 1 800cm³, prove that the total surface area, A cm² is given by
A = 12x² + 3 000
x
Calculate the value of x for which A has a stationary value. Determine whether
this value of x makes A a maximum or minimum and find optimal value of A.
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CHAPTER 14
COMPLEX NUMBERS (I)
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Write a complex number in the form a+yi
Add , subtract , divide and multiply complex numbers
Represent complex numbers in an Argand diagram
14.1 Introduction
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We know that the square of any real number is non-negative, for example
(-4)2 = 16 > 0, ( ¾ )2 = 9/16 > 0 , (-2/5)2 = 4/9 > 0 , (-1)2 = 1 > 0. As a
2 2
result, the equation x + 1 = 0 has no solution, since x = -1. we cannot find the square
roots of a negative number, in the real number system
Let us now consider the quadratic equation
x2 – 4x + 13 = 0
Using the quadratic equation formula, we have
4 (16 52)
x=
2
4 36
x=
2
4 1 .36
x=
2
4 6i
x=
2
x= 2 3i
Then let i = -1. Clearly i cannot be a real number.
4 6i 4 6i
Thus x = or
2 2
= 2 + 3i or 2 -3i
Also the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has solutions x = i. The new numbers i, -i , 2 + 3i, 2 – 3i
are examples of numbers known as complex numbers.
14.2 Complex numbers
Complex numbers are usually denoted by the letter z, where
z= x + iy
x and y are real numbers and i2 = -1. We can represent i and –i in the form
i = 0 + i, and -i = 0 – i
Thus a complex number has two parts: the real part and the imaginary part.
Re (z) and lm (z) can denote these respectively
Therefore for the complex number Z = x + iy
Re (z) = x and lm (z) = y
Example
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Find the real and the imaginary parts of the complex number 6 – 2i
Solution
Re (6 – 2i) = 6 and lm (6 – 2i) = -2
14.3 Representation of complex numbers in the plane
The x-axis is called the real axis and the y-axis is called the imaginary axis. The xy-plane in
which the complex numbers are represented is called the complex plane or the Argand
diagram. We usually use the latter.
The Argand Diagram
Im(z)
z = x + iy.
Re(z)
The complex number z = x + iy is represented as a vector in the Argand diagram
Example
Represent the following complex numbers in an Argand Diagram
a) z = 4 + 2i b) z = 2 - 3i
y
2 M (4, 2)
0 2 4 x
-3 N (2, -3)
A complex number x + iy is represented on an Argand diagram by the point P (x, y). Thus
the complex numbers 4 + 2i and 2 – 3i are represented on the Argand diagram by the
points M (4,2) and N (2, -3)
Practice Questions
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Represent the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram.
(a) - 2 + 4i
(b) 2 + 3i
(c) 3 – 2i
(d) 2[cos 450 + isin450]
14.4 Operations involving complex numbers
(a) Equality of complex numbers
Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if and only if the real parts
are equal and the imaginary parts are equal, that is
z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2.
Note that if x1 = x2 but y1 y2 then Z1 Z2 and also if y1 = y2 but x1 x2 then Z1 Z2.
Example
If 2 + iv = u + 4i, find value of u and v
Solution
Since the complex numbers are equal, the real parts are equal and the imaginary parts are
equal also. Thus u = 2 and v = 4
Practice Questions
For each of the following pairs of complex numbers, find the unknowns in the real and
imaginary parts, if all unknowns are real numbers.
(a) – 3 + 4i = x + iy
(b) u + 3i = -2 + iv
(c) 10 + (3u + v)i = 6u – v + 8i
Addition of complex numbers
The sum z1 + z2 of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is obtained by adding the real parts and
the imaginary parts of z1 and z2 separately. i.e. if z1 = x1 + iy and z2 = x2 + iy2 then
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2) + i( y1 + y2)
Subtraction of complex numbers
We also subtract the real parts and the imaginary parts separately as with addition
z1 – z2 = (x1 – x2) + i( y1 – y2)
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Geometrical, this is accomplished by taking z1 and z2 as addition of vectors hence the
parallelogram rule applies
Practice Questions
Evaluate the following:
(a) (2 + 3i) + (1 – 5i)
(b) (3 + 2i) – (2 + i)
(c) (5 + 1 ½ i) – (2 ½ - 2 ½ i)
(d) (-3 + 5i) – (-5 – 2i)
A complex number z = x + iy can be regarded as a vector OP whose initial point is O,
the origin and whose terminal point is the point P (x, y)
Example
Find graphically
(i) (2 + 3i) + (4 + 3i)
(ii) (2 + 3i) – (4 + 3i)
- P (6,6)
6 -
z1 + z 2
5 -
4 -
3 -
P1(2, 3)
2 - P2( 4, 3)
1 - z1 – z2
I I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
Exercise 4
Find graphically
(a) (2 + 4i) + (3 + 2i)
(b) (2 + 4i) – (3 + 2i)
Multiplication of complex numbers
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Example
Find (3 + 5i) (2 – 2i)
Solution
(3 + 5i)( 2 – 2i) = 6 + i(10 – 6) – i2
=16 + 4i
14.5 Conjugation
Let z= x + iy be any complex number, then x – iy is called the conjugate of z and it is
denoted by . Thus, if z = x + iy then = x - iy
For example, the conjugate of 5 + 2i is 5 – 2i and that of 2 – 7i is 2 + 7i
Now z + = (x + iy) + (x – iy) = 2x
While z = (x + iy)(x – iy) = x2 + i(xy – xy) – i2y2
2
= x – i2y2
= x2 – (-1) y2
= x2 + y 2
Division of complex numbers
The quotient z1/z2 is obtained by noting that
z2 2 = x2 + y2 which is real
z1 = x1 + iy1
z2 = x2 + iy2
Example 5
Simplify 3 + 2i
2–i
Solution 5
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3 2i (3 2i )(2 i )
2i (2 i )(2 i )
6 2 i (4 3)
4 1
4 7i
5
Exercise 5
1. Expand (2 + 3i)(1 + 2i)
2. Show that z – = 2iy and hence show that lm (z) = ½ i (z – )
2 3i
3. Simplify
5 2i
14.6 Modulus
The modulus or absolute value of the complex number z denoted by |z | is defined as
| z | = √(x2 + y2 ), where z = x + iy
14.7 The polar form of a complex number
P( x, y)
Let z= x + iy be a complex number represented in the diagram above, let
r = z , x = rcos and y = rsin , hence
z = x + iy = rcos + irsin
z = r [cos + isin ], where = tan – 1(y/x) and = arg(z), - .
There are many complex numbers that can be represented in this case:
z = r [cos + isin ] = r [cos ( + 2n)+ isin ( + 2n ], n
+ 2n = Arg (z )
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Example
Express the following complex numbers in polar form.
(a) 2 3 + 2i
(b) -1 = -1 + 0i
c) 1 + 2i
d) – 2 – 2i
e) 3 – 2i
f) - 4 + i
Solutions
(a) z = 2 3 + 2i
r = ( 2 3)2 + 22 ) = (12 + 4) = 16 = 4
= tan- 1(1/3) = since the vector is in the fisrt quadrant
6
. Therefore 2 3 + 2i = 4 (cos /6 + i sin /6 ) as shown below on the diagram
y
P (23, 2)
4
6
x
(b) z = -1 = -1 + 0i
r=1
=
so -1 = cos + i sin
(c) z = 1 + 2i
r = ( 1 + 22) = 5 and = tan- 1(2) = 63.40 since the vector is in the first
quadrant
1 + 2i = 5(cos 63.40 + i sin 63.40)
(d) z = – 2 – 2i
r = ((-2)2 + (- 2)2 ) = 8 = 22 and = tan- 1(1) = 5/4, since the
vector is in the third quadrant
(e) z = 3 – 2i
r = (32 + (- 2)2 ) and = tan- 1(- 2 / 3) = 326.30 , since the vector is in the
fourth quadrant
3 – 2i = 5(cos 326.30 + i sin 326.30)
(f) z = - 4 + i
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2 2 -1 0
r = (- 4) + 1 ) and = tan (- 2 / 3) = 326.3 , since the vector is
in the fourth quadrant
Practice Questions
Express each of the following numbers in polar form and represent each number on an
Argand diagram
1. 1 + i
2. -3 + 4i
3. 3 – 33i
4. -1 – I
14.8 Multiplication complex numbers in polar form
Let z1 = r1 ( cos 1 + isin 1) and z2 = r2 ( cos 2 + isin 2), then
z1 . z2 = r1 ( cos 1 + isin 1). r2 ( cos 2 + isin 2)
= r1.r2 [ cos 1 cos 2 + icos1sin2 + isin1cos2 + i.i sin1sin2]
= r1.r2 [ cos 1 cos 2 + i(cos1sin2 + sin1cos2) - sin1sin2]
= r1.r2 [ cos (1 + 2 )+ isin(1 + 2 )], hence
z1 z2 = z1 . z2 = r1 . r2 and arg (z1 .z2) = 1 + 2
Geometrical, multiplication of the complex numbers is shown in the diagram below
z1 . z 2
z2
1 + 2
2 z1
1
Example
Given that z = 4(cos 2/3 + i sin 2/3 ) and w = 2 (cos 2 + i sin 2)
Find z. w
Solution
z . w = 8 (cos(2/3 +2) + i sin (2/3 + 2)
= 8 (cos(8/3) + i sin (8/3)
14.9 Division of complex numbers in polar form
The following are important results:
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1
1. cos i sin
cos isin
1
2 cos i sin
cos isin
3. cos isin cos ( ) isin( )
hence z1 = r1/ r2 [ cos (1 - 2 )+ isin(1 - 2 )]
z2
Example
If z1 = 1 + i, z2 = 1 – i, display and label clearly on an Argand diagram,
a) z1 . z2 b) z1 / z2
Solution
z1 = 2(cos /4 + i sin /4 )
z2 = 2[cos(- /4) + i sin(- /4) ]
a) z1 . z2 = 2[cos (/4 - /4) + i sin(/4- /4 )]
= 2[cos 0 + i sin 0]
= 2
b) z1 / z2 = 2[cos (/4 + /4) + i sin(/4 + /4 )]
= 2[cos /2 + i sin/2 ]
= i
14.10 Examination Type Questions
1. Solve for x and y
a) x – 2y = i b) (1 –i)x – (1 + i)y = - 1 + i
(1 + i)x – 2iy = 3 + i ( - 2 + 2i)x – 2y = - 4
2. Solve the following equations.
a) z - 2z = -1 – 8i b) 2 z - 3z = -1 – 12i
3. Calculate
a) in b) in + in +1 + i n + 2 + i n +3
4. Find the least value of n for which (1 – i)n is a positive number
5. Find n if ( 1 + i )n =(1 –i)n
6. Find the summation
a) sin x + sin2x + sin3x + …..+ sin (nx)
b) cosx + cos2x + cos3x … + cosnx
7. Given that z1 = 1 + 3i and z2 = - 3 + 2i, find
i) z1
ii) arg z2
iii) z1 . z 2
iv) z1/z2
Show the complex numbers z1 and z2 on the same Argand diagram, clearly
labeling z1 and arg z2
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1 1 1
8. The complex numbers u, v, and w are such that = = . . If u = + 3i
u v w
and v = 3 + 2i. Find w in the form a + bi.
9. If (a+bi)² = x + yi, show that a² - b² = x and 2ab = y. Hence evaluate 5+12i.
10 The complex numbers z and w are given by z = -3+2i and w=5+4i.
Find
(i) z
(ii) Argz
z
(iii) in the form a+bi where a and b are
w
z
exact. Hence represent in an Argand
w
diagram zimsec 2009
CHAPTER 15
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SERIES EXPANSION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Expand a biamonials using the biamonia series
Estimate values e.g (h 02 ) 2
using the biamonial expansion
Find coefficient from a bimomial expansion
15.1 The Binomial Expansion
In the following, we shall be concerned with the expansion of the expression (x + y) n,
where n is a non- negative integer. It can be shown by ordinary multiplication that
(x + y)0 = 1
(x + y)1 = x+y
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4
Notice that the coefficients of the terms in the above expansions form what is known
as a Pascal‟s triangle.
n=0 1
n=1 1 1
n=2 1 2 1
n=3 1 3 3 1
n=4 1 4 6 4 1
Each row of Pascal‟s triangle starts and ends with a 1; others can be obtained by
adding the two terms on either side of it in the preceding row.
In general, if n is a positive integer, the expansion of (x + y)n is given by
n n n
(x + y)n = x n + C x n-1 y + C x n – 2y 2 + … + Cxy n – 1 + yn
1 2 n -1
This is called the Binomial Theorem for any positive integral value of n, where
n n n!
= Cr = = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 ………x n
r r!(n – r)!
Example
Expand (2x + y)5 and simplify each term
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Solution
(2x + y)5 = (2x)5 + 5(2x)4y + 10 (2x)3 y2 + 10 (2x)2y3 + 5 (2x)(y4) + y5
= 32x5 + 80x4y + 80x3y2 + 40x2y3 + 10xy4 + y5
Example
4
Expand (2x + 1/x) and simplify each term.
Solution
(2x + 1/x)4 = (2x)4 + 4(2x)3 1/x + 6(2x)2 (1/x)2 + 4 (2x) (1/x)3 +( 1/x)4
= 16x4 + 32x3 + 24 + 8/x2 + (1/x)4
Example
Evaluate (1.02)4 using the binomial expansion giving your answer to 6 decimal places
Solution
We write (1.02)4 = (1 + 0.02)4
Therefore
(1.02)4 = 14 + 4.13 (0.02) + 6.12 (0.02) + 4.1 (0.02)3 + (0.02)4
= 1 + 0.08 + 0.00024 + 0.000032 + 0.00000016
= 1.082432
15.2 The Binomial Series
If n is a positive integer, the binomial expansion
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + n (n – 1) x2 + n (n – 1) (n – 2) x3 + … xn is a
2! 3!
finite series consisting of n + 1 terms. Consider the infinite geometric series.
1 + x + x 2 + x3 + …
which has a finite sum of 1/ (1 – x) provided |x| < 1.
Thus, we write
1/(1 – x) = (1 – x)-1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ….
Which can also be stated as the expansion of (1 – x)-1. This result can be obtained by
putting n = -1 in the following binomial expansion for positive index n.
For instance:
(1 + x) - 1 = 1 +(-1) x + (-1. –2)x2 + (-1. -2 . –3)x3 + …
1 .2 1.2.3
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2 3
=1–x+x –x +…
Also we have,
(1 – x)-1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + …
Example
a) Given that 2 – 6x + 10x2 = A + Bx + c
(1 – 3x)(1 +x2) 1 – 3x 1 + x²
find the value of the constants A,B and C.
b) Write down the series expansion, up to and including a term in x3 of
1 / (1 – 3x) and 1/ (1 + x2)
c) Deduce that, if x is small enough for terms in x4 and higher powers of x to be ignored,
then: 2 – 6x + 10x2 = 2 + ax2 + bx3, where a and b are constants to be determined.
(1 – 3x)(1 +x2 )
Solution.
2 – 6x + 10x2 = A + Bx + C
(1 –3x)(1 + x2) 1 – 3x 1 +x2
i.e.
2 – 6x + 10x2 = A(1 + x2) + ( 1 – 3x)(Bx + c)
2 – 6x + 10x2 = Ax2 + A + Bx + C – 3Bx2 – 3cx
Equating coefficients.
A + C = 2, A – 3B = 10, B – 3c = -6
A= 2 – c
Hence: B – 3c = -6 x 3
-3B – c = 8 x 1
3B – 9c = -18
-3B – c = 8
- 10c = -10
C=1
A=2–1
A=1
B – 3c = -6
B = -6 + 3c
B = -6 + 3(1)
B = -3
Hence: 2 – 6x+ 10x2 = 1 + 1 – 3x
2
(1 –3x)(1 +x ) 1 – 3x 1 + x2
(1 – 3x) - 1 = 1+ (-1)(-3x) + ( -1)(-2) (-3x)2 + (-1)(-2)(-3)(-3x) 3 ….
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2! 3!
= 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3
(1 + x2) -1 = 1 + (-1) x2
= 1 -x2
Hence: 1 +
1 – 3x =
1 – 3x 1 + x2
= 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3 + (1 –3x)(1 – x2) -1
= 1 + 3x +9x2 + 27x3 + 1 – x2 + 3x3
= 2 + 8x2 + 30x3
Hence: a = 8 and b = 30.
15.3 Examination Type Questions
1. i) Show that (4 – x)- ½ =1/2 (1 – x/4) - 1/2
ii) Write down the first three terms in the binomial expansion of 1/2 (1 – x/4) - ½ in
ascending powers of x, stating the range of values of x for which this expansion is valid.
iii) Find the first three terms in the expansion of 2(1 + x)(4 – x)- ½ in ascending powers
of x, for small values of x
2. When ( 1 – 1.5x )p is expanded in ascending powers of x, the coefficient of x
is – 24.
a) find the value of p
b) find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion
c) find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion
3. a)Obtain the first four non-zero terms of the binomial expansion in ascending
powers of x of (1 - x2) – ½ given that x < 1
b) Show that ,when x = 1/3, ( 1 – x2 ) – ½ = 0.752
c) Substitute x = 1/3 into your expansion and hence obtain an approximation to
2,giving your answer to five decimal places.
Expand fully (a + 2b) 6, simplify the co-efficients.
Hence or otherwise write down the term independent of x in the expansion of
(x 2 + 2/x) 6
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CHAPTER 16
INTEGRATION – AREAS AND VOLUMES OF
REVOLUTION.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Intergrate polynomials
Intergrate using the change of variable technique
Intergrate trig. Functions
Intergrate exponential functions
Calculate areas and volumes of revolutions
Indefinite Integration
This process is the reverse of differentiation. In other words, we wish to find the original
function given its derivative.
We know from differentiation that if y = 5x2 + 3, then y1 = 10x. Now suppose that we
are given y1 = 10x and asked to find y in terms of x. This process is the reverse of
differentiation and is called integration
In this particular case, we know that y = 5x2 + 3 will satisfy y1 = 10x, but so will y = 5x2
and y = 5x2 + 3. In general , y = 5x2 + k, where k is a constant will satisfy y1 = 10x, hence
the general solution of y1 = 10x is y = 5x2 + k and the latter is called the integral of
10x.
This is written as
10x dx = 5x2 + k
Integral sign
Indicating that
the integration is
with respect to the
variable x
k is called the constant of integration and we would need further information to find its
value.
16.1 Algebraic functions
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Result
If dy/dx = axn, then y = axn + 1 + k , n - 1.
n+1
One way of remembering this is “ add one to the power and divide by the new
power”.
Example
Find a) x5dx b) 4x3dx c) 5/x3 dx
Solution
x51
(a) x dx
5
k x6 6
5 1
(5 + 1 ) 6
31
4x
(b) 4 x3dx x4 k
3 1
5 5 x 31 5 2
(c) x3 3 1 k 2 x k
dx
Example
Find ( x4 – x2 – 3x - 2 ) dx
Solution
( x4 – x2 – 3x - 2 ) dx = 1/4x4 – 1/2x2 – 3/x + k
Result
If y1 = ( ax + b )n , then (ax + b)n dx = (ax + b)n + 1 + k
a( n + 1)
Example
Find (2x + 3 )4 dx
Solution
(2x + 3 )4 dx = 1/10 ( 2x + 3 )5 + c
Example
2
Find (4 x 7) dx
3
2
(4 x 7) dx 2(4 x 7)
3
Solution 3
dx
= 2 (4x – 7)-2 ( ½ ) ( ¼ ) + c
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= - ¼ ( 4x – 7)-2 + c
1
= c
4(4 x 7) 2
Example
Find (6x + 1)1/3 dx
Solution
(6x + 1)1/3 dx = 1/8( 6x + 1 )4/3 + k
Practice Questions
1. Integrate with respect to x
a)
2 5x2 4
d)
3x 4 x
b) x5 e) 2x1/3 – 3x4/3 – 5 x7/3
c) 5x – 3/2 – 2x – 2/3
Find each of the following integrals
a) ( 3x – 4) dx (c) x( x – 3 ) dx
b) (x ¼ - x – ¼) dx
16.2 Change of variable technique
Consider the integral x(x2 + 1 )3 dx, one way of solving this integral is by expansion i.e.
writing x(x2 + 1 )3 as a polynomial , the other way is to use the change of variable
technique. In this section we will navigate through the latter.
Let u = x2 + 1, then du = 2xdx i.e. ½du = xdx, hence
x(x2 + 1 )3 dx = ½ ( u + 1 )3 du
=1/8 ( u + 1 ) 4 + k
= 1/8( x2 + 1 )4 + k
Result
If y1 = f1(x)f(x), then f1(x)f(x)dx = ½ (f(x))2 + k
Example
Find each of the following integrals using the suggested substitution
(a) x(x – 3)2 dx, u=x–3
(b) x(x + 4) dx, u=x+4
(c) (x – 4)(x – 1) dx, u = x – 1
3
Solution
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(a) x(x – 3) dx, u = x –3,then du = dx, hence
2
x(x – 3) dx = (u + 3)u2
2
= (u3 +u2)du
= ¼ u4 +u3 + c
= ¼ (x – 3)4 + ( x – 3)3 + c
(b) x(x + 4) dx, u = x + 4, then du = dx, hence
x(x + 4) dx = u(u –4)du
= (u2 -4u)du
= 1/3(x + 4)3 – (x + 4)2 + c
© (x – 4)(x – 1)3 dx, u = x – 1, x = u + 1, dx = du
(x – 4)(x – 1)3 dx = (u +1 -4)u3 du = (u4 – u3 )du
=1/5u5 – 1/3u3 + k
= 1/5(x – 1 )5 – 1/3 (x – 1 )3 + k
16.3 Integration of Trigonometric functions
sin x dx = - cos x + c
cos x dx = sin x + c
sec2x dx = tan x + c
Example: cos 3x dx =1/3 sin 3x + c
Example: Sin (3x + 5) dx =-1/3 cos (3x + 5) + c
Example: {2 sin x + 3 sec2 x }dx = - 2 cos x + 3 tan x + c
16.4 Integration of type sin2 x dx and cos2x dx
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Recall that cos = ½ (1 + cos2 )
2
sin² = ½ (1 – cos 2 )
Example
Find cos25 d
Solution
1
cos25 d = {1 + cos 10} d
2
1
= (+ 1/10 Sin 10 )+ c
2
1
= (+ 1/10 Sin 10 )+ c
2
Example
Find sin2 d
Solution
1
sin2 d = (1 – cos 2 ) d
2
1 1
= - sin 2 + k
2 4
Result
sin n 1 x c
Sin nx dx =
n 1
cos n 1 x c
Cos nx Sin x =
n 1
sin 3 x c
Example: Sin2x cos x dx =
3
cos5 2 x c
Example : cos5 2x Sin 2x dx =
10
16.5 Integration of exponential functions
ex dx = ex + c
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e 3x dx = e +c
1 3x
Example :
3
{e 5x + e e + e +c
3x 1 5x 1 3x
Example : }dx =
5 3
Result
If y = 1/x, then 1/x dx = ln x + k
Example
Evaluate tan x dx
Solution
tan x dx = sinx/cosx dx, let u = cosx, then du = - sinxdx
tan x dx = ( - 1/u)du= - ln cosx + c
Example
Find 2x/(1 + x2) dx, using u = 1 + x2
Solution
2x/(1 + x2) dx, u = 1 + x2, du = 2xdx,then ½ du = xdx
2x/(1 + x2) dx = ½ 1/udu
= ½ lnu + c
= ln ( 1 + x2) + c
Example:
Find x2/(2x3 + 3) dx, using u = 2x3 + 3
Solution
x2/(2x3 + 3) dx, using u = 2x3 + 3,du = 6x2dx
1
x2/(2x3 + 3) dx = 1/u du
6
1
= lnu + c
6
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1
= ln(2x3 + 3) + c
6
16.6 Use of partial fractions in integration
Example
Find 1/( x2 – 1)dx
Solution
1/( x2 – 1) A/(x – 1) +B/(x +1)
1 = A(x + 1) + B( x – 1)
set x = 1 : 1 = A(2) A = ½
set x = - 1 : 1 = B( -2) B = - ½
1 1 1 1
( )
x 1 2 x 1 x 1
2
1
1/( x2 – 1)dx = {1/(x - 1) – 1/(x –+1)}dx
2
1
= ln x - 1 – ½ ln x + 1 + c
2
Example
Find (x + 2)/ (x + 5)dx
Solution
x2 B
A + You may use long division as
x5 x5 well
x + 2 = A(x + 5 ) + B
set x = - 3: - 3 = B
set x = 1: 3 = 6A + B
3 = 6A – 3
6 = 6A
A=1
(x + 2)/ (x + 5)dx = {1 – 3/(x + 5)}dx
= x - 3 ln (x + 5) + c
Example
Find (x2 + x – 11)/(x + 4)dx
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Solution You may use long division
(x2 + x – 11)/(x + 4) Ax + B + C/( x + 4)
x2 + x – 11 = Ax(x + 4) +B(x + 4) + C
set x = - 4 :( -4)2 – 4 – 11 = C
16 – 15 = C
C=1
set x = 0 : - 11 = 4B + C
- 11 = 4B + 1
- 12 = 4B
B=-3
Set x =1 : 1 +1 – 11 = 5A +5B +C
- 9 = 5A +5(- 3) + 1
- 9 +15 - 1 = 5A
5 =5A
A=1
(x + x – 11)/(x + 4)dx = { x - 3 +1/(x + 4)}dx
2
1 2
= x – 3x + ln x + 4 + k
2
Practice Questions
Integrate with respect to x
x2 x2 2 x2 2
1. 2. 3.
x( x 4) ( x 1)( x 3) x2
16.7 Integration by parts
The student will recall that
d (dx) dx vdudx
dx
dx dx
Integrating both sides w.r. t. x
d/dx( uv)dx = udv/dx(dx) + vdu/dx(dx)
uv = udv + vdu
udv = uv - vdu … this is the formula used in integration by parts
Example
Find x e4x dx
Solution
Let u = x , du = dx and dv = e 4x, dv =e4xdx v = ¼ e4x
x e4x dx = ¼ xe4x – ¼ e4xdx
= ¼ xe4x – 1/16 e4x + k
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Example
Find lnxdx
Solution
dx
Let u =lnx, du =
x
dv = dx dv = dx v = x
lnxdx = xlnx - x(1/x)dx
= xlnx - dx
= xlnx - x + k
Example
Find xlnx dx
Solution
dx
Let u = lnx, du =
x
dv = xdx v = ½ x2
xlnx dx =½ x2lnx - 1/x(½ x2)dx
=½ x2lnx - ½ xdx
=½ x2lnx – ¼ x2 + k
Example
Find e x sin x dx
Solution
Let u = ex , du = exdx,
You may use u = sinx, but this
is not always the case. Care
should be taken in choosing u
that will simplify calculations
dv = sinxdx dv = sinxdx v = - cosx
e x sin x dx =- e x cos x + e x cos x dx
Applying the formula again
Let u =e x, du = exdx,dv = sinxdx dv = cosxdx v = sinx
e x sin x dx =- e x cos x +{ exsinx - e x sinx dx }
e x sin x dx =- e x cos x + exsinx - e x sinx dx
2e x sin x dx =- e x cos x + exsinx
e x sin x dx =½(- e x cos x + exsinx) + k
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Practice Questions
Find
1. xcosxdx 5. x2(x – 2) –1/2 dx
2. x3lnxdx 6. e –x sinx dx
3. x lnxdx
4. (x + 1)exdx
16.8 Definite Integration
We define definite integration as:
b
f(x)dx = F(b) – F(a)
a
The dx indicates that the limits a and b are x limits
The constant a is called the lower limit of the integral
The constant b is called the upper limit of the integral
Example
1
Evaluate x2dx
0
Solution
1 1
x2dx = [1/3 x3 + c] = 1/3(13) + c – ( 1/3(03) + c) = 1/3
0 0
The constant of integration c disappears through subtraction. It is always
left out when integrating
Example 16
Evaluate I = ( x 4 )/xdx
1
Solution
x4 x 4
1
1 4x 2
x x x
16
I = (1 – 4x –1/2 )dx
1
16
= (x - 8x) = 16 - 816 – (1 - 81) = 16 - 32 – 1 + 8 = - 9
1
Example 4
Evaluate I = 3x(x –2) – ½ dx, using the substitution u = (x – 2) ½
3
Solution
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dx dx
Given u = (x – 2) ½, then du = ½ (x –2) –1/2 dx 1
2u
2( x 2) 2
i.e. 2udu = dx
The limits must be changed from x limits to u limits. This is done by
calculating the value of u when x =3 and x =4. You may also find the
indefinite integral and then evaluate the x limits
x u
3 1 for x = 3, u = (3 –1)1/2 = 1
4 2 for x =4, u = (4 –2) = 2
Also we have, u2 = x –2 x = u2 + 2, hence
2 2
I = 3/u(u2 + 2)2udu = (6u2 + 12)du
1 1
2
3
= [2u + 12u]
1
= 162 – 14
Example 1
Evaluate I =(1 + x2) –1 dx, using the substitution x = tan
0
Solution
Given that, x = tan, dx = sec2d and x2 =tan2
x
0 0
1 ¼
¼ ¼ ¼
Therefore, I = sec /(1 + tan ) d = d = ] = ¼
2 2
0 0 0
Example
By using the substitution x = 2cos,show that:
2
I =x – 2( 4 –x2) – ½ dx = ¼ 3
1
Solution
Given that x = 2cos, dx = - 2 ssind and x2 = 4cos2 b a
For x = 1, = f(x) dx = - f(x)dx
a b
For x = 2, = 0,then
0
I = - 2sin(4sec )(4 –4cos )
2 2 –1/2
d = -(- 2sin(4sec2)(4 –4cos2) –1/2 d
0
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=¼ sec d =¼tanx] = ¼3
2
0 0
Example
3
Evaluate (x + 2)(x + 3) –2(x +1)- 1 dx
0
Solution
x2 A B C
( x 3) ( x 1) x 3 ( x 3)
2 2
x 1
x + 2 = A(x + 3)(x + 1) +B(x + 1) +C(x + 3)2
set x = - 1: 1 = 4C C = ¼
set x = - 3: - 1 = - 2B B = ½
Equating independent terms: 2 = 3A + B + 9C
2 = 3A + ½ + 9(¼)
2 = 3A + 11/4
- ¾ = 3A
A = -¼
3
Therefore, I = { - ¼/(x + 3) + ½/(x +3)2 + ¼/(x + 1)}dx
0
3
I = [- ¼ln(x + 3) - ½(x + 3) –1 + ¼ ln(x + 1)]
0
I = - ¼ ln6 - ½(1/6) + ¼ ln4 +0 ln3 + ½(1/3)
I = ¼ ln( ) + ¼ ln3 - 1/12 + ⅙
I = ¼ ln2 + 1/12
Example
1
Evaluate I = x2 e2xdx b b b
0 udv =uv - vdu
a a a
Solution
Let u = x2, du = 2xdx
v = ½ e2x
1 1
I=½xe 2 2x
- xe2xdx
0 0
b
I = ½ e2 - xe2xdx, let u =x, du =dx and v = ½e2x
0
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1 1
I = ½ e2 – ( ½ xe2x - ½ e2xdx)
0 0
1
I = ½ e2 - ½ e2 + ¼ e2x
0
2
I = ¼ ( e – 1)
Example
Evaluate I = x cos3x dx
Solution
Let u = x, du = dx In this case you cannot take u =cos3x
v = ⅓sin3x
I = ⅓xsin3x - ⅓ sin3xdx
I = ⅓xsin3x +1/9cos3x
I=-
18
Practice Questions
6
1. Evaluate I =x2(x – 2) – ½ dx, using u = (x –2) ½
3
2.
I = x2 sinx dx, find I
a a
3. a) Show that f (x) dx = f (a - t) dt: Hint: take x =a -t
0 0
b) Deduce that x sinx dx =½ sinx dx
0 0
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c) Hence evaluate x sinx dx
0
3. a) By using the substitution u = x3, show that 3x5/(x3 –1) dx = u/(u – 1) du
b) Deduce that 3x5/(x3 – 1) dx = x3 + ln( x3 – 1) +c
c) Hence evaluate
3
3x5/(x3 –1)dx
2
4. Express as the sum of partial fractions 2/x( x + 1)(x + 2)
4
Hence show that 2 /x (x +1)(x+ 2) dx = 3ln3 – 2ln5
2
16.9 Application of Integration
Definite integration can be used to calculate areas and volumes of revolutions.
16.9.1 Area under a curve
Consider the area of region R bounded by a curve y = f (x), the x – axis, the lines
x = a and x = b
y =f(x)
a b
b
Hence AR = f(x) dx, where, AR is the area of region R
a
The essential relationship is: b
Area = ydx
a
Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the graph y = x3+ 3, the x- axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 3
Solution:
3
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1 3
3
AR = ydx
1
3
= ( x3+3) dx
1
3
4
= ¼ x + 3x
1
= ¼(81) +9 – ( ¼ + 3)
= 26 units squared
Example
Sketch the graph of the region bounded by the curve y = x3 – 5, the lines x = 2 and
x = 4 and the x – axis . Find the area enclosed.
Solution
2 4
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4 4
AR = ( x3 –5) dx = ¼ x4 – x = ¼ 44 – 4 – ( ¼ (2) – 2) = 61.5 units squared
2 2
Area of a region bounded by the curve x = f(y), they-axis, the lines y =c and y =d
x = f(y)
d
Hence, the area is given by the following formula :
d
AR = x dy
c
Example
Find the area between y = x2 + 1, the y – axis and the lines y = 2 and y = 4
4
R
2
b
AR = x dy, where x = (y –1)1/2
a
= ( y – 1)dy
4
4 1/2
= ( y – 1) dy
2
4
3/2
= 2 (y – 1)
2
3
3/2 3/2
= 2 {(4 – 1) – (2 – 1) }
3
= 2( 27 – 1) u2
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3
16.9.2 Regions below the x- axis
Remember: area is always positive
b b
If the region is under the x-axis, then AR = - f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a a
Example Find the area under the curve y = (x – 1)(x – 3) from x = 1 to x = 5
A2
1
3 5
A1
AR = A 1 + A 2
3 2
A1 = - 1 ( x – 4x + 3) dx
3
3 2
= -(1/3 x – 2x + 3x)
1
3 2 3 2
= -3 +2(3 ) -3(3) + 1 + 2(1 ) - 3(1)
3 3
= 4/3 u2
5 2
A2 = (x – 4x + 3) dx
3
3 2 3 2
= 5 – 2(5 ) + 5(3) -3 + 2(3 ) - 3 (3)
3 3
= 20/3
The required is AR = A1 + A2 = 4/3 +20/3 = 8u2
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16.9.3 Area of the region under two curves
y = f1(x)
y =f2(x)
R
a b
b
AR = {f1(x) – f2(x)}dx
a
Example
Find the area bounded by the graphs y = x2 + 1 , y = 2x + 4 , the y- axis and the x-axis
Solution
We first find the points of intersection of the two graphs.
x2 + 1 = 2x + 4
x2 - 2x – 3 = 0
(x + 1)(x - 3) = 0
x = - 1 or x =3
Find the x – intercept of y = 2x + 4
When y = 0:2x + 4 = 0
x=-2
f1(x) = 2x +4 and f2(x) = x2 +1, hence
3
AR = {2x +4 – x2 –1}dx
-1
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3
= x2 + 4x –x3- x
-1
3
= 16u2
3
Practice Questions
1.
A1
0 P Q
A2
The diagram shows the curve with equation y = xsinx for values of x between 0 and 2.
The curve cuts the x- axis at O, P and Q.
a) Find the coordinates of P and Q
b) Calculate the area bounded by the curve y = xsinx and the x -axis
2.
A
y = x( 3 – x)1/2
O B x
The diagram shows part of the curve with equation y = x( 3 – x)1/2, together with the line
segment, OA.. The curve has a maximum at A, and crosses the x – axis at B.
a) Find the coordinates of the points A and B.
b) Find the area of the region R bounded by the line segment OA, the arc of the
curve AB, and the x –axis.
16.10 Volumes of Revolution
The objective is to find the volume of the solid generated when the region R is
rotated through one revolution, i.e. through 3600 , about the x-axis or the y-axis.
b
Vx = y2 dx
a
b
Vy = x2 dy
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a
Example
Find the volume of the solid generated when the region under the graph
y = x 2 from x = 0 to x = 3 is rotated about the x – axis through 360 0
Solution:
10 y
1 2 3 4 5 6
–5
–10
3
V x = y 2 dx
0
3
= x 4 dx
0
3
= x5
0
5
= (3 5 - 0 5 )
5
= 243 u 3
5
Example
Let R be the region bounded by the curve y = x 2 + 1, y = 2x and the
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y - axis. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is rotated through
four right angles about the x -axis.
Finding the point of intersection
1
1
2
x + 1 = 2x
x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
(x – 1)(x – 1) = 0
x = 1
1 R
Vx = {y 1 2 – y 2 2 } dx
0
1
= {(x 2 + 1) 2 - (2x) 2 }dx
0
1
= {x 4 –2x 2 +1}dx
0
= ( x 5 -2x 3 + x) 1
5 0
= 8 u 3
15
16.11 Examination Type Questions
1.
0 /2
The figure shows a sketch of the curve with equation
3cos x
y = for 0 x
2 sin x
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a. Find the values of x, 8 in the given interval for which dy/dx = 0
giving tour answers in radians.
b. Determine the range of values taken by y
c. Determine the equation of the normal to the curve at the point
A(/2,0)
d. Calculate the area of the finite region bounded b y the curve, the
y- axis and the normal at A
2. The region R in the first quadrant is bounded by the curve y =e – x ,
the x – axis and the line x = 2.Show that the volume of the solid
generated when R is completely rotated about the x - axis is:
2
e –2x
dx
0
and evaluate this volume, giving your answer in terms of e and
3. Given that y = ln(x 2 – 4x + 5), find an expression for dy/dx
4
Hence find (x – 2)/(x 2 – 4x + 5)dx
3
4.
4 y
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
y =s in 2x
The diagram shows the two curves with equations y = sinx and y =
sin2x for values of x between 0 and .
The curves meet at the origin, and at the points P and Q.
a) Find P and Q.
b) Find the area A = A 1 + A 2
4 x 2 3x 2
5. Let f(cx) =
( x 1)( x 2)
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(i) Express f(cx) in partial fractions
2
(ii) Hence show that: f(cx) dx = 8 + 1n3 + 81n ( )
3
6. (a) Find ---- Cos² X dx
(b) By use of the substitution u = Sin x, or otherwise, find ----- Cos³ X dx
7. The diagram shows the region bounded by the x – axis, the line x = ½ and the curve
1 x
y2
x
4 y
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
½ 1 x
(i) Find the volume of the solid formed when R is rotated through 3600 about the x –
axis.
(ii) Use the substitution x = sin2 to show that the area of R may be expressed as:
2 cos2 do and hence find this area.
d x 4
7 (a) Show that ( ) 3
dx 4 x 2
(4 x 2 ) 2
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1
8
Hence evaluate 3
dx
0
(4 x )2 2
x
(b) The region enclosed by the curve y ,the x-axis and
(4 x 2 )
the lines x= -1,and x=1,is rotated about the x-axis through four
right angles.
Sho that the volume geratted is given by 2 (ln3-1) zimsec 2009
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CHAPTER 17
VECTORS (II)
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Write down the equation of a line passing through a point and given
direction vector
Find the Cartesian equation of a line
State the relative positions between lines
Calculate the dist from a perpendicular to a line
Find the vector and Cartesian equation of a plane
Calculate the angle between a plane and a vector
17.1 The equation of a line
The equation of a line in vector form is given by:
r = a + tb
Where, r is a general point i.e. r = xi + yj + zk
a is a point through which the line passes
t is a scalar or constant
b is a vector in the same direction as the line called the direction vector.
Example
Write down the vector equation of the line passing through the point (1,2,3) and in the
same direction as the vector 4i + 5j + 6k
Solution:
1 4
r = 2 t 5
3 6
Cartesian form: it can be shown that if
x u
r= y t v
z w
then its Cartesian
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x x1 y y1 z z1
Equation is:
u v w
Example
If
1 4
r = 2 t 5
3 6
What is the Cartesian equation of the line?
Solution:
x 1 y 2 z 3
t
4 5 6
Example
Find (i) the vector equation and the Cartesian equation of the line passing through the
points A and B having position vectors – i +2j +4k and 3i – 5j – k, respectively
]
olution:
3 1 4
5 2 7
AB = OB - OA =
1 4 5
1 4
(i) r= 2 +t 7 using point A or
4 5
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3 4
r = 5 t 7
1 5
The Cartesian equation is:
x 1 y 2 z 4
t or
4 7 5
x 3 y 5 z 1
t respectively.
4 7 5
Example
Show that the lines with direction vectors 5i + 2j – 4k and 2i + 3 j + 4k are
perpendicular.
Solution
We compute the scalar product of their direction vectors i.e. :
(5i + 2j – 4k). (2i + 3 j + 4k) = 5(2) + 2(3) – 4(4) = 0; hence the two lines are
perpendicular
The equation of the plane .
The equation of a plane in vector form is given by:
( r – a ) . n = 0,
where n is a vector normal to the plane and A is apoint on the plane.
Rearranging we obtain
r .n = a .n
r . n = d, where d = a .n
In Cartesian coordinates ,we have ux + vy + wz + d = 0,where n = ui + vj + wk
The parametric equation form of a plane is given by:
r =a + rb + sc,
where r and s are parameters and b and c are vectors on the plane
Example
Find the vector equation for the plane passing through the point with position vector
5i + 3 + k and perpendicular to the vector 2i + 9i +6k.
2 5 2
Solution: r . 9 3 . 9
6 1 6
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2
= r. 9 = 43
6
Example
What is the Cartesian form of the equation of the plane?
1
r. 2 = 4
3
Solution:
x + 2y + 3z = 4
17.2 Determining the normal vector to a plane
The cross product
Let a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k, the cross product of vectors a and b is
given by
i j k a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a x b = a1 a2 a3 = i b2 b3 - j b1 b3 +k b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
The vector v = a x b is perpendicular to both vectors a and b
Example
Given vectors 3i + 2j + k and 5i + 6j + 7k find their cross product.
Solution:
The cross product of two vectors is a normal vector to the plane containing the two
vectors.
i j k
n = 3 2 1 =i 2 1 –j 3 1 + k 3 2
5 6 7 6 7 5 7 5 6
= 8i – 16j + 8k
Example
Find the vector and Cartesian equation of the plane containing the points P, Q and R with
position vectors 4i + 2j + 6k, 5i + j + 3k and 2i + 3j + 4k respectively
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Solution:
5 4 1
1 2 1
3 6 3
2 4 2
PR = 3 2 1
4 6 2
i j k 1 3 –1 3 –1 1
n= -1 1 3 = i -j + k
-2 1 -2 1–2 -2 –2 -2 1
= -5i – 6j + k
Using point P
5 5 4
r. = 6 6 2
1 1 6
5
r. 6 = - 26
1
And the Cartesian equation is -5x – 6y + z = - 26
Alternatively:
r =a + rb + sc, let b= PQ = i – j +3k, a = OP = 4i + 2j + 6k and
c = PR = -2i + j –2k, hence
r = 4i + 2j + 6k +r ( i – j +3k) + s(-2i + j – 2k)
17.3 The perpendicular distance from a point P to a line ℓ
Example
Find the perpendicular shortest distance from the point P (3, -1, 5) to the line ℓ
given by
P
8 6
r. 0 t 1
1 4
ℓ
Rearranging
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8 6t
r= 0t
1 4t
8 6t 3
QP = OP – OQ = 0 t - 1
1 4t 5
5 6t
= 1 t
6 4t
since QP is perpendicular to C, then
5 6t 6
1 t 1 = 0
6 4t 4
-30 + 36t + 1 + t – 24 + 16t = 0
t=1
8 – 6 (1) 2
0 + 1 = 1
-1 +4 (1) 3
and QP = 2 32 1 12 3 52
= 3
17.4 The perpendicular distance from a point P(x1,y1,z1) to a plane
The distance d from the point P(x1,y1,z1) to the plane ux + vy + wz + d = 0 is given by:
ux2 vy1 wz1 d
d=
u 2 v 2 w2
Example
Find the shortest distance from the point P (1,2, 3) to the plane with the equation
r. (5i + 3j + k ) = 2
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Solution: P ( 1,2,3)
ux1 vy1 wz1 d
The formula for the distance d is: d =
u 2 v 2 w2
u
Where n = v is the normal vector to the plane
w
5(1) 3(2) 1(3) 2
d=
52 32 12
12
=
35
17.5 The angle between the line ℓ and a plane
180 -
We want to calculate the angle
n.a
We know that cos (180 - ) = sin =
n a
Example
Find the angle between the between the line l having the equation
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1 5 3
r= 2 +t 4 and the equation of the plane r . 1 =5
3 3 1
(3i j k )(5i 4 j 3k )
Solution: Sin =
11 50
14
=
11 50
14
sin 1 =
11 50
= 40.70
17.6 The angle between two planes
Here we find the angle between the normals to the planes.
Example
Find the angle between the planes.
1 4
r. 2 4 and r. 3 9
1 3
Solution:
n1.n2
Cos =
n1 . n 2
(i 2 j k ).(4i 3 j 3k )
=
6 29
12
=
174
12
cos 1 =
174
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= 24.5 o
17.7 Parallel lines and planes
Two lines are parallel if they have the same direction vectors or if the direction vectors are
multiples of each other.
Example
1 4 3 20
Show that the lines r = 2 t 5 and r= 1 m 25 are parallel
3 6 4 30
Solution:
20 4
Since 25 5 5
30 6
hence the two lines are parallel
Example
Show that the planes
1 3
r. 2 5 and r. 6 1 are parallel
3 9
Solution:
3 1
Since 6 3 2
9 3
Hence the two lines are parallel
Example
Show that the line
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1 2 1
r= 2 t 1 is parallel to the plane r. 0 3 .
3 2 1
Solution:
If a line and a plane are parallel then their direction vectors must be perpendicular. i.e.
a . n = 0 hence
0 1
1 . 0 0 there fore the lines are parallel
1 1
17.8 Intersecting lines
Example
Show that the lines r1=2i+ 2 + ( - i + 2)
r2 = i – 2 + s( i + 3)
Intersect and find the co-ordinates of their point of intersection.
Solution:
At the point of intersection
2 1 3
1 2 3s
0 0( ) 0 0
= 2 - = 1+s
1 + = -2 – 3s
5+=1
3s + = -3
- 2s = 4
s = -2
=4
Therefore we have a solution to the simultaneous equations the two lines intersect.
(ii) The point of intersection is found by substituting for either S or .
For S = -2
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2 3 1
r 1 = 1 4 4
0 0 0
for = 4
1 2 1
r 2 = 2 6 4
0 0 0
Example Determine whether the two lines
1 1 1 0
r 1 = 0 1 and r 2 = 1 1
1 0 0 1
Solution: rearranging
1 1 ot
r 1 0 r 2 1 t
1 0 0t
1 1 0t
r 1 = r 2 = 0 1 t
1 0 0 t
= 1 + =0
therefore: = 0
= 1 +t
t = -1
but 1 = t ( from the third row) which is inconsistent therefore the two lines do not
intersect. They are said to be skew
17.9 Examination type questions
1. i, j and k are unit vectors parallel to x, y and z axes of the Cartesian plane Oxyz, with
origin O. A line ℓ1, passes through the point (3, 6, 1) and is parallel to the vector
2i + 3j – k. A line ℓ2 passes through the point (3, - 1, 4) and is parallel to the vector
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4i – 2j +k
(a) Using the form r = a + bt, write down the vector equations of the lines ℓ1
and ℓ2. Show that the lines intersect and find the coordinates of the point
of intersection.
(b) What is the acute angle between the lines?
(c) The point A(5, a, 0) lies on ℓ1, whilst the point B(5, a, b) lies on ℓ2. Find a
and b and hence find the point = C which lies on the line AB such that
AC = 1:2.
→
What is the unit vector parallel to OC?
2. The points A and B have coordinates (2, 3, - 1) and (5, -2, 2) respectively.
Calculate the acute angle between AB and the line with the equation.
→ 2 1
V= 3 +t -2 giving your answer to the nearest degree.
-1 -2
3. Show that the two lines given by the equations
x = 3 + t, y = 4 + 2t, z = - 2t
x =8 – 2s, y = 5 – s, z = - 4 + 2s
intersect. Find the coordinates of their common point. Find also the acute angle
between these lines
4. The equation vector of the plane 1 is x + z = 0 and the equation of the line l is:
7 2
r= 3 +t 1 where t is a parameter
2 3
Find
(i) The position vector of the point of intersection of 1 and l.
(ii) The length of the perpendicular from the origin to l giving your answer to
3 significant figures.
(iii) Given that place 2 has the equation 6x – 5y – 2z = 0, find the acute angle
between 1 and 2, giving your answer correct to the nearest 0.1.
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CHAPTER 18
FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Formulate and solve differential equations
Represent solutions graphical
18.1 Formulation of odes
An ODE is an equation containing the derivative function dy / dx
The student should recall that the differential operator is also called the gradient function
and that the gradient is the rate of change of a given variable with respect to another –
usually time (t). and also that an increasing function has a positive gradient while a
decreasing one has a negative gradient.
Example
Formulate the following differential equations.
(i) The rate of increase of a population is constant.
(ii) The rate of a chemical reaction increases with time
(iii) The rate at which water flows out of a tank decreases with the water level.
Solution:
dP
(i) k
dt
dM
(ii) .t
dt
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dM
kt
dt
dV
(iii) h
dt
dV
kh
dt
18.2 Solving odes
An ODE is an indirect way of expressing the relationship between given variables. In
solving ODES, we will be aiming at expressing this relationship directly. This is
essentially an integration problem.
18.3 Odes with separable variables
This is when similar terms can be grouped on one side of the equation.
Example Solve the following ode
dH
kH (1 t )
dt
Separating the variables and integrating:
dH
= k (1 + t) dt
H
LnH = k (t + t2/2) + c (1)
This is the general solution.
If we are further told that H = 1, when t = 1 and H = e
2
when t = 4 , we can then find
the values of k and c leading to the particular solution.
Substituting in (1) above
ln 1 = k (1 + ½) + c
-c = 1.5 k
(2)
ln e
2
= k (4 + 8) + c
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2 = 12k + c (3)
2 = 12k – 1.5k
k = 4/21
3 4
c =
2 21
2
=
7
21 t 2 2
The particular solution is lnH = t
2 2 7
18.4 Graphical Representation of solutions
The general solution can be represented on a family 0f curves and a particular
solution by one number of this family.
Example Sketch the two solution curves passing through the given
co-ordinates.
dy
= x : (0, 1) , (1, 2)
dx
Solution
dy
xdx
y
x2
c
2
when x = 0 and y=1 c=1
x2
y = 1
2
when x = 1 and y = 2 2= ½+c
c = 3/2
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2
x 3
y =
2 2
y = x2 + 3
2 2
y = x2 + 1
2
1½
1
Example: The growth rate of a colony of mice increases at a rate proportional to its
size. In 30 days, the size of the colony rises from 2000 to 4000. (i) Derive and solve a
differential equation for the population size at time t days after the size was 2000 (ii) What
size is it when t = 90 days? (iii) How long did it take for the population to increase from
3000 to 4000.
Solution:
dp
(i) P
dt
dp
= kP
dt
dp
= kdt
P
Ln p = kt + c
When t = 0 , p = 2000
ln 2000 = k (0) + c
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c = ln 2000
when t = 30 , P = 4000
ln 4000 = k (30) + c
= 30k + ln 2000
In 2
k =
30
tIn 2
ln P = + ln 2000
30
90 In 2
When t = 90 , lnP = + ln2000
30
hence P = 2000 x 23 = 16 000
tIn 2
ln P = + ln 2000
30
tIn 2
when P = 3000 , ln 3000 = + ln 2000
30
30 In1.5
t =
In2
= 17.549
The time to increase from 3000 to 4000
= 30 – 17.549 days
= 12.45 days
18.5 Examination type questions
1. A bottle is shaped so that when the depth of water is xcm, the volume of water in
the bottle is (x² + 4x) cm3, x ≥ 0. Water is poured into the bottle so that at time ts
after pouring commences, the depth of water is xcm and the rate of increase of the
volume of the water is (x² + 25) cm3/s.
dx x 2 25
(a) Show that Given that the bottle was empty at t = 0
dt 2 x 4
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(b) Solve this differential equation to obtain t in terms of x.
(c) Use integration by parts to find ∫x Sec² x dx. By separating the variables,
dy 1
solve the differential equation cos²x = xy² (0 < x < ) given that y =
dx 2
1
when x= 0
2. In an industrial process, a control mechanism supplies heating or cooling in such a
way that the temperature H and the time t (each measured in suitable units are related
by the differential equation:
dH
= (100 - H³)
dt
(i) Solve this differential equation, giving t in terms of H and an arbitrary
constant.
(ii) Given that H = 95 when t = 0, find the value of t when H = 99
(iii) Given instead that H = 101 when t = 0, express H in terms of t.
3. A rain water Butt has a height of 100cm and a uniform cross-sectional area of
2000cm². At a time when the butt is full of water it begins to leak from a small hole
in the base. The depth of the water which remains t minutes after the leak begins is
xcm. Given that the water leaks out at the rate of 100x cm³ per minute and that no
water enters the butt, show that:
dx 1 x
dt 20
When the leak is first noticed, the butt is found to be only half full. Find, to the
nearest minute, the time for which the butt has been leaking.
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CHAPTER 19
COMPLEX NUMBERS (II)
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Prove trig, identities using Moirve formulae
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Solve polynomial equations
Calculate units
Roots of complex numbers
Describe and sketch loci of complex numbers
19.1 Further properties of the conjugate
The following are some properties of the conjugate of a complex number.
(a) Z = Z if and only if z is real
(b) z1 z 2 = z1 z2
(c) z1 z 2 z1 z2
(d) z1.z2 z1.z2
z z
(e) 1 1
z2 z2
Example
Given that z = x + iy, express y + ix and 6ix – 2y in terms of Z and or
Solution
y + ix = i (x + 1 / i y)
= i(x + i/ i2 y)
= i(x + i/ -1 y)
= i(x – iy)
= i
6ix – 2y = 6i (Z + ) – 2 (Z – ) = 3i (Z + ) + i(Z – )
= 4iZ + 2 I = 2 i(2Z + )
Practice Questions
1. Given that z = x + iy, express each of the following in terms of z and or z
(a) – x + iy
(b) – y + ix
(c) – x – iy
(d) 2x – iy
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(e) 2ix –y
(f) 5x – 2iy
Example
1
Find Re
z
Solution
1 1
z 2
( x iy )2
x 2 y 2 2iy
( x 2 y 2 2iy )( x 2 y 2 2iy )
( x 2 y 2 ) 2ixy ( x 2 y 2 ) 2ixy
( x2 y 2 ) 4 x2 y 2 x4 2 x2 y 2 y 4 4 x2 y 2
( x 2 y 2 ) 2ixy ( x 2 y 2 ) 2ixy
x4 2x2 y 2 y 4 ( x 2 y 2 )2
x 2 y 2 2ixy
( x 2 y 2 )2
1 x2 y2
Therefore Re ( z ) 2
2 ( x y 2 )2
Practice Questions
1 (1 i ) 2
1. Find (i) lm (ii) Re
1 i 4 2i
2. Show that cos + iSin = 1
3. Prove result (2) by using Z 2 = Z² .
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19.2 De Moivre’s Formulae
Recall that r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) r2 (cos 2 + isin 2) =
= r1 r2 (cos (1 + 2) + i sin (1 + 2)
We extend this result to the case where we have n complex numbers. We can prove by
induction that:
r1 (cos 1 + isin 2) …. rn (cos n + isin )
= r1 . r2 ……rn {cos (1 + 2 + … +n) + i sin (1 + 2 + … + n)}
Now consider the case where r1 = r2 = … rn = r and 1 = 2 = … = n =
Hence Zn = rn (cos + isin )n = = rn (cos n + isin n)
For r =1
(cos + isin )n = cos n + isin n
This is De Moivre‟s first formula. In fact, this result is true for any real number .
De Moivre‟s formula can be used to find the expansion of multiple angles.
Example
By De Moivre‟s formula cos 5 + isin 5= (cos + isin )5
(cos + isin )5 =
= cos 5 + 5 Cos4 (iSin ) + 10 cos3 (iSin)2 + 10 cos2 (isin )3 + 5 cos (iSin )4 +
(iSin )5
= cos 5 + 5 isin cos 4 + 10 i2 cos3 sin2 + 10 i5 cos2 sin5 + 5 i4 cos sin4 + i5
sin5
= cos5 + 5 iSin cos 4 - 10 cos3 sin2 - 10 icos2 sin3 + 5 cos sin4 + iSin5
= cos5 - 10 cos3 sin2+ 5 cos sin4 + i(cos4 sin - 10 cos2 sin3 + sin 50
Equating the real parts, we have
cos 5 = cos5 - 10 Cos 3 sin 2 + 5 cos sin4
= cos5 - 10 cos3 (1 – cos2) + 5 cos (1 – cos2)2
= cos5 - 1 cos3 (1 – cos3 ) + 5 cos (1 – 2 cos2 _ cos4 )
= cos5 - 10 cos3 + 10 cos5 + 5 cos - 10 cos3 + 5 cos5
= 16 cos5 - 20 cos3 + 5 cos
If we had equated the imaginary parts , we would obtain the expansion of sin 5..
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Practice Questions
1. Prove by induction that r1 (cos 1 + isin 1) …… rn (cos n + isin n) =
= r1 . r2 … rn (cos (1 + 2 + … + n) + isin (1 + 2 + …. + n ) )
3 1
2. Prove that sin3 = sin - sin3
4 4
3. Simplify without using the calculator
(cos i sin )3
7 7
(cos i sin ) 4
7 7
4. Prove using De Moivre‟s Theorem
a) cos 4 = 8 cos4 - 8 cos2 + 1
b) sin 5 = 5sin - 20sin3 + 16sin5
4 tan 4 tan 3
c) tan 4 =
1 6 tan 2 tan 4
Important Results
If z = cos + isin
1
= cos - isin
z
1
hence z + = cos + isin + cos - isin = 2cos and
z
1
z- = cos + isin + (cos - isin ) = 2isin
z
If Zn = (cos n + isin n) for z =1, then Z- n = (cos n - isin n)
Hence
1 1
Zn + n
= 2cos n and Zn - n = 2isin n. This is another version of
z z
De Moivre‟s theorem
Example
1
Prove that cos5 = (cos 5 + 5cos 3 + 10cos)
16
Solution
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1
Let z = cos + isin , hence z + = 2cos , then
z
(z + 1/z) 5 = 32cos5. On expanding the left hand side we obtain
1 1
z5 + 1/ z5 + 5(z3 + 3 ) + 10(z + ) = 2cos 5 + 10cos3 +20 cos , hence
z z
32cos = 2cos 5 + 10cos3 +20 cos
5
1
cos5 = (cos 5 + 5cos3 + 10cos )
16
Practice Questions
1
1. Prove cos4 + sin4 = (cos 4 + 3)
4
1
2.Prove that sin5 =
16
( sin 5 - 5sin 3 + 10sin ), hence find (10sin - 16sin5)d
/4
3. Using De Moivre‟s Theorem, evaluate 8cos4d
0
4. Find expressions for cos3 and sin3, hence evaluate cos3d and sin3d
3
5. Find expressions for cos3/2, hence evaluate cos 2 d
19.3 Polynomial Equations
Let us first show that we can now always find the solution of every quadratic equation with
real coefficients. Suppose we are given the quadratic equation.
ax2 + bx + c = 0
where a 0 , b and c are real numbers, then
b b 2 4ac
x=
2a
If b2 4ac, the equation has two real roots
If b2 < 4ac, the equation has complex roots.
b (1) 4ac b 2
For in this case we have x=
2a
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= -b ± (-1) (4ac – b2)
2a
b i 4ac b 2
=
2a
Example
Solve the equation x2 – 2x + 10 = 0
Solution
x = 2 ±(4 – 4 x 10)
2
= 2 ± - 36
2
= 2 ± 6i = 2 + 3i or 2 – 3i
2
Note that the roots are conjugate complex numbers. If we look carefully at the general
solution of quadratic equation with real coefficients, we see that if a quadratic equation has
complex roots, then the roots are conjugate.
This result hold for all polynomial equations with real coefficients.
Example
Solve x3 – 4 x2 + 9x – 10 = 0
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 4 x2 + 9x – 10. Try factors of 10 i.e. +1 , +2 , +5, +10
f (2) = 8 - 16 + 18 – 10 = 0. Therefore x = 2 is a root of f (x) = 0 and so x – 2 is a factor
of f (x). On dividing, we obtain the factor, x2 – 2x + 5
2 4 4 10
Now x2 – 2x + 5 = 0 i.e.x =
2
2 36
=
2
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2 6i
=
2
= 1 ± 2i
Therefore x = 1 + 2i or 1 – 2i,hence the roots are 2 , 1 + 2i or 1 – 2i
Practice Questions
Solve the following equations:
1. 5x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
2. x3 – 7x2 - 17x – 15 = 0
3. x6 + x5 + 11x4 + 13x3 + 10x2 + 36x – 72 = 0 given that 2i and 3i are roots of the
equation
4. x4 + x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 20 = 0, given that 1 – 2i is a root of the equation.
5. x4 – x³ + x2 – 1 = 0. (Hint: Let y = x2)
6. Given that one root of the equation z4 - 6 z3 + 23z2 – 34z + 26 = 0 is 1 + i, find the
other roots.
19.4 Roots of Unity and of Complex Numbers
The nth roots of unity, where n is a positive integer
Consider the equation Zn = 1,we find the nth roots of 1. Clearly
1 = cos( 0 + 2k) + sin(0 + 2k) , where k is an integer, then
11/ n = cos( 0 + 2k) + sin(0 + 2k)1/ n , using De Moivre‟s theorem, we have
0 2k 0 2k
Zk = cos + sin ,where k = 0, 1, 2,…, n - 1
n n
It is clear that we get distinct values of z for k = 0 , 1 , 2 …, n – 1 and starting with k = n,
we start repeating again the cycle of n values up to 2n – 1 and so on. As a result, 1 has
exactly n distinct nth roots.
These roots can be represented as vertices of an n-sided regular polygon inscribed in the
unit circle with point z = 1 as one of its vertices.
Example
Find the sixth roots of unity
Solution
The sixth roots of unity are given by
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0 2 k 0 2 k
Zk = cos + sin ,where k = 0, 1, 2,…, 5
6 6
Zk = cos (1/3k) + isin (1/3)
For k = 0, Z0 = 1
For k = 1, Z1 = ½ + ½ 3 i
For k = 2, Z2 = -½ + ½ 3 i
For k = 3, Z3 = - 1
For k = 4, Z4 = -½ - ½ 3 i
For k = 5, Z5 = ½ - ½ 3 i
See figure below:
Z2 Z1
Z3 Z0
Z5 Z4
Example
Find (-1 + i)1/ 4
Solution
Expressing -1 + i in polar form, we have
-1 + i = 2 (cos (3 /4 + 2k) + iSin (3/4 + 2k)
Therefore, (-1 + i)1/ 4 = 2 1/ 8 (cos (3 /16 + 2k/4) + isin (3/16 + 2k/4)
If k = 0 , z1 = 2 1/ 8 (cos 3/16 + isin 3/16)
If k = 1, z2 = 2 1/ 8 (cos 11/16 + isin 11/16)
If k = 2, z3 = 2 1/ 8 (cos 19/16 + isin 19/16)
If k = 3, z4 = 2 1/ 8 (cos 27/16 + isin 27/16)
The four answers above are the fourth roots of (-1 + i)
Example
Find the square roots of 12 + 5i
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Solution
Let Z = p + iq where p and q are real numbers be the required square root.
Then (p + iq)2 = p2 – q2 + 2 pqi = 12 + 5i
p2 – q2 = 12 (1)
2 pq = 5 (2)
From (2) q = 5/ 2p and substituting this into (1), we have p2 – 25 / 4 p2 = 12 and so
p4 – 48 p2 – 25 = 0
Thus (2p2 + 1) (2p2 – 25) = 0
25
p2 = - ½(reject) or p2 =
2
25 5
p2 = and so p ± and consequently, q = ± 1
2 2
5 2 2 25 2
thus the square roots of 12 + 5i are: +1 i or – – 2 i
2 2 2 2
Practice Questions
1. Find the cube root of 3 + 4i
2. find the square root of 8 – 6i
1 1
3. find the root indicated (a) (8 + 3i), (b) (3 + 6i),
5 8
4. solve the equation z3 + 8 = 0
19.5 Loci
Consider the following examples
1. Find the locus of points z such that Re (z) 0. In other words we wish to find
the locus of all points such that the real part is positive. This is the half plane
consisting of all points to the right of the origin.
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2. Find the locus of points z: z 3. Recall that z can be viewed as the distance
of z from the origin. Thus z 3 gives the locus of all points whose distance
from the locus is less than or equal to 3 i.e. a circle of radius 3 including the
boundary as shown in figure below:
y
3i
-3 3 x
-3i
Similarly 1< z 3 gives all points whose distance from the origin is greater than 1 but
less than or equal to 3 , i.e. all points in an annulus or ring of inner radius 1 and outer
radius 3, excluding the inner boundary but including the outer boundary as shown on
diagram.
y
3i
-3 -1
-1 1 3 x
- 3i
In general z – z0 , where z0 is a complex number gives the distance of z from the
point z0
Let z = x + iy and z0 = a + bi , then
z – z0 = (x + iy) – (a + bi) = (x - a ) + i(y – b)
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= ( x a)2 ( y b)2
Which is the expression for the distance between the points (x , y) and (a , b)
Example
Represent geometrically the set of values of z for which
z i z i
(a) 1 (c) < 2
z2 z
z i z 1
(b ) 2 (d) > 2
z2 z2
Solution
z i
(a) 1 z – i = z + 2 .
z2
Consequently the points z are such that the distance from the point z to the point z = i
equals the distance from the point z to the point z = 2. Note that z + 2 = z –( -2).
Thus they are points that are equidistant from the points z = i and z = -2. we know that
these are points are on the perpendicular bisector of the straight line joining the points z
= i and z = -2 as shown on the figure below.
-2
2y + 4x + 3 = 0
- 1.5
z – i = z + 2 [ x2 + (y – 1)2] =[ (x + 2)2 + y2]
x2 + (y – 1)2 = (x + 2) 2 + y2
x2 - 2y + 1 = x2 + 4x + 4 + y2
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- 2y + 1 = 4x + 4, hence the Cartesian equation of the perpendicular bisector is
2y + 2x + 3 = 0
z i
b. 2
z2
z 1 = 2 z2
x iy i = 2 x iy 2 squaring both sides
x2 + (y – 1)2 = 2[( x + 2)2 + y2 ]
x2 + y2 – 2y + 1 = 4[x2 + 4x + 4 + y2 ]
3x2 + 3y2 + 16x + 2y + 15 = 0
3x2 +16x + 3y2 + 2y = - 15
16 64 64 2 1 1
3( x 2 ) 3( y 2 ) 15
3x 9 9 3y 9 9
8 2 64 1
3( x )2 3( y )2 15
3 3 3 3
8 2 20
( x )2 ( y )2
3 3 9
8 2 2
This is a circle , center ; and radius r =
3 3 3 5
y
O(- 8/3;-1/3)
z i
c. <2
z2
8 2 20
( ( x )2 ( y ) 2 x + ; Out side the circle center
3 3 9
( -8/3 ; - 1/3), r = 2/35
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O(- 8/3 ; -1/3)
z i
(d) > 2
z2
8 2 20
( x )2 ( y )2 ; Inside the circle center ( -8/3 ; - 1/3), r = 2/35
3 3 9
O( -8/3 ; -1/3 )
Example
Sketch the locus of the point P (x, y ) where P represents the complex number z = x + iy
on an Argand diagram and write down the Cartesian equation of each locus
a) arg z = /2
b) arg (z – 3i) = /3
c) 0 < arg (z + 3 ) < /6
d) arg [(z – 1) / (z + 1 ) = /2
Solution
a)
bi
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Let z = x + iy, then
arg z = /2
arg (x +iy) = /2
arg (x + iy) = tan – 1(y/x), hence
tan – 1(y/x) = /2
y/x = tan /2
y/x =
y > 0 and x = 0 is the Cartesian equation i.e. the y – axis and y > 0
b) arg (z – 3i) = /3
arg ( x + iy – 3i) = /3
arg (x +i (y –3)) = /3
arg (x +i (y –3)) = tan – 1((y –3)/x)
tan – 1((y –3)/x) = /3
(y – 3) / x = tan /3
(y – 3) / x = 3
y – 3 = x3
y = 3 x + 3, y > 3 and x > 0,since /3 is in the first quadrant
The locus of P is shown below by the equation of the line
y = 3 x + 3
/3
3
c) 0 < arg (z + 3) < /6
0 < arg (x + iy + 3) < /6
0 < arg (x + 3 + iy) < /6, hence
arg (x + 3 + iy) = tan – 1(y / (x + 3)), then
tan – 1(y / (x + 3)) = /6
y / (x + 3) = tan /6
3
y= , y > 0 and x > - 3, since /6 is in the first quadrant.
3( x 3)
3
Hence 0 < y <
3( x 3)
The diagram is shown in the figure below
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/3
y = 3 /3(x + 3)
3
-3
d) arg [(z – 1) / (z + 1) = /2
x iy 1 ( x 1 iy )( x 1 iy )
arg arg
x iy 1 ( x 1 iy )( x 1 iy )
x 2 1 y 2 2iy
arg 2 2
x 2x 1 y
2y
tan 1 ( ) hence
x 1 y2
2
2y
tan 1 ( )
x 1 y
2 2
2
2y
tan
x 1 y
2 2
2
2y
x 1 y2
2
x 2 1 y 2 0, and 1 p p 1
x2 y 2 1
The locus of the point P is a semi – circle centre (0,0) and radius 1
i
x2 + y2 = 1
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-1 1
19.6 Examination type questions
1. Given that z2 + 2i, express z in the form r ( cos + isin), where r is a positive real
number and - < < . On the same diagram, display and label clearly the numbers
z , z2 and 4/z
Find the values of z + z2 and arg ( z + 4/z)
2. Sketch the locus of the point P (x, y ) where P represents the complex number
z = x + iy on an Argand diagram and write down the Cartesian equation of each
locus
a) arg z = - /4
b) arg ( 2z + 4i)
c) 0 < arg (z – 2i) < /8 0
d) arg [( z + i)/ ( z – 3i)]
3. Use de Moivre‟s theorem to express Sin 5 in terms of powers of Sin .
4. Show that 2 + 3i is a root of the equation z³ - 3z² + 13 = 0. Hence find the other
two roots.
5. The point P represents the complex number z = x + iy on an argand diagram.
Describe the locus of P. if
z i
a) z 1 z i b) arg =
z 1 4
6. Find , in the form r(cos +i sin ) all the complex number z = x + iy , such that
5i
z3 =
2 3i
7. A complex number z has modulus 4 and agreement Another complex number w
4
has modulus ½ and argument .
8
a) Write each of the following complex numbers in the form of a + bi
4 z2
(i) ZW (ii) 2
w
b) Find the smallest value of n such that wn < 0,01
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CHAPTER 20
MATRICES
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Calculate the determinant of a 3x3 matrice
Find the inverse of a 3x3 matrice
Solve simultaneous equation of 3 variables using matrices
Transform points and shapes using matrices
20.1 Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array or arrangement of numbers.
The student should recall that more than two matrices can be added together.
Example
If
2 3 4 1 0 1
A = 5 2 1 B= 1 2 12
2 8 9 13 4 3
2 3 4 1 0 1 3 3 5
A+B = 5 2 1 + 1 2 12 = 6 4 13
2 8 9 13 4 3 15 12 12
2 3 4 1 0 1 1 3 3
A – B= 5 2 1 1 2 12 4 0 11
2 8 9 13 4 3 11 4 6
2 3 4 6 9 12
3A = 3 5 2 1 15 6 3
2 8 9 6 24 27
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Definition: Identify (unit) matrix. This is a matrix with ones in the leading diagonal
and zeros elsewhere
1 0 0
1 0
Example = 0 1 0 or = 0 1
0 0 1
Definition: Null (zero) matrix: this is a matrix with zeros throughout.
0 0 0
0 0
= 0 0 0 or =
0 0 0 0 0
Definition: An m x n matrix is a matrix with m rows and n columns.
2 4 51
Example A2x3 =
9 13
Definition: the transpose of a matrix is the matrix obtained when the rows and columns
of a matrix are interchanged.
Example. If M = 2 3 4 2 5
5 6 7 then MT = 3 6
4 7
20.2 The adjoint of a 2x2 matrix
a b d b
If M = then , the adjoint M =
c d c a
-
20.3 The determinant of a 2x2 matrix
a b
If M = then M = det M = ad – bc
c d
20.4 The inverse of a 2x2 matrix
If
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a b Adjo int ofM
M= then M-1 =
c d det M
3 1
Example If A = find the inverse of A
5 9
9 1
Solution: Adjoint of A =
5 3
det A = 3(9) -5 (1)
= 22
Adjo int ofA
A-1 =
det A
1 9 1
=
22 5 3
We now find the inverse of the 2 x 2 matrix using the method of reduction. We will
navigate through this method using an example.
Example. Find an inverse of
3 1
A=
5 9
Solution: We write the matrix A with the identity matrix I2 on the right hand side, i.e.
3 1 1 0
5 9 0 1 , the objective is to transform this matrix until the identity matrix
1 0 a b
a b
0 1 c d , hence the matrix is the inverse matrix.
c d
1 1
3 1 1 0 1 0
3 3
5 9 0 1 ~ 5 9 0 1 sub. r1 by 1/3 r1
1 1
1 0
3 3
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22 5
~ 0 1 sub r2 by r2 – 5r1
3 3
1 1
~ 1 0
3 3
5 3
0 1 sub r2 by 3/22r2
22 22
9 1
1 0
22 22
5 3
0 1 , hence
22 22
9 1
22 22
A-1 =
5 3
22 22
Definition: A singular matrix is one whose determinant is zero. This implies that a
singular matrix does not posses an inverse.
3 6 4 6
Example Find the inverse of M = adjoint of M =
2 4 2 3
Det M = 3(4) – 2 (6)
= 0
Since det M is equals zero then M is called a singular matrix. A non-
singular matrix is a matrix whose detminant is not zero.
20.5 The determinant of a 3x3 matrix
Definition: Minor :
1 2 3
Let A= 4 5 6
7 8 9
If we cross out the entries in the row one and column two through entry 2 the resultant
4 6
matrix is
7 8
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the determinant of this matrix, denoted by M22 , is called the minor of entry 2. Each
minor has an associated sign given by (1)i j , where i and j denominate the row and
column of the associated entry .
Definition: Cofactor.A minor and its sign is called a cofactor and is denoted by
(1)i j M ij Aij
The signs of minors can be found from the diagram below:
+ - +
- + -
+ - +
The determinant is the sum of the products of the entries of any row or column and
their cofactors.
Det A = a11A11 + a12 A12 +a13 A13
= a21A21 + a22 A22 + a23 A23
= a31A31 + a32 A32 + a33 A33
Det A = a11A11 + a21 A21 + a31A31
= a12A12 + a22A22 + a32 A32
= a13A13 + a23 A23+ a33 A33
1 2 3
Example Given A= 4 5 6 find A
7 8 9
Solution: Det A = 1 5 6 -2 4 6 +3 4 5 (using entries of row one)
Method 1. 8 9 7 9 7 8
= 1 (-3) –2 (-6) +3 (-3) = 0, A is a singular matrix.
Method 2
1 2 3
Find the determinant of the matrix A = 4 5 6
7 8 9
Solution.
+ + + - - -
1 2 3 1 2
4 5 6 4 5
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7 8 9 7 8
- - -
Repeat the first two columns at the end.
Det of A = 1 x 5 x 9 + 2 x 6 x 7 + 3 x 4 x 8 – 3 x 5 x 7 – 1 x 6 x 8– 2 x 4 x 9
= 45 + 84 + 96 - 105 - 48 - 72
= 225 – 225
= 0
Note : You may add the rows at the end.
Method 3.
1 2 3
Find the determinant of the matrix A = 4 5 6
7 8 9
Solution.
1. Start with the principal diagonal.1 5 9 = 45
2 6 7 = 84
4 8 3 = 96
add: 225
2. Consider the second diagonal 3 5 7 = 105
1 8 6 = 48
2 4 9 = 72
subtract: 225
Hence: Det = 225 – 225
=0
Method 4.
Consider column one, the objective is to transform matrix A so that the entries of row one
and that of row two are both zeros
1 2 3 1 2 3
4 5 6 : 0 3 6 obtained by substituting r2 by 4r1 – r2 and r3 by 7r1 – r3
7 8 9 0 6 12
3 6
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Det A = 6 12
= 3 12 – 6 6
= 0
20.6 Inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix
The objective is to find a matrix M-1 such that MM-1 = M-1 M = I3
1 0 0
Where 3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Recall that from a 2 x 2 matrix , we have M-1 = adj M
det M
Similarly in a 3x 3 matrix
M-1 = adj M
det M
Let Aij be the cofactors of the matrix A = (aij), where i= 1, 2, 3 and j = 1,2,3, furthermore
let B = (Aij) i.e.
A11 A12 A13 A11 A21 A31
B= A21 A22 A23 A12 A22 A32 then
A A33 A A33
31 A32 13 A23
adj M = BT
A11 A21 A31
adj M = A12 A22 A32
A A23 A33
13
M-1 = BT , where Δ = det M
Δ
A11 A21 A31
M 12
1 A A22 A32
A13 A23 A33
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Fix j = 1 and vary i
Fix j = 2 and vary i
Fix j = 3 and vary i
Example
0 1 1
The matrix C = 2 1 1 Calculate the inverse of C
3 0 0
Solution
Method 1 : Using co- factors
Δ = - ( -1 ) -1 - 1 + (- 3) -1 -1
0 1 1 1
Δ= -2
A11 = 1 1 = 1 A21 = - -1 - 1 = 1 A31 = -1 -1 =0
0 1 0 1 1 1
A12 = - -2 1 =-1 A22 = 0 -1 =-3 A32 = - 0 -1 =2
-3 1 -3 1 -2 1
A13 = -2 1 = 3 A23 = - 0 -1 = 3 A33 = 0 -1 =-2
-3 0 -3 0 -2 1
1 1
2
2
0
C 1 1 3
1 by a direct substitution in the formula
2 2
3
3
1
2 2
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Method 2 : Using elementary row operations
We write CI3 side by side. The objective is to carry out elementary row operations until
we obtain I3
0 – 1 –1 1 0 0
-2 1 1 0 1 0
-3 0 1 0 0 1
0
-1 -1 1 0 0
1 1 1
~ 1 0 0 sub. r2 by -r2/2
2 2 2
-3 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1
1 -1 0 sub. r1 by r2- r1
2 2 2
1 1 1
~ 1 0 0 sub. r3 by 3r2+ r3
2 2 2
3 1 3
0 0 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 -1 0
2 2 2
~ 0 1 1 -1 0 0 sub. r2 by r1- r2
3 1 3
0 0 1
2 2 2
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1 1
1 0 0 0 sub. r1 by r1- ½ r2
2 2
~ 0 1 1 -1 0 0 sub. r3 by 3/2r2+ r3
3 3
0 0 1 1
2 2
1 1
1 0 0 0 sub. r2 by r2- r3
2 2
1 3
~ 0 1 0 -1
2 2
3 3
0 0 1 1
2 2
hence
1 1
0
2 2
3
C-1 = 1/2 -1
2
3 3
1
2 2
Practice Questions
2 3 4
1. The matrix C = 1 2 3 Calculate the inverse of C
3 4 1
1 3 -1
2. The matrix C-1 = 2 1 -1 Calculate C.
0 -2 2
20.7 Solving Simultaneous Equations.
Given the following equations:
4x + 3y = 8
-3x + 2y = 11
we can re- write these in matrix form as follows:
4 3 x 8
3 2 y 11
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or in general: AX = C
Pre multiplying both sides by A-1 we get,
A-1 ( AX) = A-1C
(A-1A) (X) =A-1C
but A-1 A = 1
Therefore X = A-1C
1 4 3
Using the method above: A-1 =
17 3 2
4 3
A=
3 2
-
x 1 2 3 8
=
y 17 3 4 11
1 17 1
=
17 68 4
hence x = - 1 and y = 4
Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations:
x – 2y + 0z = 1
2x – y + 4z = 2
x =1
In matrix form.
1 -2 0 x 1 1 -2 0
2 -1 4 y = 2 Let A = 2 -1 4
1 0 0 z 1 1 0 0
Therefore 0 0 -8
1
A-1 = 4 0 -4
8
1 0 4
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x 0 0 -8 1
1
y = 4 0 -4 2
8
z 1 0 4 1
-8
1
= 0 therefore x = 1, y = 0 and z = -5/8
8
5
Example
If 2 1 0
A= 0 1 1
0 4 -3
(i) Show that A satisfies the equation A3 = 11A – 14I3
(ii) Show that the equation can be rewritten as A-1 = 1 ( 11A – A2 )
14
-1
and hence find A
Solution
(i) LHS = A3 = AAA =
2 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
= 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 4 -3 0 4 -3 0 4 -3
4 3 1 2 1 0
= 0 5 -2 0 1 1
0 – 8 13 0 4 -3
8 11 0
= 0 -3 11
0 44 -47
RHS = 11A – 14I3
2 1 0 1 0 0
= 11 0 1 1 - 14 0 1 0
0 4 -3 0 0 1
= 22 11 0 14 0 0
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0 11 11 0 14 0
0 44 -33 0 0 14
= 8 11 0
0 -3 11 = LHS
0 44 - 47
(iii) A3 = 11A – 14I3
A-1A3 = 11 A-1A – 14A-1I3
A2 = 11I3 – 14A-1, hence re arranging
A-1 = 1 ( 11I – A2)
14
(iv) A-1 = 1 ( 11I3 – A2)
14
11 0 0 4 3 1
1
A-1 = 0 11 0 - 0 5 -2
14
0 0 11 0 -8 13
therefore 7 -3 -1
1
A-1 = 0 6 2
14
0 8 -2
20.8 Examination Type Questions
1. Solve for x, y and z
a) x + y =6
y + z = 13
x + z=3
b) x + 2y + 3z = 32
2x – 3y + 4z = 29
3x + 4y – 5z= - 8
2. Find the two numerical values of such that
4 3 u u
1 2 1 = 1
Hence, or otherwise, find the equations of the two lines through the origin which
are
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invariant under the transformation of the plane defined by
x1 4 3 n
y1 = 1 2 y
3. Find the equations of the lines that are mapped on to themselves under the
transformation.
2 1 x x1
3 0 y = y1
4. Find the determinant of the matrix
2 3 5
A= 1 0 4
2 5 6
Hence find A-1
5. It is given that A = 1 0 2 and
2 -1 1
3 -1 0
Matrix B is such that
-1 0 2 1
AB = 1 –5 1 1
0 2 3 0
(a) State the dimensions of the matrix B
(b) Find (i) the inverse of A
(ii) the matrix B
6. M is the matrix 3 1 -3
1 2a 1
0 2 a
(a) Find two values of a for which M is singular.
1
(b) Solve the equation x 3
2
1
y = 5 in the case a = 2 and determine
2
z 5
whether or no solution exist for each of the two values of a found in (a).
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7. Find the inverse of A-1 of the matrix
1 0 0
A= -1 1 0 find also (AB)-1 where
3 2 1
1 -4 14
B-1 = 0 1 -3
0 0 1
CHAPTER 21
NUMERICAL METHODS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Calculate errors
Estimate areas using the trapezium rule
Locate roots graphical and analytical estimate roots using the general
iterative formula and the Newton Raphson method
21.1 Approximate solutions
These are methods used to find approximate solutions to problems that cannot be solved
analytical
21.2 Errors
When measuring continuous variables such as length and height, it is not possible to get an
exact value. These quantities can only be measured to some degree of accuracy.
Example
If height (h) of student is recorded as 1.5m (correct to 1 decimal place) this implies that
1.45 h < 1.55
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is the lower bound and 1.55 is the upper bound.
The absolute error = estimate – exact in this ease since we do not know the true height
we will take the measured value as the exact value.
For the same reason we are unable to calculate the absolute error but we can find the
maximum absolute error.
Maximum absolute error = upper bound - lower bound = 1.5 – 1.45 = 0.05
Therefore -0.05 < E < 0.05
The relative error = Absolute error
Actual value
= 0.05
1.5
= 0.033 (to 3 decimal places)
The percentage error = Absolute error x 100%
Actual value
= 3.33% to 2 d. p.
Example
If the quantities m and n measured correct to 1 d. p. are n = 10.3 and m = 16.3, find the
maximum and minimum values of:
m
(i) m+n (iii)
n
(ii) m–n
m2
(iv)
mn
Solution: 10:25 n < 10.35
16.25 m < 16.35
(i) a) max (m + n) = 16. 35 + 10.35
= 26.7
b) min(m + n) = 16 . 25 + 10. 25
= 26.5
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(ii) a) max (m-n)= max (m ) - min(n)
= 16.35 - 10.25
= 6.1
b) min (m-n) = min( m) – max ( n )
= 16.25 - 10.35
= 5.9
(iii) a) max(m/n) =16.35 / 10.25
= 1.60 to 2 d. p.
b) min ( m/n) = 16.25/10.35
= 16.25
10.35
= 1.57 to 2 d. p.
16,352
(iv ) a) max (m2 /(m – n)) =
(16, 25 10,35)
= 45.31 to 2 d. p.
16, 252
b) min (m2 /(m – n)) =
(16,35 10, 25)
= 43.29 to 2 d. p.
Example
The period (T) of a pendulum of length ℓ is given by T = 2ℓ/g, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
a) Given that for a particular pendulum g = 9.81 and L = 0.53 correct to 2 decimal
places, find the least possible value of T to 2 decimal places.
b) If the above values are taken as exact and the value of g as 10 calculate the
percentage error in calculating the value of T to 2 decimal places.
Solution
(a) 9.805 g < 9. 815 and 0. 525 l < 0. 535
0.525
T (least) = 2
9.815
= 0.46 to 2 d. p.
0.53
( b) T (actual) = 2
9.81
= 0.466282155
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0.53
Estimate = 2
10
= 0.457422794
Percentage error = 0.466282155 – 0.457422794
0.4662821550
= 1.94%
21.3 Small errors
Here we make use of the relationship
y dy
x dx
where x and y are small changes in x and y respectively
Example
If there was a 3 % error in measuring the radius of a cone, find the percentage error in the
volume..
Solution:
1 2 2
V= r h, hence, dv/dr = rh
3 3
y dy
and
x dx
dy 2 3r
v = . r = rh.
dr 3 100
y 2 r 2 h 3 100%
Hence 100 = .
v 100 r 2h
= 6%
21.4 The Trapezium Rule
This is a method for approximating the area under a graph. It is an alternative to
integration.
Given the diagram below,
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y =f(x)
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4
x0 x1 x 2 x3 x4 x
And considering the individual trapezium, it can be shown that,
h
A y0 +y4 + 2 ( y1 + y2 + y3 )
2
Where h is the common width of the trapezium in general, for n strips.
(b a)
h= )/ n
n
This is easily remembered as:
A = half width (first + last + twice the rest)
Please note that the greater the number of strips the more accurate is the approximation.
For n strips the formula is:
b
1
f (x) dx = h [ y0 + 2( y1 + y2 + y3 + …. + yn- 1) + yn]
2
a
Example
Use the trapezium rule with 5 ordinates to find an approximate value of the area between
the x – axis, the curve y = e3x and the lines x = -2 and x = 2.
Solution:
These are 5 ordinates, therefore the No. of strips n = 5 – 1 = 4
The common width h = ( upper limit - lower limit) / No. of strips
(2 (2)
=
4
=1
x0 = -2 y 0 = e-6
x1 = -1 y1 = e-3
x2 = 0 y2 = 1
x3 = 1 y3 = e 3
x4 = 2 y4 = e 6
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h
A= y0 + y4+ 2 ( y1 + y2 + y3 )
2
1
= [ e-6 + e6 + 2 ( e-3 + e0 + e3) ]
2
= 222.85 to 2 d. p.
Example
Find ( i ) the approximate value of the area between the x – axis, the curve y = x3 and
the lines x = 0 and x = 3 with 4 ordinates
(ii) Find the exact value.
(iii) Does the trapezium rule over or under estimate the area ?
(iv) the percentage error in using the trapezium rule to calculate the area.
Solution :
(3 0)
h=
3
x0 = 0 y0 = 0
x1 = 1 y1 = 1
x2 = 2 y2 = 8
x3 =3 y3 = 27
1
A = [ 0 + 27 + 2 ( 1 + 8 ) ]
2
= 22.5
3
(ii) A= 0
x3dx
x4
=
4
= 20.25
(iii) The area is overestimated by the trapezium rule.
(iv) the absolute error = 22.5 – 20.25
= 2.25
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2.25
the percentage error = x100%
20, 25
= 11.11%
21.5 Approximation of roots.
The first step is to locate the root and the root is computed using iterative methods. There
are two methods used to locate the roots, these are the graphical method and the change
of sign method.
21.5.1 The Graphical method
Consider the equation h (x) = 0. Assume it is possible to express
h (x) = f (x) – g (x). The roots of h (x) = 0 i.e. f (x) – g (x) = 0, are the values of x
where the curves y = f (x) and y = g (x) intersect. It involves making a sketch of the
curves
It is important to recall that with one curve the roots are the x – values where the
curve cuts the x – axis and with two curves these are the x – values of their points of
intersection.
Example
Locate the root of the curve x3 + x – 5 = 0
Solution
x3 + x – 5 = 0
x3 = - x + 5, hence, f (x) = x3 and g (x) = - x + 5. Sketching the graphs of the curves,
we obtain the following diagram below, where is the root of the equation h (x) = 0
y = x3
x
1 2 5
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is between 1 and 2
21.5.2 By a change in sign
Example
Show that the function y = x3 + x - 5 has a root between x = 1 and x = 2.
Solution: f(x) = x3 + x – 5
f(1) = 13 + 1 – 5 = -3 ( negative)
f(2) = 23 + 2 – 5 = 5 ( positive)
f(1) x f(2) < 0, change of sign means there is a root between
x = 1 and x = 2.
Note: This method does not guarantee the uniqueness of the root , it only guarantees
the existence of a root. This means that there could be more than one root in the
interval in question.
21.6 Iterative Methods
21.6.1 General iterative method
An iteration is a successive approximation. If we want to solve the equation f(x) = 0 by
an iterative method, we need a relationship
xr +1 = F (xr),
where xr +1 is a better approximation to the solution of f(x) = 0 than is xr. To find such
a relationship, we need to rearrange f(x) = 0 into the form x = F(x).
We now show how to create this iterative formula by geometrical means.
Suppose that the graphs of y = x and y = F(x) are as shown below.
y = F(x)
y =x
x
x1 x3 x4 x2 x0
Let x0 be the fisrt approximation, hence from the graph :
x1 = F(x0)
x2 = F(x1)
x3 = F(x2)
x4 = F(x3)
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…………
…………
…………
xn + 1 = F(xn)
If this process is continued for n large the sequence will converge to the root
Note : Recall from previous studies that such sequences may diverge. The onus is
on choosing the function F(x) such that the sequence x n + 1 = F(xn) does converge.
In this course the iterative formula xn + 1 = F( xn) will be suggested, i.e the function
F(x) will be suggested.
An iteration that fails to lead to a solution in this case is said to be divergent. This can
be shown in the following diagram.
x3 x1 x0x2
x
From the diagram xn +1 is drifting away from the root ,hence, the sequence
diverges
Example
Given x2 – 5x + 1 = 0, show that the equation mat be rearranged onto the form
1
x = (x2 + 1), hence, suggest the iterative formula.
5
Solution
Rearranging 5x = x2 + 1
1 2
x= (x + 1)
5
x n+1 = 1 (x2n + 1)
5
Example
a) Show that the equation 3x3 – 2x2 – 9x + 2 = 0 has a root between 0 and 1.
b) Show that the equation 3x3 – 2x2 – 9x + 2 = 0 can be rearranged in the form
1
x = ( 3x3 – 2x + 2)
9
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c) Use an iteration based on this arrangement with an initial value x0 = 0.5 to find this
correct to two decimal places.
Solution
Rearranging 9x = 3x3 – 2x + 2
1
x = ( 3x3 – 2x + 2)
9
1
x n+1 = (3xn3 – 2xn2 + 2)
9
x0 = 0.5
1
x1 = 3 ( 0.53) – 2 ( 0.52) + 2
9
= 0. 208333333333
1
x2= 3 ( 0.20833 ) – 2 ( 0.20832) + 2
9
= 0.215591242
1
x3 = 3 ( 0.21563 ) – 2 ( 0.21562 ) + 2
9
= 0.215233622, stability has been reached up to 3 d.p.
= 0.22 to 2 d. p.
= 0.22 to 2 d. p.
21.6.2 The Newton – Raphson Method
The iterative formula given by :
f (x )
xn 1 xn 1 n
f ( xn )
is refered to as the Newton –Raphson‟s iterative formula. We deduce this formula using
geometrical methods.
y P(x0 , f(x0))
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x
x1 x0
Note that is a root of the equation f(x) = 0. Let x0 be the fisrt approximation to the
root, hence the tangent line to the curve at P(x0, f(x0)) cuts the x- axis at x1, which is a
better approximation to .
The gradient, m , of the tangent is given by
f ( x0 )
m
x0 x1
We also know that m = f1(x0). There fore, we have
f1(x0) = f(x0) / (x0 – x1)
Rearranging, we obtain
(x0 – x1 )f1(x0) = f(x0)
which gives
f ( x0 )
x0 – x1 =
f 1 ( x0 )
f (x )
x1 = x0 - 1 0
f ( x0 )
……………………
……………………
f (x )
xn + 1 = xn – 1 n
f ( xn )
which is the Newton- Raphson formula
Example
Given that x3 – 3x2 – 1 = 0 has a root lying between 3 and 4. Hence find the root of
f(x) = 0 using the Newton – Raphson method correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution:
Let x0 = 3.5 and f1 (x) = 3x2 – 6x, hence
xn3 3xn 2 11
xn 1 x0
3xn 6 xn
2
= 3.174603175
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3.1067 3(3.1067 ) 1
3 2
x2 3.1067
3(3.1067 ) 6(3.1067)
2
= 3.106694909
x3 = 3.103808523
x4 = 3.103803403, stability has been reached up to 5 d. p.
= 3.10 to 2 d.p.
21.7 Examination Type Questions
1. Show that the equation x5 – 5x –6 = 0 has a root in the interval (1,2). Stating the
values of the constants p, q and r, use an iteration of the form x n + 1 =(pxn + q) 1/r ,
the appropriate number of times to calculate this root, to 3 d.p. Show sufficient
working to justify your answer.
2. Use the trapezium rule with five ordinates and interval width 0.25 to evaluate
approximately the integral
2
ln(1 + x2) dx
1
Show your working and give your answer correct to 2 d.p.
3. A chord of circle subtends an angle of radians ( < )at the center. If the chord
divides the circle into two segments whose areas are in the ratio 3:1, prove that
sin = -
2
Using the iterative formula n +1 = sinn +
2
0 = 0.75, find the root of the equation
sin = - , correct to 3d.p.
2
4. Given the values in the table below estimate the value of
x 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
cosx 1 0.878 0.76 0.648 0.04
1
cosxdx
0
a) by the trapezium rule
b) by means of the Maclaurin series for cosxdx
c) Evaluate the integral by using the substitution x = t2
d) Find the relative percentage error for using the trapezium rule as the
approximation to the integral
5. Show that the equation x³ – x – 2 = 0 has a root between 1 and 2. Using
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Newton - Raphson‟s approximation with starting point 1.5, determine by means of
two iterations an approximation to this root, giving your answers to 2 d.p.
6. Show that the equation x³ – x² – 2 = 0 has a root a which lies between 1 and 2.
Using 1.5 as a first approximation for α, use the Newton – Raphson method once
to obtain a second approximation for α, giving your answer to 3 decimal places.
7. Show that, if y = x, then the error, δy in y, resulting from a small error δx in x is
given by
(1)
δy ) δx
2 x
1
8. Use the trapezium rule with 6 ordinates to estimate the value of dx
1 x
Find the exact value of the integral and hence the percentage error involved.
9. Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to estimate the value of ∫Inxdx
Usi ng integration by parts, or otherwise, verify that ∫Inxdx = xInx – x + C. Find the exact
value of the integral and hence the percentage error involved.
y = (x-6) 1nx
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x
O A B
The diagram shows the curve y = (x-6) 1nx and its minimum point P. The curve cuts the
x-axis at the points A and B.
(i) Write down the co-ordinates of A and B.
(ii) Show that the x-co-ordinates of P satisfies the equation
6
x= 1
1 1nx
(iii) Use the iteration formula
6
Xn+1 = 1
1 1nx
to find the x-co-ordinate of P correct to decimal place, showing the result of
each iteration that you calculate.
CHAPTER 22
THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter the student should be able to :
Prove mathematical results using the principle of mathematical
induction
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22.1 The method of mathematical induction
This is a method of proving a mathematical relationship. It has exactly four steps.
Step 1 : Show that the relationship is true for n =1
Step 2 : Assume that its true for n = k.
Step 3 : Show that if it is true for n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1
Step 4 : Conclusion
There is a wide variety of questions that may be posed and we shall deal with the most
common.
22.2 Proofs of mathematical results
Example
Prove by induction that
3 3 3 1 2 2
1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)
4
3 3 3 1 2 2
Let Pn : 1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)
4
3
Step 1. For n = 1 LHS = 1 = 1
1 3 2
RHS = 1 (1 + 1)
4
= 1
P1 is true
Step 2 : Assume that it is true for n = k
k
1 2
i.e. Pk : 1 + 2 + … + k = r 3 =
3 3 3 2
k (k + 1)
r 1 4
Step 3 : If Pk is true we now prove that Pk + 1
k+1
k 1
1
r
3 3 3 3 2 2
i.e. Pk + 1: 1 + 2 + … + k +(k + 1) = 3
= (k + 1) (k + 2)
r 1 4
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k 1
r
3 3
LHS: 3
=r + (k + 1)
r 1
1 2 2 3
= (k + 1) k + (k + 1)
4
1 2 2 3
= { (k + 1) k +4 (k + 1) }
4
1 2 2
= (k + 1) [k +4 (k + 1)]
4
1 2 2
= (k + 1) [k +4 k + 4 ]
4
1 2 2
= (k + 1) (k + 2)
4
= RHS
Step 4 : Since P1 is true and from Pk , Pk + 1 is true, hence by PMI Pn is true for all positive
integral values of n.
Example
3
Prove by induction that n – n is divisible by 6
3
Step 1 : If n = 2, 2 – 2 = 6, 6 is divisible by 6
P2 is true
Step 2 : Assume that Pn is true for k
3
k – k = 6m , say
Step 3 : Proving that P k + 1 is true
3 3
When n = k + 1 , n – n = (k + 1) – (k + 1)
3 2
= k + 3k + 3k + 1 – k – 1
3 2
= (k – k) + (3k + 3k)
3 6(k 2 k )
= (k – k) +
2
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3 6k
=(k – k) + (k + 1)
2
3
which is divisible by 6 , since by Pk., k – k is divisible by 6
Step 4 : Since P1 is true and from Pk , Pk + 1 is true, hence by PMI Pn is true for all positive
integral values of n.
Example
Prove by the PMI that if
2 a = 2n (2 1)a
n
n
A = then A
0 1 0 1
Let Pn be the statement above
2 a
Step 1 : when n = 1 LHS = RHS
0 1
2 a
=
0 1
P1 is true
Step 2 : Assume Pk is true.
2 a k 2k (2k 1)a
If A = then A =
0 1 0 1
Step 3 : Proving that P k+1 is true.
k+1 (2k 1)a 2 a
A = 2k
0 1 0 1
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22 k
a k a(2 1)
2 k
=
0 1
2k 1 a(2.2k 1)
=
0 1
2k 1 2k 1 a
=
0 1
= which is true for n = k + 1
Step 4 :P1 is true, Pk is true, P k+1 is true. Therefore Pnis true for an integer value of n.
Example
The function is defined by (x) = x + 1; x
1. Write expressions for the compound functions 2 (x) and 3 (x)
2. Using one result from point (i), write down an identity for n (x)
Prove by induction that this is true for all positive integers n.
Solution.
2(x) = .(x)
=x + 1 + 1
= x +2
3(x) = 2. (x)
=x +1 + 2
= x +3
hence: n(x) = x +n
p(n): n(x) = x +n
p(1): (x) = x + 1
true
p : (x) = x + k
(k) k
p(k +1): k+1 (x) = x+ k +1
Hence: k+1 (x) = k. (x)
=x+1 + k
=x + k + 1
since p(1) is true and from p(k) , p(k + 1) is true , hence using the point 1. p(n) is true
for all n integer.
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Example
If f(n) = 3 2n +7. Show that f(n+1) – f(n) is divisible by 8 hence , prove by induction that
3 2n +7 is divisible by 8
Solution
i) f(n) = 32 n 7
f(n+1) –f(n) =
32 n 2 7 32 n 7
32 n 2 32 n
32 n (32 1)
8 32 n
which divisible by 8
p(1) is true
assume for n =k: p(k) is true
f(k+1): 3 2 k 2 7
3 2 k 2 7-(3 2k +7)+3 2k
8.32k 32k 7
By 8 by hipothesis
Conclusion :
Since p(1) is true and from p(k): p(k+1) is true hence p(n) is true for all values of n
22.3 Examination Type Questions
1. If y = sinx, find y11 = d2y/dx2 , hence prove by induction that :
y2n = d2ny/dx2n = ( - 1 )n sinx
2 1
2. If A = , prove by induction that
1 0
n 1 n
An = for all values n
n 1 n
3. Prove by induction that :4n 3n2 + 1 , for all n
4. Show by induction or otherwise that 32n - 1 is divisible by8 for all positive
integer values of n.
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5. Prove by induction that the following results true for all positive integers n.
dny
Given that y = xex, then n
= (x +n)ex
dx
6. Prove by mathematical induction that the following result is true for all positive
integers n.
n
n(n 5)
(r 2)
r 1 2
n
7. Prove by induction that (r 1)(2r 1 ) n.2n
1
8. Prove 7 n (3n+1)-1 is always divisible by 9
9. Prove that f(n) = 2 3n +6 is always divisible by 7
10. Prove that 3 2n -5 is always divisible by 4
11. The function f is defined by f(x) = x+1 x
12. Write expressions for the compound functions f 2 ( x) and f 3 ( x)
Using the results from point (i) write down an identity for f n ( x) prove by induction
that this is true for all positive integers
2 1
n 1 n
13. If M= 1 0 ,deduce that M n = Prove this result by
n 1 n
induction
n a n 1 a 6
1 a 1 1 2
14. Prove by induction that a 1 hence simplify
0 a 0 a n 0 2
d 2n y
15. If y sinx, find y and y y hence prove by induction that 2n
(1)n sin x
dx
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Prestige College – ‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics
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