UNIT IV

TRANSDUCERS AND DATA

ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
 TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• Classification of transducers – Selection of

transducers – Resistive, capacitive & inductive
transducers – Piezoelectric, Hall effect, optical
and digital transducers – Elements of data
acquisition system – A/D, D/A converters –
Smart sensors.
 TRANSDUCERS
 A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one
system and transmits it to another, often in a different form.
 Broadly defined, the transducer is a device capable of being actuated
by an energizing input from one or more transmission media and in
turn generating a related signal to one or more transmission systems.
 It provides a usable output in response to a specified input
measurand, which may be a physical or mechanical quantity, property,
or conditions. The energy transmitted by these systems may be
electrical, mechanical or acoustical.
 The nature of electrical output from the transducer depends on the
basic principle involved in the design.
 The output may be analog, digital or frequency modulated.
 TRANSDUCERS
 The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is nonelectrical. In order
to use electrical methods and techniques for measurement, the nonelectrical
quantity is converted into a proportional electrical signal by a device called
transducer.
 Another definition states that transducer is a device which when actuated by
energy in one system, supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a
second system.
 When transducer gives output in electrical form it is known as electrical
transducer.
 TRANSDUCERS
 Actually, electrical transducer consists of two parts which are
very closely related to Each other.
 These two parts are sensing or detecting element and
transduction element. The sensing or detecting element is
commonly known as sensor.
 Definition states that sensor is a device that produces a
measurable response to a Change in a physical condition.
 The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to
an electrical output, as shown in the Fig.
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER
 Repeatability
When the same input signal is applied to the transducer at different
times under the same environmental conditions, it should give
identical output signals.
 Linearity
The transducers should have linear input-output characteristics.
 Ruggedness
The transducer circuit should have overload protection so that it will
withstand overloads.
 High stability and reliability
The transducers output signal should not get affected by
environmental variations(disturbances) like temperature, vibration etc.
It should give minimum error in measurements.
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER
 Good dynamic response
In real-time applications, the input signal will vary with time
( ie, the input signal is dynamic in nature). The transducer
should respond as quick as possible for any change in the input
signal.
 Convenient instrumentation
The transducers output signal should be measured either
directly or after suitable amplification.
 Mechanical characteristics
When the transducer is subjected to various mechanical strains
during working conditions, its performance should not degrade.
It should withstand the mechanical strains.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducers may be classified according to their structure,
method of energy conversion and application. Thus we can
say that transducers are classified
 On the basis of transduction form used
 According to transduction principle
 As primary and secondary transducer
 As active and passive transducer
 As analog and digital transducer
 As transducer and inverse transducer
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Principle of transduction
Resistive , inductance or capacitance
respectively
Classified as piezoelectric , thermoelectric ,
optical , magnetorestrictive etc.
 ACCORDING TO TRANSDUCTION PRINCIPLE
The transducers can be classified according to principle
used in transduction.
 Capacitive transduction
 Electromagnetic transduction
 Inductive transduction
 Piezoelectric transduction
 Photovoltaic transduction
 Photoconductive transduction
 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY
 Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical
device.
 In such transducers mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and
converts physical quantity into mechanical signal.
 The electrical device then converts mechanical signal produced by
primary transducer into an electrical signal.
 Therefore, electrical device acts as a secondary transducer.
 For an example, in pressure measurement Bourdons tube acts as a
primary transducer which converts a pressure into displacement and
LVDT acts as a secondary transducer which converts this displacement
into an equivalent electrical signal.
 ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 Active transducers are self-generating type of
transducers.
 These transducers develop an electrical
parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is
proportional to the quantity under measurement.
 These transducers do not require any external
source or power for their operation.
 Active Transducers
• They can be subdivided into the following
commonly used types
PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
 Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal
by themselves.
 To obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an
external source of power is essential.
 Passive transducers depend upon the change in an
electrical parameter (R, L, or C).
 They are also known as externally power driven
transducers.
 They can be subdivided into the following commonly used
types.
 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS
These transducers convert the input quantity
into an analog output which is a continuous
function of time.
A strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples or
thermistors are called analog transducers as
they produce an output which is a continuous
function of time.
 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
 Digital transducers produce an electrical output in
the form of pulses which forms an unique code.
 Unique code is generated for each discrete value
sensed.
 TRANSDUCER AND INVERSE TRANSDUCER
 Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into
electrical quantity whereas inverse transducer
converts electrical quantity into non-electrical
quantity.
 For example, microphone is a transducer which
converts sound signal into an electrical signal
whereas loudspeaker is an inverse transducer which
converts electrical signal into sound signal.
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
1. Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can
be easily processed (mainly amplified) and brought to a
level suitable for output device which may be an indicator
or recorder.
2. The electrical systems can be controlled with a very
small level of power
3. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted,
and processed for the purpose of measurement.
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
4. With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems
have become extremely small in size, requiring small space for
their operation.
5. No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical
systems. Therefore there is no question of mechanical wear
and tear and no possibility of mechanical failure.
Electrical transducer is almost a must in this modem world.
Apart from the merits described above, some disadvantages
do exist in electrical sensors.
 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
 The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than mechanical
type because of the ageing and drift of the active components.
 Also, the sensing elements and the associated signal processing
circuitry are comparatively expensive.
 With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry,
the range of accuracy and stability have been increased for electrical
transducers.
 Using negative feedback technique, the accuracy of measurement and
the stability of the system are improved, but all at the expense of
increased circuit complexity, more space, and obviously, more cost.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCER
1. Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches
an accepted standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being
measured.
2. Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand
overloads. It should have overload protection.
3. Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to
the input quantity under measurement. It should have linear input - output
characteristic. -
4. Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same,
under same environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at
the input repeatedly.
5. High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so
that it can be easily processed and measured. The output must be much
larger than noise. Now-a-days, digital output is preferred in many applications
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCER
6. High Stability and Reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly stable
and reliable so that there will be minimum error in measurement. The output must
remain unaffected by environmental conditions such as change in temperature,
pressure, etc.
7. Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical
output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. For
example, for a transducer used for temperature measurement, sensitivity will be
expressed in mV/’ C. A high sensitivity is always desirable for a given transducer.
8. Dynamic Range: For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it can
be used over a wide range of measurement conditions.
9. Size: The transducer should have smallest possible size and shape with minimal
weight and volume. This will make the measurement system very compact.
10. Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to
changes in the measured quantity. The speed of response of the transducer should be
as high as practicable.
 SELECTING A TRANSDUCER
 Operating range: Chosen to maintain range
requirements and good
 Sensitivity: Chosen to allow sufficient output.
 Frequency response and resonant frequency: Flat
over the entire desired range.
 Environmental compatibility: Temperature range,
corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks, interaction, size
and mounting restrictions.
 SELECTING A TRANSDUCER
 Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than
the measurand.
 Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as
errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli.
 Usage and ruggedness: Ruggedness, both of mechanical
and electrical intensities versus size and weight.
 Electrical parameters: Length and type of cable required,
signal to noise ratio when combined with amplifiers, and
frequency response limitations.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
 Resistive Transducer Definition are those in which the
resistance changes due to a change in some physical
phenomenon.
 The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the
length of the conductor can be used to measure displacement.
 Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a
conductor or semiconductor changes when strained. This can
be used for the measurement of displacement, force and
pressure.
 The resistivity of materials changes with changes in
temperature. This property can be used for the measurement
of temperature.
POTENTIOMETER
POTENTIOMETER
 POTENTIOMETER
 A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a
resistance element provided with a sliding contact,
called a wiper.
 The motion of the sliding contact may be
translatory or rotational.
 Some have a combination of both, with resistive
elements in the form of a helix, as shown in Fig. (c).
They are known as helipots.
 POTENTIOMETER
 Translatory resistive elements, as shown in Fig. (a), are
linear (straight) devices. Rotational resistive devices are
circular and are used for the measurement of angular
displacement, as shown in Fig. (b).
 Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational
devices which can be used for the measurement of
either translatory or rotational motion.
 A potentiometer is a passive transducer since it
requires an external power source for its operation.
ADVANTAGE OF POTENTIOMETERS
 They are inexpensive.
 Simple to operate and are very useful for
applications where the requirements are not
particularly severe.
 They are useful for the measurement of large
amplitudes of displacement.
 Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide
sufficient output to allow control operations.
 DISADVANTAGES OF POTENTIOMETERS
When using a linear potentiometer, a large
force is required to move the sliding contacts.
The sliding contacts can wear out, become
misaligned and generate noise.
 STRAIN GAUGES
 Strain Gauge is an example of an passive transducer
that uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires
to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
 It is well known that stress (force/unit area) and strain
(elongation or compression/unit length) in a member
or portion of any object under pressure is directly
related to the modulus of elasticity.
 STRAIN GAUGES
 Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance
transducers, it is a common practice to measure strain instead of
stress, to serve as an index of pressure.
 Such transducers are popularly known as strain gauges.
 If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance
changes on account of the fact that both the length and diameter of
the conductor changes.
 Also, there is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor
when subjected to strain, a property called the piezo-resistive effect.
 Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive
gauges.
 STRAIN GAUGES
• The following types of Strain Gauge Factor
Wire Strain Gauge
Foil Strain Gauge
Semiconductor Strain Gauge
 RESISTANCE WIRE GAUGE
• Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbounded type, and the
bonded type.
Unbounded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:
 UNBOUNDED RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAUGE

 An unbounded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched

between two points in an insulating medium, such as air.
 The diameter of the wire used is about 25 μm. The wires
are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no
free vibration.
 Unbounded Strain Gauge Factor Derivation are usually
connected in a bridge circuit.
 The bridge is balanced with no load applied as shown in
Fig.
UNBOUNDED RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAUGE
 When an external load is applied, the resistance
of the Strain Gauge Factor Derivation changes,
causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit
resulting in an output voltage.
 This voltage is proportional to the strain.
 A displacement of the order of 50μm can be
detected with these strain gauges.
 BONDED RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAUGE

• A metallic bonded Strain Gauge Derivation is

shown in Fig
 BONDED RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAUGE
 A fine wire element about 25 μm (0.025 in.) or less in diameter
is looped back and forth on a carrier (base) or mounting plate,
which is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress.
 The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a
thin sheet of paper, Bakelite, or Teflon.
 The wire is covered on the top with a thin material, so that it is
not damaged mechanically.
 The spreading of the wire permits uniform distribution of
stress. The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the
member being studied. This permits a good transfer of strain
from carrier to wire.
FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
 FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
 This class of strain gauges is an extension of the resistance wire
strain gauge. The strain is sensed with the help of a metal foil.
 The metals and alloys used for the foil and wire are nichrome,
constantan (Ni + Cu), isoelastic (Ni + Cr + Mo), nickel and platinum.
 Foil gauges have a much greater dissipation capacity than wire
wound gauges, on account of their larger surface area for the
same volume.
 For this reason, they can be used for a higher operating
temperature range.
 Also, the large surface area of foil gauges leads to better bonding.
 FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
 The advantage of foil type Strain Gauge Transducer Types is
that they can be fabricated on a large scale, and in any shape.
 The foil can also be etched on a carrier.
 Etched foil gauge construction consists of first bonding a layer
of strain sensitive material to a thin sheet of paper or Bakelite.
 The portion of the metal to be used as the wire element is
covered with appropriate masking material, and an etching
solution is applied to the unit.
 The solution removes that portion of the metal which is not
masked, leaving the desired grid structure intact.
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
 To have a high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is
desirable.
 A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance,
which can be easily measured with a good degree of accuracy.
 Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a very high gauge
factor is required.
 They have a gauge factor 50 times as high as wire strain gauges.
 The resistance of the semiconductor changes with change in
applied strain.
 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
 Semiconductor strain gauges depend for their action upon the piezo
resistive effect, i.e. change in value of the resistance due to change in
resistivity, unlike metallic gauges where change in resistance is mainly
due to the change in di-mension when strained.
 Semiconductor materials such as germanium and silicon are used as
resistive materials.
 A typical strain gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are
placed in a protective box, as shown in Fig.
 Semiconductor wafer or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm
are used.
 They are bonded on suitable insulating substrates, such as Teflon.
 ADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE

 Semiconductor strain gauges have a high gauge factor

of about + 130. This allows measurement of very small
strains, of the order of 0.01 micro
 Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain
gauges are excellent, e. less than 0.05%.
 Life in excess of 10 x 106 operations and a frequency
response of 1012 HZ.
 Semiconductor strain gauges can be very small in size,
ranging in length from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
DISADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE

They are very sensitive to changes in

temperature.
Linearity of semiconductor strain gauges is
poor.
They are more expensive.
 RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER
 The resistance of a conductor changes when its
temperature is changed.
 This property is utilized for the measurement of
temperature.
 The Resistance Thermometer Transducer is an
instrument used to measure electrical resistance in
terms of temperature, i.e. it uses the change in the
electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the
temperature.
 RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER
 The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The
characteristics of the sensing element determines the sensitivity and
operating temperature range of the instrument.
 (There are three common types of temperature sensitive resistive
elements in use, the wire wound resistance, the Thermistor and the
PTC semiconductor resistance.)
 The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively
large re-sistance change with change in temperature.
 Also, the material used should be stable in its characteristics, i.e.
neither its resistance nor its temperature coeffi-cient of resistance
should undergo permanent change with use or age.
 RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER
 To maintain the calibration of a resistance thermometer, it is necessary
to consider its stability.
 The need for stability frequently limits the temperature range over
which the sensing element may be used.
 Another desirable characteristic for a sensing element is a linear
change in resistance with change in temperature.
 The speed with which a resistive element responds to changes in
temperature is important when the measured temperature is
subjected to rapid variations.
 The smaller a given sensing element, the less heat required to raise its
temperature, and the faster its response.
 RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER
 Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly
used to measure temperature.
 Figure (a) shows an industrial platinum resistance
thermometer. The changes in resistance caused by changes
in temperature are detected by a Wheatstone bridge, as
shown in Fig. (b).
 Hence, the temperature sensing element, which may be
nickel, copper or platinum contained in a bulb or well, along
with the balancing bridge, form the essential components of
a tempera-ture measuring system based upon this principle.
RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER
 RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER
 The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient, and
R1, R2, and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant under normal
temperature changes.
 When no current flows through the galvanometer, the normal principle of Wheatstone’ s
bridge states the ratio of resistance is

 Now it resistance Rs changes, balance cannot be maintained and the galvanometer

shows a deflection, which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.
In normal practice, the sensing element is
away from the indicator, and its leads have a
resistance, say R3, R4.
Therefore,
 ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE THERMOMETER TRANSDUCER

 The measurement is very accurate.

 It has a lot of flexibility with regard to choice of measuring equipment.
 Indicators, recorders or controllers can also be operated.
 More than one resistance element can be clubbed to the same
indicating/ recording instrument.
 The temperature sensitive resistance element can be easily installed
and
 The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be easily checked by
substituting a standard resistor for the resistive element.
 Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature.
 ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE THERMOMETER TRANSDUCER

 Resistance thermometers have a wide working range without loss of

accuracy, and can be used for temperature ranges (-200°C to + 650°C).
 They are best suited for remote indication.
 The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to lOs
 The limits of error of a resistive element are ± 0.25% of the scale
reading.
 The size of the resistive element may be about 6 — 12 mm in diameter
and 12 — 75 mm in length.
 Extremely accurate temperature sensing.
 No necessity of temperature compensation.
 Stability of performance over long periods of time.
 LIMITATIONS OF RESISTANCE THERMOMETER TRANSDUCER

High cost
Need for bridge circuit and power source
Possibility of self-heating
Large bulb size, compared to a thermocouple
 THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 Thermistor Circuit – The electrical resistance of most
materials changes with temperature.
 By selecting materials that are very temperature
sensitive, devices that are useful in temperature control
circuits and for temperature measurements can be
made.
 Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-
metallic resistors (semiconductor material), made by
sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese,
nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 Figure shows a graph of resistance vs temperature for a
Thermistor. The resistance at room temperature (25°C)
for typical commercial units ranges from 100 Ω to 10 Ω
 They are suitable for use only up to about 800°C.
 In some cases, the resistance of Thermistor at room
temperature may decrease by 5% for each 1°C rise in
temperature.
 This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the
Thermistor extremely useful for precision temperature
measurements, control and compensation
 THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 The smallest Thermistor are made in the form of beads.
Some are as small as 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) in diameter.
 These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip
of solid glass probes. Glass probes have a diameter of
about 2.5 mm and a length which varies from 6 — 50
mm.
 The probes are used for measuring the temperature of
liquids.
 The resistance ranges from 300 Ω to 100 Ω.
THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 Typical Thermistor configurations are as shown in Fig. (a).
Figure (b) shows a bush type Thermistor.
 A Thermistor in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge provides
precise temperature information.
 Accuracy is limited, in most applications, only by the readout
devices.
 Thermistor are non-linear devices over a temperature range,
although now units with better than 0.2% linearity over the 0-
100°C temperature range are available.
 The typical sensitivity of a Thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C
at 200°C.
 ADVANTAGES OF THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
 Small size and low cost.
 Fast response over narrow temperature range.
 Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
 Cold junction compensation not required due to
dependence of resistance on absolute temperature.
 Contact and lead resistance problems not
encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
 LIMITATIONS OF THERMISTOR CIRCUIT
Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature
characteristics.
Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
Very low excitation current to avoid self-
heating.
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due
to high resistance.
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
 Inductive Transducer Definition may be either of the
self generating or the passive type.
 The self generating type utilizes the basic electrical
generator principle, i.e. a motion between a conductor
and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor
(generator action).
 This relative motion between the field and the
conductor is supplied by changes in the measured.
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
 Inductive Transducer Definition are mainly used for
the measurement of displacement.
 The displacement to be measured is arranged to
cause variation in any of three variables
 Number of turns
 Geometric configuration
 Permeability of the magnetic material or
magnetic circuits
CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH NUMBERS OF TURNS
 CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH NUMBERS OF TURNS

 The output may be caused by a change in the

number of turns.
 Figures (a) and (b) are transducers used for, the
measurement of displacement of linear and
angular movement respectively.
 In both cases, as the number of turns are
changed, the self inductance and the output also
changes.
Transducer Working on the Principle of Change in Self
Inductance with Change in Permeability
Transducer Working on the Principle of Change in Self
Inductance with Change in Permeability
 Figure shows an Inductive Transducer Definition which
works on the principle of the variation of permeability
causing a change in self inductance.
 The iron core is surrounded by a winding. If the iron core is
inside the winding, its permeability is increased, and so is
the inductance.
 When the iron core is moved out of the winding, the
permeability decreases, resulting in a reduction of the self
induct-ance of the coil. This transducer can be used for
measuring displacement.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE TRANSDUCER
 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE TRANSDUCER
 A transducer of the variable type consists of a coil
wound on a ferromagnetic core.
 The displacement which is to be measured is
applied to a ferromagnetic target.
 The target does not have any physical contact
with the core on which it is mounted. The core
and the target are separated by an air gap, as
shown in Fig. (a)
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It
is also known as a Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two
secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical
former.
 The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are
identically placed on either side of the primary windings.
 The primary winding is connected to an ac source.
 An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and
therefore affects the magnetic coupling between the primary
and the two secondaries.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is
Es1 and that of secondary winding S2 is Es2.
 In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a
single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition, as shown in Fig.
 Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages. Therefore the
differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both
secondary windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them.
Hence, at null position Es1 = Es2.
 Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
 Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links
with winding S1 and less with winding S2.
 Hence, output voltage Es1 of the second-ary winding S1 is greater than
Es2 .
 The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then Es1 — Es2,
in phase with Es1 (the output voltage of secondary winding S1).
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of
the null position, the flux linking with winding
S2 becomes greater than that linked with
winding S1.
This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1.
The output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2 —
Es1 and is in phase with Es2.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is
proportional to the amount of movement of the core.
 Hence, we have an indication of the amount of linear motion.
 By noting which output is increasing or decreasing, the direction of
motion can be determined.
 The output ac voltage inverts as the core passes the centre position.
 The farther the core moves from the centre, the greater the difference
in value between Es1 and Es2 and consequently the greater the value of
Eo.
 Hence, the amplitude is function of the distance the core has moved,
and the polarity or phase indicates the direction of motion, as shown
in Fig.
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 As the core is moved in one direction from the null position, the difference voltage,
i.e. the difference of the two secondary voltages increases, while maintaining an in-
phase relation with the voltage from the input source.
 In the other direction from the null position, the difference voltage increases but is
180° out of phase with the voltage from the source.
 By comparing the magnitude and phase of the difference output voltage with that of
the source, the amount and direction of the movement of the core and hence of the
displacement may be determined.
 The amount of output voltage may be measured to determine the displacement. The
output signal may also be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can restore the
moving system to its normal position.
 The output voltage of an Linear Variable Differential Transducer is a linear function of
the core displacement within a limited range of motion (say 5 mm from the null
position).
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 Figure (d) shows the variation of the output voltage against
displacement for various position of the core. The curve is practically
linear for small displacements (up to 5 mm). Beyond this range, the
curve starts to deviate.
 The diagram in Figs (a), (b) and (c) shows the core of an Linear Variable
Differential Transducer at three different positions.
 In Fig. (b), the core is at 0, which is the central zero or null position.
Therefore, Es1 = Es2, and Eo = 0.
 When the core is moved to the left, as in Fig. 13.21(a) and is at A, Es1 is
more than Es2 and Eo is positive.
 This movement represents a positive value and therefore the phase
angle, is Φ = 0°.
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 When the core is moved to the right towards B, Es2 is greater than
Es1 and hence Eo is negative.
 Therefore, S2 the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the
voltage which is obtained when the core is moved to the left. The
character-istics are linear from 0 — A and 0 — B, but after that they
become non-linear.
 One advantage of an Linear Variable Differential Transducer over,
the inductive bridge type is that it produces higher output voltage
for small changes in core position.
 Several commercial models that produce 50 mV/mm to 300 mV/mm
are available. 300 mV/mm implies that a 1 mm displacement of the
core produces a voltage output of 300 mV.
 ADVANTAGES OF LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER
 Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for
displacements up to 5 mm (a linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial
LVDTs).
 Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is stepless. The effective
resolution depends more on the test equipment than on the
 High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for
intermediate amplification devices).
 High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
 Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of
vibration and shock.
 Less friction: There are no sliding contacts.
 Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is
excellent under all conditions.
 Low power: consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power
 DISADVANTAGES OF LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSDUCER
 Large displacements are required for appreciable differential
output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is
possible).
 The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac
signals, or a demodulator network must be used if a dc output
is required.
 The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of
the core and electrically by the applied voltage.
 Temperature also affects the transducer.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
 A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle
salt and Barium titanate produce an emf when they are
placed under stress.
 This property is used in the Working Principle of
Piezoelectric Transducer, where a crystal is placed between a
solid base and the force-summing member, as shown in Fig.
 An externally applied force, entering the transducer through
its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal.
 This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of applied pressure.
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
 Since the transducer has a very good HF response, its principal use is in HF
accelerometers.
 In this application, its output voltage is typically of the order of 1 — 30 mV per
gm of acceleration.
 The device needs no external power source and is therefore self generating.
 The disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions.
 The output voltage is also affected by temperature variation of the crystal.
 The basic expression for output voltage E is given by
where
Q = generated charge
Cp = shunt capacitances
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
 This transducer is inherently a dynamic responding sensor and does
not readily measure static conditions. (Since it is a high impedance
element, it requires careful shielding and compensation.)
 For a Piezoelectric Transducer element under pressure, part of the
energy is, converted to an electric potential that appears on opposite
faces of the element, analogous to a charge on the plates of a
capacitor.
 The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy,
analogous to a compressed spring.
 When the pressure is removed, it returns to its original shape and
loses its electric charge.
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
• From these relationships, the following formulas have been derived for the coupling
coefficient K.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

 An alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes

it to vibrate at its natural resonance frequency.
 Since the frequency is a very stable quantity,
Working Principle of Piezoelectric Transducer
are used in HF accelerometers.
 The principal disadvantage is that voltage will be
generated as long as the pressure applied to the
piezo electric element changes.
THERMOCOUPLE
 THERMOCOUPLE
 Thermocouple Circuit – One of the most commonly used methods
of measurement of moderately high temperature is the
thermocouple effect.
 When a pair of wires made up of different metals is joined together
at one end, a temperature difference between the two ends of the
wire produces a voltage between the two wires as illustrated in Fig.
 Temperature measurement with Thermocouple Circuit is based on
the Seebeck ef-fect.
 A current will circulate around a loop made up of two dissimilar
metal when the two junctions are at different temperatures as
shown in Fig.
 THERMOCOUPLE
• When this circuit is opened, a voltage appears that is
proportional to the observed seebeck current.
• There are four voltage sources, their sum is the observed
seebeck voltage. Each junction is a voltage source, known
as Peltier emf.
• Furthermore, each homogenous conductor has a self
induced voltage or Thomson emf.
• The Thomson and Peltier emfs originate from the fact that,
within conductors, the density of free charge carriers
(electrons and holes) increases with temperature.
 THERMOCOUPLE
 Conductors made up of different materials have different free-carriers
densities even when at the same temperature.
 When two dissimilar conductors are joined, electrons will diffuse across
the junction from the conductor with higher electron density.
 When this happens the conductor losing electrons acquire a positive
voltage with respect to the other conductor.
 This voltage is called the Peltier emf.)
 When the junction is heated a voltage is generated, this is known as
seebeck effect.
 The seebeck voltage is linearly proportional for small changes in
temperature.
 Various combinations of metals are used in Thermocouple’s.
 THERMOCOUPLE
 A Thermocouple Circuit, therefore consists of a pair of dissimilar metal wires
joined together at one end (sensing or hot junction) and terminated at the
other end (reference or cold junction), which is maintained at a known
constant tempera-ture (reference temperature).
 When a temperature difference exists between the sensing junction and the
reference junction, an emf is produced, which causes current in the circuit.
 When the reference end is terminated by a meter or a recording device, the
meter indication will be proportional to the temperature difference between
the hot junction and the reference junction.
 The magnitude of the thermal emf depends on the wire materials used and
in the temperature difference between the junctions.
 ADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLE
 It has rugged construction.
 It has a temperature range from —270 °C-2700 °C.
 Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distances
transmis-sion for temperature measurement is possible.
 Bridge circuits are not required for temperature measurement.
 Comparatively cheaper in cost.
 Calibration checks can be easily performed.
 Thermocouples offer good reproducibility.
 Speed of response is high compared to the filled system thermometer.
 Measurement accuracy is quite good.
 DISADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLE
 Cold junction and other compensation is essential for
accurate
 They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus
temperature characteristics.
 To avoid stray electrical signal pickup, proper
separation of extension leads from thermocouple wire
is essential.
 Stray voltage pick-up are possible.
 In many applications, the signals need to be amplified.
 ENCODERS IN DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
 By the use of a digital code, it is possible to identify the position of a
movable test piece in terms of a binary number.
 The position is converted into a train of pulses.
 This is achieved by a digital transducer and is also termed as encoder.
 Since the binary system uses only two states, 0 or 1, it can be easily
represented by two different Types of Encoders in Digital Electronics
systems, namely
 Optical Encoder
 Resistive Electric Encoder
 Shaft Encoder
OPTICAL ENCODER
 OPTICAL ENCODER
 A sector may be designed as shown in Fig., with a pattern of opaque and
translucent areas.
 A photo sensor and a light source is placed on the two sides of the sector.
 The displacement is applied to the sector and therefore changes the
amount of light falling on the photo electric sensor.
 The pattern of the illuminated sensor then carries the information to the
location of the sector.
 Figure shows a possible pattern on sector of opaque and translucent
areas.
 The number of levels in the encoder determines the accuracy with which
the device operates.
 OPTICAL ENCODER
Advantages:
 They give a true digital readout
 No mechanical contact is involved and therefore
problems of wear and tear and alignment are not
present
Disadvantages:
 Light sources burn out. (However, the life of the
light is about 50,000 hours.)
 RESISTIVE ELECTRIC ENCODER
 Another Types of Encoders in Digital Electronics in which a pattern
may be used is the resistive electric encoder.
 The shaded areas are made of conducting material and the
unshaded areas of insulating material.
 Sliding contacts are used for making the contacts.
 Circuits of the sliding contacts which come in contact with the
conducting areas are completed, while those which make contact
with insulated areas are not completed.
 The encoder gives a digital readout which is an indication of the
position of the device, and hence determines the displacement.
 RESISTIVE ELECTRIC ENCODER
Advantages:
 It is relatively inexpensive.
 It can be made to any degree of accuracy desired, provided
the sector is made large enough to accumulate the
required number of rows for binary The sectors are quite
adequate for a slowly moving system.
Disadvantages:
 Wear and tear of the contacts causes error.
 There is often an ambiguity of 1 digit in LSB
 SHAFT ENCODER
 A spatial encoder is a mechanical converter that translates the angular
position of a shaft into a digital number.
 It is therefore an A/D Converter.
 An increasing number of measuring instruments are being used to
commu-nicate with digital computers for measurement and control
applications.
 There are two ways of generating digital signals.
 The first converts the analog variable to a shaft rotation (or translation in
linear measurements) and then uses many types of shaft angle encoders to
generate digital voltage signals.
 The other form converts the analog variable into an electrical analog signal
and then converts this into digital form.
 These two forms are very close to a true digital transducers.
 To understand the operation of a shaft encoder, let us consider a
translational encoder (a linear displacement transducer) shown in Fig.
 The encoder shown has four tracks (bits) and is divided into conducting
and insulating positions, with a smallest increment of 0.01 mm.
 As the scale moves under the brushes, the lamp circuits are made or
broken, so that the number shown on the readout lamps is at every
instant equal to one hundredth mm.
 For angular displacements, the pattern given in Fig. is changed or
modified, so that the length of the scale becomes the circumference of a
circle on a flat disc.
 The brushes are then placed along a radial line on the disc, as shown in
Fig.
 The disc is divided into concentric circular tracks, each of which is then
divided into segments in a manner depending upon the code being used.
 For pure binary code, the inner most track is halved, the next quartered,
the next divided into eight parts, and so on.
 Each track has twice as many segments as the adjacent one near the
centre.
 The detection method determines the treatment of the disc. Alternate
segments on each track are made transparent and opaque, if transmitted
light and photo cells are used.
 If the segments are made reflecting and non-reflecting, reflected lights
and photo cells are used. Electrical methods are used for detection in case
the segments are made alternately conducting and non-conducting.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 A typical Data Acquisition System consists of individual
sensors with the necessary signal conditioning, data
conversion, data processing, multiplexing, data handling
and associated transmission, storage and display systems.
 In order to optimize the characteristics of the system in
terms of performance, handling capacity and cost, the
relevant sub systems can be combined together.
 Analog Data Acquisition System is generally acquired and
converted into digital form for the purpose of
processing, transmission, display and storage.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 Processing may consist of a large variety of operations,
ranging from simple comparison to complicated
mathematical manipulations.
 It can be for such purposes as collecting information
(averages, statistics), converting the data into a useful form
(e.g., calculations of efficiency of motor speed, torque and
power input developed), using data for controlling a
process, performing repeated calculations to separate
signals buried in the noise, generating information for
display, and various other purposes.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
Data acquisition generally relates to the
process of collecting the input data in digital
form as rapidly, accurately, and economically
as necessary.
The basic instrumentation used may be a DPM
with digital outputs, a shaft digitizer, or a
sophisticated high speed resolution device.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 For converting analog information from more
than one source, either additional transducers or
multiplexers are employed.
 To increase the speed with which information is
accurately converted, sample-hold circuits are
used.
 (In some cases, for analog signals with extra-wide
range, logarithmic con-version is used.)
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 The characteristics of the data acquisition system,
depend on both the properties of the analog data and
on the processing carried out.
 Based on the environment, a broad Classifications of
data acquisition system into two categories.
 Those suitable for favorable environments (minimum
RF interference and electromagnetic induction)
 Those intended for hostile environments
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 The former category may include, among other, laboratory
instrument applications, test systems for collecting long
term drift information on zeners, high calibration test
instruments, and routine measurements in research, as
mass spectrometers and lock-in amplifiers.
 In these, the systems are designed to perform tasks
oriented more towards making sensitive measurements
than to problems of protecting the integrity of analog data.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 The Classifications of data acquisition system specifically includes
measure, protecting the integrity of the analog data under hostile
conditions.
 Such measurement conditions arise in aircraft control systems,
turbo viscous in electrical power systems, and in industrial process
control systems.
 Most of these hostile measurement conditions require devices
capable of a wide range of temperature operations, excellent
shielding, redundant paths for critical measurements and
considerable processing of the digital data acquisition system.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 The important Factors to Consider When Setting Up a Data
Acquisition System are as follows.
 Accuracy and resolution
 Number of channels to be monitored
 Analog or digital signal
 Single channel or multichannel
 Sampling rate per channel
 Signal conditioning requirements of each channel
 Cost
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
The various general Configuration of Data Acquisition System are
Single channel possibilities
 Direct conversion
 Pre-amplification and direct conversion
 Sample and hold, and conversion
 Pre-amplification, signal conditioning and any of the above
Multi channel possibilities
 Multiplexing the outputs of single channel converters
 Multiplexing the output of sample-hold circuits
 Multiplexing the inputs of sample-hold circuits
 Multiplexing low level data
 OBJECTIVES OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at the correct
 Use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the
 It must monitor the complete plant operation to maintain on-line optimum
and safe operations.
 It must provide an effective human communication system and be able to
identify problem areas, thereby minimizing unit availability and maximizing
unit through point at minimum cost.
 It must be able to collect, summaries and store data for diagnosis of operation
and record purpose.
 It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line, real-time
data.
 It must be flexible and capable of being expanded for future require-
 It must be reliable, and not have a down time greater than 0.1%.
 SINGLE CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

 A Single Channel Data Acquisition System consists of a

signal conditioner followed by an analog to digital
(A/D) converter, performing repetitive conversions at a
free running, internally determined rate.
 The outputs are in digital code words including over
range indication, polarity information and a status
output to indicate when the output digits are valid
SINGLE CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 SINGLE CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 A Single Channel Data Acquisition System is shown in Fig. The digital
outputs are further fed to a storage or printout device, or to a
digital computer device, or to a digital computer for analysis.
 The popular Digital panel Meter (DPM) is a well known example of
this. However, there are two major drawbacks in using it as a DAS.
 It is slow and the BCD has to be changed into binary coding, , if the
output is to be processed by digital equipment.
 While it is free running, the data from the A/D converter is
transferred to the interface register at a rate determined by the
DPM itself, rather than commands beginning from the external
interface.
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS (A/D)
 Analog to digital converters used for DAS
applications are usually designed to receive
external commands to convert and hold.
 For dc and low frequency signals, a dual slope
type converter is often used.
 The advantage is that it has a linear averaging
capability and has a null response for frequencies
harmonically related to the integrating period.
 PRE–AMPLIFICATION AND FILTERING
 Many low resolution (8/10 bit) A/D converters are
constructed with a single ended input and have a normalized
analog input range of the order of 5-10 V, bipolar or unipolar.
 For signal levels which are low compared to input
requirements, amplification may be used in order to bring
up the level of the input to match converter input
requirements, so that optimum use can be made in terms of
accuracy and resolution.
 The amplifier used has a single ended input or a differential
input, as shown in Fig.
PRE–AMPLIFICATION AND FILTERING
 PRE–AMPLIFICATION AND FILTERING
 Pre-amplifiers can be coupled with active filters
before processing of data, in order to minimize
the effect of noise carriers and interfering high
frequency components.
 They effective compensate for
transmission sensitivity loss at high frequency
and hence enable measurements over an
enhanced dynamic frequency range.
 MULTI CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
The Multi Channel Data Acquisition System
can be time shared by two or more input
sources.
Depending on the desired properties of the
multiplexed system, a number of techniques
are employed for such time shared
measurements.
MULTI-CHANNEL ANALOG MULTIPLEXED SYSTEM
 MULTI-CHANNEL ANALOG MULTIPLEXED SYSTEM
 The individual analog signals are applied directly or after
amplification and/or signal conditioning, whenever necessary, to
the multiplexer.
 These are further converted to digital signals by the use of A/D
converters, sequentially.
 For the most efficient utilization of time, the multiplexer is made to
seek the next channel to be converted while the previous data
stored in the sample/hold is converted to digital form.
 When the conversion is complete, the status line from the
converter causes the sample/hold to return to the sample mode
and acquires the signal of the next channel.
 MULTI-CHANNEL ANALOG MULTIPLEXED SYSTEM

 On completion of acquisition, either immediately or

upon command, the S/H is switched to the hold mode,
a conversion begins again and the multiplexer selects
the next channel.
 This method is relatively slower than systems where
S/H outputs or even A/D converter outputs are
multiplexed, but it has the obvious advantage of low
cost due to sharing of a majority of sub-systems.
MULTIPLEXING THE OUTPUTS OF SAMPLE/HOLD
 When a large number of channels are to be monitored at
the same time (synchronously) but at moderate speeds, the
technique of multiplexing the outputs of the S/H is
particularly attractive.
 An individual S/H is assigned to each channel as shown in
Fig. , and they are updated synchronously by a timing
circuit.
 The S/H outputs are connected to an A/D converter
through a multiplexer, resulting in a sequential readout of
the outputs.
MULTIPLEXING AFTER A/D CONVERSION
 It is now economically feasible to employ an A/D
converter for each analog input and multiplex the
digital outputs.
 Since each analog to digital converter (A/D) is assigned
to an individual channel, the conversion rate of the A/D
need only be as fast as is needed for that channel,
compared to the higher rates that would be needed if
it were used as in a multi channel analog multiplexed
system.
 The parallel conversion scheme shown in Fig. provides additional
advantages in industrial data acquisition systems where many strain
gauges, thermocouples and LVDTs are distributed over large plant
areas.
 Since the analog signals are digitized at the source, the digital
transmission of the data to the data centre (from where it can go on to
a communication channel) can provide enhanced immunity against line
frequency and other ground loop interferences.
 The data converted to digital form is used to perform logic operations
and decisions.
 Based on the relative speed at which changes occur in the data, the
scanning rate can be increased or decreased.
MULTIPLEXING LOW LEVEL DATA
 A low level data multiplexing system, as shown in Fig.,
enables the use of a single high quality data amplifier for
handling multichannel low level inputs.
 Individual amplifiers are used for each low level signal.
 Low level multiplexing can be attractive when a large
number of channels (25), all having low level outputs,
need to be used at moderate speeds.
 The use of individual channels is possible because of the
availability of high quality amplifiers at moderate cost.
 Several factors have to be considered to accomplish low
level multiplexing successfully.
 Guarding may have to be employed for every channel, and
each individual guard may have to be switched, so that the
appropriate guard is driven by the common mode
pertaining to that channel.
 Problems of pickup gets more complicated and have to be
taken care of, to preempt the possibility of signal-to-signal,
and even common mode-to differen-tial mode signal cross-
talk.
 APPLICATION OF DAS
Aerospace application
Biomedical field
Telemetry industries
Industries
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
 Principles of ADC – The input signal is compared
with an internally generated voltage which is
increased in steps starting from zero.
 The number of steps needed to reach the full
compensation is counted.
 A simple compensation type is the staircase
ramp.
THE STAIRCASE RAMP
 THE STAIRCASE RAMP
 The basic principle is that the in-put signal Vi is compared
with an internal staircase voltage, Vc generated by a series
circuit consisting of a pulse generator (clock), a counter
counting the pulses and a digital to analog converter,
converting the counter output into a dc signal.
 As soon as Vc is equal to Vi, the input comparator closes a
gate between the clock and the counter, the counter stops
and its output is shown on the display.
 The basic block diagram is shown in Fig.
 OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT
 The clock generates pulses continuously.
 At the start of a measurement, the counter is reset to 0 at
time t1 so that the output of the digital to analog converter
(DAC) is also 0.
 If Vi is not equal to zero, the input comparator applies an
output voltage that opens the gate so that clock pulses are
passed on to the counter through the gate.
 The counter starts counting and the DAC starts to produce
an output voltage increasing by one small step at each count
of the counter. The result is a staircase voltage applied to the
second input of the comparator, as shown in Fig.
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
 The successive approximations principle can be easily
understood using a simple example; the determination of
the weight of an object.
 By using a balance and placing the object on one side and
an approximate weight on the other side, the weight of the
object is determined.
 If the weight placed is more than the unknown weight, the
weight is removed and another weight of smaller value is
placed and again the measurement is performed.
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
 Now if it is found that the weight placed is less than that of
the object, another weight of smaller value is added to the
weight already present, and the measurement is
performed.
 If it is found to be greater than the unknown weight the
added weight is removed and another weight of smaller
value is added.
 In this manner by adding and removing the appropriate
weight, the weight of the unknown object is determined.
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
 At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the
start-stop multivibrator.
 This sets a 1 in the MSB of the control register and a 0 in all bits (assuming
an 8-bit control) its reading would be 10000000.
 This initial setting of the register causes the output of the D/A converter to
be half the reference voltage, i.e. 1/2 V.
 This converter output is compared to the unknown input by the
comparator.
 If the input voltage is greater than the converter reference voltage, the
comparator output produces an output that causes the control register to
retain the 1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to supply its
reference output voltage of 1/2 Vref
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
 The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the
control register and its reading becomes 11000000.
 This causes the D/A converter to increase its reference output by 1 increment to
1/4 V, i.e. 1/2 V + 1/4 V, and again it is compared with the unknown input.
 If in this case the total reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage, the
comparator produces an output that causes the control register to reset its
second MSB to 0.
 The converter output then returns to its previous value of 1/2 V and awaits
another input from the SAR. When the ring counter advances by 1, the third
MSB is set to 1 and the converter output rises by the next increment of 1/2 V +
1/8 V. The measurement cycle thus proceeds through a series of successive
approximations.
 Finally, when the ring counter reaches its final count, the measurement cycle
stops and the digital output of the control register represents the final
approximation of the unknown input voltage.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
 Digital transducers are defined as transducers with a
digital output.
 Transducers available at large are primary analogue at
nature, and some form of conversion is needed to
convert to transform them into digital form.
 Analogue transducers with A/D convertors can serve the
purpose of digital transducers.
 However, this introduces an additional uncertainty, that
of the converter. Inconsequence, overall accuracy and
resolution are likely to be affected.
 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
 Mechanical disks (or bar) with optical receivers and
transmitters can act as digital displacement transducers.
 This type of transducers called optical encoder.
 Optical encoders can be used to measure linear and
angular displacements.
 Therefore, optical encoders can be classified as:
Rotary encoders
Linear encoders
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Optical Rotary Encoders

 An optical rotary encoder produces angular position data directly in digital form,
eliminating any need for the ADC converter.
 The concept is illustrated in following figure, which shows a slotted disk attached
to a shaft.
 A light source (LED) and light receiver (phototransistor or photodiode)
arrangement are mounted so that the slots pass the light beam as the disk rotates.
 The angle of the shaft is deduced from the output of the photocell.

 There are two types of optical rotary encoders: the absolute encoder and the
incremental encoder.
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Optical Rotary Encoders
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
 The output of the absolute rotary encoder is in the form of
a binary word which is proportional to the angle of the
shaft.
 The absolute encoder does not need to be homed because
when it is energized, it simply outputs the shaft angle as a
digital value.
 Absolute optical encoders use a glass or plastic disk
marked off with a pattern of concentric tracks as shown in
the figure.
 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
Absolute Rotary Encoder
 A separate light beam is sent through each track to individual
photo sensors.
 Each photo sensor contributes 1 bit to the output digital
word.
 The encoder in the figure outputs a 4-bit word with the LSB
coming from the outer track (note that this is for illustrative
purposes only and a 4-bit encoder is of little practical use).
 The disk is divided into 16 sectors, so the resolution in this
case is 360°/16 = 22.5°.
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
 The absolute angle of the encoder shaft can be found by multiplying the
binary output of the encoder times the resolution.
 For example, assume our 4-bit encoder has an output of 1101 (decimal 13).
 The encoder shaft would therefore be at an angle of 13 x 22.5 degrees =
292.5 degrees.
 Because of the relatively poor resolution of this encoder, the shaft could be
at some angle between 292.5 degrees and 292.5+22.5 degrees.
 For better resolution, more tracks would be required.
 For example, eight tracks (providing 256 states) yield 360°/256 = 1.4°/state,
and ten tracks (providing 1024 states) yield 360°/1024 = 0.35°/state.
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
 An advantage of this type of encoder is that the output
is in straightforward digital form and, like a pot, always
gives the absolute position.
 This is in contrast to the incremental encoder that, as
will be shown, provides only a relative position.
 A disadvantage of the absolute encoder is that it is
relatively expensive because it requires that many
photocells be mounted and aligned very precisely
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Absolute Rotary Encoder

 If the absolute optical encoder is not properly aligned, it may occasionally

report completely erroneous data.
 The following figure illustrates this situation, and it occurs when more than 1
bit changes at a time, say, from sector 7 (0111) to 8 (1000).
 In the figure, the photo sensors are not exactly in a straight line.
 In this case, sensor B1 is out of alignment (it’s ahead) and switches from a 1
to a 0 before the others.
 This causes a momentary erroneous output of 5 (0101).
 If the computer requests data during this “transition” time, it would get the
wrong answer.
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Absolute Rotary Encoder Digital
 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
Absolute Rotary Encoder
 One inherent problem that is encountered with binary output absolute
encoders occurs when the output of the encoder changes its value.
 Consider our 4-bit binary encoder when it changes from 7 (binary 0111) to
8 (binary 1000).
 Notice that in this case, the state of all four of its output bits change value.
 If we were to capture the output of the encoder while these four outputs
are changing state, it is likely that we will read an erroneous value.
 The reason for this is that because of the variations in slew rates of the
photo-transistors and any small alignment errors in the relative positions
of the phototransistors, it is unlikely that all four of the outputs will
change at exactly the same instant.
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
 For this reason, all binary output encoders include one
additional output line called data valid (also called data
available, or strobe).
 This is an output that, as the encoder is rotated, goes false for
the very short instant while the outputs are changing state.
 As soon as the outputs are settled, the data valid line goes
true, indicating that it is safe to read the data.
 This is illustrated in the timing diagram in the following figure.
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
 The second solution is to use the Grey code on the disk instead of the straight
binary code as shown in the following figure.
 Gray code requires the same number of bits to achieve the same resolution
as a binary encoder equivalent.
 However, the counting pattern is established so that, as the angle increases
or decreases, no more than one output bit changes at a given time, i.e. only 1
bit changes between any two sectors.

 If the photo sensors are out of line, the worst that could happen is that the
output would switch early or late.
 Put another way, the error can never be more than the value of 1 LSB when
using the Grey code.
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Absolute Rotary Encoder
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Absolute Rotary Encoder

Converting Binary to Gray:

 Write the binary number to be converted and add a leading zero (on the left side).
 Exclusive-OR each pair of bits in the binary number together and write the
resulting bits below the original number.
Converting Gray to Binary:
 Write the gray code number to be converted and add a leading zero (on the left
side).
 Beginning with the leftmost digit (the added zero), perform a chain addition of all
the bits, writing the "running sum" as you go.
 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
Incremental Rotary Encoder
 The incremental optical encoder has one track of equally spaced slots.
Position is determined by counting the number of slots that pass by a
photo sensor, where each slot represents a known angle.
 This system requires an initial reference point, which may come from a
second sensor on an inner track or simply from a mechanical stop or limit
switch.
 In many applications, the shaft being monitored will be cycling back-and-
forth, stopping at various angles.
 To keep track of the position, the controller must know which direction the
disk is turning as well as the number of slots passed.
 A single photo sensor cannot convey which direction the disk is rotating;
however, a clever system using two sensors can
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Incremental Rotary Encoder Digital
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Incremental Rotary Encoder
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Incremental Rotary Encoder
 In the following , the two sensors, V1 and V2, are located slightly apart from each other on the same
track.
 For this example, V1 is initially off (well, almost you can see it is half-covered up), and V2 is on.
 Now imagine that the disk starts to rotate CCW.
 The first thing that happens is that V1 comes completely on (while V2 remains on).
 After more rotation, V2 goes off, and slightly later V1 goes off again. Figure (b) shows the waveform
for V1 and V2.
 Now consider what happens when the disk is rotated in the CW direction [starting again from the
position shown in Figure (a)].
 This time V1 goes off immediately, and V2 stays on for half a slot and then goes off. Later V1 comes
on, followed by V2 coming on. Figure (c) shows the waveforms generated by V1 and V2.
 Compare the two sets of waveforms, notice that in the CCW case V2 leads V1 by 90°, whereas for
the CW case V1 is leading V2 by 90°. This difference in phase determines which direction the disk is
turning.
 OPTICAL TRANSDUCER
 The optical transducer convert light into electrical
quantity.
 They are also called as photoelectric transducers. The
optical transducer can be classified as photo
emissive, photoconductive and photovoltaic
transducers.
 The photo emissive devices operate on the principle
that radiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to
be emitted from the cathode surface.
 OPTICAL TRANSDUCER
 The photoconductive devices operate on the
principle that whenever a material is illuminated,
its resistance changes.
 The photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage
that is proportional to the radiation intensity.
 The radiation that is incident may be x-rays,
gamma rays, ultraviolet, infrared or visible light.
 OPTICAL TRANSDUCER
An optical transducer converts light rays into
an electronic signal.
The purpose of an optical transducer is to
measure a physical quantity of light and,
depending on the type of transducer, then
translates it into a form that is readable by an
integrated measuring device.
OPTICAL TRANSDUCER