Basic Electronics

Dr. Prasanta Kumar Guha

Autumn Semester(2021)
[email protected]
 References

• ‘Microelectronic Circuits’ – Sedra Smith (Sixth Edition)

• ‘Electronic circuits analysis and design’ – Donald A Neamen (Tata
Mcgraw Hill)
• ‘Millman’s Integrated Electronics Analog Digital Circuits and Systems’- J.
Millman, C. Halkias and C Parikh (Tata Mcgraw Hill)
• ‘Electronic Principles’- A. P. Malvino
• ‘Fundamentals of Microelectronics’ - Razavi

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1) Intro to electronics-signal, noise, system (example), RL, RC filter circuit

2) Intrinsic, extrinsic semiconductor, drift & diffusion current, p-n junction, forward bias/ reverse bias, I-V
equation (without proof), diode model (ideal, piece wise linear etc), zener diode characteristics
3) half wave, full wave rectifier, bridge rectifier, ripple, zener diode circuit (voltage ref, regulation), filter,
clipper, clamper, multi diode circuit
4) BJT Basics, alpha-beta relation, IV equation (no proof) with different regions, DC circuit analysis,
common emitter circuit with and without emitter resistor

5) BJT amplifier, load line, Q point, small signal equivalent circuit, common emitter amplifier (gain, input
resistance, output resistance).
6) MOSFET basic structure, IV equation (no proof) with different regions, depletion mode,
enhancement mode, channel length modulation, DC circuit analysis, common source circuit
with and without source resistor
7) MOSFET amplifier, load line, Q point, small signal equivalent circuit, common source
amplifier (gain, input resistance, output resistance).
8) OPAMP basic, virtual ground, ideal properties, inverting, non inverting, buffer, differential amplifier,
CMRR (all these with ideal and non ideal OPAMP gain), integrator, differentiator.

9) Digital electronics- number system, Digital gates (symbol, truth table), universal gate, sum of product,
product of sum, Karnaugh map, RS/D/T Flip Flop.
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 Introduction
• Electronics : Motion of charges in a medium
(gas, vacuum, semiconductor)

• Microelectronics : It refers to integrated circuit technology which can produce millions

of transistors on a single piece of silicon

• Nanoelectronics : It refers to the use of nanotechnology on electronic components

< 100 nm
- very small structures: inter-atomic interactions
(e.g. CNT, silicon nano pillars, nanowires)

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 History
Three milestones
1. Vacuum tube (1883, Thomas Alva Edison)
- diode, triode...radio, computer...WRI, WRII
2. Transistor (1947, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley)
- functions like the vacuum tube, but it is tiny, weighs less, consumes
less power, is much more reliable, and is cheaper to manufacture
with its combination of metal contacts and semiconductor materials.
3. Integrated circuits (1958, Jack Kilbi...Texas Instrument...IC in germanium
Robert Noyce...Fairchild Semiconductor...IC in silicon)

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 Introduction...
• Moore’s law – The number of transistors incorporated in a chip will
approximately double every 24 months - predicted in 1965

Moore's Law - Computer History Museum

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 Electronic Signals
• Analogue signal: Signal level may have any value (e.g.
usually real world signals)
-can have infinite amount of signal resolution
-noise, distortion

• Digital signal: Signal level only have discrete values

Logic 1 Logic 1 -more immune to noise
VH
-signal loss due to quantization error

Logic 0
VL

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 Electronic Devices
• Electronic devices are fabricated by semiconductor materials (primarily with
Silicon)* - electrical characteristics can controlled very precisely

• Other key components are insulator (e.g. SiO2, silicon nitride) and conductor
(e.g. Aluminium, high temperature metal like Tungsten)

• Semiconductor devices – Diode, Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), Metal Oxide

Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

*Gallium arsenide and other III-V compounds can also be used, particularly for high speed applications

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 Periodic Table

• The table contains elements with three to five valence

electrons, with Si being the most important.
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 Silicon
EC

Eg=1.1 eV

EV

electron

• Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form covalent bonds with four of
its neighbors.
• When temperature goes up, electrons in the covalent bond can become free.
That is, electrons can jump from valence band to conduction band.
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 Silicon: Electron Hole Pair
EC

Eg=1.1 eV

EV

electron
hole

• With free electrons breaking off covalent bonds, holes are generated.
• Holes can be filled by absorbing other free electrons, so effectively there is a flow of charge
carriers.
• The usual concept is electrons move in conduction band and holes in valence band. But one can
also say that electrons move in valence band that will move the holes effectively in the opposite
direction of the motion of holes.
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 Electron Density with Temperature
− Eg
( )
− Eg ni = BT 3 / 2e 2 kT
ni = 5.23 1015 T 3 / 2 exp electrons / cm 3
2kT B – related to specific semiconductor material ...e.g. Si-
ni (T = 300 0 K ) = 1.5 1010 electrons / cm 3 5.23x1015 (cm-3K-3/2)

not enough n (p) for appreciable amount of current

• Eg, or bandgap energy determines how much effort is needed to break off
an electron from its covalent bond.
• There exists an exponential relationship between the free-electron
density and bandgap energy.
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 Semiconductor
• Intrinsic semiconductor

• Extrinsic semiconductor

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 Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Single crystal semiconductor with no other impurities (types of atoms)-density
of electrons (n) and holes (p) are same = ni
• Free carrier electrons/holes-generated due to breaking of covalent bonds
• With increase in temperature electron/hole pairs increases-hence conductivity
of Si increases
• No of electrons = no of holes, np = ni
2

• The carriers can randomly move...hence some electron may fill some holes
......recombination
• Recombination  no of free electrons and holes  generation
• In thermal equilibrium recombination rate=generation rate
• Carrier concentration depends on temperature (not good news!)
• Not enough n (p) for appreciable amount of current
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 Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Impure semiconductor (achieved through doping)
• This will substitute semiconductor atoms with the impurity atoms
• It introduces allowed energy states within the band gap but very close to
the energy band that corresponds to the dopant type.
• For Si, desirable impurities are usually from
Group V (Phosphorus, Arsenic).........n-type
Group III (Boron, Gallium).................p-type

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 Doping (N type)

• Pure Si can be doped with other elements to change its electrical properties.
• For example, if Si is doped with P (Phosphorous), then it has more electrons, or
becomes type N (electron).
• This is because Phosphorous is in Group V of the periodic table, that is it has 5
electrons at the outer most shell. So when it forms covalent bond with four Si
atoms, there will be one additional electron.

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 Doping (P type)

• If Si is doped with B (Boron), then it has more holes, or becomes type P.

• This is because Boron has 3 electrons at outer shell, so collectively Boron and Four
neighboring Si will have one electron less (hole) compared to complete octave

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 Conduction band
Extrinsic semiconductor
Conduction band
Ec
Ec
ED
Eg

Ev EA
Ev
Valence band
Valence band
electron
n-type semiconductor hole p-type semiconductor
Majority carrier-electron Majority carrier-hole

•Pentavalent impurities donate excess •Trivalent impurities accept electrons and

electrons and therefore named as donor thus form holes and therefore named
or n-type impurities as acceptor or p-type impurities
• Allowable energy levels are introduced • Allowable energy levels are introduced
very small distance below conduction band just above the valence band

Small amount of energy required to donate electron (from ED state to EC) in case of donor and to
accept electron (from EV to EA state) hence produce holes in valence band in case of acceptor
...thus they become predominantly n (or p) type.
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 Charge Density in a Semiconductor
• Semiconductor is electrically neutral – so magnitude of positive charge density must
equal that of negative charge density
N D - concentration of donor ions, N A - concentration of acceptor ions
N D + p = N A + n (considering practically all ionised)
Consider an n-type material having NA=0, and also in n-type n>>p
n  ND
which implies in an n-type material free electron concentration is approximately equal to the concentration of donor
atoms...independent of temperature
From now on, electron concentration in n-type is nn and hole concentration in n-type is pn

nn pn = ni
2

2
n ...this depends on temperature
pn = i
ND
Similarly for a p-type semiconductor,
2
ni
n p p p = ni pp  N A np =
2

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NA 19
 Current in Semiconductor
Movement of charge carriers (electrons and holes) generate current.

Drift Current– movement of carriers caused by electric

field

Diffusion Current –movement of carriers caused by

concentration gradient

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 Drift Current
Drift Current
Due to applying electric field electrons acquire a drift velocity vdn = − n E
µn – electron mobility (~1350cm2/Vsec)...how well an electron
Charge particles will move at a velocity
can move in a semiconductor that is proportional to the electric field.
In one sec the electron charge crosses a plane A is
I = − Anevdn Electric current is calculated as the amount of
charge in v meters that passes through a
cross-section A if the charge travel with a
Drift current density, velocity of v m/s.
J n = −envdn = −en(− n E ) = enn E
Drift current density for holes,
J p = ep p E
1
So total drift current density J = en n E + ep p E = E = E


where - conductivity,  - resistivity

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 Velocity Saturation
drift
velocity vdn = − n E

vsat vdn = − n E

• At lower electric field drift velocity increases with electric field

• The carrier drift velocity will eventually saturate to a critical
value vsat at high E.
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 Diffusion Current
Diffusion current
• Charge particles move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
• Diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of charge (dn/dx)
along the direction of current flow.
• Its total current density consists of both electrons and holes.
dn dn
• Diffusion current density due to motion of electrons J n = ( − e ) Dn ( − ) = eDn
dx dx
dp dp
• Diffusion current density due to motion of holes J p = eD p (− ) = −eD p
dx dx
Dn-electron diffusion co-efficient
Dp-hole diffusion co-efficient

Problem!
1. Consider a bar of Si in which hole concentration profile was described by p=p0e(-x/L). Find the value of hole
current at x=0, given L=1um and cross sectional area=100um 2,Dp=12
IIT Kharagpur, Autumn 2021 cm2/sec,p0=1016/cm3 23
 Einstein's Relation

D kT Boltzmann constant k
= 1.38×10−23 J⋅K−1
 q
8.62×10−5 eV⋅K−1
1.38×10−16 erg⋅K−1

This is Einstein Relation

Problem!
Find out the value of Dp at room temperature, given µp=480 cm2/Vsec

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 PN Junction (Diode)

n side p side

Phosphorus doped Boron doped Diode Symbol

• When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced in a

semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is formed.
• P side is known as anode, and N side as cathode.

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 PN Junction (Diode)
• In order to understand the operation of a diode, it is necessary to
study its three operation regions:
- equilibrium
- reverse bias
- forward bias

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 Equilibrium – no bias voltage
• Each side of the junction contains an excess of
holes or electrons compared to the other
side, hence there exists a large concentration
gradient.
• Therefore, a diffusion current flows across the
junction from each side.

Free Free Depletion

Positive Negative
electrons holes region
donor ion acceptor ion

• As free electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, a region of fixed ions is left behind. That is,
p side will have –ve immobile ions and n side will have +ve immobile ions.
• This region is known asIITthe “depletion region.” This region is free (or deplete) of mobile carriers.
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 Equilibrium – no bias voltage

I drift , p = I diff , p
I drift ,n = I diff ,n
• At equilibrium, the drift current flowing in one direction cancels
• The fixed ions in depletion out the diffusion current flowing in the opposite direction,
region create an electric creating a net zero current.
field that results in a drift
current.

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 Built in Potential at Equilibrium
• The electric field in the space charge region gives rise to potential barrier...this is known
as built in potential. dp
Doping e p pE = eD p
concentration dx
nn = N D pp = N A dV dp
− p p = Dp
2 2
dx dx
n ni
pn = i np = x2 pp
dp
ND NA −  p  dV = D p p p
x=0 x1 Potential
n

kT p p
Vbi = ln
From Einstein equation we can write e pn
D kT
= Vbi =
kT N A N D
) = VT ln(
N AND Vbi
 e e
ln(
ni
2
ni
2
)

x1 x2
VT – thermal voltage at room temperature =25.8 mV= 26 mV
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 Diode (Reverse Bias)
in equilibrium

in reverse bias
(p side connected to –ve terminal &
n side to +ve terminal of supply voltage)

• Reverse Bias- +ve terminal of the battery applied to the n region and -ve terminal applied to the p region...this
increases the potential barrier at the junction
• The increased space charge region prevents any carrier to cross the junction...hence there is very low current
• The depletion layer stops growing when its difference of potentials equals the source voltage
• Thermal energy continuously creates a limited number of electrons and holes on both sides of the junction...this
creates very small amount of current...called saturation current IS
• IS is independent of applied voltage...only depends on thermal
IIT Kharagpur, energy (~doubles for each 10C rise in temperature)
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 Diode (Forward Bias)
in forward bias
(p side connected to +ve terminal &
n side to -ve terminal of supply voltage)

Under forward bias, minority carriers

in each region increase due to the
lowering of built-in field/potential.
Therefore, diffusion currents
increase to supply these minority
carriers.
• The depletion width is shortened and the built-in electric field decreased.
• This reduces the potential barrier at the junction
• This disturbs the equilibrium between diffusion and electric field force
• Majority carrier holes from p region crosses the potential barrier and moves to the n region...thus they
constitute an injected minority carrier current in n side
• Similarly electron from n side form minority carrier current in the p region after crossing the junction.
• Total forward current = hole minority
IIT Kharagpur, current + electron minority current
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 pn junction IV Relationship
Total current ID

electron current hole current

electron diffusion
hole diffusion
current
current

n side p side

• Total current ID is constant throughout the device...but the proportion due to holes and that due to
electrons varies with distance
• In p side main current is due to majority carrier i.e. hole...holes after crossing junction becomes hole
diffusion current...hole diffusion current decreases exponentially
• Similarly n side main current is due to electron and when electrons cross the junction...they become
electron diffusion current in the p side
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 Diode Characteristics
  eVD  
I D = I S exp   − 1
  nkT  
n – ideality factor 1n2
p n depends on the fabrication process and
semiconductor material
The current and voltage relationship of a
ID PN junction is exponential in forward bias
region, and relatively constant in reverse
bias region.

• Diode can be thought of a voltage controlled switch...off for a reverse bias voltage
on for a forward bias voltage

• There exists a cut in/threshold (V) voltage for diode...below which the current is very small...and
above which the current rises very rapidly... (V) – (0.2V for germanium and 0.6V for silicon)
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 Reverse Breakdown

• With increase in reverse voltage IS remains very small initially (may be of the order of pA or fA)

• At large reverse voltage (known as breakdown voltage) the diode can conduct very heavily with
very little increase in reverse voltage...hence can be used as constant voltage device

• Breakdown - (i) Avalanche (ii) Zener

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 Zener vs. Avalanche Breakdown

(i) Avalanche – Carriers crossing the space charge region gain sufficient energy from the high
electric field...able to break the covalent bonds...the generated electron hole pair then in
turn gets enough energy to knock other covalent bonds...this cumulative process known as
Avalanche Multiplication.

(ii) Zener Breakdown - Tunnelling of carriers across the junction...needs high doping
concentration

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Zener Diode
• At certain reverse voltage current increases
enormously
• the diode breakdown voltage is essentially
constant over a wide range of currents
• it can be used as constant voltage reference
in a circuit

IZ

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 Diode Model
ID
forward bias

reverse bias VD

VD,on
(1) Ideal diode
During reverse bias current through the diode is zero (open circuit)
During forward bias voltage across the diode is zero (short circuit)

(2) Constant Voltage model

Diode operates as an open circuit if VD< VD,on and a constant voltage
source of VD,on if VD tends to exceed VD,on.

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 Diode Model
(3) Piecewise linear diode model
• Diode voltage greater than v (cut in voltage), current
increases linearly with voltage - slope is 1/Rf

• Diode voltage less than v , current is zero (or very close to zero)
parallel to V axis - so diode reverse resistance (Rr) can be taken
as 
I

Rf

v
V

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 Different types of Diode
• Solar Cell
• Photodiode
• Light-Emitting Diode
• Schottky Barrier Diode
• Zener Diode

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