Chapter One 1.1 Background
Chapter One 1.1 Background
Chapter One 1.1 Background
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
radioactive elements present in each area; as such, researchers investigated the natural
environmental radiation and radioactivity in soils to conduct background checks and detect
environmental radioactivity. The levels of radioactivity can be used to assess public dose
caused by nuclear accidents, industrial activities, and other human activities (B. Skwarzec et,
al. 1988).
Potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232 and their decay products are important natural
elements that contribute to a large part of the radiation dose received by humans; thus far,
are encountered in terrestrial strata (soil or rocks) or lakes and water bodies (ocean, sea, or
lakes) and can be easily accumulated into the food chain. (A. P. Radhakrishna, et, al.1993).
Specific levels of terrestrial environmental radiation are related to the geological composition
of each lithologically separated area and to the contents of thorium (Th), uranium (U), and
potassium (K) in rocks from which soils originate. Soils are categorized into several types
depending on their physical and chemical properties. Many studies conducted worldwide
showed that 238U, including its decay products in soils and rocks, and 232Th in monazite sands
are the main sources of high natural background radiation. United Nations Scientific
Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, “Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation,”
(UNSCEAR 2000).
Natural environmental radiation and radioactivity in soils have gained considerable research
interest because humans are exposed to natural radioactivity at different levels depending on
natural radioactive minerals present in each region worldwide. (B. Skwarzec et, al. 1988).
All foods contain natural radionuclides, which are transferred from the soil to the crops on
land and from water to fish in rivers, lakes and the sea. Levels of natural radionuclides in
food and drinking water are generally very low and safe for human consumption. However,
they can vary considerably depending on local geology, climate and agricultural practices.
The IAEA and international experts are therefore developing guidance to measure and
determine acceptable levels of natural radioactivity in food, with the ultimate goal to improve
Radionuclides in phosphate rocks can enter the environment through different mechanisms,
such as use of phosphogypsum for building materials and for agriculture or fertilization of
agricultural lands. Direct fallout from the atmosphere on the vegetation is the primary source
particles, similar to natural radionuclides, which are widely distributed at different soil
In this study, the concentration of radioactivity and the radiation dose from agricultural soils
of rice farms and virgin soils in Kedah, Malaysia, were analyzed. Results can be used to
determine public dose rates, assess the performance of epidemiological studies, and maintain
LITERATURE REVIEW
The major naturally occurring radionuclides include the isotopes of uranium and thorium plus
their daughters and 40K. Measurements of these natural activities are not considered in this
Information on the natural radioactivity in man and his environment has been reviewed by the
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR 2006).
and animals also take up radioactive matter with the nutrients they need for growth. The level
on the availability of the nutrients and other substances from soil and water, and
Certain plants or parts of them, such as Brazil nuts and mushrooms, for example wood
Some plants or parts of them, such as Brazil nuts, and some mushroom species, such as wood
Foods can also be radioactively contaminated via the air. From soils and rocks, for
example, radon-222 gets into the atmosphere and decays into its radioactive but not gaseous
decay products. These can deposit on leaf surfaces and be taken up in the leaves. Of special
importance are here the long-lived decay products of radon-222, the radionuclides lead-210
In the past radionuclides deposited from the atmosphere onto plant-based food and animal
Compared with muscle meat, offal - especially livers and kidneys - has higher levels of
natural radionuclides, because these organs filter the harmful substances during metabolism
Figure 1: Radon decay products can deposit on leaf surfaces and be taken up in the leaves
Natural radionuclides can also accumulate in fish and shell fish (among others in the soft
Depending on the plant species and the respective development and nutritional condition of
the plant at the time of harvesting, the mineral distribution in the plant parts varies. These
are higher than those in vegetables or fruit. Via plants and animals radionuclides get into the
In the human body, a constant portion of potassium must be constantly present in order for
the metabolism to work. Hence, the human body regulates its potassium content
continuously. We can cover our potassium need entirely with our diet. The element
specific activity of 31.6 becquerel per gram of potassium. Since this share is always the same,
average 0.165 millisievert per year for adults and 0.185 millisievert per year for children.
Potassium is vital for all organisms and considerable amounts of it are mostly present in
mass in fruit and 380 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass in ripe peas or beans can be
found.
The values are similar for products of animal origin (ca. 50 becquerel per litre in cow
kidneys of cattle).
As a result of their manufacturing processes, milk powder and smoked sausage contain
The activity level in edible mushrooms varies between a few 10 and a few
Figure 3: Banana
2.4 RADIONUCLIDES TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION
All radionuclides whose half-life is one year or longer are taken into consideration, out of the
radionuclides that are supposed to have been released due to the accident at TEPCO's
Fukushima Daiichi NPS. Radionuclides shown in the table above, such as strontium
90, plutonium, and ruthenium 106, are taken into account in calculation, in addition to
radioactive cesium. However, as the standard limits are intended for long-term regulations of
radioactive materials in foods, radionuclides with a short half-life are not covered. For
example, the standard limits are not set for radioactive iodine. Even if measurements are
conducted for these other radionuclides by setting specific standard limits for each of them, it
takes time to obtain measurement results. On the other hand, it is easy to measure radioactive
cesium. Therefore, the standard limits are calculated and set so that the total dose from other
radionuclides does not exceed 1 mSv if only the standard limits for radioactive cesium are
met. Specifically, effects of the radionuclides, such as radioactive cesium, strontium 90 and
plutonium, were ascertained through surveys of soil, etc. For example, assuming the entirety
of the effects caused by the consumption of foods containing radioactive materials released
from TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi NPS as 100, the effects of radioactive cesium account for
around 88 in the case of people aged 19 years or over. On the other hand, the effects of the
other radionuclides were found to account for around 12. In this manner, the standard limits
were established also taking into consideration the effects of radionuclides other than
radioactive cesium. Standard limits concerning radioactive materials in foods are established
For "drinking water," the standard limit was set at 10 Bq/kg due to the following three
grounds:
(i) Water is essential for human life and there is no substitution for water, and its
consumption is large;
(ii) WHO's guidance level for radioactive cesium in drinking water is 10Bq/kg; and
(iii) Strict management is possible for radioactive materials in tap water (p.31 of Vol. 2,
"Waterworks System").
(ii) The Food Safety Commission pointed out that "the susceptibility to radiation may be
For "infant foods," the standard limit is the same as that for milk at 50 Bq/kg as the Food
Safety Commission pointed out that "the susceptibility to radiation may be higher in
As reasons to set the limit at 100 Bq/kg for "general foods," the following three points are
(i) can minimize the influence of individual differences in eating habits (deviation of the
consumers' health and ensuring fair-trade practices in the food trade, etc. that
Radionuclides are used in two major ways: either for their radiation alone
chemically very similar to the nonradioactive nuclides, so most chemical, biological, and
ecological processes treat them in a nearly identical way. One can then examine the result
with a radiation detector, such as a Geiger counter, to determine where the provided
atoms were incorporated. For example, one might culture plants in an environment in
which the carbon dioxide contained radioactive carbon; then the parts of the plant that
In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research.
Radioactive chemical tracers emitting gamma rays or positrons can provide diagnostic
information about internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs, including
in hemopoietic forms of tumors; the success for treatment of solid tumors has been
In food preservation, radiation is used to stop the sprouting of root crops after
harvesting, to kill parasites and pests, and to control the ripening of stored fruit and
vegetables.
In industry, and in mining, radionuclides are used to examine welds, to detect leaks, to
study the rate of wear, erosion and corrosion of metals, and for on-stream analysis of a
units (RHUs).
planetary process.
In particle physics, radionuclides help discover new physics (physics beyond the
Standard Model) by measuring the energy and momentum of their beta decay products
massive particles).
In ecology, radionuclides are used to trace and analyze pollutants, to study the
movement of surface water, and to measure water runoffs from rain and snow, as well as
CHAPTER THREE
cellotape
Water yam (Dioscorea alata) clay soil, Irish potato, Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), Millets
(Pennisetum glaucum), White maize (Zea mays), Red maize (Zea mays), Benue yam
(Dioscorea), Mumuye yam (Dioscorea), White yam (Dioscorea) Onitsha yam, Cassava
(Manihot esculenta), Cocoa yam (Colocasia esculenta), Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) and
The study area is Mile 12, Lagos State, Nigeria. It is one of the 35 settlements in Kosofe
Local Government Area of Lagos State. Due to its location as the gateway to Lagos state,
Mile 12 houses people from the Northern and the Eastern parts of the country who engages in
commercial activities. The population of the settlement according to the 2006 national
population census is 682,772 (National Population Commission, 2006). The vegetation is the
swamp forest which had made way for the construction of houses, markets and other
infrastructure. The area is influenced by two climatic seasons namely: dry and wet seasons.
Dry season occurs between November to March, and wet season, between April to October.
Some of the residential neighbourhoods are traversed by Ogun River. Mile 12 Market is a
Fresh and healthy food materials (see above 3.2), were used for this study. The plant samples
was collected from Mile 12, metropolitan area of Lagos state, Nigeria. The food samples
were then taken to Yaba College of Technology for Identification. The food samples was
collected in October 2021 and was transported to the Research Laboratory, Yaba College of
Water yam (Dioscorea alata) clay soil, Irish potato, Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), Benue
yam (Dioscorea), Mumuye yam (Dioscorea), White yam (Dioscorea) Onitsha yam, Cassava
(Manihot esculenta), Cocoa yam (Colocasia esculenta), Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) and
water yam (loamy soil) samples were separately peeled and chopped into smaller pieces and
washed with distilled water to get rid of sand particles for easy air drying for the first step,
and the second step was microwave drying at 80Oc for 8 hours. The dried food samples were
later grounded into fine powder and was transferred into sterile containers and was
transported to the Research Laboratory, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba Lagos State,
Nigeria, for weighing at 200g per specie yam and it was retain for further experimenting.
Figure 6: Chopped samples of tuber crops with grains spread for air drying.
Figure 7: Food samples in sterile containers after been blended into powder.
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