Chapter One 1.1 Background

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 16

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Humans are exposed to natural radioactivity at different levels depending on natural

radioactive elements present in each area; as such, researchers investigated the natural

environmental radiation and radioactivity in soils to conduct background checks and detect

environmental radioactivity. The levels of radioactivity can be used to assess public dose

rates and radioactive contamination and predict changes in environmental radioactivity

caused by nuclear accidents, industrial activities, and other human activities (B. Skwarzec et,

al. 1988).

Potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232 and their decay products are important natural

elements that contribute to a large part of the radiation dose received by humans; thus far,

approximately 60 abundantly distributed radionuclides have been identified. Radionuclides

are encountered in terrestrial strata (soil or rocks) or lakes and water bodies (ocean, sea, or

lakes) and can be easily accumulated into the food chain. (A. P. Radhakrishna, et, al.1993).

Specific levels of terrestrial environmental radiation are related to the geological composition

of each lithologically separated area and to the contents of thorium (Th), uranium (U), and

potassium (K) in rocks from which soils originate. Soils are categorized into several types

depending on their physical and chemical properties. Many studies conducted worldwide

showed that 238U, including its decay products in soils and rocks, and 232Th in monazite sands

are the main sources of high natural background radiation. United Nations Scientific

Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, “Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation,”

(UNSCEAR 2000).
Natural environmental radiation and radioactivity in soils have gained considerable research

interest because humans are exposed to natural radioactivity at different levels depending on

natural radioactive minerals present in each region worldwide. (B. Skwarzec et, al. 1988).

All foods contain natural radionuclides, which are transferred from the soil to the crops on

land and from water to fish in rivers, lakes and the sea. Levels of natural radionuclides in

food and drinking water are generally very low and safe for human consumption. However,

they can vary considerably depending on local geology, climate and agricultural practices.

The IAEA and international experts are therefore developing guidance to measure and

determine acceptable levels of natural radioactivity in food, with the ultimate goal to improve

food safety (Grace et al. 2018).

1.2 RADIONUCLIDES IN PHOSPHATE ROCKS

Radionuclides in phosphate rocks can enter the environment through different mechanisms,

such as use of phosphogypsum for building materials and for agriculture or fertilization of

agricultural lands. Direct fallout from the atmosphere on the vegetation is the primary source

of radiation contamination. Fission product  is strongly absorbed and maintained by soil

particles, similar to natural radionuclides, which are widely distributed at different soil

depths. Therefore, knowledge on radionuclide distribution in soils is essential to control

health risks to the affected population (Havelaar et al. 2015).

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

In this study, the concentration of radioactivity and the radiation dose from agricultural soils

of rice farms and virgin soils in Kedah, Malaysia, were analyzed. Results can be used to

determine public dose rates, assess the performance of epidemiological studies, and maintain

reference data to ascertain changes in environmental radioactivity caused by nuclear,

industrial, and other human activities.


CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

The major naturally occurring radionuclides include the isotopes of uranium and thorium plus

their daughters and 40K. Measurements of these natural activities are not considered in this

guidebook except in regard to their influence on the backgrounds of counting instruments.

Information on the natural radioactivity in man and his environment has been reviewed by the

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR 2006).

2.2 HOW DO PLANTS AND ANIMALS TAKE UP RADIONUCLIDES?

Radionuclides have, in part, similar chemical characteristics as nutrients. Therefore, plants

and animals also take up radioactive matter with the nutrients they need for growth. The level

of specific activities in foods depends: (Suthar et al. 2018).

 on the radioactivity content of the used source media (soils, water),

 on the availability of the nutrients and other substances from soil and water, and

 on other conditions at the site of the plant or animal production.

Certain plants or parts of them, such as Brazil nuts and mushrooms, for example wood

hedgehog, enrich radionuclides to a high degree (Suthar et al. 2018).

Some plants or parts of them, such as Brazil nuts, and some mushroom species, such as wood

hedgehog, enrich certain radionuclides to a high degree.

Foods can also be radioactively contaminated via the air. From soils and rocks, for

example, radon-222 gets into the atmosphere and decays into its radioactive but not gaseous

decay products. These can deposit on leaf surfaces and be taken up in the leaves. Of special
importance are here the long-lived decay products of radon-222, the radionuclides lead-210

and polonium-210 of which higher activity levels, particularly occur in leafy vegetables.

In the past radionuclides deposited from the atmosphere onto plant-based food and animal

feed also after the Chernobyl accident and the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests.

Compared with muscle meat, offal - especially livers and kidneys - has higher levels of

natural radionuclides, because these organs filter the harmful substances during metabolism

(Suthar et al. 2018).

Figure 1: Radon decay products can deposit on leaf surfaces and be taken up in the leaves

Natural radionuclides can also accumulate in fish and shell fish (among others in the soft

tissue of clams, prawns, lobsters and shrimps), in particular lead-210 and polonium-210.


Figure 2: Crab, fish and shell

2.3 WHERE DO THE RADIONUCLIDES DEPOSIT?

Depending on the plant species and the respective development and nutritional condition of

the plant at the time of harvesting, the mineral distribution in the plant parts varies. These

distributions influence the activity levels in plant-based foods. For example,

the activity concentrations of the radium isotopes radium-226 and radium-228 in cereal grains

are higher than those in vegetables or fruit. Via plants and animals radionuclides get into the

human food chain. The specific activity decreases in the food chain – with the exception of

fish (Edelstein et al. 2018).

2.3.1 POTASSIUM: ENGINE OF THE HUMAN METABOLISM

In the human body, a constant portion of potassium must be constantly present in order for

the metabolism to work. Hence, the human body regulates its potassium content

continuously. We can cover our potassium need entirely with our diet. The element

potassium contains naturally occurring 0.0117 per cent potassium-40 with a

specific activity of 31.6 becquerel per gram of potassium. Since this share is always the same,

the potassium-40 activity can be calculated from the potassium content. Depending on age,


gender and other factors, the potassium-40 activity of the human body is between about 40

and 60 becquerel per kilogram of body weight. The effective dose due to potassium-40 is on

average 0.165 millisievert per year for adults and 0.185 millisievert per year for children.

Potassium is vital for all organisms and considerable amounts of it are mostly present in

them: (Arnade et al. 2009).

 In plant-based foods, specific activity levels between 50 becquerel per kilogram of fresh

mass in fruit and 380 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass in ripe peas or beans can be

found.

 The values are similar for products of animal origin (ca. 50 becquerel per litre in cow

milk up to ca. 100 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass in muscle meat, liver and

kidneys of cattle).

 As a result of their manufacturing processes, milk powder and smoked sausage contain

higher activities (above 180 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass).

 The activity level in edible mushrooms varies between a few 10 and a few

100 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass.

Figure 3: Banana
2.4 RADIONUCLIDES TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION

All radionuclides whose half-life is one year or longer are taken into consideration, out of the

radionuclides that are supposed to have been released due to the accident at TEPCO's

Fukushima Daiichi NPS. Radionuclides shown in the table above, such as strontium

90, plutonium, and ruthenium 106, are taken into account in calculation, in addition to

radioactive cesium. However, as the standard limits are intended for long-term regulations of

radioactive materials in foods, radionuclides with a short half-life are not covered. For

example, the standard limits are not set for radioactive iodine. Even if measurements are

conducted for these other radionuclides by setting specific standard limits for each of them, it

takes time to obtain measurement results. On the other hand, it is easy to measure radioactive

cesium. Therefore, the standard limits are calculated and set so that the total dose from other

radionuclides does not exceed 1 mSv if only the standard limits for radioactive cesium are

met. Specifically, effects of the radionuclides, such as radioactive cesium, strontium 90 and

plutonium, were ascertained through surveys of soil, etc. For example, assuming the entirety

of the effects caused by the consumption of foods containing radioactive materials released

from TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi NPS as 100, the effects of radioactive cesium account for

around 88 in the case of people aged 19 years or over. On the other hand, the effects of the

other radionuclides were found to account for around 12. In this manner, the standard limits

were established also taking into consideration the effects of radionuclides other than

radioactive cesium. Standard limits concerning radioactive materials in foods are established

respectively for the four food categories (Guh et al. 2007).

For "drinking water," the standard limit was set at 10 Bq/kg due to the following three

grounds:
(i) Water is essential for human life and there is no substitution for water, and its

consumption is large;

(ii) WHO's guidance level for radioactive cesium in drinking water is 10Bq/kg; and

(iii) Strict management is possible for radioactive materials in tap water (p.31 of Vol. 2,

"Waterworks System").

For "milk," the standard limit was set at 50 Bq/kg because

(i) Children consume a lot and

(ii) The Food Safety Commission pointed out that "the susceptibility to radiation may be

higher in childhood than in adulthood."

For "infant foods," the standard limit is the same as that for milk at 50 Bq/kg as the Food

Safety Commission pointed out that "the susceptibility to radiation may be higher in

childhood than in adulthood."

As reasons to set the limit at 100 Bq/kg for "general foods," the following three points are

cited: Setting the value in this manner (Guh et al. 2007).

(i) can minimize the influence of individual differences in eating habits (deviation of the

foods to be consumed), and is

(ii) easy to understand for the general public and

(iii) consistent with international views, such as those of the Codex Alimentarius

Commission (an intergovernmental body created for the purpose of protecting

consumers' health and ensuring fair-trade practices in the food trade, etc. that

establishes international standards for foods) (Guh et al. 2007).


2.5 RADIONUCLIDES ARE USED IN TWO MAJOR WAYS

Radionuclides are used in two major ways: either for their radiation alone

(irradiation, nuclear batteries) or for the combination of chemical properties and their

radiation (tracers, biopharmaceuticals).

 In biology, radionuclides of carbon can serve as radioactive tracers because they are

chemically very similar to the nonradioactive nuclides, so most chemical, biological, and

ecological processes treat them in a nearly identical way. One can then examine the result

with a radiation detector, such as a Geiger counter, to determine where the provided

atoms were incorporated. For example, one might culture plants in an environment in

which the carbon dioxide contained radioactive carbon; then the parts of the plant that

incorporate atmospheric carbon would be radioactive. Radionuclides can be used to

monitor processes such as DNA replication or amino acid transport.

 In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research.

Radioactive chemical tracers emitting gamma rays or positrons can provide diagnostic

information about internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs, including

the human brain.[9][10][11] This is used in some forms of tomography: single-photon

emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography (PET) scanning

and Cherenkov luminescence imaging. Radioisotopes are also a method of treatment

in hemopoietic forms of tumors; the success for treatment of solid tumors has been

limited. More powerful gamma sources sterilise syringes and other medical equipment.

 In food preservation, radiation is used to stop the sprouting of root crops after

harvesting, to kill parasites and pests, and to control the ripening of stored fruit and

vegetables.
 In industry, and in mining, radionuclides are used to examine welds, to detect leaks, to

study the rate of wear, erosion and corrosion of metals, and for on-stream analysis of a

wide range of minerals and fuels.

 In spacecraft, radionuclides are used to provide power and heat, notably

through radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and radioisotope heater

units (RHUs).

 In astronomy and cosmology, radionuclides play a role in understanding stellar and

planetary process.

 In particle physics, radionuclides help discover new physics (physics beyond the

Standard Model) by measuring the energy and momentum of their beta decay products

(for example, neutrinoless double beta decay and the search for weakly interacting

massive particles).

 In ecology, radionuclides are used to trace and analyze pollutants, to study the

movement of surface water, and to measure water runoffs from rain and snow, as well as

the flow rates of streams and rivers.

 In geology, archaeology, and paleontology, natural radionuclides are used to measure

ages of rocks, minerals, and fossil materials (Ortega et al. 2012).

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS


Knife, Foil paper, Laboratory Oven, Laboratory Blender, Polythene bag, Lab container, Paper

cellotape

3.2 CONSUMABLE SAMPLES

Water yam (Dioscorea alata) clay soil, Irish potato, Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), Millets

(Pennisetum glaucum), White maize (Zea mays), Red maize (Zea mays), Benue yam

(Dioscorea), Mumuye yam (Dioscorea), White yam (Dioscorea) Onitsha yam, Cassava

(Manihot esculenta), Cocoa yam (Colocasia esculenta), Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) and

water yam (loamy soil).

Figure 4: food Samples in Mile 12

3.3 STUDY AREA

The study area is Mile 12, Lagos State, Nigeria. It is one of the 35 settlements in Kosofe

Local Government Area of Lagos State. Due to its location as the gateway to Lagos state,

Mile 12 houses people from the Northern and the Eastern parts of the country who engages in
commercial activities. The population of the settlement according to the 2006 national

population census is 682,772 (National Population Commission, 2006). The vegetation is the

swamp forest which had made way for the construction of houses, markets and other

infrastructure. The area is influenced by two climatic seasons namely: dry and wet seasons.

Dry season occurs between November to March, and wet season, between April to October.

Some of the residential neighbourhoods are traversed by Ogun River. Mile 12 Market is a

marketplace in Lagos State, Nigeria with Latitude. 6.6015° N and Longitude 3.3969° E.

Figure 5: Mile 12 metropolitan area of Lagos State Nigeria, Google map

3.3 COLLECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD SAMPLES

Fresh and healthy food materials (see above 3.2), were used for this study. The plant samples

was collected from Mile 12, metropolitan area of Lagos state, Nigeria. The food samples

were then taken to Yaba College of Technology for Identification. The food samples was
collected in October 2021 and was transported to the Research Laboratory, Yaba College of

Technology, Yaba Lagos State, Nigeria, for further analysis.

3.4 SAMPLE PREPARATION

Water yam (Dioscorea alata) clay soil, Irish potato, Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), Benue

yam (Dioscorea), Mumuye yam (Dioscorea), White yam (Dioscorea) Onitsha yam, Cassava

(Manihot esculenta), Cocoa yam (Colocasia esculenta), Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) and

water yam (loamy soil) samples were separately peeled and chopped into smaller pieces and

washed with distilled water to get rid of sand particles for easy air drying for the first step,

and the second step was microwave drying at 80Oc for 8 hours. The dried food samples were

later grounded into fine powder and was transferred into sterile containers and was

transported to the Research Laboratory, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba Lagos State,

Nigeria, for weighing at 200g per specie yam and it was retain for further experimenting.

Figure 6: Chopped samples of tuber crops with grains spread for air drying.
Figure 7: Food samples in sterile containers after been blended into powder.

REFERENCES
A. P. Radhakrishna, H. M. Somashekarappa, Y. Narayana, and K. Siddappa, “A new natural

background radiation area on the southwest coast of india,” Health Physics, vol. 65, no.

4, pp. 390–395, 1993.

Arnade C, Calvin L, Kuchler F. Consumer Response to a Food Safety Shock: The 2006

Food-Borne Illness Outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 Linked to Spinach. Rev Agric Econ.

2009

B. Skwarzec and L. Falkowski, “Accumulation of 210Po in Baltic invertebrates,” Journal of

Environmental Radioactivity, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 99–109, 1988.

Edelstein M, Lee LM, Herten-Crabb A, Heymann DL, Harper DR. Strengthening Global

Public Health Surveillance through Data and Benefit Sharing. Emerging Infectious

Diseases journal. 7 2018

Grace D, Domínguez-Salas P, Alonso S, Fahrion AS, Häsler B, Heilmann M, et al. Food

safety metrics relevant to low and middle income countries. Technical Brief. Agriculture,

Nutrition and Health Academy Food Safety Working Group. Innovative Methods and

Metrics for Agriculture and Nutrition Actions Programme. London, UK. 2018

Guh S, Xingbao C, Poulos C, Qi Z, Jianwen C, von Seidlein L, et al. Comparison of cost-of-

illness with willingness-to-pay estimates to avoid shigellosis: evidence from China. Health

Policy Plan. 2007

Havelaar AH, Kirk MD, Torgerson PR, Gibb HJ, Hald T, Lake RJ, et al. World Health

Organization Global Estimates and Regional Comparisons of the Burden of Foodborne

Disease in 2010. PLOS Med. 2015

Ortega DL, Wang HH, Olynk NJ, Wu L, Bai J. Chinese Consumers’ Demand for Food Safety

Attributes: A Push for Government and Industry Regulations. Am J Agric Econ. 2012
Suthar AB, Allen LG, Cifuentes S, Dye C, Nagata JM. Lessons learnt from implementation

of the International Health Regulations: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ.

2017/12/11 ed. 2018

UNSCEAR 2000 Report Vol.1 to the General Assembly, with scientific annexes, United

Nations Sales Publication, United Nations, New York, 2000.

You might also like