ELECTRICITY

LIGHTING AND OTHER

TRAINING MANUAL
Course EXP-MN-SE160-FR
Revision 0
 Field Operations Training
Electricity
Lighting and Other

ELECTRICITY
LIGHTING AND OTHER

CONTENTS

1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................8
2. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................9
3. LIGHT ............................................................................................................................10
3.1. WHERE DOES LIGHT COME FROM? ...................................................................10
3.1.1. The origin of light .............................................................................................10
3.1.2. Light – multiple light sources ...........................................................................10
3.2. WHAT IS LIGHT?....................................................................................................11
3.2.1. Light – a multiplicity of exceptional properties .................................................11
3.2.2. The light spectrum ...........................................................................................11
3.2.3. Waves or particles? .........................................................................................12
3.2.4. Refraction: light can be focused or diffused.....................................................12
3.2.5. Light – a multipurpose phenomenon ...............................................................13
3.2.6. Polarisation: a hidden property of light ............................................................13
3.2.7. Deflection - total reflection ...............................................................................14
3.3. THE LASER – SPECIAL LIGHT..............................................................................14
3.3.1. What is a laser?...............................................................................................14
3.3.2. Principles of the laser (1).................................................................................15
3.3.3. Principles of the laser (2).................................................................................15
3.3.4. Principles of the laser (3).................................................................................16
3.3.5. The different types of lasers ............................................................................16
3.3.6. The fibre laser – light conduction.....................................................................17
3.3.7. Femtosecond laser right at the bottom of the time scale .................................17
3.4. LIGHT IN DAILY LIFE .............................................................................................18
3.4.1. Light – our ticket for the future.........................................................................18
3.4.2. Light – for storing, transmitting and viewing ....................................................19
3.4.3. Biophotonics – hope for medicine ...................................................................19
3.4.4. Macro, micro, nano – light as a universal tool .................................................20
3.4.5. Nanoelectronics – born in the far ultraviolet ....................................................20
3.4.6. Mobile telephones would not exist without optical technologies ......................21
3.4.7. Mobility thanks to the optical technologies ......................................................21
3.4.8. Diffractive Micro-Optics ...................................................................................22
3.5. LIGHTING EFFECTS ..............................................................................................24
3.5.1. Lighting effects – playing with light ..................................................................24
3.5.2. Light – essential for sight.................................................................................24
3.5.3. The more light there is, the darker the shadow ...............................................25
3.5.4. The mirror – images or mirages? ....................................................................25
3.5.5. Dispersal of light..............................................................................................25
3.5.6. Glass and light improve vision.........................................................................26
3.5.7. The magic of curved mirrors............................................................................26
3.6. LIGHT AND COLOUR.............................................................................................28
3.6.1. Light among the other "waves"........................................................................28

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Electricity
Lighting and Other

3.6.2. The origin of colours ........................................................................................28

3.6.2.1. Composition of white light ..........................................................................28
3.6.2.2. Additive synthesis ......................................................................................29
3.6.3. Light - Matter interaction..................................................................................30
3.6.3.1. Refraction...................................................................................................30
3.6.3.2. Atmospheric colours...................................................................................30
3.6.3.3. Transmission – absorption – reflection.......................................................31
3.6.3.4. Colour of objects ........................................................................................32
3.6.3.5. Subtractive synthesis .................................................................................33
3.6.4. Visual perception.............................................................................................33
3.6.4.1. Visual system .............................................................................................33
3.6.4.2. Sensitivity of the human eye ......................................................................34
3.6.4.3. Colour contrast...........................................................................................35
4. LIGHTING LAMPS – CRITERIA ....................................................................................36
4.1. CHOICE OF THE TYPE OF LAMP .........................................................................36
4.1.1. General lighting ...............................................................................................36
4.1.2. Localised lighting.............................................................................................37
4.1.3. Indirect decorative lighting...............................................................................38
4.1.4. Lifetime of a lamp ............................................................................................38
4.2. PHOTOMETRIC VALUES – DEFINITIONS ............................................................39
4.2.1. Light and radiation...........................................................................................39
4.2.2. Luminous flux- F..............................................................................................39
4.2.3. Luminous intensity - I.......................................................................................39
4.2.4. Luminance - L..................................................................................................40
4.2.5. Illumination - E.................................................................................................40
4.2.6. Luminous efficiency of lamps ..........................................................................40
4.2.7. Colour temperature - K ....................................................................................41
4.2.8. Colour of light ..................................................................................................42
4.2.9. Colour rendering..............................................................................................42
4.2.10. Optical efficiency ...........................................................................................44
4.3. LIGHTING IN THE HOME.......................................................................................44
5. THE DIFFERENT LAMPS .............................................................................................47
5.1. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT .................................................................................................47
5.2. INCANDESCENT LAMPS.......................................................................................48
5.2.1. How an incandescent lamp works ...................................................................48
5.2.2. General characteristics....................................................................................49
5.3. HALOGEN LAMPS..................................................................................................49
5.3.1. How a halogen lamp works .............................................................................50
5.3.2. Improvements over the centuries ....................................................................50
5.3.3. General characteristics....................................................................................50
5.3.4. Important: fragile .............................................................................................52
5.3.5. Harmful radiation .............................................................................................52
5.3.6. Lamp with a high electricity consumption ........................................................53
5.4. FLUORESCENT TUBES.........................................................................................53
5.4.1. How a fluorescent tube works .........................................................................53
5.4.2. General characteristics....................................................................................54
5.4.3. The different diameters....................................................................................55
5.4.4. Operating temperature ....................................................................................55

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Lighting and Other

5.4.5. Power and sizes ..............................................................................................56

5.4.6. Colour rendering index and colour temperature ..............................................57
5.4.7. Lifetime............................................................................................................59
5.4.8. Dimming ..........................................................................................................59
5.5. COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS......................................................................59
5.5.1. How a compact fluorescent lamp works ..........................................................60
5.5.2. How to find your way in the compact fluorescent lamp market (general).........60
5.5.3. General specifications .....................................................................................62
5.6. INDUCTION LAMPS ...............................................................................................64
5.6.1. How an induction lamp works..........................................................................64
5.6.2. General specifications .....................................................................................64
5.7. DISCHARGE LAMPS..............................................................................................65
5.7.1. Operating principle ..........................................................................................65
5.7.2. Principal discharge lamps and their trade names............................................67
5.8. HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY LAMPS ..................................................................67
5.8.1. How a high pressure mercury lamp works.......................................................67
5.8.2. General specifications .....................................................................................68
5.9. HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS ......................................................................68
5.9.1. How a high pressure sodium lamp works ........................................................68
5.9.2. General specifications .....................................................................................69
5.10. METAL HALIDE (OR IODIDE) LAMPS .................................................................71
5.10.1. How a metal halide lamp works.....................................................................71
5.10.2. General specifications ...................................................................................72
5.11. LOW PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS .....................................................................74
5.11.1. How a low pressure sodium lamp works .......................................................74
5.11.2. General specifications ...................................................................................74
5.12. MIXED LAMP ........................................................................................................75
5.13. THE LED LAMP ....................................................................................................76
5.13.1. Description ....................................................................................................77
5.13.2. Strong points - Advantages ...........................................................................77
5.13.3. Weaknesses - Disadvantages .......................................................................78
5.13.4. Various applications (white LEDs) .................................................................78
5.14. SIGNALLING LAMPS............................................................................................79
6. LAMP TECHNOLOGY ...................................................................................................81
6.1. LAMP AND BASE SIZES ........................................................................................81
6.1.1. Incandescent lamps ........................................................................................81
6.1.2. Halogen incandescent lamps ..........................................................................84
6.1.3. Fluorescent tubes............................................................................................86
6.1.4. Compact fluorescent lamps .............................................................................88
6.1.5. Comparison of the different types of lamps .....................................................92
6.2. BALLASTS ..............................................................................................................93
6.2.1. What are ballasts, starters and capacitors used for?.......................................93
6.2.2. Electromagnetic ballast ...................................................................................94
6.2.3. High frequency electronic ballast for fluorescent lamps ..................................96
6.2.3.1. Electronic ballast with preheating (or hot cathode).....................................96
6.2.3.2. Nonpreheated electronic ballast.................................................................97
6.2.3.3. Dimmable electronic ballast .......................................................................97
6.2.4. Electronic ballast for sodium lamps .................................................................97

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Lighting and Other

6.2.5. Electronic ballast for high pressure discharge lamps ......................................98

6.2.6. Multilamp electronic ballast .............................................................................98
6.2.7. Digitally controlled electronic ballast................................................................99
6.2.8. Ballast energy classifications.........................................................................100
6.3. DIMMERS .............................................................................................................102
6.3.1. Dimmers for fluorescent lamps......................................................................102
6.3.2. Dimmers for discharge lamps........................................................................103
6.4. LUMINAIRES (also called LIGHT FITTINGS) – CHOICE OF THE REQUIRED
ILLUMINATION ............................................................................................................103
6.4.1. Choice of the location for luminaires in the workshop ...................................104
6.4.1.1. Glare factor ..............................................................................................104
6.4.1.2. Choice summary table .............................................................................104
6.4.1.3. Efficiency..................................................................................................106
6.4.1.4. Ease of installation and maintenance.......................................................108
6.4.1.5. Electrical quality .......................................................................................109
6.4.1.6. Installed height, rail height........................................................................110
6.4.1.7. Layout of workstations .............................................................................111
6.4.1.8. Environment quality..................................................................................113
6.4.1.9. Difficulty of the visual task ........................................................................114
6.4.2. Choice and location of luminaires for the office .............................................115
6.4.2.1. Glare factor ..............................................................................................115
6.4.2.2. According to their luminous efficiency ......................................................115
6.4.2.3. According to assembly, installation and maintenance..............................117
6.4.2.4. According to the ceiling structure .............................................................118
6.4.2.5. According to acoustic quality....................................................................119
6.4.2.6. According to electrical supply quality .......................................................119
6.4.2.7. According to the necessary protections ...................................................120
6.4.2.8. According to lamp power..........................................................................121
6.4.2.9. According to the air conditioning ..............................................................122
6.4.2.10. According to price ..................................................................................123
6.4.3. Other choice criteria ......................................................................................123
6.4.3.1. Direct lighting ...........................................................................................123
6.4.3.2. Indirect lighting .........................................................................................124
6.4.3.3. Mixed lighting ...........................................................................................125
6.4.4. Evaluating the uniformity of the illumination ..................................................126
6.4.4.1. Recommended uniformity ........................................................................126
6.4.4.2. How to evaluate your situation .................................................................127
6.5. CHOICE OF THE LIGHTING MANAGEMENT METHOD .....................................128
6.5.1. Zoning, local switches and increasing user awareness .................................128
6.5.2. Time management ........................................................................................129
6.5.3. Presence detection........................................................................................129
6.5.4. Management according to natural lighting.....................................................131
6.5.5. Management according to the supply of natural lighting................................133
6.5.5.1. On/off control according to the exterior illumination .................................134
6.5.5.2. Continuous control of the luminous flux according to the interior illumination
..............................................................................................................................135
6.5.5.3. Measurement of the window brightness ...................................................136
6.5.5.4. Measurement of the brightness at a point in the premises .......................137

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 Field Operations Training
Electricity
Lighting and Other

6.5.5.5. Measurement of the brightness at each luminaire....................................138

7. EMERGENCY LIGHTING............................................................................................140
7.1. GENERAL .............................................................................................................140
7.1.1. The different types of lighting ........................................................................140
7.1.2. Aim of the emergency lighting .......................................................................141
7.1.3. Operating mode.............................................................................................141
7.1.4. The regulations..............................................................................................142
7.1.5. Product standards .........................................................................................142
7.2. THE TWO FUNCTIONS........................................................................................143
7.2.1. Evacuation function .......................................................................................143
7.2.1.1. Definition of evacuation ............................................................................143
7.2.1.2. Installation rules for emergency evacuation light units and labels............144
7.2.2. The open area / antipanic function ................................................................145
7.3. INSTALLATION DESIGN ......................................................................................146
7.3.1. Rules for the locations of Self-contained Emergency Light Units and
Emergency Luminaires on Centralised Source .......................................................146
7.3.1.1. Where should the self-contained emergency light units and luminaires be
located? ................................................................................................................146
7.3.1.2. Example of locations ................................................................................147
7.3.1.3. How do we connect them? .......................................................................147
7.3.2. Installing a system with self-contained emergency light units........................148
7.3.3. Installation with centralised sources ..............................................................148
7.4. OBLIGATIONS OF THE OPERATOR...................................................................150
7.4.1. Operation.......................................................................................................150
7.4.1.1. What is the purpose of the standby mode ................................................150
7.4.1.2. Application scenario .................................................................................150
7.4.1.3. How is the remote control connected? .....................................................151
7.4.2. Checks by the Operator.................................................................................153
7.4.2.1. What is the Site Manager's responsibility?...............................................153
7.4.2.2. Maintenance of the self-contained emergency light units: how and how
often? ....................................................................................................................153
7.4.2.3. Do the regular inspections and checks have to be recorded?..................154
7.4.2.4. How do we know if a unit has been checked?..........................................154
7.4.2.5. How are the test periods determined? .....................................................154
7.4.2.6. What types of maintenance operations must be carried out?...................154
7.4.2.7. How do the self-test units work? ..............................................................156
8. INDUSTRIAL SOCKET-OUTLETS ..............................................................................157
8.1. IEC 60309-2 STANDARD .....................................................................................157
8.1.1. Feedback.......................................................................................................157
8.1.2. Noninterchangeability ....................................................................................158
8.1.3. Colour codings ..............................................................................................159
8.1.4. Pin configurations ..........................................................................................160
8.1.5. Industrial socket-outlet currents.....................................................................165
8.2. PROTECTIONS – WIRING ...................................................................................167
8.2.1. Protections for socket-outlet circuits ..............................................................167
8.2.2. Socket-outlet wiring .......................................................................................168
8.3. APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................171
8.3.1. The different types of industrial socket-outlets (IEC 60 309-1-2 standards) ..171

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Lighting and Other

8.3.2. Multiple socket-outlet distribution ..................................................................173

8.3.3. Socket-outlets with incorporated local disconnection device .........................173
8.3.4. ATEX socket-outlets ......................................................................................176
9. GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................177
10. FIGURES...................................................................................................................182
11. TABLES .....................................................................................................................186

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 Field Operations Training
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Lighting and Other

1. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course the participant will be able to:

Explain the origins of light

Draw a parallel between natural light and artificial light

Explain the characteristics of a type of light and give the different parameters
defining it

Give the different characteristics of the light sources, the different lamps and the
different artificial lighting principles

Associate the physical values of light with the type of lamps

Explain the technologies of the different lamps

Explain the operation of the accessories used with discharge lamps (ballasts)

List the main characteristics of the lamps: size, base (also called "cap"), shape,
power, etc.

Choose a lamp with a specific type of lighting according to the premises where it is
to be used

Define the lighting management methods

Choose the appropriate protections for the lighting distribution circuits

Explain the principles, the type of equipment and the technology of the systems
used in emergency lighting

Choose a suitable industrial socket-outlet

Explain the constraints imposed by the IEC 60309 standard for the choice and
installation of industrial socket-outlets

Wire and determine the protection required for the socket-outlet circuits.

Not consider the lighting and the socket-outlets as "subproducts" in an industrial

context.

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 Field Operations Training
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Lighting and Other

2. INTRODUCTION
The main subject of this course is lighting and
lamps but there are many different types of
lamps, and how to recognise them!

You just have to go to a lighting shop or to the

lighting department of a tool store or
supermarket to realise that there is a very wide
choice available.

Figure 1: Some different types of lamps

So go to a do-it-yourself store and see for yourself: dress up in a similar manner to the
store's sales advisors and sales assistants and hang around in the Lamps Section, you will
soon be snowed under with more or less ridiculous requests and questions, such as "I'm
looking for a round bulb", "I would like a neon tube", "I need a 100 W lamp", "Why are eco
lamps so expensive...", "What? I thought the tubes were connected to the 220 V?", etc.

The requests and questions do not give any indication about the type of base (screw,
bayonet, pins, etc) or the sizes of these bases (E14, E27, B22, S15, Gx16d, etc.), or a
minimum of information about the shape and appearance (round, opal, flame, long, etc.)
and nothing about the electrical characteristics (power, voltage, with accessories such as a
ballast, etc.), etc.

This lack of knowledge is acceptable for someone who is not an electrician or not very
"switched on" and relatively unconcerned, but is becomes a problem (and unacceptable)
for a maintenance electrician on an Total production site... I have known Electrician
Supervisors who were not sure what type of lamp to choose from a parts catalogue or
parts list...

That is why this course on lamps is part of the Maintenance syllabus in this programme!
Even if (here too) some people think that it is unnecessary in our industrial context.

As for the other subjects in the course (emergency lighting, alarms, industrial socket-
outlets, etc.), on our sites they are considered to be specific to the French Oil Industry with
a specification specific to Total but they are included with the process installations. In
some cases it would be better to consider the standards in force (e.g. for office emergency
lighting, and especially for the socket-outlets), and that is why it will (probably) be useful
for you to have a document giving an installation's "actual standards".

And before we look at lighting itself, we will first define light.

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 Field Operations Training
Electricity
Lighting and Other

3. LIGHT
We need light not only to see "with our eyes" but also for its many properties which are
used in technological applications, and we still have a great many things to discover
because today we are still in the process of defining what light is.

3.1. WHERE DOES LIGHT COME FROM?

3.1.1. The origin of light

Light is a form of energy which matter can absorb and emit.

Figure 2: The origin of light

Matter is made up of atoms which can store this energy. However, an atom can only
absorb or emit packets of energy of a predetermined size. The size of the packets
depends on each type of atom. Light transports this energy, if necessary by grouping
together several packets before making a "delivery". The energy packets "delivered" in this
way are called photons, and they form the light.

3.1.2. Light – multiple light sources

The light sources we have today are differentiated

according to the field of application, by their construction
and their properties, such as the colour of the light and the
quantity of light.

Figure 3: Light sources

However, at the atomic or molecular level, the light

emission principle is similar for all light sources. For
example, the light from an incandescent lamp used for
domestic lighting is produced by heating a tungsten
filament – and thus thermally like the light of the Sun. On
the other hand, the light given off by a light stick is triggered
by a chemical reaction between two liquids which come in
contact with each other when the stick is bent. This light is
used, for example, by underwater divers, where it is difficult
to have electric power supplies or to use lamps which
produce light from a heat source.

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 Field Operations Training
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Lighting and Other

3.2. WHAT IS LIGHT?

3.2.1. Light – a multiplicity of exceptional properties

Light holds a large number of records. Nothing is faster than light: 300,000
kilometres per second! Moonlight reaches the Earth in just over one second (the
distance between the Earth and the Moon varies between 356,375 and 406,720
km).

Light can be focused to one millionth of a millimetre – it has a precision of one

nanometre.

Light can be used to obtain extremely short pulses of the order of one femtosecond
– one millionth of a billionth of a second (10-15).

Light can be superimposed on itself without

disruption, which allows several terabits (i.e.
several million megabits) to be transmitted in
one second (1012).

Man uses these properties – light shapes our

life.
Figure 4: The properties of light

3.2.2. The light spectrum

Light is an electromagnetic wave. Its spectrum extends

from the long wavelength range through intense infrared
to X-rays. Only a small part the spectrum is visible to
humans, in the wavelengths from 400 to 700 nanometres
– i.e. from violet light to red light.

Figure 5: The light spectrum

When a ray of light passes through a prism the spectrum

becomes visible due to refraction. Conversely, red, green
and blue light can be combined, our brain interprets this
mixture as "white light". This principle is the basis of
display technology.

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3.2.3. Waves or particles?

Light is a wave – and a particle.

Light particles – which are called
"photons" – are shaped like
flattened spheres. Photons have
no electric charge or mass. And,
nevertheless, they are particles!

Figure 6: Light – waves and/or

particles

Today, the debate between the

two great scientists Christian
Huygens and Isaac Newton is
not yet closed: does light consist
of waves or particles?

The waves and particles are in fact two different views of the same phenomenon - two
concepts we need to be able to fully describe the properties of light.

3.2.4. Refraction: light can be focused or diffused

When a ray of light passes from one medium to another,

e.g. from air to water, the wave changes direction, its path
is "deviated". This phenomenon is called the refraction of
light. This change in direction depends on the two
mediums involved and on the angle at which the ray of
light arrives at then leaves the surface of separation
between the two mediums.

For example, using a particular configuration of perspex

cylinders allows the direction of the beams of light to be
modified after refraction at the entry then at the exit of the
cylinder so they are all parallel when they exit.

Figure 7: Refraction of light

Many optical instruments are based on the refraction of

light, e.g. the magnifying glass.

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3.2.5. Light – a multipurpose phenomenon

The use of light is almost universal. Light can be

concentrated or dispersed using lenses.

It can be deviated by mirrors or by whole series of mirrors –

called arrays – or transmitted through special conductors.

Other optical components are used to filter or modify

certain properties of light. Prisms or networks of prisms
decompose the light into different colour components.

Crystals can double the frequencies and thus modify the

colour of the light.

Figure 8: Light – a multipurpose phenomenon

By combining a large number of these components and by a suitable optical design we

obtain complex and highly efficient systems for each type of application.

3.2.6. Polarisation: a hidden property of light

Light has a property which is invisible to the human eye, it

is called polarisation. The polarisation indicates the
direction in which the fields forming the light oscillate.

Figure 9: The polarisation of light

Using polarisation filters (also called "polarisers") we can

filter the light which has a specific direction of oscillation.
With two consecutive polarisers, the light intensity can be
adjusted by modifying the orientation of the filters.

This principle is used in modern screens such as those in

mobile telephones.

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Lighting and Other

3.2.7. Deflection - total reflection

If a ray of light is propagated

from one medium to another it is
deflected. If the angle of
incidence is low the ray cannot
enter the second medium and is
completely reflected on its
surface. This phenomenon is
called "total reflection".
Total reflection
Figure 10: Reflection and
Diffraction of light diffraction of light
Lens effect
We know about total reflection, for example from scuba diving. When under water we can
only see part of what is happening above because the light is reflected at the surface.
Total reflection also has technological applications: With total reflection the light can be
carried in fibres – these fibres are the basis of the new communications systems

3.3. THE LASER – SPECIAL LIGHT

3.3.1. What is a laser?

The word LASER stands for

"Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of
Radiation".

Figure 11: What is a laser?

The laser principle is used to

obtain a very special type of
light which does not occur
naturally. This light consists of a
single colour (monochromatic)
and appears as a very narrow
beam of light concentrated at a
specific point.
En 1960, T.H. Maiman, an
American physicist from
California, was the first to build
a working laser (red light ruby
laser).

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3.3.2. Principles of the laser (1)

The laser is a device which amplifies light. For

simplification, the atoms of the laser medium are like
stores where energy is stored. The atoms can only store
energy by packets containing a defined quantity of energy.
These energy packets are carried in the form of photons.
Light at a given wavelength consists of photons each
carrying a fraction of the total energy.

Figure 12: Principles of the laser (1)

If an atom has a vacant space in its store for an energy

packet and if a photon passes nearby carrying the energy
exactly corresponding to the vacant space, this atom will
absorb the photon and store its energy. This phenomenon
is called "absorption".

An atom which has absorbed and stored a photon will reemit it in a very short but
determined time, in any direction. This phenomenon is called "spontaneous emission".

3.3.3. Principles of the laser (2)

All matter is made up of atoms. An atom has a very small nucleus and an enormous
electron cloud. The electrons in the cloud travel around the nucleus at very high speed
trying to follow orbits corresponding to the energy levels.

Figure 13: Principles of the laser (2)

If an atom, one of whose electrons is orbiting on a given energy level, encounters a photon
which has the same energy, the atom will emit a second photon which will a perfect clone
of the first: same energy, same direction, same phase. This fundamental phenomenon is
called "stimulated emission" and is at the origin of the laser effect.

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3.3.4. Principles of the laser (3)

For a laser to be able to operate, the medium,

contrary to its natural state, must contain more
atoms which have acquired energy packets
than there are atoms with vacant spaces. In the
opposite case, on average more photons will be
absorbed than photons emitted. A population
reversal must therefore be obtained.

Figure 14: Principles of the laser (3)

To reach this state of inversion, energy packets are artificially placed in the atoms by
"pumping" the medium. The medium's "charged" atoms then emit photons by stimulated
emission which themselves trigger the stimulated emission of other atoms, thus creating a
chain reaction.

To get the photons into the medium several times, we use a cavity consisting of 2 mirrors
arranged face to face, between which the gain medium is placed. The photons then go
back and forth into the medium, are amplified and form the laser beam. To allow the beam
to exit, one of the mirrors is partially reflective which allows a fraction of the beam to pass.

3.3.5. The different types of lasers

Since the laser was invented, a great variety of lasers have

been developed. Depending on the active medium used,
different colours (wavelengths) can be produced. The
different types of laser are the following:

Gas lasers: the most important are the CO2 lasers and the
Excited Dimer lasers: ArF, KrF, XeCl). There is also the
helium neon laser and the ion argon laser.

Figure 15: Different types of laser

Liquid lasers: the laser active environment is a dye

solution, which modifies the colour of the laser light over a
wide range.

Solid-state lasers: the most important is the neodym YAG laser. Its laser active medium
is an artificial yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) monocrystal in which some of the yttrium
ions have been replaced by neodym ions.

Semiconductor/diode lasers: these are the most recent. They are very small but can
produce light very efficiently.

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3.3.6. The fibre laser – light conduction

It is not easy to construct robust and efficient lasers. The

higher the power produced by the laser, the greater the
amount of heat to be dissipated. An inappropriate heat
dissipation causes tensions in the laser active medium.
These tensions disrupt the form of the laser beam – i.e.
the quality of the beam – and can, in the worst case, lead
to tearing or bursting of the laser active medium

Figure 16: Fibre laser

The fibre laser is a very neat way of solving this problem.

The laser active medium takes the form of a thin fibre,
similar to an ordinary glass fibre.

The very large surface area guarantees regular and

efficient cooling. In addition, the light is guided in a very straight line, which gives an
excellent beam quality.

3.3.7. Femtosecond laser right at the bottom of the time scale

A femtosecond
(0.000000000000001 s or
10-15 s) is an incredibly short
time.

Figure 17: Femtosecond

laser

Whereas light can travel

seven times round the world
in one second, it only travels
one hundredth the of a hair's
width in one femtosecond
(fs).

The lasers built and used over the last few years emit light rays of only a few
femtoseconds. These lasers beat all the records: the power delivery over the duration of a
short pulse corresponds to that of 100 nuclear power stations, its light intensity
corresponds to that of a billion billion suns.

Femtosecond lasers are used to drill holes in car injectors, to perform ophthalmic
operations and to painlessly treat tooth decay.

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3.4. LIGHT IN DAILY LIFE

3.4.1. Light – our ticket for the future

The optical technologies are taking advantage of the diversity of light's exceptional
properties in all sectors of modern society.

Figure 18: Light and/or the future

Light is our ticket for the future:

Information & communication: Light carries, stores and displays data

An innovative lighting is synonymous with safety and environmental friendliness

Light in the health sector for new active agents and painless operations

Macro-, micro- and nano-manufacturing with light (then pico, femto, etc.)

Highly accurate, ultrafast contactless measurement and detection techniques using

light
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3.4.2. Light – for storing, transmitting and viewing

Our multimediatised modern society lives on information.

This information must be stored, exchanged and
displayed. Light makes all these functions possible with
the high level of quality and speed we know today. The
data is optically recorded on CD and DVD, transmitted
using light via fibre optic cables and finally displayed with
ultramodern devices like flat screens or projectors.

Figure 19: Storage and display using light

For the future, the optical technologies reserve other

innovations for us such as holographic memories and
ultraflat organic electroluminescent screens.

3.4.3. Biophotonics – hope for medicine

Biophotonics offers the possibility of analysing and

rendering visible the biological processes taking place in
living cells, using optical methods.

Is allows us to understand the biological causes of certain

illnesses and to combat them by the best adapted
medicines.

The principal tool used to analyse active substances by

means of light is the lab-on-a-chip (LOC) which is a
veritable miniaturised laboratory the size of a fingernail
and contains a large number of tiny reactive fields.

Figure 20: Biophotonics

On a single chip it is possible to check the reaction and

thus the efficiency of a whole series of active substances,
in record time, during a screening process.

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3.4.4. Macro, micro, nano – light as a universal tool

Laser light is used in all dimension ranges to treat

materials. In shipyards, for example, installations
designed for metal plates over 25 meters long are used as
laser welding gantries. Welding robots are also now used
in the automobile industry, where they perform up to 100
welds per minute.

Figure 21: Light as a work tool

But the laser is also used to create very thin and/or very
small structures. It is also used to manufacture stents,
which are tiny endoprostheses used when there is a
constriction in the heart's blood vessels. The laser can
also easily engrave complete documents on a single hair.

The smallest structures produced with the laser are no

doubt in lithography for semiconductors, where the state-
of-the-art techniques currently involve distances of less
than 90 nanometres (nm). By comparison: if the roads
were 20 nm wide, the map of Europe would be the size of
a fingernail!

3.4.5. Nanoelectronics – born in the far ultraviolet

In an information and communication society living in the

age of the mobile telephone, the computer and Internet,
progress consists of smaller and even more powerful
microchips. They are manufactured using light and
lithography. The smaller the structures are to
manufacture, the shorter the wavelength of the light must
be for the exposure.

Figure 22: Nanoelectronics

The top-of-the-range lithography used to make the

Pentium IV processor used an Excimer laser and a
wavelength of 193 nm. Over the following years this
technology was gradually replaced by lithography using
157 nm light, thus allowing structures of 70 nm to be
obtained. Research laboratories are now developing
lithographic technologies which use light with a
wavelength of 13 nm and less (extreme ultraviolet light
(EUV)) for industry.

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3.4.6. Mobile telephones would not exist without optical technologies

Electronics:

The circuit pattern is applied to the printed circuit using ultraviolet light

Transversal connections of laser-drilled chips (around 1000 holes over a square

with side 20 μm)

Chips produced by optical lithography

Case:

The keypad is indelibly engraved by laser

Laser welding is replacing bonding for plastics

Figure 23: Mobile telephones use technology based on light.

Screen:

Liquid crystal or LED screen with backlighting

In the future the screens will have organic light emitting diodes (OLED)

Uses:

Optical IR interface to the PC for transmission of data

Integrated miniature camera for transmission of

images

3.4.7. Mobility thanks to the optical technologies

The optical technologies play an essential role in each

modern automobile.

Figure 24: The automobile and the optical technologies

Laser-drilled fuel injectors and filters

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Bodywork welded or brazed by laser

Laser-welded cylinder barrel

Laser-hardened cams, valves and injector cup

Vibrations and noise emissions reduced to the minimum by optical measurement

technology

Engine construction optimised by optical analysis of exhaust gases

Head-up display (information projected on the windscreen)

LEDs for instrument, indicator and stop light lighting

High pressure Xenon headlamps

Optical rain sensors

Optical telemeters

3.4.8. Diffractive Micro-Optics

DOEs (Diffractive Optical Elements or Diffraction Optical Elements) are optical

components which have microscopic structures no larger than the thickness of a hair.

The microscopic structures diffract an incident laser

beam to produce the required light pattern.

Figure 25: Diffracted micro-optics

They have the advantage of combining several optical functions in single component. In
addition, they are so small and light that they can be produced on thin and flexible
materials.

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What are the applications of DOEs?

Table 1: Applications of DOEs

They can be used for a large number of different applications. Some examples:

projecting a line to measure a height

converting a single laser beam into a square grid or a range of beams

a CD or DVD read head with a DOE (on the left) is much lighter and more compact
than conventional heads (on the right)

projecting a logo

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3.5. LIGHTING EFFECTS

3.5.1. Lighting effects – playing with light

Playing means being active or manipulating what already

exists to obtain the most extreme possibilities from it. This
requires and also encourages the creative spirit and the
desire to discover things, understand them, modify them
and create them.

Figure 26: Playing with light

Lighting effects encourage us to play with light and its

effects in a carefree way, and we often discover
phenomena which are surprising and pleasant to look at.

3.5.2. Light – essential for sight

The sunlight, the twinkling of the stars, the warm glow of a

candle, the dazzling light of a car headlamp and the very
precise beam of a laser - all these forms of light are
energy flows charged with information.

In the light, energy becomes visible, just as it can be felt in

heat and heard in sound.

Figure 27: Light – essential for sight

But how can light project the image of objects on the

retina of the eye or on a projection wall?

To find the answer we must imagine that light is a beam of

straight rays rather like a ray of sunlight passing through
an opening in the leafy canopy of a forest and being
projected on the ground. When such a beam of light
passes through a hole, it projects an image on the
opposite surface or wall.

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3.5.3. The more light there is, the darker the shadow

Behind every shadow there is light. The shadows are all

holes in the light, projected by impenetrable objects.

Leonardo da Vinci already knew that "shadows reveal the

shape of bodies": in the light, they project their silhouettes
in the form of shadows on the wall, and are thus a source
and inspiration for painting and photography.

Figure 28: Where there is light there is shadow

However, shadows sometimes have a life of their own and

put the original object literally "in the shadow". The
shadows then allow the imagination to run free...

3.5.4. The mirror – images or mirages?

Behind the mirror, the world seems to exist a second time

– in reverse.

But we very soon learn not to

believe this trickery: there is
no one on the other side of
the mirror, we are seeing our
own image.

Figure 29: The mirror's reflection

Mirrors are to be found everywhere: the polished surface of a shop window in which we
look at ourselves, the lake on whose reflective surface we are dazzled by the sun: in fact
all smooth surfaces reflect light rays in a regular and ordered way and produce the
appearance of a reversed world.

3.5.5. Dispersal of light

Light can pass through water and glass – but not completely, and not in the same manner.
This explains why light sometimes appears to be distorted and the ray of light seems to be
dispersed (broken up) - for example when it falls on a glass filled with water.

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This "light dispersal" phenomenon is called refraction. It

happens each time light passes from one medium to
another, from air to water in our example.

Figure 30: Dispersal of light

Refraction also explains that drops of water focus light at

a point. All around this point there is no light. That is why
drops of water project a shadow although they are
transparent.

3.5.6. Glass and light improve vision

A magnifying glass, spectacles, binoculars, a microscope

- all operate using the light refraction principle. This is
because they all contain glass lenses which refract the
light in a way which allows us to see thing much bigger, or
sometimes much smaller than they really are.

This is possible due to the

shape of the lenses, their
rounded (convex) surface
deviates the light rays
making them converge.

Figure 31: Glass and light for

vision

A drop of water also acts like a magnifying lens.

A convex lens focuses the parallel light rays to a point called the focal point. However, with
other lenses which disperse the light, everything seems smaller. In optical instruments the
lenses are combined to produce the desired effect.

3.5.7. The magic of curved mirrors

Everyone has already had fun looking at themselves in a distorting mirror at the fairground.

The mirror's curved surface sends back a distorted image, so we see ourselves to be very
small, very tall, very fat or very thin.

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Conversely, a curved mirror can straighten something which is distorted. For example,
there are cups with a mirrored surface and their saucer shows a distorted image. The
curved mirror on the cup straightens the image of the saucer, and reflects it perfectly on
the cup as if it was painted on it.

Figure 32: Curved mirrors

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3.6. LIGHT AND COLOUR

Daylight appears white to us, but in fact this white is a synthesis of the colours it is made
up of (the colours of the rainbow – among others). Each colour has its own wavelength (its
frequency) which also represents a temperature… Everything is linked, and to (try to)
reproduce daylight with out artificial lighting (lamps) we have to use all the properties to
obtain an appropriate "illumination".

3.6.1. Light among the other "waves"

Figure 33: Light is only a small part of the wavelengths

Light is the part of the electromagnetic radiation visible by the human eye (380-780 nm)

3.6.2. The origin of colours

3.6.2.1. Composition of white light

Sunlight is a white light consisting of all the visible wavelengths.

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This composition represents the spectrum.

Each wavelength corresponds to a certain colour of radiation.

Figure 34: Composition of white light

3.6.2.2. Additive synthesis

Unlike diffraction, white light can be "recreated" with a "composition" of colours

Figure 35: White light = composed light

Mixing equal proportions of the 3 primary colours (blue, green, red) creates white light.
Other colours can be obtained by superimposing coloured beams projected on a white
screen.

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3.6.3. Light - Matter interaction

3.6.3.1. Refraction

Index of the medium n = sin i x sin r

i = angle of the incident ray

r = angle of the reflected ray

When a light ray passes from one medium to

another it is deviated (the propagation speed is
modified)

Figure 36: Refraction of light

3.6.3.2. Atmospheric colours

When the sun is at its zenith, the

light rays pass vertically through
the atmosphere

When the sun is on the horizon, the

rays are longer and the
atmospheric layer to be passed
through is greater: it is above all
the high wavelengths which are
refracted (warm colours)

Figure 37: The "natural" colours

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The blue colour of the

sky is due to the fact
that the short waves of
the solar light are highly
refracted by the
molecules of gas in the
atmosphere.
The rainbow is due to
the refraction and
reflection of the solar
rays in raindrops.

Figure 38: The rainbow

The appearance of a rainbow depends on the observer's angle of view.

3.6.3.3. Transmission – absorption – reflection

Figure 39: Transmission – Absorption – Reflection

The sum of the energies transmitted, absorbed and reflected is equal to the incident
energy.

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3.6.3.4. Colour of objects

We only see coloured surfaces because they are capable of selectively emitting or re-
emitting certain wavelengths of the incident light.

A white source reflects the "true" colours, a coloured source will render the colours totally
different.

Figure 40: The colours we see

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3.6.3.5. Subtractive synthesis

The painter's primary colours (just like those of a photocopier) are red (magenta), blue
(cyan) and yellow.

When coloured substances are mixed, we talk about subtractive synthesis. The pigments
absorb part of the light radiation.

Mixing two pigments means getting one to absorb what the other sends back.

3.6.4. Visual perception

3.6.4.1. Visual system

Visual perception starts in the eye but takes form in the brain: the optical elements of the
eye produce a retinal image and the retina converts the light received into a series of
stimulations capable of being processed by the brain.

Retina cells:

cones: react to high illumination levels, detail vision and colour sensitive (red,
green, blue);

rods: insensitive to colour, react to low illumination levels.

Figure 41: The mechanism of the eye

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3.6.4.2. Sensitivity of the human eye

In reality, there are two response curves, one for high illuminations (called "photoptic"), the
other for low illuminations (called "scotoptic").

Photoptic vision is day vision, as opposed to scotoptic vision which is night vision.
Photoptic vision is mainly produced by the cones on the retina of the eye.

The eye's sensitivity to photoptic vision is not the same for all wavelengths. The eye's
maximum sensitivity is obtained for a wavelength of 555 nanometres.

The eye's scotopic vision sensitivity is not the same for all wavelengths. The maximum
sensitivity is obtained for a wavelength of 507 nanometres

Figure 42: Relative luminous efficiency

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3.6.4.3. Colour contrast

A colour is always perceived with respect

to the other colours present in the field of
vision. Two colours placed side by side
tend to be perceived differently than if they
were seen separately.

Figure 43: Perception with colour contrast

In the figure, the green at the centre seems

brighter on the left than on the right, and
the grey seems darker on the right than on
the left.

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4. LIGHTING LAMPS – CRITERIA

Now that we have seen that there are many technological applications of light, and many
still to be discovered, let us return to our basic use of light which is to "make artificial light"
with lighting lamps.

4.1. CHOICE OF THE TYPE OF LAMP

Figure 44: The vast array of lamps on the market

4.1.1. General lighting

In tertiary sector buildings (i.e. our offices), the fluorescent tube is most often
recommended, due to:

its high energy efficiency,

its very good colour rendering,

its long lifetime,

its low investment cost.

Figure 45: General lighting by fluorescent tubes

Example of investment and running cost calculation.

Here is the cost of the different lamps which can be used in hospitals. These costs are
initially based on a manufacturer's price list. They cover the purchase cost of the lamps
and the energy consumption cost (0.11 €/kWh in 2004) for supplying 10,000 lm approx. for
20,000 hours.
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It does not include:

the cost of the luminaires (also known as light fittings),

the efficiency of the luminaire,

nor the additional loss of light efficiency due to the ballast in lm/W (W = lamp
power + ballast loss).

Compact
Fluorescent
Lamp type Incandescent Halogen fluorescent Metal halide
tube
tube
Energy efficiency
13 16 87 60 75
(lm/W), including auxiliaries

Installed power (W) 8 x 100 6 x 100 4 x 36 9 x 20 2 x 70

Lifetime (h) 1,000 2,000 16,000 10,000 10,000

Unit cost of the lamps (€)

1 6 5.3 13 73
in 2004

160 360 27 234 292

Purchase cost (€)
(160 lamps) (60 lamps) (5 lamps) (18 lamps) (4 lamps)

Consumption cost (€) 1,760 1,320 316 396 308

Total cost in 2004 in Europe

1,920 1,680 343 630 600
(€)

Table 2: Example cost calculation

Note:

The values used in the table are rather theoretical... For equal-sized rooms, the uniformity
obtained with two 70 W metal halide lamps is much less than that of four 36 W fluorescent
lamps.

Given their many advantages, luminaires equipped with fluorescent lamps should
therefore often be used in preference.

4.1.2. Localised lighting

When localised lighting is required, the compact fluorescent lamp is much more
preferable to the conventional incandescent lamp or to the halogen lamp. In
spite of its high price, the compact fluorescent lamp provides a saving of
between 20 and 125 euros per lamp (depending on the installed power) over
10,000 hours compared to an incandescent lamp.

Figure 46: Localised lighting – compact fluorescent lamp

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4.1.3. Indirect decorative lighting

The low power metal halide vapour lamp (35 to 150 W) is compact and its light
can be easily focused. If a high luminous flux per unit is required, it is an efficient
alternative to the incandescent lamp and the halogen lamp for decorative
lighting, e.g. in reception halls and exhibition rooms. Indirect luminaires equipped
with medium power metal halide vapour lamps (150 W, 250 W) give a 70 %
energy saving compared to halogen lamps

Figure 47: Indirect or decorative lighting – metal halide lamp

Etc., Depending on the location, the premises, the investment you wish to make, you have
to choose the type of lamp to use; then a specific type of luminaire (adapted to the lamp)
should be automatically chosen.

4.1.4. Lifetime of a lamp

The average lifetime of a batch of lamps is the number of hours during which these lamps
have functioned until the moment when 50 % of them no longer work.

The useful life of a batch of lamps is the number of hours after which they emit no more
than 80 % of the original luminous flux.

The loss of 20 % of the luminous flux is due to the gradual reduction in the flux of the
lamps and the fact that a certain number of lamps no longer work.

It also corresponds to the service life, i.e. the time after which the lamps must be replaced

See the lifetime curves (for each type of lamp) in the manufacturers' catalogues. In their
catalogues the manufacturers use either the average lifetimes, or the useful lives (less
than the average lifetimes). Whatever the definition used, we must be conscious that this
data is determined in specific conditions which are often different from actual operating
conditions (e.g.: different switch-on/switch-off cycles). They are thus only an indication and
cannot be considered to be absolute.

Important: some manufacturers (mainly American) use another definition of a lamp's

lifetime: it is the time measured until the lamp is no longer working. Therefore, American
lamps seem to have a lifetime 2 to 3 times longer than that of European lamps. This is
obviously not the case in reality

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4.2. PHOTOMETRIC VALUES – DEFINITIONS

Like any scientific or technical discipline, lighting technology has its own terminology.
Special terms and concepts are used to define the characteristics of the lamps and
luminaires and to standardise the units of measurement. The most important of these are
given below.

4.2.1. Light and radiation

Light means the electromagnetic radiation which the human eye perceives as brightness,
in other words it is the part of the spectrum which is visible. It is the radiation between 360
and 780 nm, that is to say a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum as we
know it.

4.2.2. Luminous flux- F

It is the luminous power emitted by a lamp, expressed in

lumens (lm).

Figure 48: Luminous flux

All the irradiated power emitted by a light source and perceived by the eye is called
luminous flux F. It is used to compare the light efficiency of different lamps, expressed in
lumens emitted per Watt of electric power consumption (lm/W).

4.2.3. Luminous intensity - I

It is the quantity of luminous flux emitted in a

particular direction, which is identified by "I" and is
expressed in candelas (cd).

It is used to characterise luminaires by indicating on a

graph their luminous intensity in the different directions
(for a light source of 1,000 lm).

Figure 49: Luminous intensity - I

We can say that a light source emits its luminous flux F

in different directions and at different intensities.

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4.2.4. Luminance - L

It is the "brightness" of an illuminated surface or a light source as perceived by the

human eye, expressed in candelas per m² (cd/m²).

The luminance L of a light source or of an illuminated zone expresses how the impression
of clarity is rendered in the brain (by the eye).

4.2.5. Illumination - E

It is the amount of luminous flux illuminating a surface,

expressed in lumens per m² or lux.

Figure 50: Illumination – the Lux

The illumination E is the ratio between the luminous flux and the zone to be illuminated. An
illumination of 1 lx is created when a luminous flux of 1 lm is distributed equally over a
zone of 1 metre square.

The luminance is the most representative value of the quality of the lighting. The human
eye perceives the reflected light. However, in practice, since this is difficult to measure it is
the illumination representing the incident light which will be considered.

4.2.6. Luminous efficiency of lamps

The energy quality of a lamp is evaluated by its luminous efficiency (in lm/W) defined as
the ratio of the luminous flux (in lumens) divided by the absorbed electric power (in Watts).

From the suppliers' catalogues it is possible to know the exact luminous efficiency of a
lamp.

Important: the luminous efficiency depends on the ambient temperature around the lamp
in a stable situation. A T8 fluorescent lamp (26 mm in diameter) has a maximum luminous
efficiency at an ambient temperature of 25°C whereas a T5 fluorescent lamp (16 mm in
diameter) reaches its optimum value at 35°C. If the lamps are not operated at their ideal
temperatures, the luminous flux values fall sharply.

Example: here is an extract from an existing catalogue (for fluorescent tubes). We can
see that the first lamp has a luminous flux of 1,000 lm for a power of 15 W, which is
equivalent to a luminous efficiency of 1,000 lm / 15 W = 67 lm/W.

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Arc
Current Luminous
Type Watts Colour K CRI voltage Base Diam
A flux lm
V
TL'D 15 W 82 2,650 85 51 0.34 1,000 G13 28

- 83 3,000 85 51 0.34 1,000 - -

- 84 4,000 85 51 0.34 1,000 - -

TL'D 18 W 82 2,650 85 59 0.37 1,350 G13 28

- 83 3,000 85 59 0.37 1,350 - -

- 84 4,000 85 59 0.37 1,350 - -

- 86 6,500 85 59 0.37 1,300 - -

Table 3: Luminous efficiency (fluorescent tubes)

4.2.7. Colour temperature - K

(Expressed in Kelvins (K)):

The colour temperature of a light source is

defined by comparison with a "black body
radiator" marked on what is called the
"Planckian curve". The higher the
temperature of this "radiating black body",
the greater the spectrum's blue
component and the smaller the red
component. An incandescent lamp
emitting warm white light, for example, at
a colour temperature of 2700 K whereas
that of a daylight fluorescent lamp has a
colour temperature of 6000 K.

Figure 51: Diagram of chromatic

coordinates

This represents the colour of the light emitted by a lamp. We generally talk about warm
colour (colour temperature < 3000 K) or cold colour (colour temperature > 3000 K). The
apparent colour of the source has pleasant or unpleasant psychological effects but has no
effect on visual performance (see colour of light below).

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Illumination of 300 lux Illumination of 300 lux

warm colour cold colour

Table 4: Colour rendering temperature

4.2.8. Colour of light

The colour of the light of a lamp can be

defined in terms of colour temperature.

There are three main categories:

Warm < 3300 k

Cool white: between 3300 and

5000 K

Daylight: > 5000 K

Figure 52: Chromaticity diagram with

the Planckian curve

4.2.9. Colour rendering

Although they have the same colour of

light, lamps can have different colour
rendering properties with regard to the
composition of their light spectrum.

Figure 53: Light spectrum of a

fluorescent lamp

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The radiation is distributed equally over the whole visible spectrum. As a general rule,
artificial light should allow the human eye to perceive colours correctly, just as it would in
daylight. This obviously depends to some extent on where the light is needed and on the
desired result. Here, the criterion is a light source's colour rendering property. It is
expressed by a "general colour rendering index" (Ra or CRI). The colour rendering index is
the measurement which expresses the correspondence between an object's colour (its
"self-luminous colour") and its aspect under a reference light source.

To determine the Ra values, eight defined test colours are illuminated by the reference
light source and the tested light source. The smaller the divergence, the better the colour
rendering property of the lamp tested. A light source with Ra value of 100 renders the
colours in exactly the same way as they appear under the reference light source. The
lower the Ra value, the less good the colour rendering.

To summarise, the colour rendering index (CRI or Ra): is the capacity of a lamp to
correctly reproduce the colours present in the environment (walls of the room or premises,
objects, persons, posters, etc.). The CRI is between 0 and 100, 100 is the CRI of natural
light which reproduces all the colour tones and 0 is the absence of recognisable colour. A
difference of 5 points will be perceptible to the human eye.

And the CRI classes are defined according to the CRI range

Under natural lighting

Under a sodium vapour lamp Ra = 25.
Ra = 100.

CRI range Perception of colours

Ra < 25 poor
25 < Ra < 65 average
65 < Ra < 90 good
90 < Ra high
CRI class CRI
1A Ra > 90
1B 90 > CRI > 80
2 80 > CRI > 60
3 60 > CRI > 40

Table 5: Colour rendering index

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4.2.10. Optical efficiency

Optical efficiency (which is known as "light production rate") is an important criteria for
judging a luminaire's efficiency. It is the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by the luminaire
and the luminous flux of the lamp (or lamps) installed in the luminaire.

4.3. LIGHTING IN THE HOME

Lighting applications are used in the industrial sector so it is quite natural that they are also
to be found in the home, this allows us not only to change lamps but also to choose and
install luminaires and lighting appliances. So let us take a look at lighting applications in
the home.

The lighting is an important part of an installation from the aesthetic and decorative
viewpoint. It is used to enhance an interior and to have a good quality of visual comfort if it
is well designed. There are different lighting methods (see figure):

direct

indirect

diffused

mixed

All these possibilities enable you to choose a lighting style. The luminaires will be located
either on the ceiling or on the walls with the desired lighting method. The standard requires
at least one ceiling luminaire in certain rooms (bedrooms, lounge, kitchen).

If this is technically impossible, or during renovations, it is admissible to replace the ceiling

luminaire by two wall luminaires or two controlled socket-outlets. In the other rooms, the
choice between ceiling or wall luminaires is not regulated. The standard also requires a
minimum of one lighting point at the exterior at each entrance (main or service entrance).

For wall-mounted luminaires, choose their locations carefully. Do not install them too low
down (1.80 m approx.), nor behind a door or in a corridor which is too narrow.

Important: there are strict rules for installing luminaires in bathrooms, kitchens and
basements. See course SE210 on domestic distribution.

The required control method must also be chosen for these luminaires. A single control
point (switch), two control points (three-way switch)), three points or more (remote control
switch). You can also choose a dimmer system with one or more control points (dimmer,
remote control dimmer).

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Direct lighting

The luminous flux is aimed directly at the

surface to be lit. It is used to highlight an object
(table, statue, etc.) or to light a work surface
(desk lamp). It corresponds to the lighting
produced by spotlights and ceiling lights with
nontranslucent reflectors.

Indirect lighting

The luminous flux is directed towards the

ceiling which reflects the light (the lighter the
ceiling, the better the result). There are many
wall luminaires available on the market which
give this type of lighting.

Diffused lighting

The luminaire diffuses its light over 180 or 360

degrees. It is used to light the whole room. The
bulb is generally placed in a lighting glass or
left uncovered if it is decorative. This is the
case of the centre light or the fluorescent tube.

Mixed lighting

It combines the three other lighting methods in

a single luminaire This is the case of the
bedside lamp or table lamp.

Table 6: The different types of lighting in the home

The locations of the controls for these lamps are important. For living rooms and bedrooms
they are normally placed in easily accessible location on the right when entering, or
outside the room, i.e. at a height between 0.8 and 1.3 m (1.10 m is a the normally used

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solution adapted to most cases). For the bathroom and the toilet, it is normally placed
inside. In a bedroom we can have a control at the head of the bed. In an entrance hall, the
control should be placed as close as possible to the access door.

A large corridor or a staircase will require several control points to be able to switch the
light on or off at the entrance to each room. The standard specifies that corridors and
passageways must be able to be lit by a control, without a luminous indicator, placed at
least one metre from each access. The controls with luminous indicators can be placed up
to 2 m from each access. The controls can be replaced by automatic presence detection
systems.

The access to the basement or to the garage requires an three-way switch at the
minimum, i.e. giving two control points.

After determining the locations of the lighting points, choose the type of lamp adapted to
each situation. See later on in this document

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5. THE DIFFERENT LAMPS

5.1. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

There are only two types of lighting, both with natural light and artificial light

Lighting by thermal emission, incandescence

Lighting by luminescence

And that is all! The different "variations" are only "derivatives" of these two types

Just as in Europe, there are only two lamps manufacturers: Philips and Osram, the others
are only subproducts. The third (major) manufacturer is in America, it is GEL (General
Electric Lighting).

INCANDESCENCE LUMINESCENCE
Thermal emission Emission by luminescence or illumination

Photoluminescence

Luminescence of vapours and This is a specific phenomenon of

Incandescence is the production
of gases luminescence shown by certain
of light by increasing the
substances which, when
temperature of a material in solid,
Emission of light without subjected to radiation, emit a
liquid or gaseous state.
incandescence by a source radiation with a different
subjected to a thermal excitation frequency in all directions.
In incandescent lamps, the
(thermoluminescence), chemical
filament (generally made of
excitation (chemiluminescence), It is associated with
tungsten) is raised to a high
or electric excitation phosphorescence: the
temperature in a vacuum or in a
(electroluminescence). luminescence of certain chemical
gas atmosphere.
substances which persists after
High and low pressure discharge the excitation which caused it is
The thermal radiation emits a
lamps are based on thermal removed.
continuous visible light spectrum.
excitation.
Emission of cold light by the
organs of certain animals.

Table 7: Artificial lighting – the light sources

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Artificial lighting applications with the following types of lamps:

Incandescent Halogen Mixed

Incandescent + discharge = no
Filament lamp Halogen = Incandescent
ballast
Discharge Fluorescent LED

"Balloon" lamps and halogen Tubes and compact fluorescent

Electroluminescence
lamps lamps

Table 8: Artificial lighting applications

5.2. INCANDESCENT LAMPS

Table 9: Some incandescent lamps

5.2.1. How an incandescent lamp works

The electric current flows through the filament and heats it to a high
temperature by the Joule effect. The filament becomes incandescent: it
emits light and heat. The lamp is filled with a vacuum to prevent the
filament from burning.
Figure 54: Filament of an incandescent lamp

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5.2.2. General characteristics

Luminous Luminous Colour Average Gross price

Power (W) flux efficiency CRI T° lifetime (excluding VAT) in €
(lm) (lm/W) (K) (h) (in 2004)

For a standard incandescent lamp (clear finish)

25 220 9 0.7
40 425 11 0.7
60 720 12 0.7
75 950 13 0.9
100 1,360 14 100 2,700 1,000 1
150 2,200 15 1.7
200 3,100 16 2.6
300 5,000 17 17
500 8,400 17 17

Table 10: General characteristics of a standard clear incandescent lamp

The luminous flux of incandescent lamps can be reduced or increased by varying the
voltage (dimming). However, this modulation also reduces the colour temperature and
luminous efficiency.

The lifetime of the lamps greatly depends on the operating voltage: a 40 W lamp supplied
at 220 V has a lifetime of 2,000 h, whereas at 230 V, its lifetime is only 1,000 h.

5.3. HALOGEN LAMPS

Table 11: Some halogen lamps

In chemistry, "halogen" is the name of a family of four main elements: fluorine, chlorine, le
bromine, and iodine

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5.3.1. How a halogen lamp works

As in a conventional incandescent lamp, an electric current flows through a tungsten

filament. The current flow results in the emission of light (and heat). However, the glass
bulb is filled with a halogen gas which allows the tungsten particles to be redeposited on
the filament after volatilisation and thus prevents the bulb from blackening.

This chemical recomposition gives the lamp a longer lifetime than a conventional
incandescent lamp (2,000 hours instead of 800 on average).

The lamp requires a high wall temperature (200 to 600°C) to operate correctly, this is why
a quartz bulb is used.

The higher filament temperature gives more light for the same energy consumption.

5.3.2. Improvements over the centuries

A great deal of progress has been made since Thomas Edison's bulbs at the Universal
Exhibition in 1881, whose carbon filaments emitted a dim orange light with difficulty. First
of all, the filament: in most lamps, it is made of tungsten, a metal which supports very high
temperatures (over 3,410°C). So the filament can be heated to over 2,900°C and a bright
light can be obtained. The problem is that the incandescence causes the metal to
evaporate, and thus the filament to break prematurely. In addition, the evaporated metal is
deposited on the glass of the bulb, thus reducing its transparency.

In the 30s, the bulbs were filled with an inert gas (argon or krypton), which limited this
evaporation. This technique is still used in conventional light bulbs. In 1958, a solution was
finally found to reduce filament wear: halogen gases (from halos, meaning salts), such as
iodine or methyl bromide. These gases capture and liberate the tungsten atoms which
detach from the filament

5.3.3. General characteristics

The halogen lamp operates either at low voltage or at mains voltage (230 V).

The first must be connected using a transformer.

The second is directly connected to the mains and generally has a screw base.

It can directly replace an incandescent lamp.

Compared to the lamp operating at "mains voltage", a low voltage lamp has a higher
energy efficiency, but its equipment is more restricting (transformer required) and in the
case of dimming, the dimmer is more complicated...

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Luminous Luminous Average Gross price

Colour T°
Power (W) flux efficiency IRC lifetime (excluding VAT) (€)
(K)
(lm) (lm/W) (h) in 2004
For a mains voltage halogen lamp (clear finish)
40 500 13 7.4
60 840 14 6
100 1,600 16 7.4
150 2,550 17 100 3,000 2,000 6
500 10,250 21 29
1,000 24,000 24 34
2,000 50,000 25 50

Table 12: General characteristics of a clear halogen lamp - mains voltage

The luminous flux can be dimmed by varying the supply voltage.

At its rated voltage, the halogen lamp does not blacken over time. There is therefore no
reduction in luminous flux with age.

However, operating halogen lamps at low voltage does cause the

bulb to blacken. To solve this problem, it is recommended to
operate the lamps at their rated voltage from time to time to re-
establish the halogen cycle.

Figure 55: Halogen lamp - operation

All incandescent light sources produce visible waves, but they

also produce infrared waves which can create problems when
lighting foodstuffs or fragile fabrics. The dichromatic reflector can
select the various light waves and only reflect those waves which
are in the visible spectrum.

However, infrared waves are filtered by the reflector. A lamp with

a dichromatic reflector thus sends the infrared waves rearwards.

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5.3.4. Important: fragile

To increase the brightness even

more, the diameter of the
filament must be reduced. But
beyond a few tenths of a
millimetre, it breaks. Twisted
filaments are therefore used.

Figure 56: Halogen lamp –

highly fragile

There remains the problem of

the bulb wall: the glass cannot
withstand such temperatures.

The bulb is therefore made of quartz, a more heat resistant but also more fragile material.
That is why you should never touch the bulb with your fingers: the fine layer of grease
deposited on the surface will burn when the lamp is switched on. Result: an opaque layer
which reduces the brightness, and localised overheating which can burst the bulb.

When it is heated to incandescence, the filament loses its tungsten atoms. When these
atoms reach the colder wall of the bulb they are captured by the halogen atoms flowing
inside the bulb. When this assembly again nears the filament, it is broken down and
liberates the tungsten atoms which are redeposited on the filament.

However, this process is not eternal: the atoms are redeposited in a random way and the
filament therefore becomes thinner in some places and thicker in others. The thin zones
finally break one day or another.

Tip: place a dimmer (voltage regulator) on the power supply of the halogen lamps. When
the lamps are first switched on, start at the minimum and slowly increase the voltage, this
will prevent thermal shocks which blow the halogen bulbs when we "switch on the juice"
(220 V) directly. Using this system, I have only replaced one halogen bulb in my home
over the last 12 years (since I installed dimmers); And it also reduces energy
consumption…

5.3.5. Harmful radiation

Since the temperature of halogen lamps is higher than that of conventional lamps, the
emission spectrum is offset towards the blue. So the light emitted is "whiter" than
incandescent lamps. It therefore renders colours better but also emits ultraviolet rays
which are harmful for the skin.

This is why most halogen lamps have a glass cover which filters the UV rays (this glass or
plastic cover also prevents people touching the bulb, see previous paragraph).
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5.3.6. Lamp with a high electricity consumption

The disadvantage of halogen lamps is that they are big energy consumers. Whereas
conventional bulbs consume between 25 and 100 Watts, halogen bulbs often reach 500
Watts. The lighting is certainly stronger but the consumer uses either of these bulbs for the
same purpose. To save energy, it is better to use compact fluorescent bulbs which will
reduce your bill by 80% and last more than 15,000 hours… And as for the LEDs, they are
more for decorative purpose and are not yet totally adequate for lighting...

5.4. FLUORESCENT TUBES

Table 13: Some fluorescent lamps

5.4.1. How a fluorescent tube works

Figure 57: The conventional fluorescent tube

Fluorescent lamps belong to the family of discharge lamps. They operate by the discharge
of an electric current in a gas atmosphere.

Fluorescent lamps use mercury vapour at low pressure.

Mercury vapour gives a colour close to white by illumination, but if you use fluorine vapour
you will get a green colour and if you use neon gas you will get a red colour. In a discharge
lamp it is the gas which give the light its colour (fluorescent tubes also fall into this
category).
When the tube is switched on, the two tungsten electrodes emit electrons. During their
journey through the tube, these electrons collide with the mercury atoms. This releases
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energy in the form of invisible ultraviolet radiation. This radiation is absorbed by the
fluorescent layer on the inner face of the tube and converted into visible radiation.

The chemical composition of the fluorescent layer inside the tube affects the colour of the
light emitted and the lamp's colour rendering index.

Like all discharge lamps, in order to operate correctly the fluorescent tube needs a starter,
a ballast and a capacitor to compensate the poor cos ϕ. (See below).These 3 components
can be replaced by a single electronic ballast.

5.4.2. General characteristics

Luminous
efficiency
Luminous Colour Average Gross price
Power (not Useful life
flux CRI T° lifetime excluding VAT
(W) including (h)
(lm) (K) (h) (€) in 2004
the ballast)
(lm/W)
Diameter 26 mm, class 1B (CRI, see "General" above)

18 1,350 75 10,000 14,000 5.25

2,700,
80 or or
3,000,
36 3,350 93 to 16,000 18,000 5.25
4,000,
90 (electronic (electronic
58 5,200 90 6,5001 6.6
ballast) ballast)
1
the luminous flux is slightly lower for K = 6,500.

Diameter 26 mm, class 2

18 1,100 64 2.3
60
2,900,
36 2,600 83 to 5,000 14,000 2.3
4,000
80
58 4,125 83 3.3

Diameter 16 mm, class 1B HE

at 25 °C at 35 °C

14 1,200 96 2,700, 7
3,000,
21 1,900 100 3,500, 7.4
85 16,000 18,000
4,000,
28 2,600 104 7.3
5,000,
35 3,300 104 6,500 8

Diameter 16 mm, class 1B HO

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at 25 °C at 35 °C

24 1,750 89 2,700, 7.6

3,000,
39 3,100 92 3,500, 9
85 16,000 18,000
4,000,
49 4,300 99 5,000, 8.7

54 4,450 93 6,500 8.7

80 6,150 88 11.5

Table 14: General fluorescent tube specifications

5.4.3. The different diameters

There are 3 main types of fluorescent tubes:

Figure 58: Fluorescent tube diameters

T12 or T38:
o diameter 38 mm, luminous efficiency = 40 to 65 lm/W;

T8 or T26:
o diameter 26 mm, luminous efficiency = 80 to 95 lm/W (at an ambient
temperature of 25°C);

T5 or T16:
o diameter 16 mm, luminous efficiency = 95 to 105 lm/W (at an ambient
temperature of 35°C).

5.4.4. Operating temperature

Low temperatures

The luminous flux and the luminous efficiency fall sharply when the ambient temperature
falls, to such an extent that some lamps do not light below 0°C.

Ambient temperatures

A great deal has been written about the energy revolution which the development of the T5
fluorescent tube brought compared to the T8 fluorescent tube. We think that the architects'
need for a new attractive design played a vital role in the development of the T5
fluorescent tube.

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Concerning luminaires, those equipped with the T5 are more

expensive but more attractive…

Figure 59: T5 tube or T8 tube?

There is a remaining point to be clarified!

That is to say, the comparison of the
energy efficiency of T5 tubes compared to
T8 tubes depends on the tube operating
temperature in its environment (i.e.
ambient temperature).

The graph clearly shows that the T5 lamp gives its maximum flux at
a temperature of 35 °C whereas the T8 lamp reaches it at 25 °C. It
is still too early to draw conclusions on this specific point of
comparison.

Figure 60: Comparison of the energy efficiency of the T5 and T8

5.4.5. Power and sizes

Common power
Lamp type Luminous flux Lengths
ratings
from 1,050 to
T12 20, 40, 65 W 59, 120, 150 cm
4,800 lm
from 1,350 to
T8 18, 36, 58 W 59, 120, 150 cm
5,200 lm
14, 21, 24, 28, 35, from 1,350 to 55, 85, 55, 115, 115,
T5
49, 54, 80 W 4,900 lm 145 cm

Table 15: Powers and sizes of the fluorescent tubes on the market

With the T8, lamps of different powers have different lengths and are therefore not
interchangeable.

With the T5, some lamps with different powers are of the same length, like for example the
14 and 24 W, the 28 and 35 W, and finally the 49, 54 and 80 W.

Important: even if the lamp sizes are identical a 54 W lamp cannot be replaced by a 49 W
lamp, for example, since the ballasts are specific to each lamp .

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5.4.6. Colour rendering index and colour temperature

The light of fluorescent tubes is often considered to be cold and relatively unpleasant. This
remark was true for the old generation tubes (CRI = 65) but is no longer true for the current
tubes (CRI > 85).

These have a wide colour temperature range and CRI. It is therefore possible to choose a
tube with characteristics very similar to incandescent lamps.

Examples:

Figure 61: Tube CRI (Ra) and colour T°

Correspondence between different makes (see the others in the catalogues) of fluorescent tubes

- - - OSRAM PHILIPS SYLVANIA (Osram)

- CRI CT Designation Ref Designation Ref Designation Ref

LUMILUX DE DELUXE DELUXE PLUS

3,000 K 930 930 930
LUXE Warm white Warm white Warm white
1A LUMILUX DE
Ra > DELUXE PLUS
4,000 K LUXE 940 DELUXE White 940 940
90 White
De luxe white
LUMILUX DE DELUXE
5,000 K 950 950 - -
LUXE Daylight Daylight
SUPER 80 Extra DELUXE
2,700 K - - 827 827
warm white Homelight
1B LUMILUX Warm SUPER 80 DELUXE Warm
3,000 K 830 830 830
89 > white Warm white white
Ra > LUMILUX De luxe SUPER 80
80 4,000 K 840 840 DELUXE White 840
white White
SUPER 80
6,500 K LUMILUX Daylight 860 865 DELUXE Daylight 860
Daylight

2,900 K Warm white 30 Warm white 29 Warm white 129

2
79 >
Ra > 4,000 K De luxe white 20 White 33 De luxe white 133
60
4,000 K Universal white 25 Universal white 25 Universal white 125

Table 16: Example of fluorescent tube specifications

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The three-figure designation (930 ... 865 for the "Ref" column) seems to become a
standard for all types of fluorescent lamps. The first figure indicates the colour rendering
class (9 = Ra > 90, 8 = 90 > Ra > 80, etc.). The last two figures represent the colour
temperature (30 = 3,000 K, ...).

The fluorescent tubes in the CRI = 2 range are also called "standard" fluorescent tubes,
the others are called "new generation" or even "triphosphorous" tubes".

The luminous efficiency of a fluorescent tube also

depends on its colour rendering index. A range of CRI lm/W
fluorescent lamps available on the market is given 62 (class 2) 79
below. We observe that the maximum luminous 85 (class 1B) 93
efficiency is obtained for a CRI of 85 (class 1B).
95 (class 1A) 61
98 (class 1A) 65
Table 17: Luminous efficiency according to CRI (Ra) 98 (class 1A) 61

In practice, we will choose:

Cold tones (Tc = 4,000 K) for work premises where the lamps are used during the
day, to supplement the natural light.

Warm tones for domestic and similar lighting.

Cold tones for high illuminations or in warm climates.

Very cold tones (colour temperature > 5,000 K), also called "daylight" in premises
with no windows. Since they are very similar to natural light they have a favourable
effect on the well-being of the occupants.

The simultaneous use of hot and cold tones should be avoided as it impairs the eye's
chromatic adaptation and creates visual disruptions. Thus, when the premises have a
large supply of natural light, the tendency would be to choose a higher colour temperature
to avoid too great differences between the artificial lighting and the natural lighting.

Choice of the light spectrum.

Fluorescent tubes are available with a very wide range of temperatures and colour
rendering, and also with a wide range of light spectrums. Even if errors are rare, the choice
should be checked to ensure it correctly corresponds to the lamp's application, based on
the information contained manufacturers' catalogues.

For example, there are lamps for the meat industry which are designed to accentuate the
red colour of the meat. The secretary would probably not be very pleased...

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5.4.7. Lifetime

The lifetime of fluorescent tubes depends on the

type of ballast used.

With an electronic ballast with preheated electrodes,

the useful life of 26 mm diameter tubes in class 1B
reaches 16,000 h approx. In the other cases
(electromagnetic or electronic ballast without
preheating) it is around 10,000 h (8,000 h for an
inductive setup and 12,000 h for a capacitive
assembly).

Figure 62: Lifetime of fluorescent tubes

In the last cases above, the number of times the tubes are switched on would also greatly
affect their lifetimes. The graph shows that a lamp switched on and off every 15 minutes
has a lifetime three times shorter than a lamp operating by 10 h periods. In the case of
preheated electronic ballast lamps, an increase in the number of times the lamp is
switched on has a much lower effect on the lifetime (loss of 0.02 h every time it is switched
on).

5.4.8. Dimming

To be able to modulate the luminous flux of the fluorescent tubes, they must be equipped
with dimmable electronic ballasts.

See the chapter/paragraph on ballasts and dimmers

5.5. COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS

Table 18: Some compact fluorescent lamps

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5.5.1. How a compact fluorescent lamp works

A compact fluorescent lamp operates like a fluorescent tube but the tube is folded to make
the lamp more compact. It is a "bent" and "compact" fluorescent tube .

There are a large number of compact fluorescent lamps available on the market.

5.5.2. How to find your way in the compact fluorescent lamp market (general)

There are two main types of compact fluorescent lamps available on the market:

The screw-base "energy saving" lamps are the most common on the retail market. They
tend to be lamps aimed at renovation or for replacing the incandescent lamp.

These economy PL lamps are low powered and all contain their own
electronics.

Figure 63: Screw-base compact fluorescent lamps

Pin-base compact fluorescent lamps (more professional) are

often used in downward facing luminaires equipped with high-
performance optics.

The ballast of these PL lamps is not incorporated in the lamp. The ballast
can be of the dimmable electronic type or not (4 pins) or the conventional
type (2 pins).

Figure 64: Pin-base compact fluorescent lamps

Some manufacturers innovate by presenting series of compact fluorescent

lamps which can be used in halogen luminaires (with a base adapted to the
pins of these lamps).

This type of lamp has not yet proved itself but seems interesting.

However, it is always better to be cautious before coming to a

conclusion about their luminous efficiency (lm/W).

Figure 65: Pin-base compact fluorescent lamps for halogen lamp

socket

The different models are summarised in the following table

The Philips reference is given second in the lamp's designation

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Base type and Number of

Designation Power (W) Ballast type
number of pins tubes
5
7 2 pins
Traditional
9 Type G23
TC (short type)
11
2
Master PL-S 2 and 4 5
pins
7 Electronic and 4 pins
9 dimmable electronic Type G27
11
18
Conventional or
24 electronic
TC-L (long type) 36 4 pins
2
40 Type 2G11
Master PL-L 4 pins Electronic and
55
dimmable electronic
80
13 and 18 2 pins
Traditional
26 Type GX24d-1 to 3
TC - T or TC – TE
18
3
Master PL-T 2 and 4 26 Electronic and 4 pins
pins dimmable electronic Type GX24q-1 to 5
32
42 and 57
10
2 pins
13 Type G24d-1 (10 – 13
Traditional
18 W) – G24d-2 (18 W) –
TC -D or TC – DE G24d-3 (26 W)
26
4
Master PL-C 2 or 4 10
pins 4 pins
13 Electronic and
Type G24q-1 / G24q-2
18 dimmable electronic
/ G24q-3
26
6
9
Screw base
Energy saving 12 Integrated electronics Variable
Type E14 or E27
16
20
Etc., other types and references are available on the market

Table 19: Some types of compact fluorescent lamps available on the market

Important note: Compact fluorescent lamps cannot be controlled by a dimmer (with the
reservation of new technologies now available…)
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5.5.3. General specifications

Gross price
Lamp Luminous Luminous Average
Colour T° Useful life (Excluding
power flux efficiency CRI lifetime
(K) (h) VAT)
(W) (lm) (lm/W) (h)
(€) in 2004
Screw-base lamp (1) (replacement for an incandescent lamp) with conventional ballast
9 350 39
13 550 42
80 2,700 10,000 +- 8
18 850 47
25 1,200 48
Screw-base lamp (1) (replacement for an incandescent lamp) with electronic ballast
5 240 48
7 400 57
11 600 55
80 2,700 15,000 +- 13
15 900 60
20 1,200 60
23 1,500 65
Pin-base lamp (2) (2 or 4 pins)
5 250 50
7 400 57 4,000 8,000 +- 3.5
2,700
80 5,000 13,000
9 600 67 3,000
(90) electronic electronic
11 900 82 4,000
ballast ballast
18 1,200 67 +- 9
(1)
The screw-base lamp contains either an electronic
ballast, or a conventional ballast and a starter. It
requires no other equipment and can thus directly
replace an incandescent lamp.

(2)
The 2-pin lamp contains a starter and a capacitor. It
is designed to operate with a conventional ballast.

The 4-pin lamp contains neither starter, nor capacitor. It

is designed to operate with an electronic ballast or
conventional equipment.

Table 20: General specifications of compact fluorescent lamps

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The advantages of the pin-base lamps are:

A wider choice of colour temperatures and of CRI.

The ability to keep the ballast (lifetime 30,000 h) when replacing the lamp (lifetime
8,000 h, or 13,000 h with electronic ballast).

The use of an electronic ballast means the lamp starts instantly, without flashing or warm-
up time.

Some compact fluorescent lamps are even more similar to fluorescent tubes and have
longer lifetimes: average lifetime of 10,000 h or 16,000 h (with electronic ballast) and
useful life of 5,000 h or 8,000 h (electronic ballast).

These lamps have been designed to be placed in line like fluorescent tubes but to provide
a greater luminous flux for a same size.

These are the only compact fluorescent lamps which exist in the class 1A range.

Pin-base lamp Lamps in a globe 4-tube lamps. 2-tube lamps.

Table 21: Compact fluorescent lamps

The luminous flux and the luminous efficiency of the compact fluorescent lamps fall very
sharply with the ambient temperature. To such an extent that some lamps do not light
below 0°C! It is therefore not recommended to use them out of doors. However, the lamps
encapsulated in a globe or the 4-tube lamps resist the cold better than the 2-tube lamps
because they retain the heat better.

They use the same technology as the fluorescent tubes and their lifetime depends on the
number of times they are switched on and the ballast used

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5.6. INDUCTION LAMPS

5.6.1. How an induction lamp works

The induction lamp is a low pressure mercury lamp like

the fluorescent tube and the compact fluorescent lamp.

As in the fluorescent lamp, the light is produced by

ionisation of the gas atoms present in the bulb. The
invisible radiation produced is rendered visible by a
fluorescent powder on the inner face of the bulb.

Figure 66: Induction lamp

There are no electrodes in an induction lamp.

The atoms are ionised by an electromagnetic field created by a high frequency current
flowing through a coil called an "antenna".

This coil is placed in the centre of the bulb, in the cavity designed for this purpose. The
high frequency current is produced by an external generator. It is directly connected to the
antenna.

5.6.2. General specifications

This lamp has an exceptionally long lifetime. After 60,000 hours the luminous flux falls to
70 % of the initial flux, and 20 % of the lamps are dead.

It is the fact that the antenna is placed outside the bulb which allows this exceptional
lifetime to be obtained. There is no wear on the components since the lamp contains
neither electrode nor filament.

Gross price
System Luminous Luminous Lifetime (h)
Colour T° (Excluding
power flux efficiency CRI (20 % mortality,
(K) VAT)
(W) (lm) (lm/W) 30 % drop in flux)
in € in 2004
55 3,500 65 80 2,700 130
85 6,000 70 80 3,000 60,000 130
165 12,000 70 80 4,000 230

Table 22: General specifications of induction lamps

Its colour characteristic is comparable to that of a class IB fluorescent lamp.

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Application: the induction lamp is used where maintenance is difficult or costly, and in
situations requiring long operating periods. (Exterior lighting).

5.7. DISCHARGE LAMPS

The term "discharge lamp" normally includes:

les high pressure

discharge lamps (high
pressure sodium lamps, with
metal halides or high
pressure mercury),

and low pressure sodium

lamps.

Figure 67: Some discharge lamps

Fluorescent tubes, compact fluorescent lamps and induction lamps are also discharge
lamps (the light is produced by an electrical discharge in a gas), but we normally use the
term "fluorescent lamps" for the first two types, and just "induction lamps" for the last type.

Therefore, in everyday language the term "discharge lamp" applies to the first two types of
lamps mentioned above.

5.7.1. Operating principle

The operating principle of a "discharge" lamp is identical to that of a fluorescent tube.

It works by the discharge of an electric current in a gas atmosphere.

The discharge takes place through a discharge tube which itself is in an empty bulb.

When the lamp is switched on, electrons are emitted by the two tungsten electrodes.
During their journey through the tube, they collide with the gas atoms.

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Figure 68: Principle of the discharge

lamp
1. Base
2. Electrodes
This results in energy being released
3. Discharge tube
either in the form of visible light, or in
4. Bulb
the form of invisible ultraviolet radiation
5. Fluorescent coating
(mainly for high pressure mercury
(where applicable)
lamps). The invisible ultraviolet
radiation is absorbed by the fluorescent
coating present on the inner face of the
lamp and converted into visible
radiation.

The lamps are high or low pressure lamps according to the pressure of the gas in the tube
or the bulb.

Discharge lamps need the following components in order to operate:

an igniter (the equivalent of

the starter for fluorescent a ballast, and a capacitor.
lamps),

Table 23: Additional components for the operation of a discharge lamp

These three components are necessary to:

reach the high starting voltage of the electric discharge in the ionised gas or in the
metal vapour for a short instant,

limit the current after starting, to prevent the lamp being destroyed,

keep the cos ϕ close to 1.

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5.7.2. Principal discharge lamps and their trade names

Sylvania
Lamp type / Makes * Philips Osram
(Osram)
Low pressure sodium SOX SOX SLP
SDW SHP
High pressure sodium NAV
SON SHX
HQL HSL
High pressure mercury HPL
HWL HSB
HPI HSI
HQI
Metal halides or iodides MHN/MHW MS
HCI
CDM MP
Induction: often used as exterior lighting
(like the others above) and thus also QL - -
classified here

Table 24: The principal discharge lamps

5.8. HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY LAMPS

5.8.1. How a high pressure mercury lamp works

The high pressure mercury lamp belongs to the

family of discharge lamps. Its operating principle
is therefore identical.

Figure 69: High pressure mercury vapour lamp

Specific features

The bulb contains mercury vapour and argon.

The light is exclusively emitted in the form of invisible ultraviolet rays which are rendered
visible by the fluorescent powder placed on the inner face of the bulb.

The high pressure mercury lamp has auxiliary electrodes which are used as an internal
starter. To operate correctly, it must therefore only be equipped with a ballast and a
capacitor.

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5.8.2. General specifications

including the ballast

Average lifetime

excluding VAT
Luminous flux

efficiency, not
Ballast power

Total power

Gross price

(€) in 2004
Luminous

Useful life
Colour T°
(lm/W)
Power

(lm)

CRI
(W)

(W)

(W)

(K)

(h)

(h)
50 8 58 1,800 36 7
80 10 90 3,600 45 7
from from
125 14 139 6,200 50 8,000 15,000 7
37 3,400
250 18 268 12,700 51 to to 16
to to
12,000 24,000
400 20 420 22,000 55 60 4,300 23
700 26 726 38,500 55 55
1,000 40 1,040 58,500 58 72

Table 25: General specifications of high pressure mercury lamps

The high pressure mercury vapour lamp is now outdated for several reasons: its luminous
efficiency and its colour rendering index are low. In addition, it has a relatively short
lifetime and it is not environment friendly.

There is also a high pressure mercury lamp available which gives a warmer light (3,400 -
3,500 K). Its has a slightly higher luminous efficiency.

This lamp was above all used for public lighting. It is currently only used to replace existing
lamps. It must be noted that there are high pressure sodium vapour lamps available which
are compatible with some high pressure mercury vapour lamp equipment and they are
directly interchangeable. In most cases the mercury vapour lamps are coupled with
electromagnetic ballasts

5.9. HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS

5.9.1. How a high pressure sodium lamp works

The sodium vapour lamp belongs to the family of discharge lamps. Its operating principle
is therefore identical.

For some lamps the igniter, conventional ballast and capacitor assembly can be replaced
by an electronic ballast.

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Figure 70: High pressure

sodium lamp

Specific features;

The discharge tube contains an amalgam of sodium with mercury and xenon as igniter
gas.

The light is mostly emitted in the form of visible radiation but a small part is emitted in the
form of invisible ultraviolet radiation. In the elliptical lamps we try to recover these rays by
coating the inner wall of the bulb with a powder which absorbs the UV rays and converts
them into visible rays. This powder gives the bulb an opal appearance.

5.9.2. General specifications

excluding VAT (€)

(not including the

efficiency (lm/W)
Including ballast

Average lifetime
Luminous flux

ballast) (lm/W)
Ballast power

Total power

Gross price
Luminous

Useful life
efficiency

Colour T°
luminous

in 2004
Power

(lm)

CRI
(W)

(W)

(W)

(K)

(h)
Standard sodium

70 11 81 6,600 94 81 32
100 14 114 10,500 105 92 39
150 16 166 16,500 110 99 25 2,000 16,000 25,000 42
250 26 276 32,000 128 115 42
400 29 429 55,000 138 128 55

"Comfort" or "de luxe" sodium

150 16 166 12,500 83 75 53
250 26 276 22,000 88 80 65 2,150 13,000 25,000 55
400 29 429 37,000 93 86 60
"White" sodium
35 6 41 1300 37 31 57
50 11 61 2,300 46 37.7 83 2,500 13,000 25,000 62
100 15 115 5,000 48 41.7 77

Table 26: General specifications of high pressure sodium lamps

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The standard high pressure sodium vapour lamps emit an orangey-yellow light at the
maximum sensitivity level of the eye. This light gives them a high luminous efficiency.

The clear (or powdered) finish high pressure

sodium lamps are recognisable by their white
ceramic arc tube.

Figure 71: Clear finish high pressure sodium lamp

There are two models of the high pressure sodium

lamp: the elliptical bulb model and the tubular
model.

In general, the first is used in luminaires with covers and/or bell-shaped luminaires
whereas the second is used in projectors.

These lamps operate with

the appropriate ballasts
and igniters. It is
recommended that
electronic ballasts be used
with these lamps.

Powdered finish elliptical Clear finish tubular Table 27: Clear ovoidal-
bulb model. model. shaped HP sodium lamp

When switched on, the rated luminous flux is only reached after 2 to 3 minutes. After it is
switched off or after a power cut they can only be restarted after the 5 to 10 minutes
necessary for them to cool.

Some specific models can be restarted immediately. These lamps cover the whole power
range. However, they must be used with the appropriate accessories: the igniter must
produce a very high voltage to allow this instant starting to take place.

They have a well-determined operating position.

There are also lamps with two burners. If there is a power cut the nominal flux is reached
only after 2 to 3 minutes since one of the tubes always remains cold because only one of
the two tubes lights each time the lamp is switched on.

The distribution of light produced by the lamp changes slightly according to the tube which
is in operation. These lamps are 80 to 90 % more expensive, however their lifetime is
twice as long, which makes them interesting for road lighting.

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Some high pressure sodium lamps can directly replace high pressure mercury lamps
without replacing the ballast.

These lamps, like the high pressure mercury lamps, have an integrated starter. The
luminous flux is increased from 30 to 55 % according to the unit power.

5.10. METAL HALIDE (OR IODIDE) LAMPS

Figure 72: Some metal iodide lamps

5.10.1. How a metal halide lamp works

The metal iodide lamp belongs to the family of discharge lamps. Its operating principle is
therefore identical.

For some lamps (certain powers, certain bases), the starter, conventional ballast and
capacitor assembly can be replaced by an electronic ballast

Specific features

The bulb contains high pressure mercury vapour to which metal halides have been added.
The metal iodides used differ according to the manufacturer (dysprosium, scandium,
sodium, thallium, indium, etc.). The colour temperature depends on the metal iodides
present.

The light is mostly emitted in the form of visible radiation but a small part is emitted in the
form of invisible ultraviolet radiation. In the elliptical lamps we try to recover these rays by
coating the inner wall of the bulb with a powder which absorbs the UV rays and converts
them into warm visible rays to obtain a warmer overall colour. This powder gives the bulb
an opal appearance.

Note

Some specific lamps have an integrated starter. They are therefore used without a
separate starter.

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5.10.2. General specifications

How to recognise them

High power ovoidal Transparent high Compact lamp (70 - Compact lamp (35 - Lamp (35 - 70 W),
lamp (250 - 400 W), power tubular lamp 150 W), equipped with 150 W), equipped equipped with a
equipped with: (250 - 2,000 W), a ceramic burner. with a ceramic ceramic burner and
- a quartz discharge equipped with: burner. standard base.
tube, - a quartz discharge
- a standard base. tube,
- a standard base.

Table 28: Different types of metal iodide / halide lamps

Light parameters

Gross price excluding

Luminous efficiency

Luminous efficiency
Luminous flux (lm)

(including ballast)
Ballast power (W)

(not including the

Lamp power (W)

Average lifetime

VAT (€) in 2004

ballast) (lm/W)

Useful life (h)

Colour T° (K)
Power (W)

(lm/W)

CRI

Standard (quartz discharge tube)

70 75 10.5 5,900 84 72 80 73
4,000
150 147 19 13,000 87 78 85 93
250 245 19.5 19,000 76 70 85 6,000 57
to 18,000
400 390 23 35,000 88 82 +/- 10,000 58
1,000 965 48 85,000 85 82 4,600 155
2,000 1,960 96 189,000 95 93 180
Ceramic burner
35 38 8 3,400 89 74 3,000
3,000
70 70 13 6,400 90 77 +/- or
4,200 6,000 10,000 60-100
85
3,000
150 147 17 14,000 95 87 or
4200

Table 29: Specifications of metal halide lamps

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Advantages and Disadvantages

They have a high luminous flux and a good efficiency.

For some applications (e.g. in offices), a UV protection is required. This protection can
either be at the level of the lamp, or at the level of the luminaire.

There are metal iodide lamps which can be used as a direct replacement for high pressure
sodium lamps. The bulb just has to be changed, there are no modifications to the ballast,
mount structure or wiring.

Depending on the type of halides used in the lamp, the electrical characteristics are
different, which means that not all these lamps are interchangeable.

Metal halide lamps are not stable over time. There are stabilising powders in the burner (or
arc tube) but the conventional burner is made of quartz and these powders escape, which
explains why the colour of these lamps can become blue or pink after a certain time.

Some manufacturers have replaced the quartz burner in metal halide lamps by a ceramic
burner of the same type as that used in high pressure sodium lamps. The lamp's colour is
then stable over time and, in addition, its luminous efficiency and its CRI are greatly
improved.

However, these lamps do not yet exist in the high power range (> 150 W).

They have a well-determined operating position.

When they are switched on, the nominal luminous flux is only reached after several
minutes, and when it is switched off it can only be restarted after around ten minutes.

When used with a hot-start electronic ballast for metal iodide lamps, if the lamp goes off it
restarts immediately. But these ballasts only exist for low powers.

Similarly, some specific models can be restarted immediately. These lamps cover the
whole power range. However, they must be used with the appropriate accessories: the
starter must produce a very high voltage to allow this instant starting to take place.

These lamps can explode, they must therefore be used with a protective lens except for
the special models which have an external teflon coating which protects them from
bursting and allows them to be used in open luminaires.

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5.11. LOW PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS

5.11.1. How a low pressure sodium lamp works

The low pressure sodium lamp belongs to the family of

discharge lamps. Its operating principle is therefore identical.

Figure 73: Low pressure sodium lamp (clear tubular)

The starter, conventional ballast and capacitor assembly can

be replaced by an electronic ballast.

Specific features

This lamp consists of a U-shaped discharge tube housed in an external bulb.

The discharge tube contains a mixture of sodium vapour and gases such as neon and
argon.

Most of the light is emitted in the form of visible radiation, its internal face is thus not
covered with a fluorescent powder layer.

5.11.2. General specifications

Luminous
Useful Gross
efficiency
Ballast Total Luminous life / price
Power (not Colour T°
power power flux CRI Average excl. VAT
(W) including (K)
(W) (W) (lm) life (€) in
the ballast)
(h) 2004
(lm/W)
35 9.2 44.2 4,550 130 37
55 19 74 7,800 142 40
10,000 /
90 21 111 13,000 144 - 1,800 49
18,000
135 22.5 157.5 20,800 154 61
180 32 212 32,500 180 82

Table 30: Specifications of low pressure sodium lamps

The standard low pressure sodium lamp emits a monochromatic orangey-yellow light at
the maximum sensitivity level of the eye.

This monochromatic light gives it the highest luminous efficiency of all the lamps. It is also
this characteristic which gives it a very low colour rendering index (CRI).

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It restarts immediately after a power cut.

It is mainly used for road an motorway lighting since it has a very high luminous efficiency
and since, in this case, colour rendering is not of prime importance.

5.12. MIXED LAMP

Let us consider a lamp which is both an

incandescent lamp and a discharge lamp.

You will no doubt have noticed that a discharge lamp

takes a certain time to light. We first see the starting
flashes, then (in a set of lamps) each lamp takes a
different length of time to "warm up", so the lighting
is progressive. When the power comes back on after
a power cut, this "warm-up time" restarts, some
lamps light immediately, others are slower to light.
Not all lamps have the appropriate electronic Osram mixed lamp
ballasts! HWL 500 W220/235 V

That is why in halls and gyms, for example, we

install a certain number of mixed lamps, since their
incandescent part relights immediately (but of course
with a lower power), until they build up power like the
other lamps. This prevents a blackout due to the
absence of lighting during the starting time. These
lamps are used less and less since the arrival of the
electronic ballast, and they consume more energy
due to the incandescent part.
Mazda MMF (or Philips ML) mixed
Figure 74: Mixed lamps lamp 100 to 500 W)

Description

Mercury vapour lamp with tungsten filament acting as an inductor, ovoidal with
internal powder coating.

Directly replaces incandescent lamps (no special control equipment necessary).

Good colour rendering.

No dimming possible.

Advantages for the user

Greater luminous flux and longer lifetime compared to incandescent lamps.

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Maintenance recommendations

To maintain the quality of the lighting installation it is recommended that all the
lamps (80, 100, 160 W) be replaced at the same time every 4,000 hours (5,000
hours for 250 and 500 W).

Protect the standard glass lamps (100, 160 and 250 W) from water splashes.

Installation / Operating positions:

100 and 160W: vertical, with base upwards or downwards +/- 30°

250 and 500W: vertical, with base upwards or downwards +/- 45°

Applications

Lighting for streets, squares, car parks, workshops, garages, halls, gyms (partially), etc.

Note: when this lamp is opal (ovoidal or tubular shaped) and has the same dimensions as
the ballast discharge lamps, it could be confused with these ballast discharge lamps.
Tip: the service voltage is indicated on the mixed lamp (220/230 V), there is no voltage
indication on the ballast lamps.

5.13. THE LED LAMP

LED stands for "Light Emitting Diode".

This paragraph describes light emitting diode lamps. LED technology and its applications
in signalling indicators and low-power illumination (< 1 W) are outside the field of lighting.

Grouping a certain number of LEDs in a "bulb" creates a light with a quite acceptable
luminous efficiency and power efficiency, and this can only improve in the future.

White LED lamp White LED lamps – IEC LED lamp – E27 screw The latest LED lamp
GU10 base (bayonet) base from Philips, the Master
LED for end 2008

Table 31: Some LED lamps

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5.13.1. Description

A conventional incandescent bulb provides light by heating a tungsten filament to a high

temperature. The luminous efficiency is particularly poor, around 10 % of the energy is
converted into visible light, the rest is dissipated as heat. In addition, the temperature rise
in the filament takes place suddenly, with a non negligible risk of destroying the filament.

A lamp consisting of LEDs produces light by the electroluminescence of a semiconductor,

the efficiency is higher without however reaching that of the fluorescent phenomena
(fluorescent tube, compact fluorescent bulb). The lifetime of the LEDs is much greater than
for these last two mechanisms and the LEDs also have an added advantage, they do not
suffer from being switched on and off (however this is not necessarily the case for the
electronics used in the bulb).

Technology Efficiency (lumens per Watt lm/W) Average lifetime (hours)

Incandescent lamp 12 - 20 lm/W 1,000 h - 1,200 h

Halogen lamp 18 - 25 lm/W 2,000 h - 3,000 h

Fluorescent lamp 60 - 100 lm/W 6,000 h - 15,000 h

12 - 100 lm/W
LED lamp 50,000 h - 100,000 h
in 2008 we reached 137 lm/W

Table 32: Comparison of efficiencies according to lamp type

The efficiency of the LED bulbs is often indicated at the operating voltage (low voltage)
and not at the mains voltage (110-120 or 220-250 volts).

5.13.2. Strong points - Advantages

low electricity consumption due to a good efficiency (see comparison table in this
paragraph).

much longer lifetime than an incandescent or fluorescent lamp (theoretically

50,000 hours). End of life indicated by a gradual fall in efficiency and not by a
sudden stop.

safety due to low voltage operation.

heating proportionally less than with the incandescent bulbs due to their better
efficiency.

do not produce UV.

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can produce a wide variety of colours by simply combining different

electroluminescent diodes during manufacture, or dynamically by modifying the
current supplying the different LEDs. Including the production of colours not present
in the rainbow (e.g. brown tones).

5.13.3. Weaknesses - Disadvantages

the purchase price of the LED lamps is still higher than that of a conventional lamp
of equal brightness but is falling quickly given the rapid increase in sales1;

the "white" LEDs produce this white by mixing some basic colours and therefore do
not have a continuous spectrum like the incandescent lamps;

the temperature of the white produced is often towards the blue (cold white),
perceived by the users as giving a "cold" atmosphere to the interiors. However,
white lamps with a slightly yellow light (warm white) exist;

The CRI (Colour Rendering Index) is also generally poor;

LEDs cannot withstand high temperatures; the heat dissipation of the LED bulbs is
a limiting factor for increasing their power.

blue LEDs and white LEDs contain a high intensity blue spectrum which is
dangerous for the retina if they come within the field of vision, even peripheral. This
is of course proportional to their power, and is becoming more and more worrying
as more and more powerful LEDs are put on the market. The problem arises, for
example, with LED-based flashes or even their future use in motor vehicle
headlamps.

5.13.4. Various applications (white LEDs)

The improvement in the efficiency of the LEDs enables them to be used as a replacement
for incandescent or fluorescent lamps, on condition that a sufficient number of them are
installed:

LEDs embedded in the tarmac to indicate airport runways at night or in fog.

Personal portable signalling devices (pedestrian, cyclist).

Emergency lighting

Portable short-range lighting.

Car or motorcycle signalling lamps (flasher, side lights).

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Stroboscopic lighting

Several cities are replacing their public lighting by LEDs to reduce their electricity
bills and to prevent polluting the sky with light (lighting directed downwards). LEDs
are also very often used in traffic lights. The city of Grenoble (France) is very often
mentioned in this respect: it achieved its return on investment in only three years.
LEDs give energy savings but it is above all the maintenance cost which are
reduced due to their robustness.

Battery-operated torches or dynamo wind-up torches .

Solar-powered garden lights.

LEDs have recently been used to produce very large video screens (TV screens in
large halls, stadium, etc.)

The future will bring developments in the:

maximum unit flux: 137 lm in 2008 for 1,500 in 2020?

efficiency: 50 lm / W in 2008 for 200 lm / W in 2020?

price: 100 euros (or dollars)/1000 lumen for 2 eur os (or dollars)/1,000 lumens in
2020?

5.14. SIGNALLING LAMPS

Nearly all the indicator lamps and/or illuminated pushbuttons have disappeared from our
control panels, but "nearly all" does not mean "all" because in the safety part there are still
small process alarm panels and fire alarms on our sites.

On the command-control panels dispersed throughout the production unit you will still have
(even with modern equipment) signalling pushbuttons, switches and indicators. Even the
torches are not necessarily equipped with LEDs.

Figure 75: Signalling lamps

And as for the "other lamps", there are only two types: filament lamps (incandescent) and
discharge lamps with illumination of a gas, where the type of gas gives the colour.

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Incandescent lamps
Base: E 14 or B
Base: E 14 15d
250 Volts. from 24 to 250
Power 1.6 Watts Volts. Puissance
L = 57 mm 1.67 Watts
L = 57 mm
Base: E 10 or BA9s
Base: BA7s,
or W2 1 x 9.5d
24 or 48 Volts.
from 6 to 60 Volts.
Power 1.2 Watts
Power 2 Watts
L = 24.77 mm
L = 28 mm
Base: W2x4.6d,
From 6 to 30 Volts.
Power 0.20 to 1
Watt

Discharge lamps (neon, etc.) – low power consumption

Base: E 14 Base: BA15d

Length 52 - 54mm. Length 30mm.
Power 0.77 W Power 0.55 W
230 Volts 230 Volts

Base: EX10 Base: BA9s

Length 28mm. length 25mm.
Power 0.42 W Power 0.42 W
230 Volts 230 Volts

And an application… with the screwdriver

tester. There have been many accidents with
this equipment, do not use it!!

Table 33: Some signalling lamps

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6. LAMP TECHNOLOGY
This covers everything else needed to correctly operate and use lamps

6.1. LAMP AND BASE SIZES

6.1.1. Incandescent lamps

Shapes and powers

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Table 34: The different shapes, powers and base types of incandescent lamps

Note: the linolite "tube" is an incandescent lamp

To be specified: clear, frosted, opal or colour finish. With reflector or cover

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Base type:

Table 35: The principal bases for incandescent lamps

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6.1.2. Halogen incandescent lamps

Shapes, bases and powers:

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Table 36: The principal halogen lamps – shapes, powers, bases

Pins and performance

Principal pin configurations of very low voltage halogen lamps

Lighting performance of dichroic lamps

Table 37: Pins and performance of very low voltage halogen lamps

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6.1.3. Fluorescent tubes

Sizes, powers and end caps of the most common tubes:

Table 38: Sizes, powers and end caps of the most common tubes

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Principal pin configurations:

Figure 76: Principal pin configurations of fluorescent tubes

Connection principles:

Figure 77: Connection principles of fluorescent tubes

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6.1.4. Compact fluorescent lamps

Lamps with semi-separate power supply:

Figure 78: Sizes, powers and bases of compact fluorescent lamps with semi-separate
power supplies

Some remarks on compact fluorescent lamps:

Their advantages are the same as those of the fluorescent tubes, with the difference that
the tube is not interchangeable. The main criticism of these lamps is their high price, it
takes at least fifteen months to write off their cost. In addition, their lifetime may vary
greatly from one brand to another (by a factor of one to three according to the consumer
associations' studies).

Finally, the use of this type of bulb does not correspond to all the uses expected of
incandescent bulbs: they cannot be used with a dimmer and they take a few minutes to
reach their maximum light potential. At the end of their life they are a potentially hazardous
waste (mercury) which requires specific recycling.

For a successful environmental approach, this aspect must also be considered, although
their use is still limited in the home.
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These bulbs must be used correctly in rooms requiring to be lit for long periods. They are
unnecessary, for example, in a corridor or a passageway.

Figure 79: Sizes, powers and bases of compact fluorescent lamps with separate power
supplies

Bases of compact fluorescent lamps with semi-separate or separate power supplies

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Table 39: Bases of compact fluorescent lamps with semi-separate or separate power
supplies

Connection principle (semi-separate or separate power supplies):

Figure 80: Connection principle (semi-separate or separate power supplies)

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Mains-operated compact fluorescent lamps (integrated ballast):

Table 40: Mains-operated compact fluorescent lamps (integrated ballast)

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6.1.5. Comparison of the different types of lamps

Conventional Compact
Halogen Fluorescent
Types incandescent fluorescent
incandescent tubes
lamps lamps
lamps

6,000 to 20,000 8,000 to 16,000

Lifetime 1,000 h 2,000 to 4,000 h
h h
Warm and Warm and very Warm to very
Ambience Pleasant
pleasant pleasant cold
Colour
- 2,700 to 3,200 K 2,700 to 6,500 K 2,700 to 6,000 k
temperature (K)
Colour Good to very
Very good Very good Good
rendering good *
Luminous
10 to 13 lm/W 15 to 25 lm/W 60 to 100 lm/W 40 to 80 lm/W
efficiency
* Except for industrial white colour

Table 41: Comparison of the different types of lamps

Note:

Discharge lamps (high pressure) are mainly reserved for industry, exterior lighting and the
tertiary sector. These lamps always have a ballast and practically all have an E27 or E40
screw base.

For the LED lamps (see the paragraph dedicated to LED lamps above), it is still a little too
soon to make true comparisons.

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6.2. BALLASTS

6.2.1. What are ballasts, starters and capacitors used for?

The operation of the fluorescent lamps and discharge requires the use of ballasts and
starters (for fluorescent lamps) or igniters (for discharge lamps).

The example taken here describes the starting method of a fluorescent tube. The
operation of the compact fluorescent lamps and the discharge lamps is identical. In
discharge lamps the burner replaces the tube and the igniter replaces the starter.

Figure 81: Components of a fluorescent assembly: tube + starter + ballast

The starter consists of a small tube filled with gas and equipped with a bimetallic strip.

When it is switched on, an electric arc is created in the gas. This heats the bimetallic strip
which was open until then (fig 1), and the bimetallic strip closes.

Figure 82: Starting mechanism of a fluorescent tube

During this time a current is flowing in the electrodes. The electrodes heat up and ionise
the gas which surrounds them, this makes starting easier. Since the bimetallic strip is
closed, the electric arc in the starter disappears.

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The bimetallic strip then cools and opens (fig 2). It thus causes a sudden break in the
current in the ballast which is connected in series.

The ballast, consisting of a copper coil wound on an iron core (called an inductive or
electromagnetic ballast) will attempt to re-establish this current by releasing all its energy.

This causes a very high voltage pulse between the lamp's electrodes (up to 1,500 V),
capable of starting the fluorescent tube (fig 3).

The starting often does not work first time. If the lamp is not lit, the cycle begins again.

When the lamp is operating the voltage across its terminals is too low to generate a new
starting cycle (40 to 110 V). The starter thus remains in open position and the current
passes through the lamp which remains lit. From this moment, the ballast acts as a current
limiter and prevents the lamp from being destroyed.

When an electromagnetic ballast is used a capacitor must be added to the circuit to

compensate for the bad cos ϕ.

6.2.2. Electromagnetic ballast

Starters electromagnetic ballasts

Capacitor

Figure 83: The electromagnetic ballast and its complement, the starter

The electromagnetic ballast (also called "inductive" or "conventional ballast") basically

consists of a coil. It must be associated with a starter to start the fluorescent lamps. Some
"low loss" ballasts have a much lower power consumption than the conventional ballasts.

There are also "very low loss" ballasts, but they are much larger.

The use of electromagnetic ballasts induces a relatively low power factor (cos ϕ 0.5),
which is penalised by the electricity distributor. Therefore it is not unusual to have to add
capacitors either at the head of the installation, or at the luminaires to compensate the
inductive effect.

Capacitors (double capacity) can also be inserted in 50 % of the lamp circuits to

compensate the total inductive effect. This halves the number of capacitors required.

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Examples of internal connections of a luminaire with electromagnetic ballast

C = capacitor, S = starter, TL = fluorescent tube

Inductive circuit of a tube

Cos ϕ = 0.5 (inductive).

Compensated circuit
Cos ϕ = 0.9.

Two-lamp circuit (duo circuit)

(one capacitive and one
inductive).
Connected in parallel
Cos ϕ = 0.95.

Two-lamp circuit (duo circuit).

Connected in series with a
single ballast
Cos ϕ = 0.5.

Table 42: Connections of the ballasts, tubes and starters

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6.2.3. High frequency electronic ballast for fluorescent lamps

The assembly consisting of the starter,

conventional and cos compensation
capacitorϕ can be replaced by an
electronic ballast with or without
cathode preheating.

Figure 84: High frequency electronic

ballast

This supplies the lamps at high frequency (between 25 and 60 Hz). It is also called an HF
ballast (HF stands for High Frequency).

Its power factor is close to 1 and there is therefore no need to compensate this by the use
of capacitors.

Since this system does not require a starter it has far lower losses.

6.2.3.1. Electronic ballast with preheating (or hot cathode)

Advantages of electronic ballast with preheated cathodes:

• It has a lower energy consumption than a conventional ballast.

• It increases the luminous efficiency and lifetime of fluorescent lamps (up to 16,000
h).

• It reduces the flickering of discharge lamps by supplying the lamps at a high

frequency and extends their lifetime. The reduction in flicker reduces the visual
fatigue caused by fluorescent tubes.

• It automatically cuts the power supply to a defective lamp and prevents it from
flashing at the end of its life.

• It has a power factor close to 1.

• It reduces the noise level.

• It has a constant energy consumption for a wide voltage range

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Figure 85: Energy consumption of ballast + lamp depends on type

6.2.3.2. Nonpreheated electronic ballast

The only advantage of a nonpreheated electronic ballast is that it consumes less energy
than a conventional ballast.

However, it does not prevent an overvoltage through the cathodes when starting the tube.
This causes the tube to deteriorate by blackening perpendicular to the cathodes.

6.2.3.3. Dimmable electronic ballast

When this ballast is connected to a conventional dimmer the lighting level can be adjusted
as required. This corrects the inevitable oversizing of new installations.

This ballast is also used when the luminous flux must be adapted to the natural lighting
present.

6.2.4. Electronic ballast for sodium lamps

The starter, conventional ballast and capacitor assembly can be replaced by an electronic
ballast, also called an HF ballast.

Unlike electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps, there is only one type of electronic ballast
for low pressure sodium lamps.

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The advantages of this ballast over the conventional ballast are:

• A lower specific energy consumption than a conventional ballast (75 % lower).

• It reduces the flickering of the lamps by supplying the them at a high frequency.

• It reduces the effect of voltage fluctuations.

• Unlike the conventional ballast, the power consumption remains practically constant
throughout the lamp's lifetime.

• It is smaller and is easier to install.

6.2.5. Electronic ballast for high pressure discharge lamps

There is a dimmable electronic ballast available for high pressure sodium lamps and metal
iodide lamps.

It his certain advantages over the electromagnetic ballast:

• It reduces the effect of voltage fluctuations and increases the lifetime of the lamps
(15 to 20 %).

• It reduces the flickering of discharge lamps, which reduces the visual fatigue
caused by the lamp.

• It is smaller and is easier to install.

• Shorter commissioning time.

Some makes of electronic ballasts allow instant hot restarting.

However, the use of these ballasts is limited to certain lamps (certain powers, certain types
of connectors)

6.2.6. Multilamp electronic ballast

Thanks to its on-board intelligence, this type of ballast can independently recognise the
different T5 fluorescent lamps only (the price to pay for the new technology is that it is
only applicable to the new equipment) and start them in an optimal manner.

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When the lamp is started for the first time, the electronic ballast's microprocessor
measures several of the fluorescent lamp's parameters and compares these with the
standardised reference values stored in its memory, such as:

preheating current,

electrode voltage,

electrode impedance,

normal operating current,

lamp service voltage.

Figure 86: Multilamp ballast for T5

lamps only

When the identification phase is terminated, the ballast's operating parameters are set
according to the type and power of fluorescent lamp detected and recorded in its memory
(EPROM).

During the following starts, only a very short verification test is carried out if the lamp
parameters have not changed.

Tube length Lamp power The multilamp ballast generally adapts

550 mm 14 and 24 W to the different power ranges shown in
the table in this paragraph:
850 mm 21 and 39 W
1,150 mm 28 and 54 W Table 43: Multilamp ballast power
1,450 mm 35, 49 and 80 W ranges

6.2.7. Digitally controlled electronic ballast

By making the best use of the possibilities of the electronics, the electronic ballasts
(depending on the model) can be used to dim the fluorescent tubes or be integrated in
lighting digital management systems such as, for example, the new digital interface
standard DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting Interface). From now on we can talk about
"addressable lighting system" which brings many advantages:

flexibility and modularity of the lighting system by breaking down large spaces into
zones,

improved user comfort and better energy efficiency.

However, this type of network involves non negligible installation and equipment costs.

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The DALI electronic addressable control ballasts

resemble the conventional dimmable electronic ballasts
and are only differentiated by the fact that they have
"DALI" marked on them (see figure):

Figure 87: "DALI" marked on the digital control ballast

DALI ballasts have the following features:

when placed in a network, each ballast can be addressed separately, thus making
the installation much more flexible (less wiring problems during design or
renovation),

the lamp's luminous flux can be regulated between 3 and 100 % for good energy
management with respect to the occupancy of the premises and the natural light
present,

the manufacturers claim energy savings of up to 60 % (to be verified!).

6.2.8. Ballast energy classifications

European Directive 2000/55/EC specifies the energy requirements for ballasts for
fluorescent lamps.

The Directive (and the different French Orders (laws)) stipulates that:

class D (high loss electromagnetic ballast) is now strictly prohibited,

class C (medium loss electromagnetic ballast) is prohibited from

21 November 2005.

CELMA (Federation of National Manufacturers Associations for Luminaires and

Electrotechnical Components for Luminaires in the European Union) goes further by
proposing an energy classification for the ballast + lamp assembly; which is more logical in
the energy sense of the term.

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Ballast energy classification according to CELMA (Federation of National Manufacturers

Associations for Luminaires and Electrotechnical Components for Luminaires in the European
Union).
Power of lamp + ballast (W)
Lamp type Lamp power in W
Dimmable electronic Electronic Conventional
Low loss ballast
ballast ballast ballast
A1 (for A1 (for
dimming to dimming to
0 % or for a 75 % or for A2 A3 B1 B2 C D
High
50 Hz lamp flux ofa lamp flux
frequency
100 %) of 25 %)

- 14 < 18 < 9.5 < 17 < 18 - - - -

- 24 < 28 < 14 < 26 < 28 - - - -

T5-E (16 mm)
- 28 < 34 < 17 < 32 < 34 - - - -

- 35 < 42 < 21 < 39 < 42 - - - -

- 39 < 46 < 23 < 43 < 46 - - - -

- 49 < 58 < 29 < 55 < 58 - - - -

- 54 < 63 < 31.5 < 60 < 63 - - - -

- 80 < 92 < 47.5 < 88 < 92 - - - -

15 13.5 < 18 <9 < 16 < 18 < 21 < 23 < 25 < 25

18 16 < 21 < 10.5 < 19 < 21 < 24 < 26 < 28 < 28

T8 (26 mm)
36 32 < 38 < 19 < 36 < 38 < 41 < 43 < 45 < 45

58 50 < 59 < 29.5 < 55 < 59 < 64 < 67 < 70 < 70

5 4.5 <8 <4 <7 <8 < 10 < 12 < 14 < 14

Compact
7 6.5 < 10 <5 <9 < 10 < 12 < 14 < 16 < 16
fluorescent
tube TC with
pin base 9 8 < 12 <6 < 11 < 12 < 14 < 16 < 18 < 18

11 11 < 15 < 7.5 < 14 < 15 < 16 < 18 < 20 < 20

Table 44: Ballast energy classifications

However if we analyse the above table, the power values given in class A1 are very low
compared to the other classes. There is an explanation for this given the hypotheses used
from the outset.

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To understand the method of determining the powers in class A1, let us take an example
(from the table):

Let us consider a T8 tube of 36 W; we observe that the power value of the lamp + ballast
must be < 19 W. The initial hypotheses are the following:

when set to 100 % luminous flux, the ballast meets at least the requirements of
class A3, i.e. < 38 W,

when set to 25 % luminous flux, the total power input < is 50 % of the power at
the 100 % luminous flux setting, i.e. < 19 W,

the ballast must be capable of reducing the luminous flux to 10 % or less of the
maximum luminous flux.

We must remember that the figures given above may lead to confusion since we could be
led to think that the class A1 ballast + lamp assembly has a very low power.

This is not the case! The dimmable electronic ballast is even less efficient than the class
A2 electronic ballast when it is dimmed for a value of 100 % of the luminous flux…

6.3. DIMMERS

6.3.1. Dimmers for fluorescent lamps

Fluorescent lamps can be dimmed (continuous

variation of the luminous flux).

A DC voltage of 1 to 10 V supplies a dimmable

electronic ballast. This voltage is supplied by a
transformer present in the dimmer or by the system
controller which integrates the signals from the
various control management elements.

Figure 88: Dimmer system with regulator

Dimming has the advantage of preventing the installations from being oversized, but the
total energy consumption at a low luminous flux will be high because the ballast always
has its own specific energy consumption.

European Directive 2000/55/EC defines an energy classification for ballasts, which

guarantees that the energy consumption of dimmable electronic ballasts is optimised (see
table in previous paragraph: "Ballast energy classifications" established by CELMA)

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For example, for a T8 lamp of 36 W, the consumption of the lamp and ballast will be:

< 38 W for 0 % dimming, i.e. 100 % of the lamp's flux,

< 19 W for 75 % dimming, i.e. 25 % of the lamp's flux.

6.3.2. Dimmers for discharge lamps

Dimmable electronic ballasts for high pressure discharge lamps first appeared on the
market on 1st January 1999. During dimming, this type of ballast prevents the flashes due
to the 50 Hz frequency and greatly increases the lamp's lifetime.

Another means of obtaining a variable luminous flux

is by chopping the voltage sine wave.

This chopping is obtained using a "chopper". It varies

the luminous flux in stages.

Figure 89: Chopping the voltage sine wave.

This chopping can be carried out with high pressure mercury lamps or high pressure
sodium lamps but not with metal halide lamps which may change colour.

6.4. LUMINAIRES (also called LIGHT FITTINGS) – CHOICE OF THE

REQUIRED ILLUMINATION

We cannot do very much with the lamp on its own. And now that we have looked at the
lamp + base (or cap) + accessories (ballast), we will place this assembly in a luminaire.

These luminaires must then be chosen and installed. We will limit ourselves to applications
such as for a workshop or offices and to determining the installation criteria (illumination
level, number of luminaires, etc.)

And for the calculation of the illumination itself (the amount of lux required for the room or
premises), each luminaire supplier will be happy to calculate it for you using the software
provided by the manufacturers.

You can use the software yourself, it is available on Internet and/or with the luminaire
catalogues.

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6.4.1. Choice of the location for luminaires in the workshop

6.4.1.1. Glare factor

The EN 12464-1 standard introduces the Unified Glare Rate (UGR) parameter which
characterises the glare level or the apparent luminance of a set of luminaires with respect
to the background luminance perceived in the field of vision of one or more observers.

This value, recommended by the standard according to the type of premises or task, is
between 10 (low glare) and 30 (high glare) and must not be exceeded. The UGR will be
calculated by the author of the project and will affect the choice of a type of luminaire, its
position and its orientation in the considered premises and for the considered task.

6.4.1.2. Choice summary table

Description of the luminaire Application

Bare fluorescent Only for little-used service rooms with no glare

tube. protection requirement.

Luminaires with industrial reflector

For general lighting, ceiling height 5 m, with or

without louvres according to the need to protect
Mirrored industrial
against direct glare.
reflector.
Painted reflectors should be avoided.

Luminaires with diffuser

To be avoided as far as possible.

Translucent or
prismatic cover. For decorative usage and where there is a need
to limit direct glare.

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Luminaires with diffusion grille

For general lighting and to limit direct glare.

Flat or notched
aluminium louvres.
White louvres should be avoided.

Parabolic aluminium For general lighting, with the presence of display

louvres. screens and high-precision work.

Parabolic aluminium
louvres and glass For white rooms and high-precision work.
cover.

Splashproof luminaires

Bare fluorescent Only for little used service rooms with no glare
tube. protection requirement.

For general lighting of damp or dusty premises,

ceiling height 4 to 5 m, with or without louvres
Mirrored industrial according to the need to protect against direct
reflector. glare.

Painted reflectors should be avoided.

Transparent, For general lighting of damp or dusty premises,

structured or with the need to resist internal or external impacts
prismatic cover. (broken lamp).

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Luminaires for discharge lamps

Reflectors, Bell- For very high halls or spans, can be used with cover
shaped luminaires in dusty environments.

Rectangular,
surface-mounted For very high halls or spans with limitation of the
luminaires with risks of direct glare.
louvres.

Localised lighting luminaires

With halogen or For local lighting of workstations, illumination of

compact cavities or reliefs with or without protection against
fluorescent lamps. damp, dust or explosions.

Table 45: Choice of luminaires for the workshop

6.4.1.3. Efficiency

Qualitatively, here are the

elements which favour a high
efficiency:

Figure 90: Efficiency of a luminaire

• Reflective optics.

Bare fluorescent strip lights

are often attractively priced.

Figure 91: Fluorescent strip

lights with or without
reflectors
Downward efficiency: 58% Efficiency 83%
However, it is an error to choose them. Since their luminous flux is totally uncontrolled they
have high losses with the risk of excessive glare for tasks requiring sustained attention.
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Similarly, the efficiency of

painted reflectors is not as
good and has worse glare
control than the mirrored
reflectors. In addition, they
yellow with time.

Enamelled reflector Aluminium reflector Figure 92: Efficiency with

Efficiency 69% Efficiency 83% painted or mirrored reflectors

• Quality translucent materials.

Figure 93: Efficiency 82% with translucent

material

• "Low encapsulation" reflectors.

Figure 94: "Low

encapsulation" reflectors
Downward efficiency: 81% Downward efficiency 79%

All the reflecting surfaces defining the luminaire's photometric characteristics are all
sources which absorb the light emitted by the lamps. The smaller these surfaces, the
greater the luminaire's efficiency. For example, small luminaires and parabolic lenses
greatly encapsulate the lamp.

• Distance between sources.

In luminaires with several lamps there is a risk of the lamps absorbing each other's
luminous flux (they are not reflective). The number of lamps per luminaire must therefore
be limited and a large distance must be kept between them.

For example, a single-tube fluorescent strip light (with reflector) will have an 87%
efficiency, the same light with two tubes will have a 79% efficiency

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• Use of diffusion grilles or louvres.

Figure 95: Use of diffusion

grille

All devices designed to

hide the lamp from direct
view to reduce the risk of
glare will reduce the
efficiency since they
obstruct the light.
Efficiency: 87% Efficiency 74%

6.4.1.4. Ease of installation and maintenance

The ease of the installation - removal of the

equipment (complete luminaire, lamps, starters,
ballasts) will also be a major factor when
choosing the luminaire.

Figure 96: Rail-mounted luminaires

The prewired rail solution is more flexible and makes the luminaires easier to install than
traditional suspended luminaires or those fixed directly to the ceiling. The costs of
installation and later modification are therefore greatly reduced .

The luminaires and lamps are highly subjected to dirt in technical halls. The materials the
luminaires are made of must be chosen to reduce the cleaning frequency. The higher the
ceiling the more difficult the luminaires are to clean. Therefore less luminous flux is lost by
enclosed luminaires when they are in dirty environments. They are much easier to clean
than open luminaires. Similarly, painted surfaces get dirty more quickly than anodised
aluminium surfaces.

They also become yellow with age, which reduces their efficiency. There are also
luminaires which have a reflector covered by prismatic glass. Their surface does not alter
and they are less electrostatic. They are therefore recommended for very dusty and
corrosive environments.

Figure 97: Open or enclosed luminaires

according to the environment

Example: A Swiss study carried out in a

foundry (very dirty environment) showed that
the cheap luminaires were those which had
the highest maintenance costs if a correct
level of illumination was to be maintained.
Sealed luminaire Glass reflector

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Their reflectors and lamps became dirty very

quickly.

To simplify the maintenance of high luminaires,

special suspension systems can be used which
allow them to be lowered by a cable for cleaning.
This avoids the use of expensive scaffolding.

Figure 98: Easy maintenance, provide a luminaire

"recovery" system

6.4.1.5. Electrical quality

The ballasts cannot produce too great a level of high frequency signals on the electrical
supply. However, they can disrupt the other electrical equipment. To prevent this, the
complete luminaires and/or the ballasts must have a quality label.

Figure 99: Quality and earthing labels on each luminaire

For the vast majority of applications the luminaires must be earthed (class I
electrical protection).

If (in very old installations) there is no earthing at the level of the

luminaires, the following measures must be carried to comply with
the standards:

Figure 100: Earth conductor or Class II

either install an earth connection from each luminaire (this is often the cheapest
solution),

or choose class II luminaires, which do not require to be earthed.

In very damp premises (water spray) where direct contact with the luminaire is possible,
the use of class II luminaires is recommended.

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6.4.1.6. Installed height, rail height

Rail height Luminaire type

Wide angle luminaires with fluorescent tubes arranged individually or in rows according
to the required level of illumination. Asymmetrical luminaires can be placed along the
windows, where they exist.
2.5 – 3m

The luminaires are similar to the previous situation. arranged in rows on the ceiling or
suspended, parallel to the main windows and to the occupants' usual axis of view.

3–4m

4-7m In this case too the most cost effective choice to use luminaires with fluorescent lamps,
arranged in rows parallel to the roof's undulations. If the ceiling height is less than 5 m,
Flat roof a wide-angle distribution must be chosen. Above 5 m, an intensive distribution is the
with or most appropriate.
without
skylight, or
sawtooth
roof

The best solution is where the lights are distributed symmetrically and equipped with
high power high pressure discharge lamps (250 - 1,000 W). While guaranteeing a
correct uniformity, the highest power per luminaire should be used, this reduces the
number of luminaires and also reduces the maintenance and installation costs.

7 m and
over

When inclined surfaces must have a high illumination, it will be necessary to install
additional luminaires equipped with fluorescent lamps. If the surface of the parts being
worked on or of the equipment being used is sensitive to reflections, only intensive
luminaires with fluorescent tubes and louvres can be suitable.

Table 46: Choice according to installed height

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6.4.1.7. Layout of workstations

We can imagine having 3 types of lighting in the technical workshops:

uniform general lighting,

general orientated lighting,

localised lighting.

Uniform general lighting:

Aim

To be able to completely modify the layout of the hall without touching the lighting:

variable layout of the workstations over the whole area of the hall,

installation of new equipment.

Characteristics

non preferential distribution,

luminaires with modifiable characteristics (position of lamps, type of reflector, etc.)

luminaires mounted on rails, therefore easily movable.

Orientated general lighting:

Aim

When the position of the workstations is fixed (machine tools), locate the lighting near the
work areas, this limits the installed power.

Characteristics

lower illumination level for the alleys and passageways,

workstations laid out so that the axis of view is parallel to

any windows which may be present, to get the best of the
natural lighting and to avoid direct glare or excessive
contrasts. An orientated lighting which is badly positioned
causes unwanted shadows and can be dangerous.

Figure 101: A badly orientated lighting with zones of shadow

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wide angle luminaires also laid out in rows parallel to the same axis. This layout
must also be compatible with the structure of the ceiling and the location of the
structural beams which can interfere with the lighting effect,

Figure 102: Wide angle

luminaires in parallel rows

if necessary, asymmetrical luminaires to obtain a sufficient illumination on vertical

surfaces,

when there are hazardous machine tools in a workshop,

the passage zones, the work zones and the hazard
zones must be delimited. The lighting must reinforce
these measures by insisting on the three types of zones.

Figure 103: Zone marking with lighting

Localised lighting

Aim

The aim is to have a high illumination at the precision workstations without excessively
increasing the general illumination level.

Characteristics

additional individual luminaires to locally increase the

illumination level and increase certain contrasts,

Figure 104: Additional individual lighting

either placing the luminaires in the alleys next to the

workstations and ensuring that this light comes from the sides and that there are no
shadows or uncomfortable glare,

or placing the luminaires directly beside the

workstations. These luminaires should ideally have
a dimmer. The position and orientation of these
luminaires must be adjustable to prevent reflections
on the objects lit,

Figure 105: Luminaires at the workstation

to prevent excessive luminance variations in the users' field of vision, a sufficient

general illumination level must be maintained with respect to the illumination of the
task: General illumination = 3 x (localised illumination)
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6.4.1.8. Environment quality

Luminaire protection systems must be used in areas subjected to:

a high level of dampness,

corrosive vapours,

explosive vapours,

a high level of dust,

risks of impacts,

high or low temperatures.

Required protection Luminaire characteristics

Transparent methacrylate, polycarbonate or glass cover, or splashproof

lamp holders. Enclosed luminaires have the advantage of reducing the loss
Water and dust protection of luminous flux due to dirt.

To facilitate maintenance the outer surface of the covers must be smooth,

the inner surface can be structured to limit the luminaire's luminance. These
luminaires are classed IP54, IP65 or IP68.

Protection grille or transparent cover giving an impact resistance of 6 Joules.

Unlike the methacrylate covers the injected polycarbonate or toughened
glass covers achieve this strength value.
Impact protection

Operation in a cold
environment Fluorescent lamps (quick-start lamps) and/or special starters to ensure that
the lamp starts fast in spite of the very low temperature (down to -50°C).

Luminaires which avoid excessive heat losses around the lamp to prevent a
fall in the luminous flux of fluorescent tubes with the low temperatures.

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Lamp protected by special glass

Operation in a hot
environment
(up to 60°C)

The luminaires for explosive environments must be specifically adapted to

the particular environment encountered (types of gas or explosive dusts
encountered). It is therefore necessary to check with the manufacturer to
Operation in explosive find out if the chosen luminaire meets the specific requirements.
environments

Table 47: Choice according to environment quality

6.4.1.9. Difficulty of the visual task

The sensitivity of the occupants to glare and reflections will be more or less great
depending on the task carried out.

If display screens are used (computers, control screens, machine tool control screens,
etc.), it is recommended that the characteristics described above should be combined with
low luminance lenses (low luminance luminaires). The lenses thus used are similar to
those encountered in office premises.

Before After

Figure 106: Use of low luminance luminaires

This type of luminaire is also excellent for high-precision work.

For this work the workstations can be equipped with local low luminance luminaires giving
a high localised illumination. There are a large number of solutions available according to
the specific task to be carried out.

Examples: fibre optic for watchmaking work, set of mirrors for inspecting the quality of
polished metal sheets.

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Precision lighting often requires very high illumination levels (up to 3,000 lux). Special care
must be given to the energy performance of the equipment (lamps and luminaires), both to
limit energy consumption and to prevent overheating the premises.

6.4.2. Choice and location of luminaires for the office

6.4.2.1. Glare factor

Idem previous paragraph (workshop)

6.4.2.2. According to their luminous efficiency

Efficiency of an interior luminaire, definition:

No luminaire provides 100 % of the light emitted by the lamps. A large part of this light will
be absorbed by the different elements of the luminaire and converted into heat.

The total efficiency ηt of a luminaire is the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by the
luminaire and the luminous flux of the lamps.

It is between 35 and 90 %. The more elements (louvres, opal or prismatic globe) in front of
the lamps to prevent glare or for aesthetic purposes, the lower the efficiency.

E.g.: in a luminaire manufacturer's range:

Luminaire with single Luminaire with Low luminance luminaire with

hammered-finish aluminium opal diffuser:η t = 0.52 reflector:η t = 0.69
reflector:η t = 0.84

Figure 107: Efficiency of interior luminaires

Important, the total efficiency of a luminaire which does not focus the light downwards, i.e.
towards the work surface (opal diffuser, soft light, etc.), is not exactly representative of the
luminaire's useful efficiency. This is because part of the light is diffused towards the walls
or ceilings. This results in additional losses (which depend on the reflection factor of the
walls and ceilings) which are not considered in the concept of total efficiency.

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To compare this type of luminaire with purely direct luminaires, the concept of downward
efficiency ηi (which quantifies the luminous flux directed downwards) can thus also be an
indication of the luminaire's efficiency.

Choice according to efficiency:

We will always choose luminaires with the best luminous efficiency while at the same time
respecting the other choice criteria. We must always ask the supplier for this value or find
it in the catalogues.

Figure 108: Extract from catalogue (ni = downward efficiency, nt = total efficiency)

Cost – investment comparison and energy bill

At the outset, we either choose high efficiency luminaires (more expensive) or cheaper
luminaires but with a lower efficiency

Actual case: room 9.5 x 5.5 m, recommended illumination = 500 lux, 2 x 36 W luminaires,
operating time 6h/day, 250 days/year
Price of
No of Installed Electricity bill
Efficiency one Investment
luminaires power (0.11 €/kWh) in 2004
luminaire
0.5 9 648 W 87.5 € 787.5 € 109.35 €/year

0.7 6 432 W 117.5 € 705 € 72.9 €/year

Savings using high efficiency luminaires 82.5 € 36.45 €/year

Total savings over 20 years (lifetime of the luminaires) 811.5 €

Table 48: Total costs of an installation according to the efficiency of the luminaires

For a same level of illumination, a larger number of low efficiency luminaires will be
required. It is therefore possible that the system suffers from overconsumption and
overinvestment.
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Bottom-of-the-range luminaires can also have other problems: bad glare control,
mechanical quality of the components, etc.

Recommended minimum efficiencies

Direct luminaires with flat louvres 70 %
Low luminance direct luminaires 65 %
Very low luminance direct luminaires 55 %
Mixed luminaires 75 %
Indirect luminaires 65 %

Table 49: Recommended minimum efficiencies for luminaries

6.4.2.3. According to assembly, installation and maintenance

All luminaires must be built to withstand the normal

installation and operating stresses. Surface-mounted
luminaires cannot twist when they are installed on irregular
ceilings.

Figure 109: Choice according to the installation of the

luminaire

Suspended luminaires cannot sag between supports and there should be no distortion of
the supports.

The luminaire's construction must facilitate the

maintenance: it must be easy to remove the various parts of
the luminaire without damaging them.

Figure 110: Choice according to maintenance

For example, the lens cover can be mounted on a hinge to

make it easier to open.

In addition, the maintenance and operating instructions (e.g. choice of the correct lamp)
must be precise.

When the plenums (spaces above the false ceilings) are not accessible, certain
precautions must be taken to be able to gain access to the electrical junction boxes of the
circuits through the luminaires.

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6.4.2.4. According to the ceiling structure

Luminaires can be:

Flush-mounted in false ceilings Surface-mounted, fitted on the Suspended

ceiling

Figure 111: Choice according to ceiling structure

Flush-mounted:

When there is a false ceiling the luminaires can be flush-mounted (embedded in the
ceiling). In the case of a removable false ceiling, the sizes of the luminaires must be
adapted to the false ceiling module. If the new luminaires are not the same size as the
original ones, the false ceiling must be adapted to them. This will be easy if the false
ceiling is removable but costly when the false ceiling is fixed. To simplify this type of
renovation, when there are a large number of luminaires (over 250), the manufacturers
offer the possibility of made-to-measure luminaires for a cost similar to that of the standard
luminaires.

In a fire, the distortion of the false ceilings risks causing the luminaires to fall. Therefore, in
passageways and alleys used as evacuation routes, it is recommended (it is even
mandatory in many places) to fix the luminaires directly to the ceiling slab using rods,
cables or chains.

See the regulations in force: Possibility of having all the luminaires (not only those in the
passageways and alleys) fixed to the ceiling slab and thus independent of the false ceiling
attachments.

Surface-mounted:

When the ceiling is made of concrete or when there is a fixed false ceiling which we do not
wish to renovate, the luminaires must be surface-mounted.

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Suspended:

Suspended luminaires are mainly installed in premises with high ceilings (ceiling
height > 3.5 m). In this case we can choose luminaires which have an indirect component
not exceeding 50 % of the total flux emitted by the luminaire. This avoids having a very
dark zone above the luminaires.

Suspended luminaires are also used when

local lighting is required for the workstations.

They are also suspended when the ceiling is

inclined, so that all the luminaires are at the
same height.

Figure 112: Choice of local suspended

luminaire and choice with label

In addition, the choice of luminaires and the method of installation must take into account
the thermal effects on the environment and on the mounting surfaces to prevent fire risks.
The luminaire must therefore have a label which guarantees that it can be installed without
risk on the existing support. In this sense, traditional false ceilings (metal, rock wool) can
be used as a support for any luminaire.

6.4.2.5. According to acoustic quality

Bottom-of-the-range luminaires with electromagnetic ballasts often cause noise problems.

This is because they emit a low hum which can be transmitted to the luminaire's ballast
and be amplified. Therefore certain devices must be used which minimise the transmission
of this noise without disrupting the heat transfers (insulating washers, etc.).

This problem does not exist with the low-loss electromagnetic ballasts or with the
electronic ballasts.

If the luminaires are also used as air extractors, the acoustic problems must be studied in
even more detail.

6.4.2.6. According to electrical supply quality

The ballasts cannot produce too great a level of high frequency signals on the electrical
system. However, they can disrupt the other electrical equipment.

To prevent this, the complete luminaires and/or the ballasts must have a quality label.

The ballasts or even the transformers for low voltage halogen lamps produce high
frequency signals which can affect the other electrical consumers.
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The chosen luminaires must therefore be protected to prevent this type of problem.

This is the case of the luminaires which have the following markings:

For electromagnetic ballast For all luminaires

luminaires For electronic ballast luminaires

Figure 113: Labels which must be present on the luminaires

In principle, luminaires bearing the "CE" mark respect all the quality and safety
requirements stipulated by the standards. However, since these markings are mandatory
since 1st January 1997, the luminaires are now all marked "CE" by the manufacturers,
who do not have to have their equipment verified by an inspection body. Only the
European "ENEC" marking guarantees that the products have been inspected by a third
party organisation.

6.4.2.7. According to the necessary protections

Type of Shock Dust and Electrical Remarks

premises resistance damp protection
protection
Open luminaires not protected against water
Offices 0.5J
ingress.
Corridors IP20
Open luminaires not protected against water
and > 6J
ingress and shock resistant.
stairways
Technical Class I
rooms, Enclosed luminaires protected against dust
-
storerooms, and water spray.
archives

Washrooms IP44 Enclosed luminaires protected against dust

6J
and toilets and water spray, and shock resistant.
Class II

Table 50: Choice of luminaires according to the necessary protections

For the IK "shock resistance" protection and the IP "dust and damp protection", see
courses SE180 (Electrical Safety) and SE210 (Domestic Electricity)

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Here is a reminder of the "electrical protections" (course SE180):

Consequence of a possible
Classification Electrical requirements
insulation fault
Prohibited in most European countries. In case of an insulation fault the
protection of the person touching
Class 0
Separation of the energised parts by a single the equipment depends on the
insulation, called the main insulation. environment (e.g. insulating floor).
Separation of the energised parts by a single
In case of an insulation fault the
Class I insulation, called the main insulation.
protection of the person touching
the equipment basically depends
The accessible metal parts are connected to
on the quality of the earthing circuit
an earth terminal.
and on a differential circuit
breaker…
Recommended in conventional premises.
An additional or reinforced insulation is added
to the main insulation.
Class II Due to the double insulation there
Materials with a higher insulation resistance
can be no insulation fault and the
are used.
person touching the equipment is
in no danger.
Recommended in damp premises or when the
luminaire cannot be connected to an earth
conductor.

Class III The power supply is by a very low safety

In principle, this equipment does
voltage; the circuit is isolated from the mains
not represent an electrical risk.
and the voltage is less than 50 V.

Table 51: Protection classes of all electrical equipment

In old installations with no earth (idem as for workshops), we must:

either install an earth connection from each luminaire (this is often the cheapest
solution),

or choose class II luminaires, which do not require to be earthed.

6.4.2.8. According to lamp power

A luminaire is designed for lamps of a certain power and it is essential that it is limited to
this power. This is because the heat dissipation must be sufficient to guarantee the lamp's
normal lifetime and the luminaire's performance.

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In addition, and to respect the uniformity of the illumination, it is better to choose

luminaires with the highest installed power. This reduces the number of luminaires and
ballasts and thus the investment.

However, when there is a removable modular false ceiling

the unit power of the fluorescent strip luminaires depends
on the false ceiling module. E.g.: if the false ceiling has a
60 cm x 120 cm module, only luminaires for 36/40 W tubes
can be used.

18/20 W tubes are for luminaires 600 mm long and 58/65

W tubes for those 1500 mm long.

Figure 114: Flush-mounted 4 x 18/20 W luminaire

Similarly, among the lamps T8 lamps, the 18 W (75 lm/w) tubes have a lower luminous
efficiency than the 36 W (86 lm/W) or 58 W (89 lm/W) tubes.

E.g.: From the energy viewpoint, it is better to use 2 x 36 W luminaires than 4 x 18 W

luminaires. And even more so since their prices are similar.

The 4 x 18 W luminaires will be used in square-structure false ceilings.

6.4.2.9. According to the air conditioning

Luminaire with integrated extraction to a Luminaire for T5 tubes with edge

plenum extraction

Figure 115: Choice of luminaires according to the air conditioning

In air-conditioned offices, integrating the air extraction into the luminaire evacuates up to
60 % of the heat power produced (convective part) by the lamps and auxiliaries. This
obviously reduces the air conditioning costs. This method of extraction also means that no
separate (and often more costly) air conditioning outlets are required.

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If the luminaires are equipped with T5 fluorescent tubes, an air extraction through the
lamps will cause a reduction in the luminous flux because the air temperature around the
lamp will no longer be optimal. This extraction must therefore be via channels on the
exterior or on the side of the luminaire. The heat evacuation potential is then must lower.

Figure 116: Air extraction through luminaires for T5 lamps.

6.4.2.10. According to price

The choice of luminaire will also be based on the installation's prime cost. For equal
comfort, this depends on:

the price of the luminaire and its placement,

the price of the lamps,

the consumption over its lifetime,

the cost of replacing the lamps.

Obtained using the manufacturers' and dealers' software which is

normally available on Internet or supplied with the catalogues.

6.4.3. Other choice criteria

Whether it is for a workshop or for offices (or other premises), the following parameters
must also be taken into account:

6.4.3.1. Direct lighting

The light is projected directly from the luminaire to the

work surface.

Figure 117: Direct lighting

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Advantages:

The light is not reflected before reaching the task to be lit. The efficiency is therefore better
than that of a system comprising an indirect part.

Disadvantages:

There is a risk of glare and of contrast between dark zones (e.g. the ceiling) and bright
zones. To reduce direct glare we can install diffusion louvres, for example.

6.4.3.2. Indirect lighting

A surface, ceiling or walls are used as a reflector to

diffuse the light.

Figure 118: Indirect lighting

Advantages

Diffusion of the light by the ceiling and a uniform distribution of the luminances gives a
good protection against glare.

Disadvantages

Since the light is reflected before reaching the task to be lit, this lighting method is less
efficient and, for an equal illumination level, requires a greater installed power than that of
a direct system.

The illumination greatly depends on the reflection coefficients of the walls on which the
light is reflected.

Therefore special attention must be given to the maintenance of the surfaces of the
premises so that the efficiency does not fall over time. Thus it may be necessary to repaint
the ceiling when replacing the luminaires.

In addition, indirect luminaires are, by their positions, in contact with a lot of dust and dirt
(dead insects, etc.). This disadvantage becomes delicate when the light is diffused
downwards through a translucent part and when there is a build-up of dead insects (as in
the case of "soft light" luminaires).

This type of lighting does not produce shadows. It can therefore be monotonous and make
the perception of three-dimensional objects difficult.

Finally, we must ensure that the light sources used are not too bright otherwise there may
be ceiling glare.
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6.4.3.3. Mixed lighting

This lighting method combines direct

lighting and indirect lighting. However, the
indirect part remains dominant.

Figure 119: Mixed lighting

Advantages

The advantages of this lighting method are identical to those of indirect lighting: uniform
distribution and absence of glare. In addition, the direct part creates shadows which
reduce the brightness of the ceiling.

The brightness differences in the room are much less pronounced than in the case of
direct lighting.

This is useful in rooms with high ceilings and avoids the perception of a dark zone on the
ceiling.

In the case of very light walls and ceilings, this system gives good efficiencies.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantage is identical to that of the indirect lighting system: efficiency very
sensitive to the reflection coefficients of the walls and ceilings. It is however less
pronounced since part of the lighting is aimed directly towards the work surface.

There are luminaires available

where the same source
produces direct and indirect
lighting. Others have two distinct
sources with separate controls.

Direct - indirect luminaire Openings on the top part for

Figure 120: Luminaire with direct
indirect lighting and indirect lighting

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6.4.4. Evaluating the uniformity of the illumination

I.e. make an evaluation!

6.4.4.1. Recommended uniformity

The EN 12464-1 standard recommends a specific uniformity according to the zone

considered: E = illumination level in lux.

In the work zone

Emin(1) / Eav(1) > 0.7 ( E min. over E av)

In the immediately surrounding zone

Emin(3) / Eav(3) > 0.5

Figure 121: Uniformity in the work zone and immediate environment

If no precise indication is given in the standard as to the value of the uniformity outside the
two previously mentioned zones, the rest of the surface of the room (minus the peripheral
zone) is assimilated to the immediately surrounding zone and we thus apply a uniformity of
0.5 to it.

In the work zone

Emin(1) /Eav(1) > 0.7

In the room or premises

Emin(2) / Eav(2) > 0.5 if the location of the work zone(s) is known

Emin(2) /Eav(2) > 0.7 if the location of the work zone(s) is not
known

Figure 122: Uniformity in the work zone and in the room or premises

There is nothing mentioned in the standard about the uniformity between adjacent types of
zones (e.g. office - corridor). We then have to refer to the recommended average

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illumination value Em for each type of zone in the standard, to deduce from it the
uniformity between adjacent zones.

Between the office and the corridor

Eav(4) /Eav(3) = 100 lux / 300 lux = 0.3 (if the work zone is known)

or

Eav(4) /Eav(3) = 100 lux / 500 lux = 0.2 (if the work zone is not
known)

Figure 123: Uniformity in office work zone and the corridor

In addition, it is preferable to have a certain colour uniformity between the environment

and the visual task:

between the paper media and the work surface,

between the work surface and the walls.

6.4.4.2. How to evaluate your situation

Tip: 1 < E/H < 2

Figure 124: Tip for evaluating your situation

This tip must however be used with care since it

depends on the photometric distribution of the
luminaires and on the reflection coefficient of the walls
and ceilings. It is only valid for luminaires which only
emit their light downwards.

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6.5. CHOICE OF THE LIGHTING MANAGEMENT METHOD

Example in the workshop

Cautionary note

A lighting management system operates correctly if it is perfectly accepted by the

occupants. They have an incredible amount of imagination when it is a question of
bypassing an automatic system! The system must therefore be either transparent or
understood and accepted by the occupants.

It is often recommended not to use too much cost cutting at the expense of user freedom
and system simplicity. In offices, for example, the occupants must be able to switch a
luminaire on or off, vary the power emitted by a luminaire or customise their working
environment.

Large savings can be made by adapting the lighting time and the luminous flux to the
actual occupancy of the premises and to the effective illumination requirements.

In workshops, the systems which can be envisaged are:

Zoning, local switches and increasing user awareness

Time management

Presence detection

Management according to the natural lighting

Management according to the supply of natural lighting

6.5.1. Zoning, local switches and increasing user awareness

These behaviours can initially be influenced by informing and motivating the user, without
modifying the installation's control method.

In this case, it will be easier to get the users to collaborate when they
have personal, ergonomic controls. This implies that the controls must
be zoned and, for example, that the controls are grouped in the work
zone.

Therefore, where possible, in large spaces, the occupants must be

given the possibility to manage the lighting for their own specific work
zones.

Figure 125: Local lighting control

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The user can be made aware:

that the general artificial lighting should not be used if the natural lighting is
sufficient,

that the room's lighting should be switched off when he leaves it.

Minimum absence time before the light is switched off

In premises equipped with electromagnetic or electronic ballast fluorescent lighting without

preheating, it is preferable to switch off the lights if the premises are unoccupied for more
than 15 to 30 minutes. Switching off for shorter absences is not cost effective because of
the reduction in the lifetime of the lamps due to the increased number of starts. In all other
cases (incandescent lamps, electronic ballast fluorescent lamps with preheating),
switching off is recommended whatever the length of absence.

6.5.2. Time management

If the working hours are fixed, a time switch can be used to

switch the lighting on or off by zone or to switch the whole of
the building lighting off.

Figure 126: Time switch-controlled lighting

In large premises, the occupants feel less concerned by the management of the general
lighting systems. This justifies a general switch-off according to a timetable.

Important, a general switch-off of all the lighting is dangerous if it plunges the whole
building into darkness when people are still in the building and, worse still, if dangerous
machines are being used. One solution can be a gradual switch-off by groups of
luminaires, with the possibility of switching them on again, a prior audible warning, etc. The
time switch can incorporate a changeover to low lighting for maintenance tasks, for
example 2/3 of the luminaires can be switched off.

6.5.3. Presence detection

Case where presence detection is useful

In some cases it is more cost effective to invest in a

presence detector than to renovate the lighting
equipment.

Figure 127: Example of a presence detector in an office

zone (aesthetic design)
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This avoids a high investment and immediately generates large savings. Presence
detection is recommended in premises where persons are only occasionally present,
as for example in warehouses, certain passageways and alleys, etc.

Control by switching on/off or by dimmer

Management which uses switch-on/switch-off sequences according to presence is not

recommended for discharge lamps because:

they require a starting time of several minutes,

they must be used with 8 to 12 h operating cycles. With shorter cycles the lifetime
of the lamps is greatly reduced. For 3-hour cycles for example, the lifetime of the
lamps falls to 50 %.

With these lamps, management according to the presence of the occupants does not
consist of lighting the installation when there is a presence and switching off when the
occupants are absent, but of dimming the luminous flux from a low level when no one is
present to a high level when people are present.

Modern management systems which use presence detection do effectively reduce the
luminous flux when the occupants are absent and completely switch off the luminaire in
the case of extended absence. This system is accepted by the users.

The cost-effectiveness of a presence detector depends on:

The additional length of time the system is switched off compared to normal
operation.

The electric power managed by a detector.

The presence of electromagnetic ballasts. They result in a large reduction in the

lifetime of the lamps with the number of times the lamps are switched on. This can
be prevented by the use of electronic ballasts. The additional cost of replacing a
ballast is approximately € 62.5 (including fitting – in 2004). The energy saving and
the increased lifetime of the lamps gives a full return on investment in 2 to 4 years.

The cost of the kWh: as for the management according to the natural light, the
energy saved using a detector is not billed at € 0.11/kWh (in 2004) but may well be
nearer to € 0.065/kWh

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6.5.4. Management according to natural lighting

General lighting management according to the supply of natural

lighting can be used in halls equipped with very large windows
(particularly in the roof).

Figure 128: Management with natural light detector

Three systems can be envisaged:

ON/OFF management,

stepped management (30, 60, 100 %),

management by dimming.

Dimming is the management method best perceived by the users. It is only possible with
fluorescent tubes. Dimming systems for discharge lamps are not yet available in all
countries (even in Europe).

For fluorescent tubes, stepped management can be used in luminaires in which a different
number of lamps can be switched on according to the luminous flux to be supplied.

This solution has the advantage of retaining the same uniformity whatever the number of
lamps lit. If this possibility is not initially provided by the supplier, the installer can always
install the wiring to achieve the same result for luminaires with several lamps.

Different levels of luminous flux can also be obtained with high pressure discharge lamps
(see "dimming" paragraph). To avoid reducing the lifetime of these lamps too much, they
should not be completely switched off.

For the on/off management to be well perceived by the occupants, there must be a
sufficient time delay (1 hour) and the user must have the possibility of taking over manual
control. This type of management must not be used with high pressure discharge lamps
because these lamps must be used with 8 to 12 h operating cycles.

With shorter cycles, their lifetime is greatly reduced.

There is little reference on the subject of management according to natural lighting. It is

therefore difficult to evaluate the potential energy saving.

The cost-effectiveness of the chosen system will depend on:

• The type of ballast present

The main cost of the management system is the replacement of the ballasts. This is
because dimming requires the use of dimmable electronic ballasts.
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If the ballasts already present are electronic ballasts, the investment made to replace
these ballasts will not generate more savings. However, dimmable electronic ballasts
represent slightly greater losses than conventional electronic ballasts. In this case, the
installation of the management system will never be cost-effective within a reasonable
time.

If the existing ballasts are electromagnetic, we already get an energy saving of around
20 % by replacing them, which reduces the time required for a return on investment.

• The orientation and environment of the premises

The only specific references currently available to us concern measurements taken in

office premises. These measurements are however confirmed by some examples of Swiss
industrial buildings.

Orientation Saving
Size of premises Widow area
Northern
Length x breadth m² Window
hemisphere Central zone Average
zone
3.6 x 5.4 6 NW 33 % 18 % 26 %

5.5 x 5.5 12 S and W 36 % 33 % 34 %

4.0 x 5.5 4 W 29 % 22 % 26 %

3.0 x 3.6 2.4 E 30 % 8% 19 %

3.6 x 5.4 3.3 W 29 % 16 % 22 %

3.6 x 5.0 4.5 W 41 % 19 % 30 %

Identical to the previous case but different users. 43 % 31 % 37 %

Table 52: Cost-effectiveness of the management according to the natural lighting

Actual measurements of the saving generated by individual dimming of the luminaires

compared to full power operation with nondimmable electronic ballasts (to provide 500 lux
on the work surface), source: TNO

The exterior environment of the building frontages greatly affects the cost-effectiveness.
For example, if a frontage is masked by another building (narrow street), the supply of
natural lighting in the lower floors may be too low to justify automatic management but
sufficient for the upper floors.

For example, in offices, a saving of 30 % can be considered to be a reasonable figure for

the dimming of the whole premises. In industrial premises we could envisage the
management of only part of the luminaires, for example, those nearest to the windows.

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• The total power managed by one control unit

The cost of the management system partly depends on the cost of the control unit (sensor,
interface). The higher this cost, the higher the electrical power controlled by a system will
have to be to achieve a sufficient level of cost-effectiveness.

E.g.:In the case where each luminaire is managed independently, the lower the power of
the lamps controlled by one ballast, the higher the investment cost with respect to the
expected saving: managing one 36 W lamp with 1 ballast will cost approximately €
3.25 per Watt controlled, whereas managing two 58 W lamps with 1 ballast will cost
approximately € 1 per Watt. (In 2004 in Europe)

• The energy cost

The energy saved using a management system is not billed at € 0.11/kWh but may well be
nearer to € 0.065/kWh. If we are pessimistic, we can imagine that the lighting installation
equipped with a management system will operate at full power for at least 15 minutes
during the building's peak consumption period. In this case, there is no gain on the peak
period and the only gain made is due to the number of kWh saved. The gain per kWh
saved will approach € 0.11 if we are in a building with a peak consumption arising only a
few days per month (for example, on the day chips are cooked using electric chip fryers!)
and when we can guarantee that the lighting will not be operating during this time thanks
to the management system.

• The accessibility for cable routing

The cost of labour is not negligible. The installation of a management system will naturally
be less expensive in a new building than in an existing building. The management systems
by individual luminaire do not require rewiring external to the luminaire. They are therefore
very cheap and often the most cost-effective if the power managed by one ballast is high.

6.5.5. Management according to the supply of natural lighting

Very often in zones near the windows the artificial lighting is only necessary in the
morning, in the evening or at night. During the day, the natural lighting is sufficient for the
visual comfort.

The natural lighting is taken into account by acting:

either by switching the lighting on or off, or by dimming the luminous flux,

either according to the exterior lighting, or according to the interior lighting,

either individually on each luminaire, or on a group of luminaires.

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For these 3 management modes there are systems which integrate the management
according to the presence and management of the supply of natural lighting. These
systems also often have a manual override by pushbutton or by remote control.

Figure 129: Example of equipment and principle (supply of natural lighting)

To see the control possibilities according to the natural lighting, let us compare
several systems:

On/off control according to the exterior illumination

Continuous control of the luminous flux according to the interior illumination

Measurement of the window brightness

Measurement of the brightness at a point in the premises

Measurement of the brightness at each luminaire

6.5.5.1. On/off control according to the exterior illumination

In premises with a very high natural lighting, an automatic triggering system according to
the exterior illumination is sufficient. This is because the natural level can light the building
even when the sky is overcast. The artificial lighting is then only used at the beginning and
end of the day.

For a finer control, a stepped adjustment can be used, either by gradually switching
off the rows of luminaires starting at the windows, or by modifying the number of
lamps lit in multilamp luminaires.
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An on/off control must be accompanied by a time delay to prevent a sudden variation in

the exterior brightness (cloud going overhead) from modifying the artificial lighting. Sudden
variations in the artificial illumination are often not well accepted by the occupants,
whereas the very common variations in the natural illumination are well accepted.

Advantage

The cost is moderate due to the limited number of cells. All the premises on the
same frontage are treated in the same manner.

Disadvantages

This system does not include the possible use of solar protections.

It is not easy to adjust because it depends on the configuration of the room to be

managed (type and size of the window) and must be adjusted differently
according to the distance the luminaires are from the frontage.

It is a non retroactive control system (the controller does not know what is
happening in the premises).

It is difficult to implement if the building's frontage can be in shadow due to

neighbouring buildings.

The system is not ergonomic because it generates sudden variations in interior

illumination.

6.5.5.2. Continuous control of the luminous flux according to the interior

illumination

On the contrary, in premises with a lower level of natural lighting, the artificial lighting must
always provide an additional supply of light. A fine dosage of this additional light by
continuous adjustment of the luminous flux (dimming) can bring an energy saving on its
own. In this case it is the interior illumination level which is taken as a representative value
for the adjustment.

Advantages

The artificial lighting is constantly readjusted according to the natural light levels
and this adjustment is not perceived by the human eye.

Most of the parameters affecting the illumination on a work surface are taken into
account thanks to the measurement in the premises.

The inevitable excess consumption of the installation due to the fact that it is
oversized (inclusion of an installation aging and dirtying factor in the calculations)
is reduced.
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Disadvantages

The choice of sensor position and the independent adjustment of the different
rows of luminaires can be delicate.

The investment is higher because one system is required per room.

Dimming of fluorescent tubes requires the use of dimmable electronic ballasts.

The minimum level below which we cannot descend depends on the type of ballast used.
Some electronic ballasts reduce the luminous flux continuously to 0 % of the lamp's total
luminous flux. However, the power of the assembly formed by the lamp and the ballast will
always be 5 % greater than the total power because the ballast's consumption is
independent of the lamp power. To avoid this residual consumption when the lamp is
dimmed to the maximum, it is important that the system should automatically switch off the
power supply to the ballasts.

To be totally efficient, basic dimming must be completed by certain additional functions.

When the occupant leaves his office when it is still daylight, he can easily forget to switch
off the lamps (which are dimmed to a maximum at this time). They will relight during the
night.

To prevent this situation, the following conditions are required:

Switching on the lighting must be linked to a presence detector or to a time

switch,

or only the switching off is controlled by the controller, switching on remains

manual (on/off control).

6.5.5.3. Measurement of the window brightness

A sensor continuously measures the window brightness (proportional to the supply of

natural light). Inside a controller, a correspondence is established between the level
measured and the ballast setting to maintain the required illumination level.

Figure 130:Measurement
of the brightness at the
window

In premises of greater
depth the artificial lighting
needs can differ
according to the distance
away from the frontage.

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Using this type of equipment

each row of luminaires can then
be adjusted according to a
different correspondence law.

Figure 131: Measurement of the

brightness for each row of
luminaires

It must be noted that at the back of

these premises, a maximum of
artificial lighting is sometimes still
necessary whatever the atmospheric
conditions.

Dimming is then not justified for the

rows of luminaires furthest away from
the window.

Figure 132: Evaluating the illumination

(brightness at each row of luminaires)

6.5.5.4. Measurement of the brightness at a point in the premises

A sensor measures the brightness at a point in the premises and adapts the power of the
luminaires accordingly.

This system has the disadvantage of modifying the illumination level according to a colour
change in the zone observed by the sensor (dark clothing on the work surface, black
paper, etc.) but this local effect will be minimal if the surface seen by the sensor is large
(radius of several metres) with respect to the dark spot.

Here too, there are systems

which allow different settings for
each row of luminaires
according to the distance away
from the window.

Figure 133: Measurement of the

brightness at a point in the
premises

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In this case, the sensor must be

placed at the level of the closest
row of luminaires to the
windows.

The controller adjusts the power

of this row and adds a constant
for the adjustment of the other
rows.

Figure 134: Location of the

sensor for the point
measurement

The control is not as fine as for the first system (represented by the dotted lines in the
graph in this paragraph): the zones furthest away from the window are always made
slightly brighter than the actual requirements.

This is because, for a maximum luminous flux of 100 % of the row nearest to the windows
(no natural lighting) the other rows must also provide 100 % of their luminous flux. When
the natural lighting increases, the luminous flux to be supplied by the luminaires is lower
the nearer they are to the windows.

The excess power of the luminaire with respect to the actual requirement is given by the
difference on the x-axis between the solid line and the dotted line.

If the sensor is placed between the rows of luminaires, they can only have identical
settings. In this case, to satisfy the back of the premises, the first row will have an excess
power with respect to the requirements.

6.5.5.5. Measurement of the brightness at each luminaire

Figure 135: Measurement of the brightness at each luminaire

This control method consist of equipping each luminaire with a sensor which measures the
illumination under the luminaire. The sensor acts directly on the luminaire's ballast and
adjusts the luminous flux to continuously maintain the recommended illumination.

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Unlike the centrally controlled systems, this system is very simple and cheap. It
requires no special wiring and no central controller (each luminaire's equipment is
independent). It is therefore very easily applied to renovations. In addition, each luminaire
is controlled according to the specific conditions of each workstation or zone of the
premises.

The disadvantage of this system is its control method which is purely proportional (unlike
centrally controlled systems). To operate, the system must maintain a difference with
respect to its setpoint. The setpoint must therefore be increased (for example: 650 Lux) to
obtain the desired illumination (for example: 500 Lux) when no natural lighting is present.
This then always results in an excess illumination with respect to the requirements when
the natural light appears.

The setting is therefore never optimal. In addition, a maximum reduction in the lamp's flux
does not lead to it automatically being switched off, and therefore does not eliminate the
ballast's residual consumption.

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7. EMERGENCY LIGHTING
Let us consider the different systems which allow part of the lamps and luminaires to
continue to function after a power cut.

This must not be confused with the standby lighting which corresponds to the part
of a lighting installation resupplied after a power cut. The emergency lighting is not
affected by power cuts, it is floating.

On the sites: the emergency lighting is (in principle) on the standby circuits but, since it
must not be affected by power cuts, each emergency light unit will have a self-contained
source or batteries.

There are systems (see below) powered by central batteries (UPS, Uninterruptible Power
Supply) and with fireproof cables, but this principle is not used on the sites. Or at least, I
have never seen any (on oil industry sites); French Regulations for Industrial Places of
Work recommend both centralised sources and self-contained sources.

7.1. GENERAL

7.1.1. The different types of lighting

Electric lighting must be provided in every type of establishment.

This lighting is divided into three types:

• normal lighting

It allows work to take place in the building when the

mains electricity supply is present.

Figure 136: Normal lighting

• standby lighting (if installed)

It allows the work to continue in the establishment

if the normal lighting fails.

Figure 137: Standby lighting

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• mandatory emergency lighting

Figure 138: Emergency lighting

It allows the establishment to be evacuated if the

normal lighting and/or standby lighting fails.

7.1.2. Aim of the emergency lighting

The role of the emergency lighting is defined in article EC7 of the safety regulations.

Article EC7:

The emergency lighting must be in standby mode when the establishment is operating.

The emergency lighting is switched on or maintained in service if the normal and/or

standby lighting (generator set) fails.

If the power supply to the normal standby lighting disappears, the emergency lighting is
powered by an emergency power source which must be able to operate for a minimum of
one hour.

It comprises:

either a centralised power source consisting of a bank of accumulators supplying the

luminaires;

or self-contained emergency light units.

7.1.3. Operating mode

When the normal lighting fails, the emergency lighting performs the following functions:

It allows the occupants to move easily though the building.

It allows persons to be evacuated to the exterior,

It allows the safety procedures to be carried out.

Emergency lighting is mandatory for:

Places of Assembly (Order of 23 June 1980, Order of 22 June 1990 and Order of
19 November 2001),

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Places of Work (Decree 88-1056 of 14 November 1988),

Blocks of flats (Order of 31 January 1986).

7.1.4. The regulations

The regulations for Places of Assembly or Places of Work impose rules concerning the
installations and the compliance of the safety products with the standards in force.

7.1.5. Product standards

The Self-contained Emergency Light Units, known as BAES in France, must bear the
NF AEAS mark according to the European NF EN60598.2.22 standard and the French
NFC 71800 / 801 / 805 standards.

The Self-Test Units (Self-contained Emergency Light Units with Self-Test), known as
SATI in France, must also be compliant with the NFC 71820 standard. The "performance
SATI" mark is proof of this compliance.

The Emergency Luminaires on Centralised Source, known as LSC in France, must

bear the NF AEAS mark according to the European NF EN 60598.2.22 standard.

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7.2. THE TWO FUNCTIONS

7.2.1. Evacuation function

Marking out the route with illuminated emergency signs.

7.2.1.1. Definition of evacuation

Evacuation lighting must allow all persons to reach the exterior with the help of light
sources which, in particular, allow obstacles to be seen and indicate changes in direction
(art. EC8 §2).

This evacuation function is provided by a self-contained emergency light unit plus a label,
the label is chosen according to the position of the emergency light unit.

Figure 139: Labels to be stuck on the evacuation units

The evacuation lighting is installed in:

corridors and passageways with a maximum of 15 m between each unit

above each exit door or emergency exit

above each obstacle

for each direction change on the evacuation route.

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This regulation applies to Places of Assembly or Places of Work receiving fifty persons or
more and to premises with a surface area greater than 300 m2 on the ground floor and
upper floors, and greater than 100 m2 in basements.

The evacuation units must have a rated* luminous flux of at least 45 lumens.

* “Rated”= Minimum value guaranteed by the manufacturer. (45 lumens / 1 hour)

This measurement is performed over 1 hour with the unit operating in standby mode. This
is comparable to the 60 lumens previously measured after 5 minutes.

7.2.1.2. Installation rules for emergency evacuation light units and labels

The emergency signs must be visible at all points in the building and must indicate the
routes and emergency exits to be used by the public to evacuate the establishment.

What do the regulations say?

According to article EC9 of the safety regulations,

the "evacuation marking labels must be lit by the
evacuation lighting:
Figure 140: Label lighting

either by the unit on which they are placed,

if they are transparent,

or by the unit located near them if they are opaque".

How can we ensure that the label is visible?

The public and personnel must be able to see the

labels at all points in the building during an
evacuation, even if the building is crowded.

The transparent labels installed on the unit

are visible from a distance of 200 times the
height of the label.

Figure 141: Label visibility

E.g.: A label 10 cm high can be seen from up to 20

metres away.

The labels placed under the unit are only

visible from a distance of 100 times the
height of the label.

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Which labels must be installed?

Only regulatory labels must be used.

The regulatory pictograms are standardised and must be white on a green background.
They must meet:

article CO 42 of the safety

regulations

the NF X 08-003 and ISO

3864 standards
Figure 142: Only regulatory labels must be used

NOTE The additional "Exit" and 'Emergency exit" labels can only be installed to
supplement the regulatory labels.

7.2.2. The open area / antipanic function

This lighting must provide a uniform illumination and a good visibility to prevent
movements of panic.

Open area lighting is installed in Places of Assembly receiving more than 50 persons in
the basement and more than 100 on the ground and upper floors

This lighting must be based on a rated luminous flux of at least 5 lumens per square
metre of floor area; (a conventional unit diffuses a minimum of 360 lumens / 1 hour)

The distance between two light sources must, at the maximum, be equal to 4 times the
installation height (art. EC10 §2).

Open area lighting or antipanic lighting must be designed so that each premises or hall is
lit by at least two light sources.

The lamps used in the units are either incandescent or fluorescent and their power
depends on the unit's characteristics (360 to 1500 lumens)

The units are of the following type (according to the premises and the type of lighting to be
provided)

Maintained: nominal lighting in normal service

Nonmaintained: on standby when the lighting is normal

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7.3. INSTALLATION DESIGN

7.3.1. Rules for the locations of Self-contained Emergency Light Units and
Emergency Luminaires on Centralised Source

The Self-contained Emergency Light Units and the Emergency Luminaires on Centralised
Source must be located in compliance with the regulatory requirements to provide signs
and an emergency lighting level sufficient to allow the people in the building to evacuate it
if necessary.

7.3.1.1. Where should the self-contained emergency light units and luminaires
be located?

Evacuation lighting Open area or antipanic lighting

Minimum luminous flux of 5 lumens /m2 of
floor area
Every 15 m along the evacuation routes (1)
The distance (d) between 2 emergency light
- at each exit or emergency exit
units or 2 emergency luminaires must be
- at each change of direction
Rules less than or equal to 4 times their height (h)
- at each obstacle
above the floor (in compliance with the
- at each change of level or floor
formula d ≤ 4h)
At the room and premises exits
Each premises must be lit by at least 2 units
or 2 luminaires
The common passageways > 50 m2
The evacuation serving one or more Places of Assembly
routes All (corridors, stairs, halls) receiving more than 100 persons
concerned (Establishment covered by the Labour Code
– Places of Work)(2)
Rooms and Number of persons: ≥ 50 Number of persons:
premises ≥ 100 persons on the ground or upper
concerned Surface area floors
in the Places of > 300 m2 on the ground and upper floors ≥ 50 persons in the basement
Assembly > 100 m2 in the basement
Number of persons: ≥ 20
Rooms and
premises Distance from any point in the premises Number of persons: ≥ 100 persons with a
concerned to a common passageway exit ≥ 30 m density > 1 person / 10 m2
in the Places of
Work (2) Access from any point in the premises to
a common passageway with change of
floors
(1) The evacuation routes can be partitioned off or indicated inside a room or premises
(2) Places of Work: Establishments covered by the Labour Code

Table 53: Summary of the installation rules for self-contained emergency light units and
emergency luminaires

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7.3.1.2. Example of locations

Figure 143: Example of locations in offices

7.3.1.3. How do we connect them?

The electric cable supplying the self-contained

emergency light units must be taken from a branch
downstream of the protection device and upstream
of the normal lighting control device for the
premises or passageway where these units are
installed.

Figure 144: Connecting the Emergency Light Unit

(power supply)

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When the control and protection functions are provided by a same device, the emergency
light units can be supplied from a point upstream of this device if it has an accessory which
disconnects the power supply to the units if the protection is automatically cut.

7.3.2. Installing a system with self-contained emergency light units

The self-contained emergency light units used for the evacuation lighting (EC12 §4) must
be:

nonmaintained fluorescent and mandatorily equipped with an integrated

automatic self-test system compliant with the standard in force (NFC 71820);

maintained fluorescent;

incandescent.

The self-contained emergency light units used for the open area lighting or antipanic
lighting (EC12 §5) must be:

nonmaintained fluorescent;

incandescent.

The self-contained emergency light unit installation must have one or more devices
allowing it to be placed on standby and which must be located near the main control
device or branch control devices.

7.3.3. Installation with centralised sources

This installation principle can be applied (on sites) to habitation and centres with theatres,
cinemas and conference rooms.

The luminaires for centralised source must have the NF AEAS mark (EC11 §1).

The centralised sources must be compliant with the NFC 71 815 (EC11 §8)
standard.

The power supply cables between the centralised source and the emergency
luminaires must be fireproof category CR1 (EL16 §1).

The installation supplying the emergency lighting must be subdivided into several
circuits starting from a emergency switchboard compliant with article EL 15.

There must be no protection devices on the emergency lighting installation circuit.

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The open area lighting of each premises and the evacuation lighting of each
passageway with length greater than 15 m must each be installed using at least
two separate circuits with routes as different as possible. If one of the two circuits
fails, the remaining illumination must be sufficient (do not connect two
neighbouring light sources to the same circuit)

It is admissible to group the open area lighting or antipanic lighting of several

premises with those of the evacuation lighting of several passageways in order to
use a total of only two circuits for each type of lighting. In this case the previous
rule of the dual circuit continues to apply.

The evacuation lighting with centralised source must be permanently lit when the
public is present (EC11 §2).

The open area lighting can be switched off or lit when the public is present. If the
light sources are switched off and therefore in standby mode, they must be able
to be automatically lit from a sufficient number of power failure detection points
(EC11 § 3).

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7.4. OBLIGATIONS OF THE OPERATOR

7.4.1. Operation

The emergency lighting must be able to be placed in standby mode during the
periods when the building is in use so that it is operational as soon as there is a
failure of the normal lighting/standby lighting (EC14 §1).

The emergency lighting must be placed in standby mode or switched off when the
normal lighting system is intentionally switched off (EC14 §2).

7.4.1.1. What is the purpose of the standby mode

It allows the self-contained emergency light units to be switched off when the normal
lighting is voluntarily switched off (when the building is no longer being used).

The self-contained emergency light units automatically return to standby mode when the
normal lighting returns.

The standby mode:

- prevents the self-contained emergency light units from becoming discharged after
the normal lighting is voluntarily switched off .

- guarantees that the self-contained emergency light units will be ready to operate
when the establishment opens (battery charged).

- avoids premature battery wear by preserving the lifetime of the unit.

Operating instructions must be given to the last person to leave the establishment,
they can also be displayed near the main switch.

The self-contained emergency light unit installation must have one or more devices
allowing the system to be placed in standby mode in a centralised manner (art. EC12§6).

7.4.1.2. Application scenario

During the period when the building is being used, the emergency lighting of a Place of
Assembly and/or a Place of Work must be placed in standby mode (pilot light on), so that it
is ready to operate if there is a power cut on the normal lighting system.

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1- Period when the establishment 2- End of the establishment's 3- Power cut on the normal lighting
is in use (normal lighting on - self- period of use. No public present system, the self-contained
contained emergency light units on (normal lighting lit - self-contained emergency light units come on
standby) emergency light units on standby) (emergency operation)

4- Self-contained emergency light 5- When the establishment opens, Remote control unit
units switched off manually (placed the self-contained emergency light
in standby mode using the remote units return to standby mode and
control) are ready to operate

Table 54: Putting the emergency light units in standby mode

7.4.1.3. How is the remote control connected?

Figure 145: Connection principle for the remote control for the self-contained emergency
light unit standby mode
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The remote control is mandatory in all establishments. The remote control(s) must be
placed near the main control device or the branch control devices for the establishment's
normal lighting.

Figure 146: Connection principle for a remote control for the self-contained emergency
light unit standby mode and for automatically switching off the lighting by key switch.

When the establishment closes, the Operator turns the key switch which is generally
located in a passageway or near an entrance/exit.
This action automatically cuts the normal lighting and places the self-contained emergency
light units in standby mode.

Before the establishment opens, the Operator turns the key switch in the opposite direction
to switch on the normal lighting and to return the self-contained emergency light units to
standby mode.

On site, the self-contained emergency light units and the remote controls are mandatory in
the office, habitation and recreation building parts.

Concerning the emergency lighting for the process part, the self-contained emergency light
units (with remote control unit) are also mandatory in the technical premises.

Emergency lighting forms part of the normal lighting (with standby system) in exterior
lighting and in passageway and alley lighting. This emergency lighting (normally) consists
of luminaires identical to the others, operating as maintained lighting and which also have
incorporated batteries. In explosive zones (ATEX), these luminaires cannot be classified
as type "e" (reinforced safety) for the lighting part itself, but the battery part must be type
"d" (explosion proof), the luminaire should therefore have the double specification "e.d".
See course SE190 on equipment in risk zones

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7.4.2. Checks by the Operator

The amendment to the Fire Safety Regulations in Places of Assembly and Places of
Work published in the Order of 22 November 2004 stipulates that the maintenance
of the self-contained emergency light units should be strictly carried out respecting
the NF C 71-830 standard (maintenance of self-contained emergency light units).

Regulations: Articles EL 18, EC 13, EC 14 §3, Standards NF C 71-820, NF C 71-830

7.4.2.1. What is the Site Manager's responsibility?

The Operator is criminally responsible for the safety of his establishment.

He must ensure that the self-contained emergency lighting units are regularly inspected
and maintained so that his establishment's emergency lighting installation is kept in perfect
working order.

7.4.2.2. Maintenance of the self-contained emergency light units: how and

how often?

regular maintenance to be carried out by the Operator

Monthly:

check that the self-contained emergency light units operate during an emergency
and that the emergency lamps light (the operation must be strictly limited to the time
necessary for the visual inspection).

check the remote control which places the units in standby mode (or switches them
off) when the normal lighting is switched off and check that the units automatically
return to standby mode when the normal lighting is switched on again.

Six-monthly:

check the battery time of the units in emergency mode (at least 1 hour).

When the self-test units are used these operations are carried out automatically. The
checks are limited to ensuring that the green LED on the units is lit when the normal
lighting is on.

annual maintenance must be carried out by a qualified person

In addition to the six-monthly battery time check it includes other verification, cleaning and
maintenance operations on each self-contained emergency light unit.

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7.4.2.3. Do the regular inspections and checks have to be recorded?

The annual interventions and their results must be recorded in an intervention report to be
appended to the establishment's safety log.

7.4.2.4. How do we know if a unit has been checked?

At the end of each annual maintenance operation the qualified

person must fill in the maintenance label for each unit
inspected. This label must be stuck in a clearly visible manner
on each self-contained emergency light unit.

Figure 147: Stick an inspection and maintenance label (with

date) on each unit

7.4.2.5. How are the test periods determined?

In establishments where there are periods of closure, the self-contained emergency light
unit inspections must be carried out to ensure that the emergency lighting installation has
regained its specified battery time at the start of each period of opening to the public /
personnel (a regulatory 1-hour discharge of a self-contained emergency light unit requires
a minimum charging time of 12 hours to become operational again).

7.4.2.6. What types of maintenance operations must be carried out?

The NF C 71-830 standard defines the rules for the maintenance of self-contained
emergency light units in compliance with the new provisions in the Fire Safety Regulations
for Places of Assembly.

The regular maintenance operations must be carried out in compliance with the table in
this paragraph:

Who? Operator Qualified person (1)

Six-
When? Monthly Annually
monthly

Self-contained emergency light units in place X

Self-contained emergency light units perfectly visible X

Physical condition of exterior self-contained emergency

X
light units satisfactory

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Who? Operator Qualified person (1)

Six-
When? Monthly Annually
monthly

Charging indicator or tube depending on the case (2) X

Green indicator for self-test units X

Emergency lamp(s) (2) X - X

Compliance of the replaceable components X

Battery time (2) X X

Battery appearance X

General cleaning of the unit X

Remote control (operation) X - X

Stick maintenance label on the unit

X
and fill it in

Inspection report X

Safety log X

(1) Persons or bodies approved by the Interior Ministry, or technicians approved by an Inspection Body.

(2) Important: These operations are carried out automatically by the self-test units in compliance with the
NF C 71-820 standard in force.

The self-contained emergency light units meeting these

requirements must bear the mark:

Table 55: Maintenance operations on the self-contained emergency light units

All anomalies found during these operations must be the subject of a maintenance
intervention carried out by a qualified person.

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7.4.2.7. How do the self-test units work?

The self-test units (self-contained emergency light

units with self test) automatically perform the
regulatory tests on the lamps and batteries. You no
longer have to check the status of the LED
indicators.

The result of the tests is directly stored in memory

and indicated on the unit by 2 LEDs:

green: unit operational

yellow: unit fault

Figure 148: Indicator showing that the self-test units

are operating correctly

The self-test units test themselves randomly one after the other (see the manufacturers'
Instructions For Use for the details of the operation of these units since there are different
variants from manufacturer to manufacturers).

The automatic tests on the units can thus be carried out during the periods when the
establishment is being used and still guarantee the evacuation safety of the public and
personnel at all times.

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8. INDUSTRIAL SOCKET-OUTLETS

8.1. IEC 60309-2 STANDARD

8.1.1. Feedback

In the 90s I was working as a Project Manager for a company installing electrical systems,
I had to redesign the distribution of the socket-outlets at two plants in France. (Industrial
socket-outlets for the exterior and workshops)

Since these plants were of an international scale, the work had to be carried out in
compliance with the NF EN 60309-2 standard (or IEC 60309-2) and standardised
equipment meeting this standard had to be used.

The main features of this standard were (and still are…)

Colour of the socket-outlets corresponds to one operating voltage only

Single pin configuration corresponding both to the voltage and to the current

Mechanical interlocking by local switch (or electrical interlocking with pilot wire)
preventing plugs to plugged in or removed when the circuit is closed

There was a small problem, this equipment did not exist at the French manufacturers.
When (practically) all of Europe (including the Eastern European countries) had
"standardised" socket-outlets, our French manufacturers were fighting try to impose their
manufacturing standards (and probably trying to get rid of their stock...). I ordered the
equipment from Italian and German manufacturers…

Since then, industrial socket-outlets with standardised colour and pins have been
manufactured by French companies but I noticed that on the subject of the mechanical
disconnection (or electrical disconnection with pilot wire) at socket-outlet level, there is still
some reluctance, "there is still some way to go", and even the Americans started to use
this system in 2008, (see the examples and details below)

Concerning the socket-outlet installations on Total production sites, "there is still a very
long way to go"…

We are beginning to see the arrival of the standardised colours and pin configurations, but
I have above all seen installations which have been "tinkered around with" by the site
electricians to "adapt" the different systems (old and new). For the socket-outlets in risk
zones, with ATEX equipment, I have never seen the circuits concerned in service or even
used on any site. The circuits are unplugged, interlocked, padlocked at the main
distribution board. On some sites the power supply racks have even been completely
removed. In fact this is probably the best thing to do, because with the equipment installed,
it is probably safer not to use them. (This is my personal opinion, I find this equipment
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pretty awful, and even dangerous…, I am certainly not the only one to think so since the
circuits have been padlocked…)

When are we going to have a campaign to standardise the socket-outlets on the sites? Do
I have to remind you that the main source of accidents in the electrical field is due to
temporary connections and connections from socket-outlets.

8.1.2. Noninterchangeability

The main points of the standardisation for the colours and pin configurations is summed up
in the pie chart shown in the figure and are detailed in the following paragraphs. It
specifies: colour + position of earth pin (in the x o'clock position) + number of poles +
voltage.

Figure 149: Summary of the standard - colours and pin configurations for industrial socket-
outlets

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The standardisation is applicable for currents from 16 to 125 A (with 32 and 63 A only as
intermediate values), the voltages are in LV: > 50 V and up to 690 V.

The IEC 60309-2 standard specifies that equipment with different numbers of
poles, different voltages, different frequencies or different currents cannot be
connected together.

The earth pin hole is placed in different positions with respect to the key,
according to the equipment's voltage and frequency.

The key is always positioned at 6 o'clock.

A colour code is used to easily differentiate the voltages and the frequencies.

The sizes of the equipment vary according to the current.

The spacing between the contacts differs according to the number of poles.

The earth pin is always larger than the phase pins.

All these measures are there to guarantee perfect safety.

8.1.3. Colour codings

The IEC 60309-1-2 standard stipulates that for all new installations (Is this really the case
on our sites?) the colour of all the socket-outlets must correspond to the voltage supplied
by this same socket-outlet.

The colour must not be painted on the socket but the material (metal, plastic, fibreglass,
nylon, rubber, etc.) must be self-coloured.

Colour Voltage Range

Yellow 110 / 125 V AC 16 to 63 Amps
Blue 220 / 230V AC 16 to 63 Amps
Red 380 / 440V AC 16 to 125 Amps
Black 500 / 660 V AC 16 / 32 Amps
Purple 24V AC 16 / 32 Amps
40-50V AC
White 16 / 32 Amps
20 to 50V DC
For other frequencies
Red 60Hz / 440V 16 / 32 Amps
Green 500V / 100 to 500Hz 16 / 32 Amps

Table 56: Colour = voltage for industrial socket-outlets

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The colour does not systematically have to be on (and in) all the parts of the socket-outlet
but it must at least be in the connection part and the cover.

One colour = one voltage. And also one frequency, but nothing else.

And not as I have seen on the sites: "It's red, so if it's OK for 400 V, it's also OK for 220 V".

I have also very often seen purple socket-outlets for 220V and more rarely blue plugs in
red sockets (or vice versa), someone must have modified the pin configurations… You
can't blame the site electricians if they haven't been correctly informed and if there are
equipment procurement problems.

8.1.4. Pin configurations

All the plus and socket-outlets for industrial use are covered by the international
and European IEC EN 60309-1 standard. This standard stipulates the general
qualitative rules (performance criteria, test, etc.) which all socket-outlets must
comply with so that using them does not compromise the safety of persons and
property.

Whatever the techniques used (pin and pin hole contacts, end contacts, flat contacts, etc.)
all the socket-outlets worldwide must be compliant with the general qualitative rules of the
IEC EN 60309-1 standard. A category of industrial socket-outlets using the brass pin and
pin hole contact method with a harmonised configuration is governed by a standard which
is dedicated to them: it is the IEC EN 60309-2 standard. It is a standard specific to this
category of socket-outlets; it simply sets out the dimensional rules allowing one
manufacturer's plug to connect to another manufacturer's socket and vice versa.

The EN 60309-2 standard does not cover:

rectangular-shaped socket-outlets (like the charging connectors for fork-lift trucks),

those which use flat contacts (like the American socket-outlets),

those which use end contacts,

those which are equipped with auxiliary contacts,

those which have the necessary disconnection and switch-off capability required for
motor power supplies,

those which have ratings over 125A,

those which must have their energised parts protected against accidental contacts
on the socket side and on the plug side (like the charging connectors for electric
vehicles),

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In industry today there are over 70 different current requirements (voltage, frequency, AC
current, DC current). These requirements are dictated by the needs of the utilisations, to
which must be added the high levels of constraints due to the industrial environments:
chemical industry, food industry, mining industry, etc.

However, the IEC EN 60309-2 standard specifies a configuration and a contact method
which therefore does not meet all industrial requirements.

Therefore, for these reasons, a group of manufacturers (French-based), known as

BECMA, created its own pin configuration standard mainly based on the end contact
technology.

The description of the pin configurations given below meets the IEC 60309-1-2 directive
and does not take account of the other standards decided by this group of manufacturers
(standards created to cover shortcomings left by the IEC 60309 standard, according to
these same manufacturers).

Time will tell if these other pin configuration systems have a future…

As seen above, the purpose of this standard is, at world level, to be able to connect
your plug from one country to a socket installed in another country, and without
having to have to think about it (if the size and colour correspond, it must be OK).

PURPLE Very Low Voltage 25 V

Key (single) in 6 o'clock position

The polarising device is an internal key always located in the 6 o'clock position

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WHITE Safety voltage in AC and Very Low Voltage in DC

40 to 50 V AC 50 / 60 Hz

Colour: white

2 poles or 3 poles

Major key in 6 o'clock position

42 V (average) in DC

Colour: white

2 poles

Minor key in 12 o'clock position in other

catalogues?

Major key in 6 o'clock position

The polarising device is an internal key always located in the 6 o'clock position

YELLOW: 100 to 130 V AC

100 to 130 V in AC 50 / 60 Hz

Colour: yellow

Earth pin in 4 o'clock position (see pie

chart)

2P + E or 3P + E or 3P + N + E

57 to 75 V corresponding to the voltage

between P (phase) and N (neutral) for
voltages of 100 to 130 V between phases

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BLUE: 200 to 250 V in AC

220 / 230 V in AC 50 / 60 Hz

Colour: blue

Earth pin in 6 o'clock position (2P + E) and

in 9 o'clock position for the other two (see
pie chart)

2P + E or 3P + E or 3P + N + E

120/208 and 144/250 limit voltages

between Phase and Neutral and between
phases

RED: 380 to 460 V in AC

440 V (average) in AC 60 Hz only

Colour: red

Earth pin in 11 o'clock position

3P + E and also 3P + N + E (see pie chart)

400 V (average) in AC 50 / 60 Hz

Colour: red

Earth pin in 9 o'clock position (2P + E) and

in 6 o'clock position for the other two (see
pie chart)

2P + E or 3P + E or 3P + N + E

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BLACK: 480 to 500 V in AC + 600 / 690

500 V in AC 50 / 60 Hz

Colour: black

Earth pin in 7 o'clock position

3P + E (shown) but also 2P + E and 3P +

N+E
The 5 o'clock pin position is not shown and
we also find 3P+E and 3P + N + E

GREEN: 50 to 500 V in AC 100 to 500 Hz Special frequencies

> 50 to 500 V 100 to 300 Hz

Colour: green

Earth pin in 10 o'clock position

3P + E only

> 50 to 500 V 300 to 500 Hz

Colour: green

Earth pin in 2 o'clock position

3P + E but also 2P + E and 3P + N + E

Table 57: Industrial socket-outlet pin configurations

For low voltage (yellow, blue, red, black and green colours) the polarising device is an external key always
located in the 6 o'clock position

The earth pin is always larger than the others (phase and neutral). Pin configuration valid for all types of
connection: plug, socket, connector, cable coupler, etc. and for all types of assemblies: on exterior of
switchboard, surface-mounted, inclined, straight, etc.

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Additional pin configurations for VLV: for socket-outlets with frequencies other than 50
/ 60 Hz (green colour) and with the addition of grey for DC above 25 V

Number of Voltage Frequency Position of

Colour
poles V Hz minor key
20-25 50-60 No minor key Purple
40-50 50-60 12 o'clock White
100-200 4 o'clock Green
2 300 2 o'clock Green
20-25
and 400 3 o'clock Green
40-50
>400-500 1 o'clock Green
DC 10 o'clock Grey
20-25 50-60 No minor key Purple
40-50 50-60 12 o'clock White
100-200 4 o'clock Green
3
20-25 300 2 o'clock Green
and
40-50 400 3 o'clock Green
>400-500 1 o'clock Green
The major key is always in the 6 o'clock position

Table 58: Additional pin configurations for VLV and frequencies greater than 60 Hz

8.1.5. Industrial socket-outlet currents

Let us consider the amperage rating available in each voltage category.

One rating = one dimension (colour, thus not including voltage)

2P + E
100 to 130 V
YELLOW 16A / 32A / 63A 3P + E
50 / 60 Hz
3P + N + E

200 to 250 V 2P + E
16 A / 32 A /
(220 V) BLUE 3P + E
63 A / 125 A
50 / 60 Hz 3P + N + E

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2P + E
380 to 460 V 16 A / 32 A /
RED 3P + E
50 / 60 Hz 63 A / 125 A
3P + N + E

480 to 500 V 2P + E
16 A / 32 A /
3P + E
63 A / 125 A
50 / 60 Hz BLACK 3P + N + E
500 – 600 V 3P + E
16 A / 32 A
50 / 60 Hz 3P + N + E

20 - 25 V 2P
Purple 16 A / 32 A
50 / 60 Hz 3P

40 – 50 V at 50 /
2P
60 Hz White 16 A / 32 A
3P
20 – 50 in DC

Special applications

440 – 460 V 16 A / 32 A / 3P + E
Red
60 Hz (only) 63 A / 125 A 3P + N + E

> 50 V - 500V
Green 16 A / 32 A 3P + E
100 to 300 Hz

2P + E
> 50 V - 500V
Green 16 A / 32 A 3P + E
100 to 300 Hz
3P + N + E
< 50 V
Green ? ?
100 to 500 Hz

Table 59: Amperage and number of poles according to type of socket-outlet

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8.2. PROTECTIONS – WIRING

8.2.1. Protections for socket-outlet circuits

Thermal protection

Whether the protection is by fuse (only) or by circuit breaker or by the combination

of a contactor + thermal relay, the protection must correspond to the rating of the
socket-outlets to be protected whatever the number of these outlets connected in
parallel.

16 amp socket-outlets must be protected by a device set to 16 A maximum

32 amp socket-outlets must be protected by a device set to 32 A maximum

63 amp socket-outlets must be protected by a device set to 63 A maximum

125 amp socket-outlets must be protected by a device set to 125 A maximum

However, if you decide to protect 63 A socket-outlets by a 40A circuit breaker to protect

one or more machines, there is nothing to prevent you doing so, but do not it the other way
round: 40 A protection for 16A socket-outlets… (for example) – I've seen this, and the
"excuse" was that there were several socket-outlets in parallel…)

The protection device must disconnect all the conductors, the phase(s) and neutral
if present

The earth conductor is never disconnected

The neutral conductor is normally not protected but must in any case be
disconnected at the same time as the phase(s).

Each type of socket-outlet (16, 32, 63, 125 A) must have its independent protection.
Never mix ratings in the same circuit

Each type of circuit (1P+N+E, 2P+N+E, 3P+N+E, 2P+E, 3P+E) must have its
independent protection.

Differential protection (DDR)

Socket-outlet = 30 mA differential protection

And no arguments about it! Whatever the circuit, the location, the country, the
manufacturer, the habitat, the number of socket-outlets, etc., it must be 30 mA

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Earth protection

For low voltage, all the socket-outlets must have an earth connector. (using 220V purple
socket-outlets is practical, you only need two wires, I've seen that too…)
The earth conductor must be incorporated in the power supply cable. This earth conductor
(in the power cable) must be connected to the earth pin. It is prohibited to connect the
socket-outlets earth pin independently to earth. However, the socket-outlet's metal support
(and the frame if it is made of metal) must be connected to this main earth (protective
earth).

8.2.2. Socket-outlet wiring

Figure 150: 3P+N+E socket-outlet connection in enclosure with interlock switch

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Cross-sectional area of power supply conductors:

A minimum cross-sectional area must be

Minimum cross-
used for each type of socket-outlet. This
Socket-outlet sectional area of
minimum value is required because voltage
rating copper conductor in
drop calculations must be performed if the
mm²
power supply cables are long.
16 2.5
Table 60: Minimum cross-sectional area of 32 6
power supply conductors for industrial 63 16
socket-outlets
125 25 or 35
The conductors (and cables) must not be of the flexible type but have a solid or stranded
core for the (permanent) power supplies for socket-outlets.

Concerning the cable starting from the socket and from the plug, it must of course be of
the flexible type.

Cross-sectional area of the earth conductor:

Reminder: The earth conductor must be incorporated in the power supply cable and have
a yellow / green insulation sheath. Its cross-sectional area must be (for the conductor
incorporated in the power supply)

of the same cross-sectional area as the power supply conductors up to 16 mm²

16 mm² for power supply conductors of 25 and 35 mm²

half of the power supply conductors from 50 mm²

Reminder: Cable designation: 3G16 or 5G25 or 4G2.5 means that one conductor with
yellow / green sheath is included in the cable (G for Ground). For a designation such as
3x16 or 5x25 or 4x2.5 there will be the number of conductors indicated (yes, there will…)
but the colour of the insulations is not defined, it is up to the manufacturer, except however
for the colours yellow/green, light blue, yellow and green.

Standard wiring:

Maximum number of socket-outlets per circuit: no specific rules; in practice, it is

recommended that the following number of socket-outlets should be installed:

16 A 2P + E: 6 to 8

16 A 3P + E and 3P + N + E: 6

32 A 2P + E and 3P + E and 3P + N + E: 4 to 6

63 A 3P + E and 3P + N + E: 4

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125 A 3P + E and 3P + N + E: 2

And for the whole assembly consisting of the socket-outlet installation, protection and
wiring, do not forget to clearly differentiate the circuits.

Figure 151: Example of wiring and protection of the distribution to the socket-outlets

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8.3. APPLICATIONS

8.3.1. The different types of industrial socket-outlets (IEC 60 309-1-2

standards)

Figure 152: Some socket-outlets produced by a major European manufacturer

Socket-outlets

The socket-outlet can be mounted on a switchboard (surface-mounted), on a surface

mounted enclosure, surface mounted, flush mounted, IP44 to IP67, male or female,
straight outlet, angled outlet, etc. See the manufacturers' catalogues

Figure 153: Some socket-outlets

Plugs

The plug must correspond to the socket-outlet: if the colour and dimensions correspond, it
is automatically the correct plug, it will be easily inserted into its socket.

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The polarising system also prevents the wrong plug from being forced into the socket.

The connecting cable is moulded in the connection part giving an IP of 44 to 67 depending

on the model.

Figure 154: Some plugs

Cable couplers

The socket-outlet is never in the right place and the cables of mobile equipment are
always too short, in a word, cable couplers are always very useful (and always will be).

Do not forget that temporary connections are the main source of electrical accidents, and
that cable couplers have the highest percentage of accidents for this type of connection.

Figure 155: Making up your own cable coupler

A cable coupler must have a plug (male connector) and a socket (female connector); cable
couplers with 2 plugs or 2 sockets are prohibited!

The cable must be of the flexible type, rigid cable is prohibited.

Armoured cable is also prohibited, but I have seen it used...

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Figure 156: Wrong method of making up as cable coupler

8.3.2. Multiple socket-outlet distribution

In the workshop or in the

production unit it is often
necessary to have several
types of connections to
socket-outlets: single phase
220V, 3-phase 400V, 3-phase
+N 400V, 24 V for the safety,
etc., (without forgetting the
earth). It is certainly simpler
(and more cost effective) to
have a single supply from the
main switchboard and to have
the protections and the
distribution locally.

Figure 157: Protected multiple

socket-outlets

8.3.3. Socket-outlets with incorporated local disconnection device

French law stipulates that "socket-outlets with pins and pin holes must be
mechanically or electrically associated with a switch or a contactor" above 32 A (16
A for most other countries and even 1 kW – or 5 A – in Italy).

The electrical system requires the use of a microswitch and a pilot cable controlling the
contactor (or switch / remote control circuit breaker). There is nothing to prevent the
maintenance electrician from bypassing the control…

Mechanical interlocking with local switch is the safest method (recommended in countries
other than France), it is impossible to plug into the socket or unplug when the switch is in

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"ON" position. You have to dismantle the whole unit to be able to override
the interlocking, and that becomes sabotage.

See the figure in paragraph 8.2.2 showing the inside of a unit equipped
with this system; the same type is shown here with the cover in close
position.

Figure 158: Socket-outlet with interlocking switch

Even the USA has adopted the switch interlocking system and the IEC
60309-1-2 standard for its products.

See the following figure. Care must be taken when connecting the earth conductor (the
example in the figure is for North America): the metal parts must be connected to
protective earth, but an external connection would be required. The earth pin must be
connected using a dedicated connector in the power cable. The earth conductor must be
yellow/green.

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Figure 159: The USA applies the IEC standard and uses socket-outlets with integrated
switch

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8.3.4. ATEX socket-outlets

See course EXP-MN-SE190

As explained earlier in
this course, concerning
the socket-outlets and
more specifically the
ATEX socket-outlets on
our sites, "there is still a
long way to go"…

But with standardised

socket-outlets (IEC
60309 of course), with
switches with
mechanical interlocking
(no electrical
interlocking and pilot
wire), and with ATEX
conformity, the risk is
zero.

Figure 160: Some ABB

ATEX plugs and socket-
outlets with mechanical
interlocking

They are grey to differentiate them from other

plugs and socket-outlets, these are ATEX.

Concerning the systems (mainly French) with

decontactor incorporated in the socket-outlet,
although they are ATEX certified, I am personally
against their use…

Figure 161: Legrand / Maréchal ATEX plugs and

sockets

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9. GLOSSARY
Here is a series of definitions in French and English taken from the IEC 60 309-1 standard,
issue 4.1 December 2005. The numbers indicated correspond to those of the articles of
the standard.

2.1 prise de courant 2.1 plug and socket - outlet

ensemble destiné à relier électriquement à volonté a means enabling the connection at will of a flexible
un câble souple à une canalisation fixe. cable to fixed wiring. It consists of two parts:
Elle se compose de deux parties:

2.1.1 socle de prise de courant 2.1.1 socket-outlet

partie destinée à être installée avec la canalisation the part intended to be installed with the fixed wiring
fixe ou à être incorporée au matériel. or incorporated in equipment.
Un socle de prise de courant peut aussi être A socket-outlet may also be incorporated in the
incorporé dans le circuit secondaire d'un output circuit of an isolating transformer
transformateur de séparation des circuits

2.1.2 fiche 2.1.2 plug

partie faisant corps avec le câble souple raccordé au the part integral with or intended to be attached
matériel ou à une prise mobile ou destinée à être directly to one flexible cable connected to the
reliée directement à un tel câble equipment or to a connector

2.2 prolongateur 2.2 cable coupler

ensemble destiné à relier électriquement à volonté a means enabling the connection at will of two
deux câbles souples. Il se compose de deux parties: flexible cables. It consists of two parts:

2.2.1 prise mobile 2.2.1 connector

partie faisant corps avec le câble souple the part integral with or intended to be attached to
d'alimentation, ou destinée à être reliée à un tel one flexible cable connected to the supply
câble. NOTE: In general, a connector has the same contact
NOTE : En général, une prise mobile a les mêmes arrangement as a socket-outlet.
organes de contact qu'un socle de prise de courant.

2.2.2 fiche 2.2.2 plug

partie faisant corps avec le câble souple raccordé au the part integral with or intended to be attached to
matériel ou à une prise mobile ou destinée à être one flexible cable connected to the equipment or to
reliée à un tel câble a connector
NOTE : La fiche d'un prolongateur est identique à la NOTE: The plug of a cable coupler is identical to the
fiche d'une prise de courant. plug of a "plug and socket-outlet".

2.3 connecteur 2.3 appliance coupler

ensemble destiné à relier électriquement à volonté a means enabling the connection at will of a flexible
un câble souple au matériel. Il se compose de deux cable to the equipment. It consists of two parts:
parties:

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2.3.1 prise mobile 2.3.1 connector

partie faisant corps avec le câble souple the part integral with, or intended to be attached to,
d'alimentation, ou destinée à être reliée à un tel one flexible cable connected to the supply
câble. NOTE: In general, the connector of an appliance
NOTE : En général, la prise mobile d'un connecteur coupler is identical to the connector of a cable
est identique à la prise mobile d'un prolongateur. coupler.

2.3.2 socle de connecteur 2.3.2 appliance inlet

partie incorporée ou fixée au matériel, ou destinée à the part incorporated in, or fixed to, the equipment or
y être fixée intended to be fixed to it
NOTE : En général, un socle de connecteur a les NOTE: In general, an appliance inlet has the same
mêmes organes de contact qu'une fiche. contact arrangement as a plug.

2.4 fiche démontable ou prise mobile 2.4 rewirable plug or connector

démontable an accessory so constructed that the flexible cable
appareil construit de façon que le câble souple can be replaced
puisse être remplacé

2.5 fiche non démontable ou prise mobile non 2.5 non-rewirable plug or connector
démontable an accessory so constructed that the flexible cable
appareil construit de façon que le câble souple ne cannot be separated from the accessory without
puisse être séparé de l'appareil sans le rendre making it permanently useless
définitivement inutilisable

2.6 dispositif mécanique d'interruption 2.6 mechanical switching device

dispositif d'interruption destiné à fermer et à ouvrir a switching device designed to close and open one
un ou plusieurs circuits électriques au moyen de or more electric circuits by means of separable
contacts séparables contacts

2.7 socle interrupteur 2.7 switched socket-outlet

socle comportant un dispositif de coupure associé, a socket-outlet with an associated switching device
qui coupe l'alimentation des contacts du socle to disconnect the supply from the socket outlet
contacts

2.8 dispositif d'interruption incorporé 2.8 integral switching device

dispositif d'interruption construit comme partie a mechanical switching device constructed as a part
intégrante d'un appareil couvert par la présente of an accessory covered by this standard
norme

2.9 dispositif de verrouillage 2.9 interlock

ensemble, électrique ou mécanique, qui empêche la a device, either electrical or mechanical, which
mise sous tension des contacts d'une fiche avant prevents the contacts of a plug from becoming live
qu'elle soit suffisamment engagée dans un socle de before it is in proper engagement with a socket
prise de courant ou dans une prise mobile, et qui outlet or connector, and which either prevents the
empêche l'extraction de la fiche tant que ses plug from being withdrawn while its contacts are live
contacts sont sous tension ou met hors tension les or makes the contacts dead before separation
contacts avant séparation

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2.10 dispositif de retenue 2.10 retaining device

mécanisme qui maintient en place une fiche ou une a mechanical arrangement which holds a plug or
prise mobile lorsqu'elle est suffisamment engagée et connector in position when it is in proper
qui empêche tout retrait involontaire engagement, and prevents its unintentional
withdrawal

2.11 courant nominal 2.11 rated current

courant assigné à l'appareil par le fabricant the current assigned to the accessory by the
manufacturer

2.12 tension d'isolement 2.12 insulation voltage

tension assignée à l'appareil par le fabricant et à the voltage assigned to the accessory by the
laquelle se rapportent les essais diélectriques, les manufacturer and to which dielectric tests,
distances dans l'air et les lignes de fuite clearances and creepage distances are referred

2.13 tension nominale d'emploi 2.13 rated operating voltage

tension nominale du réseau pour lequel l'appareil the nominal voltage of the supply for which the
est destiné à être utilisé accessory is intended to be used

2.14 isolation principale 2.14 basic insulation

isolation nécessaire pour assurer le fonctionnement the insulation necessary for the proper functioning of
convenable de l'appareil et la protection the accessory and for basic protection against
fondamentale contre les chocs électriques electric shock

2.15 isolation supplémentaire (isolation de 2.15 supplementary insulation (protective

protection) insulation)
isolation indépendante prévue en plus de l'isolation an independent insulation provided in addition to the
principale, en vue d'assurer la protection contre les basic insulation, in order to ensure protection
chocs électriques en cas de défaut de l'isolation against electric shock in the event of a failure of the
principale basic insulation

2.16 double isolation 2.16 double insulation

isolation comprenant à la fois une isolation insulation comprising both basic insulation and
principale et une isolation supplémentaire supplementary insulation

2.17 isolation renforcée 2.17 reinforced insulation

isolation principale améliorée ayant des propriétés an improved basic insulation with such mechanical
mécaniques et électriques telles qu'elle procure le and electrical qualities that it provides the same
même degré de protection contre les chocs degree of protection against electric shock as double
électriques qu'une double isolation insulation

2.18 borne 2.18 terminal

partie conductrice destinée à raccorder un a conductive part provided for the connection of a
conducteur à un appareil conductor to an accessory

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2.18.1 borne à trou 2.18.1 pillar terminal

borne dans laquelle l'âme d'un conducteur est a terminal in which the conductor is inserted into a
introduite dans un trou ou dans un logement, où elle hole or cavity, where it is clamped under the shank
est serrée sous le corps de la vis ou des vis. La of the screw or screws. The clamping pressure may
pression de serrage peut être appliquée directement be applied directly by the shank of the screw or
par le corps de la vis ou au moyen d'un organe de through an intermediate clamping member to which
serrage intermédiaire auquel la pression est pressure is applied by the shank of the screw
appliquée par le corps de la vis

2.18.2 borne à serrage sous tête de vis 2.18.2 screw terminal

borne dans laquelle l'âme d'un conducteur est a terminal in which the conductor is clamped under
serrée sous la tête de la vis. La pression de serrage the head of the screw. The clamping pressure may
peut être appliquée directement par la tête de la vis be applied directly by the head of the screw or
ou au moyen d'un organe intermédiaire, tel qu'une through an intermediate part, such as a washer,
rondelle, une plaquette ou un dispositif empêchant clamping plate or anti-spread device
le conducteur ou ses brins de s'échapper

2.18.3 borne à goujon fileté 2.18.3 stud terminal

borne dans laquelle l'âme d'un conducteur est a terminal in which the conductor is clamped under a
serrée sous un écrou. La pression de serrage peut nut. The clamping pressure may be applied directly
être appliquée directement par un écrou de forme by a suitably shaped nut or through an intermediate
appropriée ou au moyen d'un organe intermédiaire, part, such as a washer, clamping plate or anti-
tel qu'une rondelle, une plaquette ou un dispositif spread device
empêchant le conducteur ou ses brins de
s'échapper

2.18.4 borne à plaquette 2.18.4 saddle terminal

borne dans laquelle l'âme d'un conducteur est a terminal in which the conductor is clamped under a
serrée sous une plaquette au moyen de deux ou saddle by means of two or more screws or nuts
plus de deux vis ou écrous

2.18.5 borne pour cosses et barres 2.18.5 lug terminal

borne à serrage sous tête de vis ou borne à goujon a screw terminal or a stud terminal, designed for
fileté prévue pour le serrage d'une cosse ou d'une clamping a cable lug or bar by means of a screw or
barre au moyen d'une vis ou d'un écrou nut

2.18.6 borne à capot taraudé 2.18.6 mantle terminal

borne dans laquelle l'âme d'un conducteur est a terminal in which the conductor is clamped against
serrée au moyen d'un écrou contre le fond d'une the base of a slot in a threaded stud by means of a
fente pratiquée dans un goujon fileté. L'âme est nut. The conductor is clamped against the base of
serrée contre le fond de la fente par une rondelle de the slot by a suitably shaped washer under the nut,
forme appropriée placée sous l'écrou, par un téton by a central peg if the nut is a cap nut, or by equally
central si l'écrou est un capot taraudé, ou par effective means for transmitting the pressure from
d'autres moyens aussi efficaces pour transmettre la he nut to the conductor within the slot
pression de l'écrou à l'âme à l'intérieur de la fente

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2.18.7 borne sans vis 2.18.7 screwless type terminal

borne pour la connexion et la déconnexion d’un ou a terminal for the connection and subsequent
de plusieurs conducteurs, la connexion étant disconnection of one or more conductors, the
réalisée directement ou indirectement par un moyen connection being made, directly or indirectly, by
autre que par vis other means than screws

2.18.8 borne à perçage d’isolant BPI 2.18.8 insulation piercing terminal IPT
borne pour la connexion et la déconnexion d’un ou a terminal for the connection and subsequent
de plusieurs conducteurs, la connexion étant disconnection of one or more conductors, the
réalisée par perçage, transpercement, découpage, connection being made by piercing, boring through,
enlèvement ou déplacement, ou en rendant cutting through, removing, displacing or making
inopérante d’une autre façon l’isolation du ou des ineffective in some other manner the insulation of
conducteurs sans dénudage préalable the conductor(s) without previous stripping
NOTE : L’enlèvement de la gaine du câble, si NOTE : The removal of the sheath of the cable, if
nécessaire, n’est pas considéré comme un necessary, is not considered as a previous stripping.
dénudage préalable.

2.19 élément de serrage 2.19 clamping unit

partie de la borne indispensable pour le serrage et la the part of a terminal necessary for the clamping and
connexion électrique du conducteur the electrical connection of the conductor

2.20 courant de court-circuit potentiel 2.20 conditional short-circuit current

courant présumé qu'un appareil, protégé par un the prospective current that an accessory, protected
dispositif spécifié de protection contre les courts- by a specified short-circuit protective device, can
circuits, peut supporter de façon satisfaisante satisfactorily withstand for the total operating time of
pendant la durée totale de fonctionnement de ce that device under specified conditions of use and
dispositif dans les conditions spécifiées d'emploi et behaviour
de comportement NOTE : This definition differs from IEV 441-17-20 by
NOTE : Cette définition diffère de celle du VEI 441- broadening the concept of current-limiting device
17-20 en élargissant le concept de dispositif de into a short-circuit protective device, the function of
limitation de courant à un dispositif de protection which is not only to limit the current.
contre les courts-circuits dont la fonction n'est pas
uniquement de limiter le courant.

2.21 bouchon 2.21 cap

partie, séparée ou attachée, qui peut être utilisée a part separated or attached, which may be used to
pour procurer le degré de protection d'une fiche ou provide the degree of protection of a plug or
d'un socle de connecteur lorsqu'elle n'est pas appliance inlet when it is not engaged with a socket
engagée sur un socle de prise de courant ou une outlet or connector
prise mobile

2.22 couvercle 2.22 lid

dispositif pour assurer le degré de protection sur un a means to ensure the degree of protection on a
socle de prise de courant ou une prise mobile socket-outlet or a connector

Table 61: French – English glossary of terms used in association with plug and socket-
outlets

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10. FIGURES
Figure 1: Some different types of lamps ..............................................................................9
Figure 2: The origin of light ................................................................................................10
Figure 3: Light sources ......................................................................................................10
Figure 4: The properties of light .........................................................................................11
Figure 5: The light spectrum ..............................................................................................11
Figure 6: Light – waves and/or particles ............................................................................12
Figure 7: Refraction of light................................................................................................12
Figure 8: Light – a multipurpose phenomenon...................................................................13
Figure 9: The polarisation of light.......................................................................................13
Figure 10: Reflection and diffraction of light.......................................................................14
Figure 11: What is a laser? ................................................................................................14
Figure 12: Principles of the laser (1) ..................................................................................15
Figure 13: Principles of the laser (2) ..................................................................................15
Figure 14: Principles of the laser (3) ..................................................................................16
Figure 15: Different types of laser......................................................................................16
Figure 16: Fibre laser.........................................................................................................17
Figure 17: Femtosecond laser ...........................................................................................17
Figure 18: Light and/or the future.......................................................................................18
Figure 19: Storage and display using light .........................................................................19
Figure 20: Biophotonics .....................................................................................................19
Figure 21: Light as a work tool...........................................................................................20
Figure 22: Nanoelectronics ................................................................................................20
Figure 23: Mobile telephones use technology based on light. ...........................................21
Figure 24: The automobile and the optical technologies....................................................21
Figure 25: Diffracted micro-optics ......................................................................................22
Figure 26: Playing with light ...............................................................................................24
Figure 27: Light – essential for sight ..................................................................................24
Figure 28: Where there is light there is shadow.................................................................25
Figure 29: The mirror's reflection .......................................................................................25
Figure 30: Dispersal of light ...............................................................................................26
Figure 31: Glass and light for vision...................................................................................26
Figure 32: Curved mirrors ..................................................................................................27
Figure 33: Light is only a small part of the wavelengths ....................................................28
Figure 34: Composition of white light .................................................................................29
Figure 35: White light = composed light.............................................................................29
Figure 36: Refraction of light..............................................................................................30
Figure 37: The "natural" colours ........................................................................................30
Figure 38: The rainbow ......................................................................................................31
Figure 39: Transmission – Absorption – Reflection ...........................................................31
Figure 40: The colours we see...........................................................................................32
Figure 41: The mechanism of the eye ...............................................................................33
Figure 42: Relative luminous efficiency .............................................................................34
Figure 43: Perception with colour contrast.........................................................................35
Figure 44: The vast array of lamps on the market .............................................................36
Figure 45: General lighting by fluorescent tubes................................................................36

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Figure 46: Localised lighting – compact fluorescent lamp..................................................37

Figure 47: Indirect or decorative lighting – metal halide lamp ............................................38
Figure 48: Luminous flux....................................................................................................39
Figure 49: Luminous intensity - I........................................................................................39
Figure 50: Illumination – the Lux........................................................................................40
Figure 51: Diagram of chromatic coordinates ....................................................................41
Figure 52: Chromaticity diagram with the Planckian curve ................................................42
Figure 53: Light spectrum of a fluorescent lamp ................................................................42
Figure 54: Filament of an incandescent lamp ....................................................................48
Figure 55: Halogen lamp - operation .................................................................................51
Figure 56: Halogen lamp – highly fragile............................................................................52
Figure 57: The conventional fluorescent tube ....................................................................53
Figure 58: Fluorescent tube diameters ..............................................................................55
Figure 59: T5 tube or T8 tube? ..........................................................................................56
Figure 60: Comparison of the energy efficiency of the T5 and T8 .....................................56
Figure 61: Tube CRI (Ra) and colour T° ............................................................................57
Figure 62: Lifetime of fluorescent tubes .............................................................................59
Figure 63: Screw-base compact fluorescent lamps ...........................................................60
Figure 64: Pin-base compact fluorescent lamps ................................................................60
Figure 65: Pin-base compact fluorescent lamps for halogen lamp socket .........................60
Figure 66: Induction lamp ..................................................................................................64
Figure 67: Some discharge lamps .....................................................................................65
Figure 68: Principle of the discharge lamp.........................................................................66
Figure 69: High pressure mercury vapour lamp.................................................................67
Figure 70: High pressure sodium lamp ..............................................................................69
Figure 71: Clear finish high pressure sodium lamp............................................................70
Figure 72: Some metal iodide lamps ................................................................................71
Figure 73: Low pressure sodium lamp (clear tubular) .......................................................74
Figure 74: Mixed lamps......................................................................................................75
Figure 75: Signalling lamps................................................................................................79
Figure 76: Principal pin configurations of fluorescent tubes...............................................87
Figure 77: Connection principles of fluorescent tubes .......................................................87
Figure 78: Sizes, powers and bases of compact fluorescent lamps with semi-separate
power supplies............................................................................................................88
Figure 79: Sizes, powers and bases of compact fluorescent lamps with separate power
supplies ......................................................................................................................89
Figure 80: Connection principle (semi-separate or separate power supplies) ...................90
Figure 81: Components of a fluorescent assembly: tube + starter + ballast ......................93
Figure 82: Starting mechanism of a fluorescent tube.........................................................93
Figure 83: The electromagnetic ballast and its complement, the starter............................94
Figure 84: High frequency electronic ballast ......................................................................96
Figure 85: Energy consumption of ballast + lamp depends on type ..................................97
Figure 86: Multilamp ballast for T5 lamps only...................................................................99
Figure 87: "DALI" marked on the digital control ballast ....................................................100
Figure 88: Dimmer system with regulator .......................................................................102
Figure 89: Chopping the voltage sine wave. ....................................................................103
Figure 90: Efficiency of a luminaire..................................................................................106
Figure 91: Fluorescent strip lights with or without reflectors ............................................106

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 Field Operations Training
Electricity
Lighting and Other

Figure 92: Efficiency with painted or mirrored reflectors ..................................................107

Figure 93: Efficiency 82% with translucent material.........................................................107
Figure 94: "Low encapsulation" reflectors........................................................................107
Figure 95: Use of diffusion grille ......................................................................................108
Figure 96: Rail-mounted luminaires .................................................................................108
Figure 97: Open or enclosed luminaires according to the environment ...........................108
Figure 98: Easy maintenance, provide a luminaire "recovery" system ............................109
Figure 99: Quality and earthing labels on each luminaire ................................................109
Figure 100: Earth conductor or Class II ...........................................................................109
Figure 101: A badly orientated lighting with zones of shadow .........................................111
Figure 102: Wide angle luminaires in parallel rows..........................................................112
Figure 103: Zone marking with lighting ............................................................................112
Figure 104: Additional individual lighting..........................................................................112
Figure 105: Luminaires at the workstation .......................................................................112
Figure 106: Use of low luminance luminaires ..................................................................114
Figure 107: Efficiency of interior luminaires .....................................................................115
Figure 108: Extract from catalogue (ni = downward efficiency, nt = total efficiency)........116
Figure 109: Choice according to the installation of the luminaire.....................................117
Figure 110: Choice according to maintenance.................................................................117
Figure 111: Choice according to ceiling structure ............................................................118
Figure 112: Choice of local suspended luminaire and choice with label ..........................119
Figure 113: Labels which must be present on the luminaires ..........................................120
Figure 114: Flush-mounted 4 x 18/20 W luminaire ..........................................................122
Figure 115: Choice of luminaires according to the air conditioning..................................122
Figure 116: Air extraction through luminaires for T5 lamps..............................................123
Figure 117: Direct lighting ................................................................................................123
Figure 118: Indirect lighting..............................................................................................124
Figure 119: Mixed lighting................................................................................................125
Figure 120: Luminaire with direct and indirect lighting .....................................................125
Figure 121: Uniformity in the work zone and immediate environment .............................126
Figure 122: Uniformity in the work zone and in the room or premises .............................126
Figure 123: Uniformity in office work zone and the corridor .............................................127
Figure 124: Tip for evaluating your situation ....................................................................127
Figure 125: Local lighting control .....................................................................................128
Figure 126: Time switch-controlled lighting......................................................................129
Figure 127: Example of a presence detector in an office zone (aesthetic design) ...........129
Figure 128: Management with natural light detector ........................................................131
Figure 129: Example of equipment and principle (supply of natural lighting) ...................134
Figure 130:Measurement of the brightness at the window...............................................136
Figure 131: Measurement of the brightness for each row of luminaires ..........................137
Figure 132: Evaluating the illumination (brightness at each row of luminaires)................137
Figure 133: Measurement of the brightness at a point in the premises ...........................137
Figure 134: Location of the sensor for the point measurement........................................138
Figure 135: Measurement of the brightness at each luminaire ........................................138
Figure 136: Normal lighting..............................................................................................140
Figure 137: Standby lighting ............................................................................................140
Figure 138: Emergency lighting .......................................................................................141
Figure 139: Labels to be stuck on the evacuation units ...................................................143

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Lighting and Other

Figure 140: Label lighting.................................................................................................144

Figure 141: Label visibility................................................................................................144
Figure 142: Only regulatory labels must be used............................................................145
Figure 143: Example of locations in offices.....................................................................147
Figure 144: Connecting the Emergency Light Unit (power supply) .................................147
Figure 145: Connection principle for the remote control for the self-contained emergency
light unit standby mode.............................................................................................151
Figure 146: Connection principle for a remote control for the self-contained emergency
light unit standby mode and for automatically switching off the lighting by key switch.
.................................................................................................................................152
Figure 147: Stick an inspection and maintenance label (with date) on each unit.............154
Figure 148: Indicator showing that the self-test units are operating correctly ..................156
Figure 149: Summary of the standard - colours and pin configurations for industrial socket-
outlets .......................................................................................................................158
Figure 150: 3P+N+E socket-outlet connection in enclosure with interlock switch............168
Figure 151: Example of wiring and protection of the distribution to the socket-outlets.....170
Figure 152: Some socket-outlets produced by a major European manufacturer .............171
Figure 153: Some socket-outlets .....................................................................................171
Figure 154: Some plugs...................................................................................................172
Figure 155: Making up your own cable coupler ...............................................................172
Figure 156: Wrong method of making up as cable coupler..............................................173
Figure 157: Protected multiple socket-outlets ..................................................................173
Figure 158: Socket-outlet with interlocking switch ...........................................................174
Figure 159: The USA applies the IEC standard and uses socket-outlets with integrated
switch........................................................................................................................175
Figure 160: Some ABB ATEX plugs and socket-outlets with mechanical interlocking.....176
Figure 161: Legrand / Maréchal ATEX plugs and sockets ...............................................176

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11. TABLES
Table 1: Applications of DOEs ...........................................................................................23
Table 2: Example cost calculation .....................................................................................37
Table 3: Luminous efficiency (fluorescent tubes)...............................................................41
Table 4: Colour rendering temperature ..............................................................................42
Table 5: Colour rendering index.........................................................................................43
Table 6: The different types of lighting in the home ...........................................................45
Table 7: Artificial lighting – the light sources ......................................................................47
Table 8: Artificial lighting applications ................................................................................48
Table 9: Some incandescent lamps...................................................................................48
Table 10: General characteristics of a standard clear incandescent lamp .........................49
Table 11: Some halogen lamps .........................................................................................49
Table 12: General characteristics of a clear halogen lamp - mains voltage .......................51
Table 13: Some fluorescent lamps ....................................................................................53
Table 14: General fluorescent tube specifications .............................................................55
Table 15: Powers and sizes of the fluorescent tubes on the market..................................56
Table 16: Example of fluorescent tube specifications ........................................................57
Table 17: Luminous efficiency according to CRI (Ra)........................................................58
Table 18: Some compact fluorescent lamps ......................................................................59
Table 19: Some types of compact fluorescent lamps available on the market...................61
Table 20: General specifications of compact fluorescent lamps ........................................62
Table 21: Compact fluorescent lamps ...............................................................................63
Table 22: General specifications of induction lamps..........................................................64
Table 23: Additional components for the operation of a discharge lamp ...........................66
Table 24: The principal discharge lamps ...........................................................................67
Table 25: General specifications of high pressure mercury lamps.....................................68
Table 26: General specifications of high pressure sodium lamps .....................................69
Table 27: Clear ovoidal-shaped HP sodium lamp..............................................................70
Table 28: Different types of metal iodide / halide lamps ....................................................72
Table 29: Specifications of metal halide lamps ..................................................................72
Table 30: Specifications of low pressure sodium lamps ....................................................74
Table 31: Some LED lamps ...............................................................................................76
Table 32: Comparison of efficiencies according to lamp type ............................................77
Table 33: Some signalling lamps .......................................................................................80
Table 34: The different shapes, powers and base types of incandescent lamps ...............82
Table 35: The principal bases for incandescent lamps ......................................................83
Table 36: The principal halogen lamps – shapes, powers, bases......................................85
Table 37: Pins and performance of very low voltage halogen lamps .................................85
Table 38: Sizes, powers and end caps of the most common tubes ...................................86
Table 39: Bases of compact fluorescent lamps with semi-separate or separate power
supplies ......................................................................................................................90
Table 40: Mains-operated compact fluorescent lamps (integrated ballast) ........................91
Table 41: Comparison of the different types of lamps........................................................92
Table 42: Connections of the ballasts, tubes and starters .................................................95
Table 43: Multilamp ballast power ranges..........................................................................99
Table 44: Ballast energy classifications ...........................................................................101

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Lighting and Other

Table 45: Choice of luminaires for the workshop .............................................................106

Table 46: Choice according to installed height ................................................................110
Table 47: Choice according to environment quality .........................................................114
Table 48: Total costs of an installation according to the efficiency of the luminaires .......116
Table 49: Recommended minimum efficiencies for luminaries ........................................117
Table 50: Choice of luminaires according to the necessary protections ..........................120
Table 51: Protection classes of all electrical equipment ..................................................121
Table 52: Cost-effectiveness of the management according to the natural lighting .........132
Table 53: Summary of the installation rules for self-contained emergency light units and
emergency luminaires...............................................................................................146
Table 54: Putting the emergency light units in standby mode..........................................151
Table 55: Maintenance operations on the self-contained emergency light units..............155
Table 56: Colour = voltage for industrial socket-outlets ...................................................159
Table 57: Industrial socket-outlet pin configurations ........................................................164
Table 58: Additional pin configurations for VLV and frequencies greater than 60 Hz ......165
Table 59: Amperage and number of poles according to type of socket-outlet .................166
Table 60: Minimum cross-sectional area of power supply conductors for industrial socket-
outlets .......................................................................................................................169
Table 61: French – English glossary of terms used in association with plug and socket-
outlets .......................................................................................................................181

Training Manual EXP-MN-SE160-EN

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