TEMPERATURE

and
HEAT
Common Temperature Scales
One point was chosen to
be the temperature at
which water boils under
one atmosphere of
pressure (the “steam
point”)

One point was chosen to

be the temperature at
which ice melts under
one atmosphere of
pressure (the “ice point”)
 Kelvin Temperature Scale
• It was introduced by the Scottish physicist
William Thompson (Lord Kelvin, 1824–
1907), and in his honor each degree on the
scale is called a kelvin (K).
• By international agreement, the symbol K is
not written with a degree sign (°), nor is the
word “degrees” used when quoting
temperatures.
• The kelvin is the SI base unit for
temperature.
Kelvin Temperature Scale
• The size of one kelvin is
identical to that of one
Celsius degree because there
are one hundred divisions
between the ice and steam
points on both scales.
• There exists a lowest possible
temperature, below which no
substance can be cooled. ---
this lowest temperature is
defined to be the zero point
on the Kelvin scale and is
referred to as absolute zero.
Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer

A constant-volume
gas thermometer
consists of a gas-
filled bulb to which
a pressure gauge is
attached.
Pressure-versus-Temperature Graph
• The phrase “absolute
zero” means that
temperatures lower
than −273.15 °C
cannot be reached by
continually cooling a
gas or any other
substance.
• The Kelvin scale is
chosen so that its zero
temperature point is
the lowest temperature
attainable.
Relationship of the four temperature scales:
Celsius Fahrenheit Rankine Kelvin
Boiling Point of Water 100 212 671.67 373.15
Absolute Zero – 273.15 – 459.67 0 0

Temperature Scale Conversion:

9
℃→℉ ∶ 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 + 32
5
5
℉→℃ ∶ 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐹 − 32
9
℃→𝐾 ∶ 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
℉ → °𝑅 ∶ 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐹 + 459.67
Temperature Change:
∆𝑇𝐾 = ∆𝑇℃ ∆𝑇°𝑅 = ∆𝑇°𝐹 5 5
∆𝑇°𝐶 = ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇𝐾 = ∆𝑇°𝑅
9 °𝐹 9
Example 1:
Convert 100°F to °C.
Example 2:
Convert –20 °C to °F.
Example 3:
A personal computer is designed to operate
over the temperature range from 20°F to 130°F .
What do these temp. corresponds on the Kelvin
Scale?
Example 4:
A comfortable temperature for most people is
around 24°C. What is this temperature on the (a)
Fahrenheit scale and (b) Kelvin Scale?
Example 5:
A fries at 25°C is heated to 185°C. What is the
change in its temperature in (a) C°, (b) F°, and (c)
kelvins?
Example 6:
At what temperature will the reading on the
Fahrenheit scale be numerically equal to that on the
Celsius scale?
Example 7:
Martians land on earth. On the Martian temp.
scale, the ice point is at 25°M (M = Martian), and the
steam point is at 175°M. The Martian thermometer
shows the temp. on earth to be 60°M. What would
this temp. be on the Celsius scale?
 Thermometers
• Thermometric Property – a physical
property of thermometers that changes
with the temperature
Example:
• Mercury thermometer – length of the
mercury column
• Constant-Volume Gas thermometer –
pressure of the gas
 Thermometers & their
Thermometric Properties
Thermocouple - is a thermometer used extensively
in scientific laboratories. It consists of thin wires of
different metals, welded together at the ends to form
two junctions. Often the metals are copper and
constantan (a copper–nickel alloy). The
thermocouple generates a voltage that depends on
the difference in temperature between the two
junctions. This voltage is the thermometric property
and is measured by a voltmeter. Thermocouples are
used to measure temperatures as high as 2300 °C or
as low as −270 °C.
Thermocouple
Electrical Resistance Thermometers
Electrical resistance thermometers - are
often made from platinum wire, because
platinum has excellent mechanical and
electrical properties in the temperature range
from −270 °C to +700 °C. Its thermometric
property is the electrical resistance. The
resistance of platinum wire is known as a
function of temperature.
 Thermograph or Thermogram
Thermography – is a “thermal painting” and
is an important diagnostic tool in medicine.
For example, breast cancer is indicated in the
thermograph by the elevated temperatures
associated with malignant tissue. The camera
is connected to a colored monitor that
displays the different infrared intensities as
different colors. Its thermometric property is
the radiation emitted by an object.
 Linear Thermal Expansion
• Normal Solids
Linear Expansion – the increase in any one
dimension of a solid (linear in the sense that
the expansion occurs along a line).
 Linear Thermal Expansion
• The length of L0 of an object changes by an
amount ΔL when its temperature changes
by amount ΔT:
∆𝑳 ∝ 𝑳𝟎 ∆𝑻
∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳𝟎 ∆𝑻
where: α is the coefficient of Linear expansion
1 −1
= 𝐶°
℃
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion for Solids
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (C°)-1
Substance Linear (α) Volume (β)
Aluminum 23 × 10−6 69 × 10−6
Brass 19 × 10−6 57 × 10−6
Concrete 12 × 10−6 36 × 10−6
Copper 17 × 10−6 51 × 10−6
Glass (common) 8.5 × 10−6 26 × 10−6
Glass (Pyrex) 3.3 × 10−6 9.9 × 10−6
Gold 14 × 10−6 42 × 10−6
Iron or Steel 12 × 10−6 36 × 10−6
Lead 29 × 10−6 87 × 10−6
Nickel 13 × 10−6 39 × 10−6
Quartz (fused) 0.50 × 10−6 1.5 × 10−6
Silver 19 × 10−6 57 × 10−6
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion for Liquids

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (C°)-1

Substance Linear (α) Volume (β)
Benzene ---- 1240 × 10−6
Carbon tetrachloride ---- 1240 × 10−6
Ethyl Alcohol ---- 1120 × 10−6
Gasoline ---- 950 × 10−6
Mercury ---- 182 × 10−6
Methyl alcohol ---- 1200 × 10−6
Water ---- 207 × 10−6
Example 8:
A concrete sidewalk is constructed between two
buildings on a day when the temperature is 25 °C. The
sidewalk consists of two slabs, each three meters in length
and of negligible thickness. As the temperature rises to 38 °C,
the slabs expand, but no space is provided for thermal
expansion. The buildings do not move, so the slabs buckle
upward. Determine the vertical distance y in part b of the
drawing.
Example 9:
A steel aircraft carrier is 370 m long when
moving through the icy North Atlantic at a
temperature of 3.0°C. By how much does the carrier
lengthen when it is traveling in the warm
Mediterranean Sea at a temperature of 24°C?
Thermal Stresses
Hooke’s Law:
Stress is proportional to strain (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝐹 𝛿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ; 𝛿 = ∆𝐿 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑉
𝐴 𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝒌𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Stress Strain
F/A = Y (ΔL/L)
F/A = S (ΔX/L)
ΔP = – B (ΔV/V)
where:
Y = Young’s Modulus
S = Shear’s Modulus
B = Bulk Modulus
ΔL = change in length
ΔV = change in volume
ΔX = amount of shear (change in shape)
Values for the Young’s Modulus of Solid Materials
Young’s Modulus,
Material Y (N/m2)
Aluminum 6.9 x 1010
Bone (Compression) 9.4 x 109
Bone (Tension) 1.6 x 1010
Brass 9.0 x 1010
Brick 1.4 x 1010
Copper 1.1 x 1011
Mohair 2.9 x 109
Nylon 3.7 x 109
Pyrex Glass 6.2 x 1010
Steel 2.0 x 1011
Teflon 3.7 x 108
Tungsten 3.6 x 1011
Values for the Shear Modulus of Solid Materials
Shear Modulus,
Material S (N/m2)
Aluminum 2.4 x 1010
Bone 8.0 X 1010
Brass 3.5 x 1010
Copper 4.2 x 1010
Lead 5.4 x 109
Nickel 7.3 x 1010
Steel 8.1 x 1010
Tungsten 1.5 x 1011
Values for the Bulk Modulus of Solid & Liquid Materials

Bulk Modulus,
Material B (N/m2)
Solids
Aluminum 7.1 x 1010
Brass 6.7 x 1010
Copper 1.3 x 1011
Lead 4.2 x 1010
Nylon 6.1 x 109
Pyrex Glass 2.6 x 1010
Steel 1.4 x 1011
Liquids
Ethanol 8.9 x 108
Oil 1.7 x 109
Water 2.2 x 109
Example 10:
A steel beam is used in the roadbed of a bridge. The
beam is mounted between two concrete supports when the
temperature is 23°C, with no room provided for thermal
expansion. What compressional stress must the concrete
supports apply to each end of the beam, if they are to keep the
beam from expanding when the temperature rises to 42°C?
Assume that the distance between the concrete supports does
not change as the temperature rises.
Example 11:
The brass bar 2.0m long and the
aluminum bar 1.0m long are each attached to
an immovable wall. At 28°C the air gap
between the rods is 1.3 x 10-3 m. At what
temperature will the gap be closed?
Example 12:
A rod made from a particular alloy is
heated from 25°C to the boiling point of water.
Its length increases by 8.47 x 10-4 m. The rod is
then cooled from 25.0°C to the freezing point
of water. By how much does the rod shrink?
 Volume Thermal Expansion
• The volume of V0 of an object changes by an
amount ΔV when its temperature changes
by amount ΔT:
∆𝑽 ∝ 𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻
∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻
where: β is the coefficient of Volume
1
Expansion ℃ = 𝐶° −1
• β for liquids are substantially larger than
those for solids because liquids typically
expand more than solids
Example 13:
A copper kettle contains water at 24°C.
When the water is heated to its boiling point,
the volume of the kettle expands by 2.2 x 10-5
m3. Determine the volume of the kettle at 24°C.
Example 14:
A thin spherical shell of silver has an
inner radius of 2.0 x 10-2 m when the
temperature is 18°C. The shell is heated to
147°C. Find the change in the interior volume
of the shell.
Example 15:
The bulk of water is 2.2 x 109 N/m2.
What change in pressure (in atm) is required
to keep water from expanding when it is
heated from 15°C to 25°C?
Example 16:
Suppose that the steel gas tank in your
car is completely filled when the temp. is 17°C.
How many gallons will spill out of the twenty-
gallon tank when the temp. rises to 35°C?
Heat and Internal Energy
• Heat – energy that flows from a higher-
temperature object to a lower-temperature
object because of the difference in
temperatures (Joule, J)
• Heat originates in the internal energy of the
hot substance
• Internal Energy – is the sum of the molecular
kinetic energy, the molecular potential
energy, and other kinds of molecular energy
• Molecular Kinetic energy – due to the
random motion of the molecules
Heat and Internal Energy
• Molecular Potential Energy – due to forces
that act between the atoms of a molecule
and between molecules
• When heat flows where work done is
negligible, the internal energy of the hot
substance decreases and the internal energy
of the cold substance increases.
• Though heat originates in the internal
energy of the substance, “it is not correct to
say that a substance contains heat.”
• Substance has internal energy not heat.
 Heat and Temperature Change
• Greater amounts of heat are needed to raise
the temperature of solids or liquids to
higher values.
• A greater amount of heat is also required to
raise the temperature of a greater mass of
material.
• Similar comments apply when the
temperature is lowered, except that heat
must be removed.
• For limited temperature ranges,
𝑄 ∝ ∆𝑇𝑚
𝑸 = 𝒄𝒎∆𝑻
where: Q = amount of heat
m = mass
ΔT = change in temperature
c = specific heat capacity of the material,
J/(kg⋅C°)
• Heat Capacity (w/o “specific”)
- sometimes used to refer to the term cm in the
relation Q = mcΔT
Specific Heat Capacities of some Solids
Substance Specific Heat Capacity,c
Solids J/(kg⋅C°) Kcal/(kg⋅C°) or cal/(g⋅C°)
Aluminum 9.00 x 102 0.215
Copper 387 0.0924
Glass 840 0.20
Human Body (37°C, Average) 3500 0.83
Ice (– 15°C) 2.00 x 103 0.478
Iron or Steel 452 0.108
Lead 128 0.0305
Silver 235 0.0562
 Specific Heat Capacities of some
Liquids and Gas
Substance Specific Heat Capacity,c
Liquids J/(kg⋅C°) Kcal/(kg⋅C°) or cal/(g⋅C°)
Benzene 1740 0.415
Ethyl Alcohol 2450 0.586
Glycerin 2410 0.576
Mercury 139 0.0333
Water (15°C) 4186 1.000
Gas
Steam (100°C) 2020 0.48

Except as noted, the values are for 25°C and 1 atm of pressure
• Heat Units other than the Joule
1. 1 kcal – amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of water by one
Celsius degree
2. 1 cal – amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one gram of water by one
Celsius degree
3. BTU – amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by one
Fahrenheit degree
• Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (conversion
factor)
𝟏 𝒌𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝑱
𝟏 𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝑱
 CALORIMETRY
• The principle of Conservation of Energy governs the
way objects at different temperatures come to an
equilibrium when they are placed in contact.

• If there is no heat loss to the external surroundings,

the heat loss by the hotter objects equals the heat
gained by the cooler ones.

• Calorimetry – technique that uses calorimeter which

is an insulated container used to determine the
specific heat capacity of a substance
Example 17:
The calorimeter cup is made from 0.25 kg of
aluminum and contains 0.20 kg of water. Initially, the
water and the cup have a common temperature of
20°C. A 0.040-kg mass of unknown material is heated
to a temperature of 97°C and then added to the water.
The temperature of water, the cup and the unknown
material is 22.0°C after thermal equilibrium is
reestablished. Ignoring the small amount of heat
gained by the thermometer, find the specific heat
capacity of the unknown material.
Example 18:
Find the heat capacity of (a) 3.00 kg of ethyl
alcohol and of (b) 20.0 kg of ethyl alcohol.
Example 19:
Cold water at a temp. of 15°C enters a heater, and
the resulting hot water has a temp. of 60°C. A person
uses 120 kg of hot water in taking a shower. (a) Find
the number of Joules and (b) kilocalories needed to
heat the water. (c) Assuming that the power utility
charges $ 0.15 per kilowatt-hour for electrical energy,
determine the cost of heating the water.
Example 20:
In a half-hour, a 65-kg jogger can generate 8.5 x
105 J of heat. This heat is removed from the joggers
body by a variety of means, including the body’s own
temp.-regulating mechanisms. If the heat were not
removed, how much would the body temp. increase?
Example 21:
Into a 0.200-kg copper cup (20.0°C) is put 0.100 kg
of aluminum at 60.0°C and 0.250 kg of water at 85.0°C.
Assuming there is no heat flow between the cup and its
outside environment, find the final equilibrium
temperature.
Example 22:
When you take a bath in 185 kg of water, how many
kilograms of hot water (60.0°C) and cold water (25.0°C)
must you mix, so that the temperature of the bath is 40.0°C.
Ignore any heat flow between the water and its
surroundings.
Example 23:
If the price of electrical energy is $ 0.20 per kilowatt-
hour, what is the cost of using electrical energy to heat the
water in a swimming pool (12.0m x 9.0m x 1.5m) from
15°C to 27°C?
 Heat and Phase Change
• Phases of Matter
1. Solid Phase
2. Liquid Phase
3. Gas or Vapor Phase (water is referred to as water
vapor or steam)
• Matter can change from one form/phase to
another, and heat plays a role in the change:
1. Solid can melt or fuse into liquid (+Q)
2. Liquid can freeze into solid (–Q)
3. Liquid can evaporate into gas (+Q)
4. Gas can condense into liquid (–Q)
5. Solid change directly into a gas (+Q)-sublimation
• Sublimation
1. Solid Carbon Dioxide, CO2 (dry ice) ↔ gaseous
CO2
2. Solid naphthalene (moth balls) ↔ naphthalene
fumes
• Graph indicating what typically happens when
heat is added to a material that changes phase:
• When a substance changes from one phase
to another, the amount of heat that must be
added or removed depends on the type of
material, and the nature of the phase
change.
• Latent Heat – heat per kilogram associated
with a phase change
• Heat supplied or removed in changing the
Phase of a substance:
𝑸 = ±𝒎𝑳 (𝑱/𝒌𝒈)
where: Q = heat supplied /removed
m = mass of the material
L = latent heat of a substance
• Latent Heat
1. Latent heat of Fusion, Lf – refers to the change
between solid and liquid phases
2. Latent heat of Vaporization, Lv – change between
liquid and gas phases
3. Latent heat of Sublimation, Ls – change between
solid and gas phases
• Relative Humidity – is defined as the ratio
(expressed as a percentage) of the partial pressure
of water vapor in the air to the equilibrium vapor
pressure at a given temperature
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
% 𝑅𝐻 = × 100
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 @ 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝
 Latent Heats of Fusion and
Vaporization
Substance Melting Point (°C) Lf (J/kg) Boiling Point (°C) Lv (J/kg)
Ammonia -77.8 33.2 x 104 -33.4 13.7 x 105
Benzene 5.5 12.6 x 104 80.1 3.94 x 105
Copper 1083 20.7 x 104 2566 47.3 x 105
Ethyl Alcohol -144.4 10.8 x 104 78.3 8.55 x 105
Gold 1063 6.28 x 104 2808 17.2 x 105
Lead 327.3 2.32 x 104 1750 8.59 x 105
Mercury -38.9 1.14 x 104 356.6 2.96 x 105
Nitrogen -210.0 2.57 x 104 -195.8 2.00 x 105
Oxygen -218.8 1.39 x 104 -183.0 2.13 x 105
Water 0.0 33.5 x 104 100.0 22.6 x 105
Example 24:
Ice at 0°C is placed in a styrofoam cup containing
0.32 kg of lemonade at 27°C. The specific heat capacity
of lemonade is virtually the same as that of water; that
is c = 4186 J/(kg⋅C°). After the ice and lemonade reach
an equilibrium temp., some ice still remains. The
latent heat of fusion for water is Lf = 33.5 x 104 J/kg.
Assume that the mass of the cup is so small that it
absorbs a negligible amount of heat, and ignore any
heat loss to the surroundings. Determine the mass of
ice that has melted.
Example 25:
How much energy is required to change a 40.0-g
ice cube from ice at –10.0°C to steam at 110°C?
Example 26:
A 50.0-g copper calorimeter contains 250g of water at
20.0°C. How much steam must be condensed into the water
if the final temperature of water is to reach 50.0°C?
Example 27:
A 7.00-kg glass bowl (c = 840J/kg⋅C°) contains 16.0 kg
of punch at 25.0 °C. Two-and-a-half kilograms of ice (c = 2.00
x 103J/kg⋅C°) are added to the punch. The ice has an initial
temperature of –20.0°C, having been kept in a very cold
freezer. The punch may be treated as if it were water (c =
4186J/kg⋅C°), and it may be assumed that there is no heat
flow between the punch bowl and the external environment.
The latent heat of fusion for water is 33.5 x 104 J/kg. When
thermal equilibrium is reached, all the ice has melted, and the
final temperature of the mixture is above 0°C. Determine this
temperature.