Chapter 4

Functions

4.1 Definition of functions as mappings

A function is a process that associates each element x of a set A, the domain of
the function, to a single element y of another set B (possibly the same set), the
range of the function. If the function is called f , this relation is denoted y = f (x),
the element x is the argument or input of the function f , and y is the value of the
function f , the output.
If the function f takes values from a set A (the inputs) and maps them to
values from a set B (the outputs), we denote that as:

f : A −→ B

A specific requirement for functions is the uniqueness of their outputs. This

means that for any given input, we may have at most one output. Formally, this is
expressed as:
for any x0 ∈ A and y1 , y2 ∈ B, if f (x0 ) = y1 and f (x0 ) = y2 then y1 = y2 .

Domain of a function f , denoted as dom(f ), is a set, for which f is defined.

The domain dom(f ) is always a subset of the definition set A, dom(f ) ⊆ A, and
may in general be a proper subset, dom(f ) ⊂ A with dom(f ) 6= A.
Range of a function f , denoted as range(f ), is a set constructed as all the
possible outputs of f . The range range(f ) is always a subset of the image set
B, range(f ) ⊆ B, and may in general be a proper subset, range(f ) ⊂ B with
range(f ) 6= B. Formally, we have:
range(f ) = {y : there exists x ∈ dom(f ) with y = f (x)}.

47
48 CHAPTER 4. FUNCTIONS

For example, consider the functions f1 , f2 , f3 : R −→ R, defined as

f1 (x) = x + 1,

1
f2 (x) = ,
x

f3 (x) = x2 .

For f1 we have dom(f1 ) = range(f1 ) = R.

For f2 we have dom(f2 ) = R\{0} because division by 0 does not yield a real number
and range(f2 ) = R.
For f3 we have dom(f3 ) = R and range(f3 ) = R+
0.

4.2 Definition of functions as graphs

One possible way to define a function is by describing its graph. Let f be a function,
we say that the graph of f is the set Gf = {(x, y) : f (x) = y}.
Remark : Here we use the notion of a set, and also the notion of a pair. The
difference is small, but very essential.
Set: let us have the objects a, b, and c. Then, we may form the set {a, b, c}
containing those objects. The order of the elements in a set is irrelevant and also
duplicating elements is ignored. For example, {a, b, c} is the same as {c, a, b} and
also {a, b, b, c, c, c, a, b, c, b}.
Pair : let us have the objects a and b. Then, we may form the various different
pairs (a, b), (b, a), (a, a), (b, b). The order of the elements is relevant and therefore,
two pairs (x, y) and (z, t) are equal if and only if x = z and y = t.

When plotting a graph in two dimensional coordinate system, we obtain an

excellence visualization of the function in consideration.
For example, let f1 (x) = x and f2 (x) = x2 , their graphs are then:
4.2. DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONS AS GRAPHS 49

y
f2 f1

As we can see in the graphs, for f1 and f2 , for any argument value x0 , we
may have exactly one (in general, at most one) functional value for f1 (x0 ) and also
f2 (x0 ). This guaranties us that f1 and f2 are indeed functions.
In contrast to that, we consider now the relationship as y 2 = x.
y

This is not a function, because for many concrete argument values, x0 , we get
√
different “functional” values corresponding to ± x0 .
50 CHAPTER 4. FUNCTIONS

4.3 Exercises on functions

1. Decide which of the following relations R −→ R define functions and
which not. Provide arguments:

1. y = 5x

2. y = 5

3. x = 5

4. x + y = 5

5. x = y

6. x2 = y

7. x = y 2

8. x2 = y 2

9. 3x2 − y = 5

10. y 2 − x = 5

11. y = |x|

12. x = |y|

2. For each of the following functions R −→ R define their domains

and ranges:

1. y = 5x

2. y = 5

3. y = 15 x
1
4. y = 5x
x
5. y = 5x

6. y = 5x2 + 5
4.4. COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS 51
√
7. y = 5x2 + 5
√
8. y = 5x2 − 5

3. Which of the following sets define functions A −→ B via their

graphs where A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}. Provide arguments to each of
your answers.:

1. {(1, 2), (2, 2)}

2. {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
3. {(1, 2), (1, 3)}

4.4 Composition of functions

Let us have the functions f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C. Then, we define the
function h : A −→ C as h(x) = f (g(x)). We say that h is a composition of f and
g and we often denote it as h = f ◦ g.

1. For each of the given functions f and g, define the compositions

h1 = f ◦ g and h2 = g ◦ f . For each case, define dom(h1 ) and dom(h2 ):

1. f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2

2. f (x) = x and g(x) = x
3. f (x) = 2 and g(x) = 3
4. f (x) = 22x and g(x) = x + 1
√
5. f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2

2. For each of the given functions h, define decompositions, i.e.,

functions f and g, such that h = f ◦ g. Is the decomposition unique, i.e., is
52 CHAPTER 4. FUNCTIONS

it possible to define more than one pair of f and g? If yes, provide such
examples:

1. h(x) = 2x2

2. h(x) = 5x + 5
1
3. f (x) = 2x

4. f (x) = sin(log(5x)

4.5 Injective, surjective and bijective functions

Let f : A −→ B be a function.
Injective: The function f is injective if and only if for any x1 , x2 ∈ A if
x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
For example, the function f : R −→ R with f (x) = 2x is injective. The
function g : R −→ R with f (x) = x2 is not injective, because for x1 = 1 and
x2 = −1, g(x1 ) = g(x2 ) = 1.
However, if the the function g were defined as g : R+ −→ R with g(x) = x2 ,
then we would immediately conclude that g is injective.

Surjective: The function f is surjective (or onto, or is a surjection) if the

range equals the the set B. In other words, for any value y0 of B, we have an element
x0 of A, such that f (x0 ) = y0 . This means that if f is surjective in B, any element
of B is reachable via f for an appropriate argument.
For example, the function f : R −→ R with f (x) = 2x is surjective. The
function g : R −→ R with f (x) = x2 is not surjective, because the negative real
numbers are not reachable via g.
However, if the the function g were defined as g : R0 + −→ R0 + with g(x) = x2 ,
then we would immediately conclude that g is surjective.

Bijective: The function f is bijective (or is bijection or a one-to-one corre-

spondence) if it is both injective and surjective.
4.5. INJECTIVE, SURJECTIVE AND BIJECTIVE FUNCTIONS 53

1. For each of the given functions f , decide whether it is injective,

surjective and bijective:

y
f : R −→ R

f (x) = x

1.

y
f : R −→ R

f (x) = x3

2.
54 CHAPTER 4. FUNCTIONS

y
f : R −→ R

f (x) = x2

3.

y
f : R −→ R
1
f (x) = 1 − x+1

4.

4.6 Inverse functions

When a value goes into a function it is called the input. The result that we get
when we evaluate the function is called the output. When working with functions
sometimes we will know the output and be interested in what input gave us the
output. To find this we use an inverse function. As the name suggests an inverse
function undoes whatever the function did. If a function is named f (x), the inverse
4.6. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 55

function will be named f −1 (x) (read “f inverse of x”). The negative one is not an
exponent, but mearly a symbol to let us know that this function is the inverse of f .
For example, if f (x) = x + 5, we could deduce that the inverse function would
−1
be f (x) = x − 5. If we had an input of 3, we could calculate f (3) = (3) + 5 = 8.
Our output is 8. If we plug this output into the inverse function we get f −1 (8) =
(8) − 5 = 3, which is the original input.
Often the functions are much more complicated than those described above.
It may be difficult to determine just by looking at the functions if they are inverses.
In order to test if two functions, f (x) and g(x) are inverses we will calculate the
composition of the two functions at x. If f changes the variable x in some way, then
g undoes whatever f did, then we will be back at x again for our final solution. In
other words, if we simplify (f ◦ g)(x) the solution will be x. If it is anything but x
the functions are not inverses.
However, there is also the question whether a given function is invertible or
not. If for example, we consider the constant function f (x) = 1, then any output is
equal to one and we may not get from which input is was generated.
Therefore, as a criterion for having inverse function, we require being injective.

While the composition is useful to show two functions are inverses, a more
common problem is to find the inverse of a function. If we think of x as our input
and y as our output from a function, then the inverse will take y as an input and
give x as the output. This means if we switch x and y in our function we will find
the inverse! This process is called the switch and solve strategy.
Switch and solve strategy to find an inverse:

1. Replace f (x) with y

2. Switch x and y

3. Solve for y

4. Replace y with f −1 (x).

1. Given a set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and a function f : A −→ N with

f (x) = 2x − 1.:
56 CHAPTER 4. FUNCTIONS

1. Compute f (1), f (2) . . .

2. Is f an invertible function? Provide an argument.

3. If the answer to the previous question is yes, compute f −1 (1) and f −1 (3).

2. Given the functions f, g : R −→ R with f (x) = 2x −1 and g(x) = x2 +1.

1. define explicitly f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

2. are f ◦ g and g ◦ f invertible functions? Provide an argument.

3. If the answer to the previous question is yes, define the inverses explicitly.

3. For each of the functions, decide whether invertible and provide

an argument. If yes, compute the inverse function.

1. f (x) = −2x + 3

2. f (x) = 2x − 1
x
3. f (x) = 5
+1
3x−4
4. f (x) = x+2

x−1
5. f (x) = x−2