Landscape Report On Early Grade Literacy

Landscape Report on
Early Grade Literacy

Landscape Report on
Early Grade Literacy
August 26, 2016
Young-Suk Grace Kim,1 Helen N. Boyle,2 Stephanie Simmons Zuilkowski,2 and

Pooja Nakamura3
1
School of Education, University of California at Irvine
2
College of Education and Learning Systems Institute, Florida State University
3
American Institutes for Research
Suggested citation: Kim, Y.-S. G., Boyle, H. N., Zuilkowski, S. S., & Nakamura, P. (2016).
Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy. Washington, D.C.: USAID.
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Acknowledgments
T
he authors of this report wish to thank the GRN Communication Coordinator, Newsha N.
Learning Systems Institute at Florida State Aboughaddareh, who worked on the graphics for the
University, University Research Co., LLC– report, and Kurt Mulholland, Director of Media at
Center for Human Services (URC-CHS), especially URC, for his work in designing the report.
Reading within Reach Community of Practice,
the “thought leaders” within the international This report was enriched by the careful review and
development and early grade reading worlds who feedback offered by our Advisory Board members:
consented to be interviewed for this report, the Dr. Daniel Wagner of the University of Pennsylvania,
Landscape Report Advisory Board, and USAID. Dr. Catherine Snow of Harvard University, and Ms.
Norma A. Evans of Evans and Associates Education
The Learning Systems Institute is the leading Consulting. We are grateful for the careful and
institution in Florida State University’s work in thorough review of the report in its first and second
international education and we are grateful for its draft stages.
leadership and contractual management services.
We also want to thank Kaitlyn Hicks and Alexandra We also thank the 15 “thought leaders” from various
Rosenbaum for their help with identifying and parts of the international development/early grade
compiling studies and documents. Gratitude is also reading community for taking the time to participate
due to Dr. Marion Fesmire who contributed in the in interviews drawing on knowledge from their
initial stage of the work. hands-on experience in the field. These interviews
were informative and in several cases led us to
URC-CHS has provided invaluable support as the additional reports and literature to examine.
contracting organization for this report with strong
leadership and unceasing advocacy for this work. Finally, we thank USAID, in particular, Dr. Penelope
In particular, we thank Sakil Malik, Community Bender, Dr. Marcia Davidson, and Ms. Rebecca
of Practice Director, for his skillful management Rhodes, for their critical and constructive feedback
of this award. We are also grateful to Dr. Kim at each stage of the process.
Foulds, GRN’s Research Manager, Mary Ciambrone,
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................ iii
Executive Summary............................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 3
Section A. Overview....................................................................................................................... 3
Section B. Methods and levels of evidence ...................................................................................... 4
Section C. Situational and constraining factors to keep in mind.......................................................6
Section D. Organization of the report..............................................................................................6
Chapter 2. Key areas to successfully promote improved early grade literacy skills: Overview................. 8
Section A. A framework for understanding reading development....................................................... 8
Section B. Cross-cutting factors in literacy instruction.....................................................................9
Chapter 3. Key areas to successfully promote improved early grade literacy skills: Content.................. 17
Section A. Emergent literacy skills: Foundations for word reading and spelling................................. 17
Section B. Oral language skills: Foundations for reading comprehension.......................................... 25
Section C. Reading fluency: Foundation for reading comprehension................................................. 30
Section D. Reading comprehension.................................................................................................33
Section E. Writing for meaning..................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 4. Key factors and actors responsible for improving early grade literacy skills
in developing country contexts......................................................................................................... 43
Section A. Promoting literacy in multilingual environments........................................................... 43
Section B. Teacher knowledge and teacher education...................................................................... 49
Section C. Parental and community engagement............................................................................ 57
Chapter 5. Long-run considerations of literacy programs: Costs, financing, scaling up,

and sustainability............................................................................................................................ 59
Chapter 6. Conclusion........................................................................................................................61
References....................................................................................................................................... 64
v
vi
Executive Summary
T
he goal of this landscape report is to review
“Once you learn to read, you
and summarize available empirical evidence
on early grade literacy acquisition and will be forever free.”
instruction in developing countries. To achieve this
goal, papers with empirical data were searched, — Frederick Douglass
identified, screened, and reviewed on topics that
promote the higher-order, long-term goals of literacy
included student-level factors (e.g., emergent literacy,
acquisition and instruction—reading comprehension
oral language), larger contextual factors within
and writing (written composition).
which the student is embedded (e.g., home literacy
environment, language of instruction, and larger Some directions for the future include a focus on
system issues such as teacher education), and long- long-term perspectives and efforts. Although the
run considerations (e.g., sustainability, costs, and need to improve students' literacy skills is dire
scaling up). The available empirical evidence was, and immediate, changing behavior (e.g., teachers’
then, rated by topic as strong, moderate, emerging instructional practices; student’s learning) takes
or limited. The vast majority of studies reviewed a long time (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005) and
were project-based work with a comprehensive, therefore, requires sustained efforts. Furthermore,
multicomponent approach, incorporating the 5Ts— reading comprehension and writing are high-order
teaching, time, texts, tongue, and test. The Big
5 skills identified in the National Reading Panel
Table 1. Levels of evidence for the various areas
Report (National Institute of Child Health and
reviewed in the this report
Human Development [NICHD], 2000)—phonological
awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, Topic Area Level of Evidence
and reading comprehension—were central in these Emergent literacy skills Strong

projects.
Oral language skills Emerging
Our review of the evidence revealed that overall, Reading fluency Moderate
much progress has been made in the last decade.
Reading comprehension Emerging
However, the review also clearly indicated that
the vast majority of topical areas within the field Writing Extremely limited
of literacy in developing country contexts still Literacy in multilingual

Moderate
lack rigorous evidence, and there is much work to environments
be done. As shown in Table 1, the only area with Teacher knowledge and
Emerging
strong evidence was foundational literacy skills i.e., education
emergent literacy skills and word reading. A moderate
Parental and community
Emerging
level of evidence is available at present about reading engagement
fluency and literacy instruction in multilingual
Long-run considerations
contexts. Although encouraging, this is not sufficient
(costs, financing, scaling up, Emerging
to inform the development community on how to & sustainability)
Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 1

skills that are built on the development of many equivalence of measures in longitudinal studies2),
language and cognitive skills, which themselves process of assignment to conditions, sample attrition,
take time to develop. Thus, successful reading and analytic approaches, basic statistical information
writing development to support students’ accessing (means, standard deviations, bivariate correlations),
and producing complex ideas in written texts requires and effect sizes (e.g., Hedge's g or Cohen's d). Also
quality instruction across multiple years, not just a absent was description or reference to instructional
single year. approaches in the treatment and comparison
conditions, which are necessary to understand the
Another pattern that emerged in the review was the
context in which target treatment approaches work or
need for greater standardization in the reporting
do not work.
of international literacy improvement projects and
studies. We acknowledge that project reports often Overall, this review substantiates the systematic and
serve different audiences and purposes. However, systemic nature of literacy education. Promoting
from the perspective of reviewing evidence, certain successful early grade literacy instruction and
information is required to verify statements of acquisition requires evidence-based, empirically
findings. Consistency in reported information is tested, and scientific approaches as well as efforts
critical, especially for comparison and replication of stake holders at multiple levels, from students,
purposes. Inconsistency was found in reporting parents, teachers, community members, and leaders
quality of measures (reliability and validity;
1
in the country.
1
Reliability should be reported for survey measures, observation, and scores using rubric as well as direct student assessments. For
timed tasks, test-retest reliability or alternate form reliability are appropriate and internal consistency reliability such as Cronbach's
alpha is inappropriate (Anastasi & Drake, 1954). Inter-rater reliability should be reported for classroom observation and scoring using
rubric. Validity evidence includes correlations among measured skills.
2
In longitudinal studies or intervention studies, if different measures are used at different times (e.g., pre- and post-tests), equivalence
of measures in a construct (e.g., listening comprehension, reading fluency) should be established. That is, if two forms of a listening
comprehension task are used in pre- and post-test, equivalence of those forms should be established prior to use.
2 Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy

Chapter 1.
Introduction
Section A. Overview In this report, we define literacy in a traditional

sense as the ability to read and write to gain and
T
his Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy produce meaning in context. This is aligned with
takes stock of where we are, as a global the UNESCO’s Aspects of Literacy Assessment
community of educators within the field of paper (2005) definition of literacy as “the ability to
international development, in improving literacy identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate
acquisition in the early grades in low-income and compute using printed and written materials
countries. Hence, the purpose of the report is to associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves
review relevant, recent research coming principally a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to
from developing country contexts on efforts to achieve his or her goals, develop his or her knowledge
improve early grade literacy learning and instruction. and potential, and participate fully in community and
The scope of this report includes reviewing evidence wider society.” (p. 21)
from the field on (1) what has worked in developing
In 2010, the Early Grade Learning Community of
countries; (2) what practices show promise at
Practice3 published its landmark report “Early
this point even if the available evidence is not yet
Reading: Igniting Education for All” (Gove & Cvelich,
definitive; and (3) what the gaps in the literature/
2010). The report, largely drawing on the National
evidence base are. Within these large and overarching
Reading Panel’s Report (NICHD, 2000), laid out the
goals, topics of examination and discussion include:
case for focusing on early grade reading and outlined
u Cross cutting aspects in literacy instruction: the extant evidence on how children learn to read.
Instructional time, assessment, and teaching and The report synthesized existing research, much
learning materials, including ICTs of it from Anglophone and “developed” countries,
on teaching reading and highlighted the fact that
u Skill building in the following areas: emergent
reading was not explicitly taught in many low-
literacy, oral language, reading fluency, reading
income countries as a skill, much less a subject
comprehension, and early writing.
in early grades curricula. The report presented
u Literacy acquisition in multilingual contexts timely evidence from the application of the Early
u Teacher knowledge, and teacher education practices Grade Reading Assessment tool (EGRA) showing
that children in many low income countries were
u Parental and community engagement
not learning the basics of reading. These findings
u Long-run considerations: costs, financing, scaling catalyzed serious debate and action around the world
up, and sustainability of literacy programs on the need to refocus basic education assistance
Early Grade Learning Community of Practice Members include educators, government officials, and development practitioners,
3
all dedicated to improving learning in the early grades in low income countries. The report can be downloaded from:
http://www.rti.org/pubs/early-reading-report-revised.pdf

improving early grade reading as a prerequisite to
5Ts Framework ensuring access to the knowledge that is a crucial
Teaching part of quality education for all children, especially in
Many teachers in developing country contexts developing countries.
have not had direct and explicit training in how
In reviewing the evidence on early grade reading and
to teach literacy. Many curricula do not include
writing acquisition and instruction in the last decade,
literacy as a discrete subject of instruction, hence
teachers are not trained to teach it. it behooves us to discuss the 5Ts4 (Teaching, Time,
Texts, Tongue, and Test). Improving the acquisition
Time
of reading and writing skills in the early grades
The appropriate use of classroom time as well
meant embarking on a steep learning curve for many
as securing sufficient time devoted to teaching
stakeholders. USAID, as a donor particularly active
literacy is vital. Literacy needs to be taught
in and committed to the improvement of early grade
explicitly and directly, not as part of a larger
reading and writing skills, developed the “5 Ts” as a
language lesson.
framework to use in scaling this learning curve and
Texts
producing sound, evidence-based policies, practices
In countries all over the world, age- and level-
and assistance programs (Gove & Cvelich, 2010). As a
appropriate reading materials are lacking.
framework, the 5Ts assist donors, governments and
Children need texts to practice and develop
NGOs to develop policies and direct resources toward
literacy skills.
improving reading outcomes.
Tongue
Many children around the world do not learn to
read in a language they speak, much less their Section B. Methods and Levels of
mother tongue, and this situation can have Evidence
T
profound negative impacts on whether a child
he team reviewed a wide range of published
learns to read in any language.
studies, including academic studies and
Test project-based research. Several data bases
Instruction should be based on assessment such as ERIC and DEC were used, and a variety of
(testing) in order to identify those who are falling
donors (e.g., GPE, DfID, USAID) and NGOs which
behind and provide them ongoing support.
implement literacy projects worldwide were contacted
Tests—or assessments—allow policy makers,
to obtain evaluation reports. We also asked for
teachers and others to keep the focus on student
recommendations from leaders (practitioners and
learning and make adjustments in light of
academics) in the field regarding reports and articles
students’ performance.
to review. Reviewed studies employed a mixture of
research designs in developing country contexts.5
programs on reading. Overall, the Gove and Cvelich Although randomized control trials are the gold
(2010) report galvanized much needed attention from standard for causal inferences, it is not feasible to
donors, INGOs, local NGOs and governments around implement randomized control trials on all topic
the issue of early grade reading. The international areas, and other types of studies (e.g., descriptive,
development community took up the goal of correlational, and quasi-experimental) are useful for
4
5Ts were adapted from Allington (2002).
5
The current review revealed many and deep gaps in the existing research in developing countries. Some topics have received minimal
attention in developing countries, but have been well studied in the US or Europe or other higher income countries and we make
reference to these as appropriate.

varying purposes. It should be noted that articles evidence indicates no clear evidence about causal
or papers without empirical data were not included effects of the recommended practices due to lack
in the current review.6 In particular, in determining of studies, or conflicting results. Limited evidence
strengths of evidence and evaluating the extent indicates lack of evidentiary materials. When
of available evidence about improving early grade determining levels of evidence, several factors were
literacy skills, only studies that employed designs taken into consideration including the number of
that allowed causal inferences (i.e., randomized studies on the topic, the design and quality of the
control and quasi-experimental studies) were studies, and target population (whether the studies
included. represent an appropriate range of participants and
settings so as to be generalizable in a given context
In addition to rigorously reviewing recent research
or with a given population), and expert opinions.
on early grade literacy, the team conducted a series
of interviews with “thought leaders” from donors, The level of evidence assigned to the findings
INGOs, ministries, universities and others about their represents the team’s judgment of the quality of the
experience as part of the international development existing research on the topic of improving early
community working in and focused on early grade grade literacy achievement in developing country
literacy. These interviews were recorded, transcribed, contexts. However, it does not represent a judgement
and analyzed. Hence, where applicable, we took of the relative importance of the topic.
into account expert opinion, as long as they are in
When reporting impact of an intervention or
line with defensible theories and interpretations of
instructional approach, we focused on effect sizes
theories.
for consistency and substantive reasons. Effect sizes
The team used a framework for evaluating evidence such as Cohen’s d or Hedge’s g are widely accepted
about early grade literacy adapted from the What as standards of reporting. The following has been
Works Clearinghouse standards, developed by the widely used in the field when interpreting the size
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of effect sizes: small for effect sizes less than .3;
of Education.7 Using this framework, evidence was medium for effect sizes around .5; large for an effect
categorized into four levels: strong, moderate, size larger than .8 (Cohen, 1988). However, this
emerging, or limited. Strong evidence indicates guideline should be interpreted with a heavy dose
consistent, causal, and generalizable evidence in the of caution because effect sizes should be interpreted
recommended practices. There is strong external in the context of other studies and substantive
validity evidence with multiple studies employing context (Cohen, 1988). For instance, many literacy
high quality causal designs for the given target intervention studies in developing contexts have
population. Moderate evidence indicates that
8
reported large effect sizes (see below). This may be
although evidence does exist about recommended due to improved literacy instructional approaches in
practices, strong causal conclusions cannot be treatment versus control classrooms but may also
generalized to target population due to lack of be due to extremely low levels of literacy skills at
replication studies or causal ambiguity. Emerging baseline.
6
Single case design studies were excluded due to limited generalizability.
7
Information about these standards is available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/documentsum.aspx?sid=19.
8
Note that target population in this document refers to early grade children in developing countries. Although we acknowledge that
this is much broader than in typical studies including randomized control studies, this broad definition is in line with the goal of the
study.

Section C. Situational and home environments where parents do not have the
time, resources or expertise to devote to ensuring
Constraining Factors to Keep in Mind
school attendance, homework completion, reading
A
lthough the evidence base about effective in the home or other appropriate reading support
literacy instruction in developing contexts activities; likewise, communities underestimate the
is growing, gaps in our understanding contribution they can make to children’s attainment
are large and many. This is likely due to unique of literacy because so many members are illiterate
challenges in conducting rigorous research in some (Brombacher et al., 2012; Collins & Messaoud-Galusi,
developing country contexts. There is often lack of 2012; Gove and Cvelich, 2011; Harber, 2014; Rugh,
research capacity, including trained researchers, data 2012; UNICEF and UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2014;
collectors, statisticians, social scientists and the like. UNESCO Policy Paper 23, 2016; Verger, Novella,
Schools are often not accustomed to the presence & Altinyelken, 2012).
of researchers and are generally unfamiliar with
We list this litany of challenges because it is
conducting site-based research. Ministries around
important to take factors such as culture and context
the world face challenges in terms of information
into account both in examining evidence on early
and data collection, human resource management,
grade literacy and in evaluating a particular approach,
financing, tracking financial flows, and assessment of
project, or intervention as effective. Although we
teachers, pupils and the system as a whole.
know that the 5Ts provide a framework for developing
Likewise, the teaching and learning contexts in literacy programs as well as for systematic and
many low income countries also present challenges. explicit instruction of core skills (e.g., orthographic
Schools are frequently under-resourced (e.g. lack of symbol knowledge; see Chapter 2) that are beneficial
electricity, water, furniture, books, chalk, paper and across most languages (and certainly alphabetic
even buildings); teachers are generally untrained languages), we know less about how these ideas will
or undertrained in effective teaching methods and best take root and flourish in any given context—how
in the teaching of literacy specifically; schools are solutions are presented and implemented is critical.
often remote and hard to reach; classrooms are often The findings and recommendations in this report can
overcrowded (especially in the early grades); and be taken as starting points from which to build and
incentive systems to motivate teachers and other shape locally appropriate, effective literacy programs.
educators to do their work, to make extra efforts, and
in some cases to show up for work, are either weak
Section D. Organization of the Report
or nonexistent. Student and teacher absenteeism
F
is high. Curricula are often overcrowded with igure 1 illustrates the scope and the layers
content and facts to be memorized and skills are of literature examined in this report. There
not emphasized; national policies on textbooks and are many more factors (e.g., socio-emotional
readers often impede the selection or development of factors, learning in conflict and crisis contexts)
appropriate materials. Conflict and crisis situations that are important but beyond the scope of this
also impinge on students’ socioemotional health, report. Education by nature is a systemic, long-term
executive functioning, levels of stress and trauma endeavor. Although learning ultimately occurs at
and ability to concentrate and learn in school. School the student level, it is embedded in and influenced
fees or the opportunity costs of schooling are often by multiple layers of contexts (Bronfenbrenner,
too high for low income parents; corruption saps the 1979), ranging from family context, school and
resources of the educational system; the culture of community, to system factors. Therefore, in addition
reading in schools and communities is often weak to understanding child level factors that contribute to
or nonexistent; and children often face challenging literacy acquisition, it is imperative to address issues

Figure 1. Factors contributing to literacy literacy skills by area. Specifically, we discuss student
acquisition level factors from developing country contexts—
evidence about the core skills of learning to read and
System Level
write such as emergent literacy skills, oral language
• Teacher education policy
• Language policy skills, reading fluency, reading comprehension,
and writing. In Chapter 4, we focus on factors at
School & Community the teacher, school, community and system levels
• Language context that impact the process of learning to read and
• Home & community support
write in many developing country contexts. Topics
• Quality of instruction
include literacy acquisition in multilingual contexts,
Family teacher knowledge and education, and parental and
• Language & literacy
community engagement. In Chapter 5, we examine
environment
factors related to long-term considerations for
governments and donors, including cost, financing,
Student scale up, and sustainability. Finally, Chapter 6
• Language proficiency concludes the report with an overall discussion of
• Cognitive skills
recommendations moving forward and research gaps
to be addressed.
The structure of each chapter varies to some extent

depending on nature of particular content. However,
at family, community, and system levels to ensure the following overarching structure was employed
that all children learn to read in the early grades. where possible:
u What is the topic and why is it important to early

The chapters in this report address some of the
grade literacy?
factors within this framework. In Chapter 2 we
provide an overview of key areas necessary to u What evidence exists on the topic especially in
successfully promote improved early grade literacy developing countries?
skills. This chapter provides the framework for u What are the design consideration and challenges
understanding the development of reading skills related to the topic, including a discussion of:
and then reviews important cross cutting factors
– Instructional approaches
such as the level of instruction and materials,
– Instructional materials
instructional routines, time, achieving automaticity,
– Assessment
assessment, and information and communication
technologies (ICTs). In Chapter 3, we discuss key – The use of ICTs
areas to successfully promote improved early grade u What research gaps exist with respect to the topic?

Chapter 2.
Key Areas to Successfully Promote
Improved Early Grade Literacy Skills:
Overview
Section A. A Framework for

Word reading and listening comprehension
Understanding Reading Development
are both vital to reading comprehension across
W
hat does it take to read and comprehend languages and writing systems.
written texts? Reading development
(Adolf, Catts, & Little, 2006; Florit & Cain, 2011; Foorman, Koon,
involves highly complex language
Petscher, Mitchell, & Truckenmiller, 2015; Gracia & Cain, 2014;
and cognitive processes, requiring development Joshi, Tao, Aaron, & Quiroz, 2012; Kendeou, Papadopoulos, &
and coordination of multiple skills through a Kotzapoulou, 2013; Kendeou, van den Broek, White, & Lynch,
developmental sequence. As shown in Figure 2, 2009; Kim, 2011, Kim, 2015a; Lee & Wheldall, 2009).
reading comprehension—the ultimate purpose
of learning to read—requires, at minimum, word
Listening comprehension is the “ability to
reading or decoding (the word reading) and listening
comprehend oral language at the discourse level—
comprehension (oral language comprehension at
including [multi-utterance] conversations, stories,
the discourse level) (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover
informational oral texts—that involves the processes
& Gough, 1990). Reading fluency is also necessary,
of extracting and constructing meaning” (Kim &
acting as a bridge or a partial mediator, connecting
Pilcher, 2016, p. 160). Listening comprehension is
word reading and listening comprehension to reading
even more complex than word reading, and draws
comprehension (Kim, 2015b; Kim & Wagner, R. K.,
on foundational cognitive skills such as working
2015). If word reading and listening comprehension
memory (the ability to hold and manipulation
are two necessary skills for reading comprehension,
information during a short time period), inhibitory
how do these skills develop? Each of these skill areas
control (the ability to suppress a dominant response
is built on a complex set of foundational skills.
and initiate a subdominant response), attentional
Foundations for word reading (and spelling) include control; and foundational oral language skills such as
emergent literacy skills such as print awareness, vocabulary knowledge, and grammatical knowledge;
orthographic symbol knowledge, phonological and higher-order cognitive skills such as inference,
awareness, morphological awareness, and perspective taking and reasoning, and comprehension
orthographic awareness (see building blocks in Figure monitoring (Florit, Roch, & Levorato, 2014; Kendeou,
2). These emergent literacy skills map onto the three Bohn-Gettler, White, & van den Broek, 2008; Kim,
types of knowledge that need to be activated for word 2015a, 2016a; Kim & Phillips, 2014; Lepola, Lynch,
reading: phonology (sound structure), orthography Laakkonen, Silvén, & Niemi, 2012; Tompkins, Guo, &
(writing system), and semantics (meaning) (see Justice, 2013). In other words, listening comprehension
Adams, 1990; Seidenberg, & McClelland, 1989 for is an upper-level skill that requires a complex array
further details). of language and cognitive skills (Kim, 2015, 2016a;

see Figure 3). Given the complex set of Figure 2. Component skills of reading comprehension and
skills that contribute to the development their structural relations. Reprinted from Kim (2016b) with permission.
of listening comprehension, listening
comprehension takes a prolonged time
to develop, and is a much larger area
than word reading (Paris, 2005; Snow &
Kim, 2007). In fact, learning never ends
for some areas of oral language such as
vocabulary. Furthermore, these language
and cognitive component skills (e.g.,
vocabulary and reasoning) develop in
tandem.
In summary, without appropriate

development of emergent literacy skills,
word reading would not develop properly.
Without appropriate development of
language and cognitive skills, listening
comprehension would fail to develop.
Consequently, children would fail to
develop reading fluency and reading
comprehension.
Figure 3. Language and cognitive skills that contribute to

Section B. Cross-Cutting listening comprehension (Kim, 2016a, reprinted with permission)
Factors in Literacy
Instruction
Discourse
T
he foundational skills of literacy Listening comprehension
comprehension
acquisition start developing first in
the home and in the community.
However, the primary focus of literacy
instruction in many contexts is in the Inference, perspective
Higher order
formal school setting. Below are several taking & reasoning,
cognitive skills
cross cutting factors that are applicable to comprehension monitoring
classroom instruction contexts in terms
of instruction, assessment, instructional
materials, and ICTs. Vocabulary, Grammatical
Foundational
knowledge, Working memory,
language and
Instructional Considerations Inhibitory control,
cognitive skills
Attentional control
Developmentally-appropriate
instructional content
Learning occurs when instruction targets
the right content at the right level Oral language is a larger construct than word
for students' needs (Vygotsky, 1978). reading, and takes a prolonged time to develop.
Curriculum or instructional content

in many low-income countries is too difficult and has been operationalized widely as the “Three
ambitious for students’ skill levels (ASER, 2011; Piper, Ps” (presentation, practice, and performance) or
2010a; Crouch, Korda, & Mumo, 2009; Pritchett & the “I Do, We Do, You Do” models. These models
Beatty, 2015). In such cases, there is a need to revise are applicable across target skills (e.g., emergent
the scope and sequence of early grade curricula to literacy, oral language), although they must take
align with evidence-based and scientifically-validated into account and be adapted to the local context. For
research on literacy development as well as national instance, monitoring students’ reading and providing
assessment results. corrective feedback, essential components of the “you
do” or the ‘performance’ phases of the scaffolded
Moreover, even when the curriculum content is
learning model, are particularly challenging in
appropriate, the appropriate level of instruction
developing countries due to large class sizes. One
varies widely across students, as students differ in
way of overcoming this challenge may be monitoring
where they start and how fast they learn the target
students’ reading on a row by row basis (Abadzi &
skill. Therefore, effective instruction should address
Martelli, 2014).
and meet the varying needs of students informed
by assessment results. This is often referred to as In many developing countries, teachers have limited
differentiated instruction (e.g., Connor et al., 2013). or no education in literacy instruction (Akyeampong
Operationalization of differentiated instruction et al., 2013; Piper & Korda, 2011b; Pryor et al., 2012).
would vary across contexts due to differences in In such contexts, scripted lessons and teacher guides
environments and resources (e.g., class size). may be an important means as well as a starting
place for helping teachers to organize content
Instructional routines and establish instructional routines for literacy
The establishment of instructional routines has been instruction (Piper & Korda, 2011b). Although the
shown to help teachers (RTI International, 2011; EDC, vast majority of extant randomized control trials
2013). The following sample instructional routine on literacy instruction in developing countries have
(Rosenshine, 1995; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1995) has used scripted lessons, direct evidence on whether
been used successfully in developing country contexts scripted lessons are more effective than alternative
such as Kenya (e.g., RTI International, 2011). approaches—the effect of using scripted lessons
per se, separate from intervention content itself—
u Review and check previous work
is limited. Recent studies, however, indicate their
u Present new material
potential effectiveness. In Malawi, teachers found
u Provide guided practice scripted lessons that provide explicit systematic
u Provide feedback and corrections instruction on literacy instruction to be helpful in

implementing the lessons and integrating principles
u Provide independent practice
of effective literacy instructional practices (Tilson,
u Provide weekly and monthly reviews Kamlongera, Pucilowski, & Nampota, 2013a). In Kenya,
student literacy skills were higher in classrooms
The goal of this framework is to promote scaffolded
where teachers were provided with teacher guides
instruction and gradual release of responsibilities
(with scripted lesson plans) compared to those who
(Duke & Pearson, 2002; Pearson & Gallagher, 1983). In
had only student books and teacher training (RTI,
scaffolded instruction the teacher initially assumes
2015a).
all the responsibility for performing a task, and
gradually and incrementally transfers responsibility When provided, scripted lesson plans and
for performing the task to students, until students teacher guidebooks should include step-by-step,
are able to do the task on their own without teacher straightforward instructions in a single volume per
assistance. The scaffolded instructional model semester or year (Piper & Korda, 2011b) and should

not be long or too wordy or complex (Tilson et al., Stout et al., 2015) and Yemen (Collins & Messaoud-
2013a). Of course, teacher guides and lesson plans Galusi, 2012).
are not effective by themselves; rigorous professional
Although a rough estimate of 850 to 1000 hours
development is needed to ensure effective use of
per year has been recommended as the minimum
scripted lesson plans (Tilson, Allemano, Mereku, &
instructional time needed in reading over a school
Marfo, 2013b).
year (Gilles & Jester Quijada, 2008), there is no clear
Instructional time evidence from low-income countries about how

much instructional time is necessary or sufficient
Quality teaching requires dedicated instructional
for successful literacy instruction. In the US context,
time. However, in many developing countries, literacy
reading and language arts are typically taught for
has not been taught as a subject and consequently
approximately 90 minutes a day in elementary grades
no separate time has been set aside for literacy
(National Science Foundation, 2012). In developing
instruction (EDC, 2013). With the teaching of reading
countries, the amount of instructional time devoted
and writing folded into the larger "language arts"
to reading varies by intervention or project. For
curriculum in many countries, direct and systematic
instance, in Jordan, as part of a reading intervention,
reading and writing instruction does not happen
teachers in Grades 2 and 3 were requested to teach
in sufficient quantity or depth (Bunyi, Cherotich, &
reading at least for 15 minutes per day (RTI, 2014a).
Piper, 2013). For instance, in most Arabic-speaking
In other intervention projects, teachers in treatment
countries, reading is taught under the umbrella of the
schools increased the amount of instructional time
Arabic language curriculum, often without systematic
devoted to reading instruction (e.g., 40 minutes vs.
and organized instruction (Boyle, Al Ajjawi, & Xiang,
25 minutes in comparison in Nigeria, RTI, 2016a; 45
2014).
minutes daily in Liberia, Piper & Korda, 2011a, and in
There are also several related factors that limit Mozambique, Raupp, Newmann, Reves, & Lauchande,
students' opportunity to learn. In many countries the 2015; 50 minutes per day in Zambia, Falconer-Stout
school day and/or year is relatively short, and double et al., 2015). In addition to increasing the amount of
shift schools are prevalent, limiting instructional classroom time devoted to reading, teachers in these
time (Benavot & Amadio, 2004; Piper & Korda, intervention classrooms were found to spend the vast
2011a,b). In addition, teacher and pupil absenteeism, majority of that instructional time on literacy skills
school closures, and a lack of time on task further whereas in control classrooms, much of instructional
limit opportunity to learn. In Mali, actual number time was spent on non-literacy and even non-
of learning days was only 53% of mandated school instructional activities (administration, discipline).
days (EDC, 2013). In Haiti, schools were closed 27% (RTI, 2016a).
of the time and student daily attendance rates
averaged only 77% (DeStefano & Miksic, 2007). Not Achieving automaticity
surprisingly, lack of opportunity to learn is related to Accuracy in reading (e.g., accurately identifying
lower literacy achievement. The combination of lost letters and reading words) is important. However,
school days and student absenteeism explained 55% in addition to accuracy, achieving automaticity and
of the variation in student performance on reading efficiency is important as it allows students to access
skills in Haitian Creole (Gilles & Jester Quijada, 2008). and retrieve relevant information efficiently to
In Jordan, strong-performing classes had an average support reading and writing. Achieving automaticity
observed absenteeism rate of 6.1%, compared to 14.8% is relevant at all levels of literacy skills, including
for lower-performing classes (Brombach, Collins, sublexical emergent literacy skills (e.g., letter
Cummiskey, Kochetkova, & Mulcahy-Dunn, 2012). naming and letter writing), word reading (word
Similar results were also found in Zambia (Falconer- reading fluency) and spelling, and text reading

Sattler, 2001), and meet the needs of developing
Automaticity refers to effortlessness and lack of countries (e.g., language context; Wagner, D. A., 2003,
conscious awareness. Automaticity in reading 2011). Most assessments on reading comprehension
refers to the ability to recognize letters, sounds, provide important information about level of
performance, but do typically not provide information
and word accurately and immediately upon
about the reasons for poor performance. Further
seeing them without expending attention or
or follow-up assessments are needed to determine
effort. Automaticity in a particular construct is
whether students’ poor reading comprehension is
typically assessed by timed tasks. due to weakness in either word reading or listening
comprehension, as well as their component skills (see
the framework and Figure 2 above). One important
(reading fluency) (Breznitz, 2006; Ehri, 2005; Piper feature that educators (teachers and evaluators)
& Zuilkowski, 2016; Saiegh-Haddad, 2005; Wolf, should be aware is that if assessments are used for
2001). Practice is key to developing automaticity, comparison across times (e.g., beginning, middle,
and therefore, it is important to build in the time and end of school year or an intervention), then
and opportunities to practice taught skills in the assessments of the same construct (e.g., reading
instructional routine. fluency or comprehension) should be equivalent. For
instance, changes in students’ performance cannot
Assessment Considerations be accurately measured if difficulty levels of different
forms of assessments (e.g., Form A is used at the
A
ssessment is an essential component of effective
beginning of a school year and Form B is used at the
instruction as it provides information about
end of school year) are not equivalent.
students’ achievement levels and reasons for the
performance level. There are multiple types and
Various language and literacy assessments are
purposes of student assessments such as screening
available in many languages and contexts, generally
(to identify some students who might be at risk
in the areas of emergent literacy skills (e.g.,
for literacy failure and require further diagnostic
phonological awareness, letter naming fluency), word
assessment), diagnostic (to identify specific areas of
reading (word reading and nonword or novel word
strengths and weaknesses), formative and progress
reading), reading fluency, reading comprehension,
monitoring (to reveal whether students are learning
and oral language (vocabulary and listening
adequately), and summative (overall achievement
comprehension): EGRA9 (Early Grade Reading
level). All these assessments can be conducted at
Assessment), developed by the World Bank and USAID,
multiple levels such as classroom, local, national,
Save the Children’s Literacy Boost Assessment,10
regional, and international levels (e.g., Learning
ASER11 (Annual Status of Education Report) in India
metrics by UNESCO, 2014).
and other countries (Banerji, 2016; Vagh, 2016), Uwezo
Assessments should be aligned with theoretical (Nakabugo, 2016), UNICEF’s MICS (Multiple Indicator
models and empirical evidence for literacy Cluster Survey; Cardoso & Dowd, 2016), EDC’s OLA12
development and with literacy curriculum, meet (Out-of-school Literacy Assessment), Young Lives
psychometric standards (i.e., reliability and validity; (Cueto & Leon, 2012), UNESCO's LAMP13 (Literacy
9
Gove & Wetterberg, 2011 and https://globalreadingnetwork.net/eddata
10
http://www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/%7B9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a%7D/6931.PDF
11
http://www.asercentre.org/Keywords/p/205.html
12
http://eola.edc.org/about/ola-design/
13
http://www.uis.unesco.org/literacy/Pages/lamp-literacy-assessment.aspx

and Assessment and Monitoring Programme, 2009), is even more severe in children’s mother tongue or
and World Vision's Functional Literacy Assessment first language. (Neuman & Celano, 2001; Paton-Ash &
Tool (FLAT) (see UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Wilmot, 2015; Edwards & Ngwaru, 2011).
2016 for more details). EGRA has been used in over
100 languages14 for a variety of purposes such as While provision of materials alone has a small
providing information about baseline, instructional impact on improving student outcomes (McEwan,
target, a system-wide diagnostic of reading 2014; Tilson et.al., 2013b), instructional materials are
difficulties, and the evaluation of reading programs effective when teachers have the necessary knowledge
(Dubeck & Gove, 2015; Dubeck, Gove, & Alexander, to use them correctly as part of literacy instruction.
2016; Gove et al., 2015; Gove & Wetterberg, 2011). Use A recent study in Kenya demonstrated that impact
of any of the assessments above require adequate on students' literacy skills was much larger when
training for reliable administration, scoring, teachers had student books available, compared to
interpretation, and use (see UNESCO Institute of teacher training alone with no instructional materials
Statistics, 2016 for a comprehensive review of various (RTI, 2015a). Indeed, the development community
aspects to consider in reading assessments). Both has ample evidence of the important role that
paper and pencil tests and electronic data collection instructional materials and books play (Edwards &
options are available, depending on the context (see Ngwaru, 2011; Elley, 2000; Gilles & Quijada, 2008;
the ICT section below for further details). Heyneman et al., 1978; Rosenberg, 1998; Tilson et
al., 2013b). However, in addition to the availability of
reading materials, an important issue is how they are
Instructional Materials Considerations
provided to schools and homes, and how the materials
L
iteracy development requires exposure to and are used. For example, a randomized controlled trial
practice with written texts. Therefore, access to in India examining the impact of physical school
appropriate reading materials, including textbooks libraries on pupils’ language skills had no effect;
and books for pleasure or for practice and building and the provision of visiting librarians actually had
a culture of reading, is an important issue in many a negative effect (Borkum et. al. 2013). These results
developing countries. A study in Mali reported that mirror those of Save the Children’s locally produced
across different school types (curriculum, classique Book Banks. Overall, Book Bank effects were not
and medersas) book possession in class was below consistent across studies and contexts for a variety
the 50% mark and was markedly low in the earlier of reasons (research design issues, or null findings).
grades in particular (RTI, 2009b). The most recent However, its potential is reported in some studies.
EGRA baseline in Mali indicated that 50% of children For instance, in Ethiopia, Literacy Boost program
still do not have textbooks (RTI 2016c). While studies participants who could name their favorite book
in Arabic-speaking countries indicated that the from the Book Bank had higher literacy scores than
availability of textbooks was not an issue, a national those who could not (Gebreaneia et al., 2014). Book
survey in Jordan in 2012 found that only half of Floods, where a significant number of high quality
schools had a school library. In Morocco, only 10% of books (about 100 titles per class) are introduced
schools in Doukkala Abda reported having a school into a system, were effective in the Pacific islands
library (Messaoud-Galus, Mulcahy-Dunn, Ralaingita, in promoting the activity of reading and improving
& Kochetkova, 2012). Indeed, non-textbook print reading acquisition in the 1970s and 80s (Elley,
materials are often lacking, or lacking for developing 2000). They were accompanied by training in how to
readers in many contexts. Lack of print materials use the books. Therefore, challenges in developing
14
Extant EGRA versions are available at https://globalreadingnetwork.net/eddata

countries include how to affordably and sustainably stories. For example, the African Storybook Project
get appropriate books into the hands of children, is used in many countries, with digital readers that
how to promote borrowing and using books, and can be adapted to different languages and contexts.
how to encourage creating enriched home literacy Save the Children uses a Book Bank model to provide
environments (Borkum, 2013; Elley, 2000; Gebreaneia Literacy Boost schools with locally developed
et al., 2014; Glewwe et al. 2009). reading materials for the early grades (Save the
Children, 2012). Pratham’s low-cost books and
Books and texts provided to schools should be
literacy instructional materials are likewise widely
engaging and culturally appropriate. However, in
used in India. The South African Book Development
many contexts, poorer schools receive donations
Council actively encourages local publishing to
of old books, out of date books, or books that are
foster a culture of reading. The Global Book Fund
culturally or age inappropriate. (Paton-Ash & Wilmot,
Alliance has looked at supply chain issues as well as
2015). In many African countries, the publishing
publishing and distribution issues across nations in
industry is challenged to produce relevant books
order to find solutions to the book shortages. These
for reading in local languages. In most cases the
initiatives are all designed, using different strategies,
market is simply not lucrative enough to justify
to address the critical shortage of culturally and
publishers’ investments (Edwards & Ngwaru, 2011).
linguistically appropriate reading materials for early
Publications such as Writing in Nine Tongues and
grade learners.15 Finally, the Norwegian Development
the Catalogue of South African Literature, however,
Agency (NORAD), the UK Department for
signal growing awareness of the importance of
International Development (DFID) and the US Agency
local language publishing, beyond textbooks. The
for International Development (USAID) funded
Rwandan Children's Book Initiative, for example,
a global book fund feasibility study examining
recently worked directly with local publishers to
whether such a mechanism could transform the
pilot strategies for increasing the availability of local
situation of low availability of textbooks and reading
language children's books. The initiative resulted
books in low income countries by improving the
in the development of forty-seven Kinyarwanda
effectiveness of book chains, from publishing to
children's books appropriate for Grades 1 to 3.
purchasing to delivery and dissemination (Results
Moreover, interviews with authors, publishers and
for Development, 2016). In particular, the study
illustrators trained to develop children's books
examined the potential use of models from the
indicated an increase in their knowledge, skills
health sector and concluded that there are lessons to
and even confidence (Malik, Balfour, Nzabonimpa,
be learned, although the direct use of such models,
Cozzolino, Dib, & Dowd, 2015).
applied to the book problem, is not recommended.
There are other initiatives as well to make the The report further highlighted that the climate at
creation and distribution of appropriate early grade the governmental level is not yet as propitious as
reading books in mother tongue, local language it was for, say vaccinations, as the need for books,
and/or language of instruction more feasible. Some especially those in mother tongue languages, has not
provide a basic template to create books online, to yet been actively adopted by governments (Results for
find culturally appropriate stories, and to translate Development, 2016).
15
Information on these particular initiatives can be found at the following sites: African Storybook Project: http://my.africanstorybook.
org
Literacy Boost: http://www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/%7B9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a%7D/6931.PDF Pratham: http://
prathamusa.org or http://pratham.org for Pratham India
South African Book Development Council: http://sabookcouncil.co.za
Global Book Fund Alliance: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/GlobalBookFund_Two_Pager.pdf

School infrastructure environments in low-income with a mobile phone, computer, or e-reader will
countries vary considerably. In some contexts, produce significant change. For example, in the One
instruction occurs outdoors and there are no walls Laptop per Child program in Peru, the software on
available to display print or instructional materials. the laptops was not tailored to the curriculum and
In other contexts, there are few instructional teachers did not generally change their instructional
materials to support learning and it is often necessary approaches when the computers were introduced
for teachers, school directors, and even parents (Cristia, Ibarrarán, Cueto, Santiago, & Severín, 2012;
to tap into creative and non-traditional methods Villarán, 2010). Not surprisingly, an evaluation
to create or procure instructional materials. For of the program found no statistically significant
example, the Madrasa Resource Center program in improvements in achievement (Beuermann, Cristia,
Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda focused on training Cueto, Malamud, & Cruz-Aguayo, 2015). This evidence
Madrasa Resource Center pre-school teachers to use suggests that ICT alone is not a silver bullet—ICT
locally available materials to stimulate children's applications must be built upon the foundation of
interest in exploring and experimenting. Children a high-quality, evidence-based literacy instruction
in Madrasa Resource Center classrooms where pre- curriculum.
school teachers were trained to use these materials in
The evidence for in-school, early-grade-reading
a child-centered way scored higher on assessments
focused ICT programs in developing countries
of cognitive development than children in the
remains relatively sparse (Trucano, 2005; Wagner,
control group (Malmberg et al., 2011). Likewise, the
D. A., 2014). In Kenya, one large study compared the
Rwanda Children's Book Initiative reported that
effects of three ICT interventions—student e-readers,
training teachers on how to use locally-produced
teacher tablets with lesson plans and support
children’s books in the classroom (albeit from trained
materials, and instructional coach tablets, all layered
professional local publishers) resulted in increased
on top of the same literacy program—on second-
reading frequency both inside and outside the
grade student reading outcomes in English and
classroom, as well as a concomitant increase in the
Kiswahili (Piper, Zuilkowski, Kwayumba, & Strigel,
richness and variety of locally made materials (i.e. by
2016). While all three interventions were effective
teachers and students) inside the classroom (Malik, et
in comparison with a control group, there were no
al., 2015). Teachers generally used the books in their
additional benefits of the more ICT-intensive and
lessons and also allowed children to select books
expensive approaches—the student e-readers and
for independent reading. Additionally, significantly
teacher tablets—over the version that equipped only
higher percentage of teachers in the Rwandan
the zone-level instructional coaches with tablets.
Children’s Book Initiative encouraged students to
Other studies in Kenya (Abrami, Wade, Lysenko,
read at home than those in the business-as-usual
Marsch, & Gioko, 2014) and Ghana (Jaffe, Lowe, &
condition.
Mahesri, 2012) have found some positive effects using
computers and student e-readers, respectively. Radio
ICT Considerations instruction has had a longer history, and evidence
from Mali, Zambia, Sudan, and elsewhere suggests
I
CTs are often very attractive to policymakers,
that this approach can be effective, particularly in
parents, teachers and school directors, as they
reaching rural areas (EDC, 2013; 2014b). We will
connote an advanced educational system and well-
discuss specific interventions in greater detail as
resourced schools. The research is quite clear,
relevant in each section of the report.
however, that ICT components should be aligned
with pedagogy (Trucano, 2005). In other words, if the ICT devices and content must be targeted for the
underlying approach to literacy instruction is weak, contexts in which they will be used and the people
it is unlikely that a limited, standalone intervention who will use them (Wagner, D. A., Castillo, Murphy,

Crofton, & Zahra, 2014). In general, programs used as intended, as teachers who are uncomfortable
employing ICTs need to use devices that are durable with new technology may simply ignore it (Chigona &
in developing country contexts and contain relevant, Chigona, 2010). School systems that currently do not
age and culturally appropriate material. A tablet use ICT approaches intensively should therefore move
that is considered sturdy in the United States may forward in stages, allowing teachers to become more
not be a feasible option in extreme environments— familiar with technology over time before expanding
high temperatures, dust, and unstable electricity, to students. Beginning with technology that is widely
for example. In rural sub-Saharan Africa the available and relatively inexpensive such as mobile
electrification rate is just 17% (International Energy phones and text messaging is both more feasible
Agency, 2015), making devices that must be charged financially and less intimidating to teachers.
regularly a poor fit to the context. In Ghana,
Worldreader has reduced e-reader breakage rates in
Providing Ongoing Support for Teachers
its programs in sub-Saharan Africa dramatically by
and Schools
working both with manufacturers to source reinforced
L
screens and with local stakeholders—students, iteracy instruction in the early grades is generally
teachers, and parents—to improve care of the devices embedded within schools, and therefore, efficient
(Tam, 2012). Despite their potential for assisting in management of schools, including involvement of
the instruction of students with disabilities (UNESCO, principals and professionalism of teachers, enables
2013), a recent review did not find any ICT literacy effective literacy instruction (EDC, 2013; Spratt et al.,
programs that were specifically designed to meet the 2013; Raupp et al., 2015). In Rwanda, schools receiving
needs of this population (Wagner, D. A. et al., 2014). books on time and making use of learning materials
had higher achievement (EDC, 2016). In Mozambique,
Program planners should not make assumptions
explicit reading instruction was implemented in two
about teachers’ ability to use ICT devices (Pouezevara
contexts—one with attention to reading component
& Khan, 2008) and should ensure that technical
skills and the other with reading component skills
support is available (Chigona, Chigona, & Davids,
and school management. After a year of instruction,
2014). Extensive training is often necessary,
students in the reading instruction with school
beginning with how to turn on devices and log in. In
management condition achieved higher reading
settings where teachers are unfamiliar with devices,
skills (Raupp et al., 2015; also see Chapter 4 for
teachers need time to build their own skills before
more information on teacher in-service professional
they can support others. Skipping this step may lead
development and coaching).
to unused devices gathering dust rather than being

Chapter 3.
Key Areas to Successfully Promote
Improved Early Grade Literacy Skills:
By Areas
Section A. Emergent Literacy Skills: print works and how it is different from other
symbols such as pictures. Orthographic symbol
Foundations for Word Reading and
knowledge is knowledge of shapes, names, and
Spelling
sounds of orthographic symbols such as alphabet
letters. Orthographic awareness refers to the ability
Background: What and Why Emergent
to “visually recognize legal letter patterns and
Literacy Skills?
sequences in printed words” (Kim, 2011, p. 179).
E
mergent literacy skills are foundational for word Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize
reading and spelling (see Figure 2 in Section A) and manipulate various sizes of speech sounds (e.g.,
and typically include print awareness, orthographic words, syllables, and phonemes; Stanovich, 1992).
symbol knowledge, phonological awareness, Morphological awareness is sensitivity to word
orthographic awareness, and morphological structure and ability to manipulate morphemes
awareness. Print awareness is knowledge of how (smallest unit of meaning; Carlisle, 1995), and is
Figure 4. Language and print-related skills that contribute to word reading and spelling
Sp
ok
en
L an
Awareness gu
ag
of e
words
Awareness
of syllables
(& morphemes)
Awareness
of phonemes Chunks within
(& morphemes) Automatic
Words
word
Orthographic (Orthographic
awareness)
recognition
symbol/sound
correspondence
Orthographic
symbol names
& shapes
Print
awareness ge
g ua
L an
en
r itt
W

particularly helpful for multisyllabic word reading and 2006*; Spratt, King, & Bulat, 2013; Wagner, D. A.,
spelling in languages with different writing systems & Spratt, 1987; Wagner, D. A., Spratt, & Ezzaki,
(Abu-Rabia, 2007; Cho, McBride-Chang, & Park, 2008; 1989; World Bank, 2016*). For instance, Nag-
McBride-Chang et al., 2008; Taha & Saiegh-Haddad, Arulmani and her colleagues (2003) provided an
in press). As shown in Figure 4, the student’s journey intervention in phonological skills to 7- to 9-year
to reading starts by learning to map orthographic olds with reading difficulties in India. Those who
symbols to sounds, and progresses to accurately received interventions improved word reading and
sounding out words and to fluently reading them. spelling to a greater extent than those who did
not, and the intervention was particularly helpful
Evidence from Developing for students with very low initial word reading
skills. Effect sizes in these studies ranged from
Countries
small18 to large (e.g., 1.23; RTI, 2015a). Furthermore,
T
he evidence base for the a study in Yemen showed cumulative effects such
importance of explicit that students who received explicit and systematic
and systematic instruction instruction for two years improved reading to a
on emergent literacy skills is larger extent than those who received instruction
strong in developing country for one year (Pleiss et al., 2016).
contexts. The positive effect
Although highly encouraging, no significant
of systematically teaching
impact were observed in many contexts including
orthographic symbol-sound
Afganistan (Azami & Pava, 2014*), Burundi
relations (i.e., phonological awareness, orthographic
(Rosenkranz, Jonason, & Kajangwa, 2014*), El
symbol knowledge, and phonics16) has been clearly
Salvador (Pisani & Alvarado, 2014*), Indonesia
demonstrated in low-income countries (Crouch,
(Guajardo, Hossain, Nath, & Dowd, 2013*;
Korda, & Mumo, 2009*;17 Davidson & Hobbs, 2013*;
Pisasni, Satyaning, Giri, Alesbury, & de Fretes,
DeStefano, Slade, & Korda, 2013*; Dixon, Schagen,
2014*), Pakistan (Moulvi, Pisani, Dowd, Burki, &
& Seedhouse, 2011; EDC, 2013*, 2014; Dunlop,
Mithani, 2014*; Moulvi & Pava, 2014*), Philippines
2015*; Falconer-Stout, Messner, & Wedekind, 2015*;
(Badiable, Guardo, & Robism 2013*), Sri Lanka
Mitton, 2008*; Gebreanenia, Sorissa, Takele, Yenew,
(Wickramasekara, Navaratnam, & Guajardo, 2014*),
& Garjardo, 2014*; Karki & Dowd, 2013*; Mungoi,
and Uganda (Guajardo et al., 2013*). Therefore,
Mandlante, Nhatubve, Mahanggue, Fonseca, &
further understanding is needed about factors
Dowd, 2010*; Nag-Arulmani, Reddy, Buckley, 2003;
influencing results. In addition, the majority of
Pinto, 2010*; Piper, Jepkemei, & Kibukho, 2015; Piper
these studies targeted multiple components beyond
& Korda, 2011a; Piper, Jepkemi, & Kibukho, 2015;
emergent literacy skills, and therefore, specific
Pallante & Kim, 2013; Plessis, El-Ashry, & Tietjen,
effects of each emergent literacy skill components
2016*; Pouezevara, Costello, & Banda, 2013; Raupp,
on reading often cannot be teased out.
Newmann, Reves, & Lauchande, 2015*; Rolla San
Francisco, Arias, Villers, & Snow, 2006; RTI, 2014a,b*,
2015a, 2015b*, 2016a; Save the Children, 2013*; Sahin,
16
Phonics refers to an instructional approach where the relation between orthographic symbols and sounds is explicitly taught (Adams,
1990).
17
Studies with an * indicate that effect sizes could not be verified due to insufficient information (e.g., standard deviation).
18
Quite a few studies did not report effect sizes.

Table 2. Evidence-based principles for instruction of emergent literacy skills
Emergent Considering variation across languages and writing

literacy skill General principle systems
Print Teach directionality of text and features of Directionality relevant to the target writing system should
awareness print. When reading books, point to each word be explicitly taught. In Arabic, written text is read from
(print referencing) so that students develop an right to left and from top row to the next row. In English,
understanding that print represents sounds. Create written text is read from left to right and from top row
print-rich environment where orthographic symbols to the next row. In traditional Chinese texts, text is
and other print (e.g., chart, student work) are read from top to bottom and right to left (text is read by
displayed and books are available in an organized column).
manner (see Fisher, Godwin, & Seltman, 2014 for a
negative effect of too much print in the classroom).
Orthographic Teach shapes, names, and sounds of orthographic Some writing systems have greater number of
symbol symbols together. In many languages, symbol names orthographic symbols than others (e.g., Hindi; Nag, Chiat,
knowledge contain clues to sounds, which need to be explicitly Torgeson, & Snowling, 2014), or visually similar symbols
taught. Allot additional time for teaching visually (e.g., Hebrew and Arabic; Treiman, Levin, & Kessler, 2007;
complex orthographic symbols and do not introduce Levin, Saiegh-Haddad, Hende, & Ziv, 2008), or highly
visually similar orthographic symbols together as visually complex orthographic symbols (e.g., Chinese;
they cause confusion. Huang & Hanley, 1997; Zhou, McBride-Chang, & Wong,
2014; Akshara used in India, Nag, 2007).
Orthographic Start with individual orthographic symbol-sound Instruction should clearly lay out consistent and
awareness patterns, followed by a short string of orthographic inconsistent relations and teach them using appropriate
symbols (e.g., 'at' pattern found in cat, hat, pat, that). instructional approaches. For example, in English,
Then, introduce more complex letter groups (e.g., symbol-sound relations are explicitly taught for the vast
-ing, -igh). majority of words while for some irregular words, whole
word instruction is used.
Phonological Manipulating larger phonological units such Languages differ in salient phonological units (Kim,
awareness as syllables is easier than small units such as 2007; Share & Blum, 2005; Saiegh-Haddad, 2007; Ziegler
phonemes. When teaching phoneme awareness, & Goswami, 2005) and in the units of sounds that link
identifying initial and ending phonemes is easier to orthographic symbols (English letters represent
than identifying medial sounds. phonemes; fidels in Ethiopia represent syllables; Akshara
in India represent syllables and phonemes; Nag et al.2014).
Phonological awareness activities vary in difficulty.
In languages where symbols represent phonemes,
Identifying an odd sound19 is easiest, followed by
phonological awareness instruction should ultimately
blending and segmenting sounds. Deleting sounds
target phoneme awareness in addition to other units
is the most difficult type of activity. Therefore,
such as syllables. In languages where symbols represent
initial instruction should progress from a larger
syllables, instruction targeting syllable awareness may
phonological unit (e.g., syllables) to a smaller unit,
suffice (Tilson et al., 2013a). Students in diglossic contexts
using easier tasks (e.g., blending) in the beginning
need instruction on literary or standard names and
and then moving to more demanding tasks (e.g.,
pronunciations (Abadzi & Martelli, 2014).
deletion).
Morphological Teach children how to recognize morphemes in a Morphological structures vary across languages. In some
awareness word in oral language, and then recognize them languages, free morphemes are prominent (e.g., Chinese,
in written words (e.g., Apel & Diehm, in press). and West African languages) whereas in others words
For instance, unpredictable is composed of three are made up of both free and bound morphemes20 (e.g.,
morphemes, un, predict, able; flowers is composed of Bantu languages, Turkish). Instruction should be aligned
two morphemes, flower and s (plural). with prominent morphological structures in the target
language.
19
In an oddity task, students hear a set of words such as "sun, sock, and top." In this set, “top” is the odd word because it starts with
/t/ phoneme whereas /s/ is the initial phoneme in the other two words. In blending tasks, phonemes such as /k/ /a/ /t/ are blended to
a word, /kat/ cat. In segmenting tasks, /kat/ can can be segmented into /k/ /a/ /t/. In deletion tasks, when /k/ sound is deleted from
/kat/, only /at/ is left.
20
Bound morphemes are those that cannot stand alone and therefore have to be attached to the base word (e.g., -(e)s for plural or
affixes such as pre- in English) whereas free morphemes are those that can be a stand alone word (e.g., horse in horsemen).

Summary of Important Design
Decodable books contain words that the
Considerations and Challenges
students have learned to decode. For instance, if
n Teach emergent literacy skills explicitly one-syllable words such as hat, cat, bag, pig have
and systematically, considering been taught, then the decodable texts would
characteristics of language and writing
contain these and other already taught words.
systems
Systematic instruction refers to instruction
in the appropriate scope and sequence (from in developing countries hold a view that reading
easy to difficult skills and activities). Table 2 should be taught before spelling because students
shows guidelines and principles of instruction might "mix reading and writing" (EDC, 2014a,
in emergent literacy skills in general as well as p. 40). Teaching word reading and spelling
factors to consider to reflect characteristics of simultaneously is theoretically sound because
language and writing systems. spelling reinforces the symbol-sound knowledge
and relations (Weiser & Mathes, 2011) and also
n Progress from high-frequency single empirically validated. For instance, in the
syllable words to multisyllabic words. Democratic Republic of Congo, students whose
Initial phonics instruction should focus on one- teachers integrated reading and spelling (e.g., read
syllable, easy to decode words to teach the basics and write the words that contain target letters) had
of decoding. Initially, teachers should use one- higher achievement in reading (EDC, 2014a).
syllable words that students are familiar with in
oral language (e.g., at, cat, bag). Once students can
Consideration of Environmental
sound out a few simple words, decodable books or
Characteristics and Resources
texts can be used for further practice in connected
P
texts. When students can read single syllable honological awareness is recognizing sounds
words with accuracy, teachers need to teach them, in words, and therefore, does not require print
explicitly, how to read multisyllabic words. The materials. However, the other aspects of emergent
basic idea in teaching multisyllabic words is to literacy—print awareness and orthographic symbol
break down words into manageable units such as knowledge—do require the presence of text and
syllables or morphemes. As an example, teachers the means to write and display letters and words.
can display the word cowboy on the board, point at Learning aids have to suit the context and they
the cow part of the word and read it. The teacher do not need to be expensive. An example of a set
can then point to the boy part of the word and read of durable, portable and inexpensive teaching and
it. Finally, the teacher can blend cow and boy as learning aids is UNICEF’s School in a Box.21 UNICEF’s
cowboy by sweeping the finger across the word. School-in-a-Box kits are often distributed in crisis
and conflict situations and their pros and cons
n Teach word reading in conjunction with have been well debated. However, this model of
spelling. packaging resources for classrooms or schools can be
Word reading should be taught in conjunction replicated in many contexts, using locally available
with spelling. Word reading and spelling draw on materials and the contents can be tailored to focus
the same emergent literacy skills, and facilitate on supporting emergent literacy skills. For instance,
each other (Ehri, 2000; Kim, 2011). Some teachers students must see or be exposed to print to learn
21
http://www.unicef.org/supply/files/School_in_a_box_guidelines.pdf

A Print Rich Classroom in a Resource-Lean Environment
In outdoor schools, where there is a lack of pencils and paper, students can draw letters with sticks in
the dirt or sand around them. While not ideal, there are strategies to ensure that children, no matter
the environment, have some opportunity to learn orthographic symbol knowledge. Additionally,
teachers can reach out to parents and communities to contribute things like bottle caps, small blocks of
wood, scrap paper, on which they can write letters to use in teaching (demonstration) as well as to have
children manipulate. Bottle caps, wood, shells are items that are found almost everywhere and they are
durable as learning aids for children to manipulate.
to read and educators must sometimes be creative can be used targeting various phonological units
in ensuring students see print (e.g., using Bible or (e.g., syllable awareness or phoneme awareness).
Qur’an available in the community). Kits can include Orthographic symbol knowledge can be assessed by
things like chalkboard paint, chalk, letter cards, randomly ordering orthographic symbols, and asking
letter blocks, slates, alphabet charts, and a canvas on the student to identify their names and sounds.
which to hang materials. Chalkboards are useful for Timed tasks can be used to assess automaticity. For
writing letters and words and even full texts; walls example, students can be assessed on the number of
are extremely useful to display all sorts of learning orthographic symbols they can name within a minute
aids. In the absence of walls, a canvas with some in a task where orthographic symbols are repeatedly
hooks can also be hung from a suitable tree, and used presented in a random order. Useful assessment
to display posters, maps, calendars, letters, and words toolkits and videos are available for EGRA and ASER
(Tilson et al., 2013a for Ndith Kuwrenga Readers; see in many languages at globalreadingnetwork.net/
also Literacy Boost ). Slates for pupils are useful for
22
eddata and asercentre.org respectively.
formative assessment as the teacher can circulate
to check what students have written down. With
ICT Considerations
all of these innovative ideas to get materials into
I
classrooms, training for teachers or facilitators and CT approaches can be used for various instructional
supervision are required to ensure the materials are activities, and many studies noted in this report
used as intended (e.g., although useful, the School included ICTs applications to support the development
in a Box is reported not to be widely used in some of literacy skills. For example, projects such as the
contexts. ) 23 READ-TA project in Ethiopia have included brief
instructional videos on teacher tablets that scaffold
the instruction of letter sounds, an approach which
Assessment Considerations
may be particularly useful in contexts where teachers
P
honological awareness can be assessed using are teaching in a language in which they are not fully
the same instructional activities described fluent. These videos can be used by teachers as a
above. For instance, blending or segmenting tasks review, or directly with students. Student devices, as
22
http://www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/%7B9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a%7D/BEYOND_SCHOOL_WALLS_LITERACY_
BOOST_2013.PDF
See, for example, The Use of Emergency Education and Recreational Kits in Aceh: A Review at http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/the-
23
use-of-emergency-education-and-recreation-kits-in-aceh.pdf

used by Worldreader in Ghana, can also support print phonics, vocabulary, reading fluency, and reading
awareness by providing access to a wide range of text comprehension), our understanding is limited
materials and encouraging pleasure reading. In South about the overlapping and unique contributions of
Africa, the Bridges to the Future Initiative uses tablets various emergent literacy skills to word reading.
to display recorded literacy lessons in four languages Furthermore, as previous studies primarily focused
for children in grades one through three (Wagner, D. on phonological awareness and phonics, little
A., 2014). As teacher’s ability with new technologies is understood about the roles of orthographic
increases in developing countries, the possibilities for awareness and morphological awareness in word
further use of student-focused applications to support reading, particularly in multisyllabic word reading.
phonological and morphological awareness will grow. Also remaining is a question about instructional
dosage—how much time and intensity is necessary
and sufficient to promote word reading skills in
Research Gaps
different contexts. Finally, better understanding
C
ompared to other areas of literacy skills, there is is needed regarding the instructional approaches
relatively solid empirical evidence on approaches most effective and suitable for large classroom
to improve word reading. However, because the environments, which is prevalent in developing
vast majority of studies were multi-component countries.
interventions (targeting phonological awareness,
Illustrative Example on Emergent Literacy Skills Instruction
The following is an example of a scope and sequence to teach emergent literacy skills in
PRIMR (Primary Math and Reading) in Kenya (see Piper, Jepkemi, & Kibukho, 2015; RTI, 2015a
for further details and results). Target grades were students in Grade 1. Note that exemplars are
provided in English for illustrative purposes and do not necessarily indicate a need to provide
instruction in a second language.
Table 3. Example of scope and sequence of emergent literacy skills instruction
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Phonological Sound Oral reading Sound Oral blending Oral blending

awareness recognition of /m/ recognition of /a/ /m/ of /a/ /m/
of /m/ of /m/ /a/
Letter sounds m m M, a M, m, A, a M, m, A, a
Word reading am am

Sample Daily Lesson
Day 1 Phonological awareness
(T = Teacher; S = Student)
T: We are going to practice our English sounds today. First, we will say the sound. Then, I
will say words one at a time and you will tell me whether or not the word begins with the
sound.
I do – Step 1
T: The sound is /m/.
T: The first word is, mat. The word begins with /m/ so I show thumbs up.
T: The next word is at. The word does not begin with /m/, so I show thumbs down.
We do – Step 2
T: Let’s try it together. The sound is /m/. What is the sound?
T & S: /m/.
T: Now I will say a word. If it begins with /m/, show thumbs up. If it does not, thumbs down.
T: First word is mat.
T & S: Respond together.
Continue with examples: at.
You do – Step 3
T: Now you try. The sound is /m/.
T: Show thumbs up if the word begins with /m/. If not, thumbs down.
T: First word is mat.
S: Thumbs up.
Continue with examples: at, make, mother, cook, jam, market, bread, meat.

Day 1 Naming Letters and Sounds
I do – Step 1
Put the small letter m on the blackboard/pocket chart. Point to the letter and say,
T: The name of this letter is m. This is the small letter m.
T: The sound of this letter is the same in English and Kiswahili. The sound is /m/.
T: I will write the letter while I say the sound.
We do – Step 2
T: Let’s do it together. The name of this letter is?
T & S: m.
T: The sound of this letter is?
T & S: /m/.
You do – Step 3
T: Now you do it alone. The name of this letter is?
S: m.
T: The sound of this letter is?
S: /m/.
T: Open your book to page 31. Point to the small letter m on the page.
Day 3 Word Reading
I do – Step 1
Put the word am on the blackboard/pocket chart.
T: Watch me: /a/ /m/.
T: The word is am.
We do – Step 2
T: Now, we shall do it together. We shall say the sounds, then we shall say the
whole word.
T & S: /a/ /m/.
T: The word is…
T & S: am.
You do – Step 3
T: Now you try it.
T: (Sweep your finger under the letters as the students say.)
S: /a/ /m/.
T: The word is …
S: am.

Section B. Oral Language
Oral language proficiency is not just a concern
Skills: Foundations for Reading
Comprehension for children acquiring in multilingual contexts
or L2. Instead, children differ largely in their
Background: What and Why Oral Language oral language proficiency in L1 (e.g., vocabulary),
Skills? and therefore, should be explicitly and

systematically taught in both L1 and L2.
O
ral language is a broad construct encompassing
various aspects such as phonology, morphology,
vocabulary, syntax, grammar, and discourse engage in meaningful, rich language experiences to
(Kim, 2016a). As reading and writing are language develop their oral language skills (Hart & Risley, 1995;
represented in print, these various aspects of oral Wells, 1986).
language skills are necessary for reading and writing
development. For reading comprehension, language
Evidence from Developing
skills such as vocabulary, grammatical knowledge,
Countries
and listening comprehension are particularly relevant
E
(del Valle Catalan, 2016; Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Juel, merging evidence in
Griffith, & Gough, 1986; Kim, Al Otaiba, Folsom, & developing countries
Greulich, 2011; Kim, Al Otaiba, Sidler, Greulich, & suggests that instructional
Puranik, 2014). As illustrated in Figure 2, reading attention to oral language
comprehension cannot be achieved without language improves reading skills. In the
comprehension skills even with proficient word Democratic Republic of Congo,
reading. Despite its clear evidence, the importance of teachers’ instruction in French
oral language is often not recognized by teachers in on vocabulary (e.g., discussing
some texts (e.g., Friedlander, Gasana, & Goldenberg, illustrations and new vocabulary) was associated with
2014). improved reading (EDC, 2014). Furthermore, students
who were exposed to spoken ‘literary’ Arabic—the
Discourse-level oral language skills such as listening
language used in reading and academic contexts—
comprehension are higher-order skills (Kim, 2015,
during preschool had higher performance in reading
2016a; see Figure 3) and built on lower-level oral
comprehension in Grades 1 and 2 than those who
language skills such as vocabulary and grammatical
were exposed only to the spoken Arabic dialect—
knowledge as well as a complex array of cognitive
the language used in the home (Abu-Rabia, 2000;
skills, including working memory, inhibitory
Feitelson, Goldstein, Iraqi, & Share, 1993). Spoken
control, attention, inference, perspective taking and
Arabic used in the home is differs from literary Arabic
reasoning, and comprehension monitoring as well as
in several ways, some of which can impact literacy
background knowledge (Florit, et al., 2014; Kendeou,
acquisition (Abu-Rabia, 2000).
et al., 2008; Kim, 2015, 2016a; Kim & Phillips, 2014;
Lepola, et al., 2012; Tompkins, et al., 2014). These However, evidence about the effect of multi-
skills develop when children are exposed to rich oral component intervention on students' oral language is
language at home and school. Children need to hear mixed,24 with results ranging from no effect to large
words, sentences, and stories frequently and need to effects. No effects were found in multicomponent
24
In many studies, students’ listening comprehension was measured by a single story or passage followed by 5 questions. This is
limiting, given passage effect and the limited number of items. As noted below, greater attention is needed to accurately and reliably
measure students’ listening comprehension ability.

interventions in Afghanistan (Azami & Pava, Furthermore, in some studies, oral language
2014*), Bangladesh (Guajardo, Hossain, Nath, & tasks were not equated in difficulty such that
Dowd, 2013*), Ethiopia (Friedlander, et al., 2012*; task difficulty might have masked a potential
Gebreanenia, Sorissa, Takele, Yenew, & Garjardo, intervention effect to some extent (e.g., too difficult
2014*), Haiti (RTI, 2015b*; Save the Children, 2013*), at endline assessment; Spratt et al., 2013). Finally,
Malawi (Pouezevara et al., 2013), Mali (Spratt et al., fidelity of implementation is an important factor.
2013), Nepal (Pinto, 2010*), Philippines (Badiable et For instance, in Zambia, although the intervention
al., 2013*; Dunlop, 2015*), and Zambia (Falconer- included oral language instruction, classroom
Stout et al., 2015*). observation revealed little actual instruction on oral
language (Falconer-Stout, et al., 2015).
Other studies found positive effects, but effect
sizes varied widely. Small effects were found in the One approach that has received initial evidence for
ApaL program in Mozambique, which provided 45 improving oral language in low-income countries
minutes of daily multicomponent instruction in is book reading (Bekman, Aksu-Koc, & Erguvanli-
Portuguese for children in Grades 2 and 3. Students Taylan, 2011; Ntuli & Pretorius, 2005*). In particular,
in the treatment condition outperformed those in the dialogic reading, an interactive book reading
control condition in vocabulary and simple sentence approach with a focus on oral language development
comprehension in Portuguese, the language of (e.g., Whitehurst, Arnold, Epstein, Angell, Smith,
instruction (Raupp, Newmann, Reves, & Lauchande, & Fischel, 1994; Hargrave & Senechal, 2000), had a
2015*). Similarly, a positive, but small effect was large effect on children’s vocabulary for children
found on listening comprehension in Indonesia in Bangladeshi (Opel, Ameer, & Aboud, 2009). In
(Brown, 2013*), Jordan (RTI, 2014a*), Nigeria (RTI, dialogic reading, the teacher reads a book multiple
2016a), Papua New Guinea (World Bank, 2016*), times to students, asks and prompts students with
and Yemen (Plessis et al., 2016*). On the other questions about target vocabulary and content of
hand, moderate effects were found for students the text, and engages students in conversations and
in Kiswahili in rural Kenya (RTI, 2015a), and large discussions during and after reading.26
effects were found in Liberia (DeStefano et al., 2013*),
especially for students who received intervention
Summary of Important Design
with a school management reinforcement (Piper &
Korda, 2011a).
n Explicitlyteach oral language both in L1

The large variability across studies might be
attributed to many factors, including language of
and L2 contexts.
instruction (whether instruction was in students' Oral language instruction does not have to wait
L1 or L2), nature of oral language instruction until students develop reading skills, either for
and assessment, and the extent to which oral students acquiring literacy skills in L1 or L2.
language instruction was implemented. When it Instead, oral language such as vocabulary should
comes to the nature of oral language instruction, be taught explicitly as early as possible—children
unfortunately, many reports did not provide differ greatly in their vocabulary knowledge
details about instructional approaches and even in L1. Vocabulary instruction should include
intensity, and therefore, it is difficult to accurately providing opportunities for multiple exposures
gauge differences across intervention projects. to words, student-friendly definitions and
25
Language of instruction in the vast majority of these studies was L2 with exceptions of Falconer-Stout et al. (2015), RTI (2015a—
Language of instruction in this study varied depending on the condition), and RTI (2016a).
26
See http://www.readingrockets.org/article/dialogic-reading-effective-way-read-preschoolers

explanations,27 and opportunities to engage in deep simply reading written texts. Instead, selected
processing of the words (e.g., multiple meanings target vocabulary should be directly taught,
of a word; Graves, 2006). Teachers should choose various questions should be asked, including
words that are used frequently across contexts (or what (e.g., what is this?), where (e.g., where is this
subjects)—words that are not too easy (e.g., baby) story happening?), when (e.g., when did the event
or too difficult or specific to a certain subject (e.g., occur?), why (e.g., why are the characters doing
isotope), but are important in multiple domains something?), and how (e.g., how did the characters
(e.g., comfort; Beck, McKeown, Kucan, 2002). do it?) questions. Dialogic reading is one evidence-
In multilingual contexts where students are based approach to improve oral language in low
learning in L2, basic words have to be explicitly income countries (Opel et al., 2009). In order for it
taught. In addition, understanding morphemes in to be implemented across low-income countries,
a new word can provide clues to the meaning of the availability of and access to quality books
the word (e.g., the meaning of friendliness can be would have to be substantially increased (see Malik
inferred if the student knows that it is composed et al., 2015). The Rwanda Children's Book Initiative
of friend+li+ness). Exposure to oral language and is an example of one program that increased the
instruction in oral language should be provided availability of high quality local language reading
throughout the day across subject areas and grade books for children in Grades 1 to 3. Teachers who
levels. had access to these books significantly increased
the amount of time they devoted to reading
n Utilize book reading as an important storybooks aloud compared to control schools.
source to promote oral language They also explicitly asked their students to read
instruction. more and encouraged them to select books from
Book reading can be a highly effective tool, when the classroom collection to take home to read
implemented properly, in improving children's oral (Malik et al., 2015).
language and knowledge building because (1) books
n Increase language learning opportunities
typically contain more sophisticated language
3
than daily conversations or TV and therefore, by using E strategy. (Expose, Elicit, and
Extend; Kim & Yun, in press29)
book reading provides important opportunities for
students to be exposed to sophisticated language One of the most important ways to learn a
(Hayes & Ahrens, 1988); (2) books show language language is to be exposed to good language
(vocabulary and expression) used in context, which models—students need to hear quality language
is particularly helpful when the teacher is not being used every day. Teachers should use rich
proficient in the language of instruction;28 and (3) vocabulary and expressions. Language is learned
books provide content which helps children develop through using it. Teachers should elicit students’
background knowledge. When reading books to responses by asking different types of open-ended
students, book reading should not be limited to questions—asking students to label objects, recall
27
Dictionary definitions are often too difficult for students. Student-friendly definitions and explanations involves using common
language that students are likely to be familiar. For instance, a dictionary definition of 'ally' (noun) is "a person, group... that is
associated with another or other for some common cause." When using student-friendly terms, an ally can be described as "someone
who helps you in what you are trying to do, especially when there are other people who are against you," (Beck et al., p. 36).
28
Though building teachers’ own language proficiency may be an important requisite to promoting student's literacy acquisition (see
Chapter 4). Building teachers’ language proficiency is, however, a long term process. Over the short or medium term, having teachers
read books to children can be an important tool for improving oral language proficiency.
29
This recommendation is from a review of studies in developed country contexts for young children. However, the principle should
apply to developing countries as well.

Example Use of E3 Strategy Characteristics and Resources
I
Teacher: Tell me about what you are making. n order to use books and text materials as a
(Elicitation) means to promote oral language (e.g., dialogic
reading), high quality books and text materials are
Student: A tree.
necessary. There are some examples of the successful
Teacher: You are making a tree with trunk and and low cost production of local text materials.
leaves. (Extension and Exposure—‘trunk’ and Madrasa Resource Center preschools in Uganda,
‘leaves’) Kenya and Zanzibar, where teachers were trained to
use low-cost, locally available materials in a child-
Student: Yes, I like my tree.
centered way, had a positive impact on children’s
Teacher: I love it too. It is a great tree with strong cognitive development, in comparison to a control
trunk and vibrant leaves. (Extension and Exposure group (Malmberg, Mwaura, & Synva, 2011). Books
produced by local publishers can be too expensive
‘vibrant’)
for widespread use, resulting in low demand and
a weak supply chain (Edwards & Ngwaru, 201;
Kruger, 2009). However, the Rwanda Children’s Book
information explicitly stated in conversations or
Initiative, working with local authors, publishers and
books, and infer information that is not explicitly
illustrators did prove to be effective in increasing
stated in conversations or books. Extending
the supply of books in Kinyarwanda for early grades
students’ utterances is also an important way to
by about 33% (Malik et al., 2015), thereby creating
continue multi-turn conversations and provide
more avenues to expose children to oral language
language input (e.g., Dickinson & Proche, 2011;
through read-alouds and book reading. The Initiative
Justice, Mashburn, Pence, & Wiggins, 2008).
worked with publishers, authors and illustrators to
n Teach cognitively demanding questions build their capacity in the children's book publishing
to promote higher-order thinking skills. industry, while simultaneously working with

teachers to increase their knowledge and skills in
Inferencing is inferring meaning that is not
using book reading in classrooms. A similar project
explicitly stated in the texts (oral or written texts).
in Malawi involved community members in making
Comprehension monitoring is the ability to think
books and these books, which are culturally relevant
about and evaluate one’s own comprehension
and appropriate (FHI360, 2014).
(Kim, 2016a). When students hear inconsistent
information or a story that does not make In addition to the use of locally made and culturally
sense, some students are better at detecting appropriate books, there are also international
the inconsistency than others (Kim, 2015, 2016). initiatives to supply books to classrooms around
To promote inferencing and comprehension the world. For example, the educational publisher
monitoring, teachers should ask “why” questions Scolastic is known for creating classroom libraries
when telling or reading stories (e.g., why did the in a variety of languages (Arabic, English, French,
character do that? Does the character’s behavior Spanish) on nonfiction topics like plants, animals,
make sense? Why or why not?). As is the case with dinosaurs, the universe, etc. that can be used across
other aspects of oral language, inferencing and many cultures. Room to Read’s libraries and high
comprehension monitoring should begin as early as quality books include decodable stories as well as
possible, before students can read. leveled books.

Illustrative Example: Dialogic Reading
In dialogic reading, teachers and parents do not simply read words in the book. Instead,
teachers ask various “wh” questions before, during, and after reading to promote students’
active participation (e.g., paying attention to stories and texts, and asking and responding to
questions).
Book selection: Select books that are age and

culturally appropriate, interesting, and contain
useful words to teach/useful ideas to think
about/knowledge to acquire and have some
illustrations. If the book does not contain
illustrations for target words, picture cards
can be used or teachers can draw on the
blackboard (Opel et al., 2009).
Procedures: Books are read multiple times

throughout the week. Each time, the book
is read, different types of questions are
asked. During the first reading, a few
“what” questions are asked. During each
additional reading of the same book, other
questions (how, why) are asked and children
are encouraged to be more actively engaged in
the conversation.
During the first reading, “what” questions are asked

while pointing to illustrations such as “What is that?” “What is he doing?” The teacher evaluates
the student’s response (Yes, that is a soccer ball) while enunciating and stressing the new words,
soccer ball. Then, all the children repeat the new words (Everyone say 'soccer ball’). The teacher
asks more questions about the illustration such as “What is the color of the soccer ball?” “Who uses
a soccer ball?” “What do you do with a soccer ball?” More challenging questions are open-ended
questions. Examples include “What do you see here?” “What else do you see?” “What is happening
here?” “Can you tell me more about the soccer ball?”
During additional readings, the teacher asks higher-order questions that refer to the story plot
and to the student’s personal experiences. Examples included “What did he do next?” “Why was
he happy?” “What happened in the beginning?” “Did you ever see ?” “Where was it?” “What did
it do?” When responding to the students’ answers, the teacher expands each child’s response
by repeating back some part of what the student said, but adding more (e.g., “He is kicking the
soccer ball during a game.”). The teacher also encourages the student’s participation and longer
responses and descriptions. Prompting is one way to invite the students to participate (e.g., The
boy is kicking .).

Assessment Considerations Research Gaps
I E
n order to evaluate students’ needs for oral vidence is sparse about effective approaches
language instruction, carefully designed language to promote oral language skills (see Chapter 4
assessments should be used. For instance, EGRA for the latter). It is a grave mistake to consider the
listening comprehension assessment in developing importance of oral language proficiency only in the
countries asks children to listen to a story and context of literacy acquisition in L2. Studies have
then answer 5 related questions. This is limiting consistently shown that students vary widely in oral
in many aspects such as psychometrics (e.g., a language proficiency in their L1 and the language of
single story and associated 5 questions is not instruction (e.g., Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; Piper et
sufficient to provide reliable and valid information). al., 2015; RTI, 2015a, b; 2016). Research evidence is
Furthermore, this format is not sufficient to capture needed to examine what instructional approaches are
variation in children’s ability in oral language effective to improve children's oral language in what
comprehension. For instance, although students contexts. In particular, we need more information and
might score a zero in a listening comprehension evidence about what kind of language comprehension
task (listening to passages), they may be able to curriculum is simple enough for teachers to
understand some words or sentences. A well- implement on a daily basis, yet powerful enough to
constructed oral language assessment would assess make a difference in oral language, and subsequently
children’s comprehension at the word (vocabulary), in reading comprehension and writing. Furthermore,
sentence (sentence comprehension), and discourse there is a great need to develop a richer set of reliable
(listening comprehension) level, using both receptive and valid tools for measuring children’s oral language
and expressive tasks. In receptive tasks, students skills such as vocabulary, sentence comprehension,
primarily hear vocabulary, sentences, and stories and discourse-level comprehension (i.e., listening
and identify correct responses. Expressive tasks comprehension).
require students to produce oral language (e.g.,
vocabulary, sentence, and stories). Finally, listening
comprehension assessments at the discourse Section C. Reading Fluency:
level should carefully consider balancing literal Foundation for Reading
and inferential questions. Literal comprehension Comprehension
questions require students identify information
that is explicitly stated in the given text whereas Background: What and Why Reading
inferential comprehension questions require students Fluency?
to infer information that is not explicitly stated (Kim
R
& Petscher, in press). eading fluency refers to the accurate and rapid
reading of connected text with expression
(reading prosody (NICHD, 2000). Reading fluency,
ICT Considerations
also widely referred to as oral reading fluency or
W
hile there is little evidence of effective ICT text reading fluency, is a text level, not a lexical
usage for the promotion of oral language skills (word) level, skill, and is strongly related to reading
specifically, e-readers and mobile phones can be comprehension across languages (del Valle Catalan,
used to provide wide access to electronic books and 2016; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001; Hudson,
text materials in a variety of languages, as discussed Pullen, Lane, & Torgesen, 2009; Jenkins, Fuchs, van
further in sections 4a below. Software could also be den Broek, Espin, & Deno, 2003; Kim, 2015; Kim, Park,
designed to read text aloud to children, enhancing & Wagner, R. K., 2014; Kim, Petscher, Schatschneider,
their oral language development. & Foorman, 2010; Piper & Korda, 2011a; Pouezevara

et al., 2013). Reading fluency promotes reading (RTI, 2016a), Papua New Guinea (World Bank,
comprehension by allowing attention and working 2016*31), Philippines (Dunlop, 2015*), Sri Lanka
memory to be used for comprehension processes (Wickramasekara et al., 2014), and Zambia (Falconer-
rather than decoding (Jenkins et al., 2003; Kim, Stout, Messner, & Wedekind, 2015*). However, effect
2015; Kim & Wagner, R. K., 2015; LaBerge & Samuels, sizes varied largely from small (e.g., .14, Brown,
1974). Although reading fluency has received much 2013*) to large (.73, Piper & Korda, 2011a).
attention in developing countries and it is important
Other studies, on the other hand, produced no
to assess reading fluency, reading fluency itself is
discernable effects in reading fluency (Azami & Pava,
not an end goal of reading instruction. As one of
2014*; Badiable et al., 2013*; Guajardo, 2012*; Karki
the experts interviewed for this report put it: “We
& Dowd, 2013*; Moulvi et al., 2012*; Moulvi & Pava,
all know that we get quick results with decoding.
2014*; Pisani & Alvarado, 2014*; Pisani et al., 2014;
But decoding is not reading. We need to put a lot
Rosenkranz et al., 2014*; RTI 2015b*).
more emphasis on comprehension.” Indeed, reading
fluency is important because of its role in reading
comprehension. Summary of Important Design
Evidence from Developing n Build in instructional time and
Countries opportunities for text reading.
T
here is a moderate Automaticity in reading does not develop
evidence base that explicit automatically. When students can start decoding
instruction on multiple words accurately, opportunities to practice
components improves students’ reading approximate texts (i.e., instruction
reading fluency. In studies level or just slightly challenging texts; Kuhn
explicitly focused on the big & Stahl, 2003) should be explicitly built in the
5 identified by the National reading curriculum. Teachers should include
Reading Panel Report (NICHD, time to reread the words taught in isolation
2000; phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, or in connected texts. Students need daily
reading fluency, and reading comprehension), practice reading the same texts several times,
students were able to read connected text more with attention to accuracy and speed (repeated
accurately and rapidly in various L1 and L2 contexts reading).
such as Bangladesh (Jonason et al., 2014* ), the 30
n Model fluent reading.

Democratic Republic of Congo (EDC, 2014a), Ethiopia
(Friedlander et al., 2012*; Gebreanenia et al., 2014*), Students need to hear and internalize fluent
Indonesia (Brown, 2013*), Jordan (RTI, 2014a), Kenya reading (Rasinski, Homan, & Biggs, 2009).
(Piper, Jepkemi, & Kibukho, 2015; RTI, 2014b*, 2015a), Teachers should demonstrate reading with
Liberia (DeStefano et al., 2013*; Piper & Korda, 2011a), accuracy, at a conversational rate, and with
Mali (Spratt et al., 2013), Malawai (Pouezevara et expression (pausing and varying pitch at
al., 2013), Mozambique (Mungoi et al., 2010*; Raupp, appropriate places).
Newmann, Reves, & Lauchande, 2015*), Nigeria
30
Description of language context was not explicitly provided in some documents, and thus, the authors’ best judgement was used
inferring from documents.
31
The report did not provide results by language or grade.

Repeated reading in a large class can be
E
GRA and other similar assessment batteries
implemented in the order of echo reading,
include reading fluency tasks. When developing
choral reading, partner reading, and whisper
and using reading fluency tasks, texts used for
reading (Brooker et al., 2010). In echo reading,
reading fluency assessments should be grade and
the teacher reads clauses or sentences and the age appropriate (see RTI, 2016b for EGRA tool kit).
students repeat after the teacher. In choral In addition, multiple passages should be used
reading, the teacher and students read the same because texts vary in difficulty and text difficulty
texts together. In partner reading, students is an important factor for determining reading
are paired and take turns reading. In whisper fluency. Even very carefully developed texts that
have equivalent readability values can result in
reading, students are asked to read the same
significantly different text reading fluency (rate)
text to themselves in a quiet voice that has been
among children (Francis et al., 2008; Petscher &
practiced through echo reading, choral reading,
Kim, 2011). To account for the passage effect, an ideal
and partner reading. Across all the readings, approach is equating passages in terms of reading
students should be encouraged to point to the rate. An alternative, widely-used approach, however,
text using their finger, and teachers should walk has been using multiple texts (e.g., 3 passages) and
around the class monitoring students’ reading. using either the mean or median (middle) scores (see
the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
When pairing students for partner reading,
[DIBELS] approach; Petscher & Kim, 2011).
fluent readers should be paired with less fluent
students.
ICT Considerations
E
mpirical evidence examining the use of ICT
approaches to improve reading fluency is limited.
A study in Kenya, discussed in greater detail in
section 3b above, did not find additional benefit to
F
or the purpose of practicing reading fluency with more ICT-intensive interventions in terms of reading
timed repeated reading, relatively short passages fluency outcomes (Piper, Zuilkowski, Kwayumba, &
are useful so that students can finish the passage Strigel, 2016). A number of possible applications of
within a reasonable time. Texts for repeated reading ICTs to improve reading fluency exist, however. When
should be either at the instructional level (students students have e-readers, tablets, or mobile phones,
can read 95% of the words independently) or slightly they can be given a range of texts with which to
challenging (students can read 90% of the words practice reading. Devices can also time students as
independently) (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). Supporting they read, and allow for the easy gathering of data
the development of reading fluency in print-poor on progress over time, which is a challenge in large
environments is challenging in part due to the classrooms. Teachers may be able to use software
lack of texts to read. In these instances, teachers such as Tangerine to collect student fluency data and
can use local songs, poems, proverbs and short examine class-level trends. However, such approaches
folk tales written on a chalkboard to give students are not feasible in all settings, as they require a
the opportunity to practice reading fluency. It is relatively high level of technical skill among teachers
important, however, to make sure that children are as well as centralized infrastructure and support.
reading, not just memorizing.

Research Gaps Section D. Reading Comprehension
R
eading fluency is widely assessed as a measure
of reading proficiency in developing countries, Background: What is Reading Comprehension
and has been shown to be related to reading and Why is it Important?
comprehension in developing countries in L2
R
eading comprehension is “the process of
contexts (Draper & Spaull, 2013; Piper & Korda,
extracting and constructing meaning through
2011a). The wide use and focus on reading fluency
interaction and involvement with written language”
in assessment and instruction in developing
(RAND study group, 2002, p. 11), and is the ultimate
countries assumes it has the same mediating
goal of reading. As shown in previous sections,
role in developing countries that it has in high-
reading comprehension draws on both word reading
income countries (Kim, 2015; Kim & Wagner, R. K.,
(decoding printed words) and listening comprehension
2015; Kim, Park, & Wagner, R. K., 2014). However,
(understanding meaning), and complex processes on
empirical examination of the mediating role of
which each of these draw (see Figure 2). Therefore,
reading fluency from developing countries and
without appropriate development and coordination
various orthographies has been limited. For instance,
of these multiple processes, reading comprehension
in some writing systems (e.g., Thai & Khmer)
cannot be achieved.
word boundaries are not visually marked and the
development of reading fluency in these writing
systems would be informative. Furthermore, many Evidence from Developing
developing countries have developed reading fluency Countries
benchmarks. Although benchmarks are useful for
T
he evidence on approaches
monitoring progress and are set in different ways
that facilitate reading
(e.g., using normative information about reading
comprehension in developing
trajectory data or a desired rate of progress), the
country contexts is emerging. In
normative performance level itself is a moving
contrast to relatively consistent
target. In many low-income countries, students
effects on building-block reading
were not able to read any words in connected texts
skills such as decoding and
(i.e., zero score in reading fluency) at baseline (e.g.,
reading fluency, interventions
EDC, 2013; Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; Piper, 2010b;
have yielded limited impact or mixed results in
RTI, 2016a), but improve their reading skills with
reading comprehension skills. Many studies in L1
evidence-based instruction. It is important, then,
and/or L2 found no effect in reading comprehension
that benchmarks are continuously evaluated or
(Azami & Pava, 2014*; Badiable et al., 2013*; Dunlop,
adjusted as more empirical data become available. It
2015*; Friedlander et al., 2012*; Guajardo et al., 2012*,
is also important to reiterate here that improvement
2013*; Jonason et al., 2014*; Karki & Dowd, 2013*;
in reading fluency itself is not the end goal, but an
Moulvi et al., 2014*; Moulvi & Pava, 2014*; Mungoi et
important skill to improving reading comprehension.
al., 2010*; Pallante & Kim, 2013; Pinto, 2010*; Pisani
Finally, although reading fluency assessments
& Alvarado, 2012*; Pisani et al., 2014*; Rosenkranz et
including benchmarks provide useful information,
al., 2014*; Wickramasekara et al., 2014*). For instance,
reading fluency should be used as one of the several
in Haiti, children were provided multicomponent
indicators of reading proficiency.
reading instruction in Haitian Creole for a year, but
this yielded no effect on reading comprehension for
students in Grades 1 and 2 (RTI, 2015b).

When positive effects were found, most of them were cannot compensate for the other (see Figure 2).
small or varied. Small effects were found in Ethiopia Therefore, for children who are struggling with
(Gebreanenia et al., 2014), Haiti (Save the Children, reading comprehension, whether the child’s
2013), Indonesia (Brown, 2013*), Jordan (RTI, 2014a), struggle is due to word reading and/or listening
Kenya (RTI, 2014b*, RTI, 2015a), Malawai (Pouezevara comprehension should be determined, followed
et al., 2013), Mozambique (Raupp et al., 2015*), and by systematic instruction on the identified areas.
Zambia (Falconer-Stout et al., 2015*). Varying effects Many of the reviewed studies reported little to
were reported for students in different grades: Effect weak effects on listening comprehension, compared
sizes ranged from .05 to .58 for students in Grades to word reading (see Sections B and C). Therefore,
1 and 2 in Kenya (Piper et al., 2015); a positive effect a logical next step is to expand our understanding
for students in Grade 4 but not in Grade 2 in Malawi about effective instructional approaches to improve
(Dowd & Mabeti, 2011*); and inconsistent results oral language proficiency (see Section C), and
across grades 1, 2, and 3 in Mali (Spratt et al., 2013). consequently reading comprehension. This applies
to literacy acquisition in both L1 and L2 contexts.
Exceptions were a few studies where moderate to
large effect sizes were found—Liberia (DeStefano et n Directly teach reading comprehension
al., 2013*; Piper & Korda, 2011a32), Nigeria (RTI, 2016a), strategies. (Shanahan et al., 2010)
and Papua New Guinea (World Bank, 2016*). In the
Reading comprehension strategies include
study in Liberia, students were assigned to control,
questioning, visualization, text structure (how
light treatment, and full treatment conditions.
information is presented), summarizing, and
Children in the control condition did not receive
retelling. Teachers should ask what, when, where,
multi-component systematic instruction whereas
why, and how questions, and encourage students
children in the full treatment condition received
to raise questions as they read texts. Teachers
reading instruction and teachers were supported
should verbally express their own comprehension
with instructional materials, training, and coaching.
processes as they read passages. For instance,
Parents and communities were also informed of
when the teacher reads a sentence that does not
students’ performance. The light treatment condition
make sense, the teacher pauses and says, “This
consisted of parents and community being informed
part does not make sense to me. Let me reread this
of student performance, but without direct instruction
sentence.”
in reading. Results showed consistently that children
in the full treatment condition outperformed those in n Secure daily designated and extended
the control and light treatment condition. There was time for literacy instruction.
practically no difference between control versus light
Instructional time needs to be allotted for teaching
treatment condition.
reading comprehension and for students actually to
engage in reading. Because reading comprehension
Summary of Important Design draws on a host of skills such as word reading and
Considerations and Challenges listening comprehension as well as language and
cognitive skills that support word reading and
n Ensure solid foundations in word reading listening comprehension, development of reading
and listening comprehension. comprehension takes prolonged time. However,
Proficiency in word reading and listening classroom observation studies for students in
comprehension is necessary for reading Grades 2 and 3 in Zambia (Falconer-Stout, 2015)
comprehension—both are necessary and one as well as those in Grade 2 in Nigeria (RTI,
32
Only for full implementation condition, but not for light condition.

2016a) revealed that only a small proportion of spent more time reading (Elley & Mangubhai, 1983;
instructional time was spent on teaching reading Hafiz & Tudor, 1989) and achieved higher reading
comprehension than teaching word reading and skills than those in control schools (Elley, 2000).
related emergent literacy skills (Falconer-Stout, Pratham’s Story Weaver (an online, open source site
2015). For example, teachers in a treatment group to develop books) and the Children's Book Project
in Nigeria spent, on average, 2.4 to 4.8 minutes on for Tanzania are additional examples of efforts to
vocabulary and comprehension instruction out of expand the supply of engaging and appropriate
a total of 45 minutes of reading instruction (RTI, books for children, to support a culture of reading. In
2016a). contrast, the Improving Quality of Primary Education
Program in Ethiopia did not result in increased EGRA
n Consider language and cultural scores (Kraft & Epstein, 2014). This might be because
characteristics although the Improving Quality of Primary Education
One way to promote reading comprehension is Program provided mother tongue supplementary
raising questions while reading texts. However, storybooks, mobile library shelves, slates, alphabet
cultures vary in terms of raising questions about sorts, chalk and stationary to school-based reading
content presented by perceived authority figures centers, there were still too many students per class
such as authors (e.g., Dixon, Graber, & Brooks- and too few actual teaching and learning materials to
Gunn, 2008; Iyengar & Lepper, 1999). In this have an impact. These studies indicate that although
context, it is important to inform students about availability of suitable books is critical and necessary
the purpose of the questioning strategy—to better to promoting reading development other factors such
comprehend the author’s intended meaning. as class size and student to book ratios can impede
Furthermore, cultural variation should be taken comprehension and frustrate these efforts.
into consideration for text structure instruction.

Strategies employed to sustain progress in ensuring
Different cultures develop their own ways of
all children have access to books include: 1) the
presenting stories and information, and it is
development of national book policies, 2) the
critical that teachers and educators analyze texts
establishment of a Children's Book Forum to network
to determine how texts are structured in their
book development professionals and raise awareness
specific cultural contexts (Heath, 1983). Studies in
of the importance of books, and 3) the formation of a
the US have shown that reading comprehension
purchasing consortium to increase economies of scale,
suffers when texts do not follow expected
especially for government book purchasing in the
structures (Baker & Stein, 1981).
future. However, it will take more time to determine
if supply chain and demand issues have been
addressed such that local book production sustainably
increases supply. Finally, donor groups such as
USAID, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
T
he “Book Flood” approach in Niue, Fiji, Singapore, UKAID and the Global Partnership for Education are
Sri Lanka, South Africa, the Solomon Islands supporting the development of a Global Book Fund
and other countries consisted of “flooding” about Alliance. The goal of the Global Book Fund Alliance
100 high interest books per classroom into resource is to transform the development, procurement and
poor environments (Elley, 2000). Results from distribution of books, leveraging financing strategies
different contexts suggested that the effect of the built on experience from the health sector to lower
presence of books alone was negligible. Instead, when costs while increasing distribution and quality.
accompanied by simple training for teachers, children

Assessment Considerations many aspects, including the fact that the children are
generally only asked to read one passage and answer
T
ypical reading comprehension assessment informs a single set of questions. This has implications for
us about students’ performance levels. However, reliability and validity (see above for similar issues
important for instructional purposes is information for listening comprehension assessment in Section C).
about why students performs at a particularly level. In addition, these tasks may not be sensitive enough
Therefore, in addition to reading comprehension, to accurately capture reading comprehension for
assessment on word reading (including reading students with low reading proficiency. For instance,
fluency) and oral language proficiency should be a sentence-level reading comprehension task (e.g.,
conducted. Extant studies have been highly uniform the student hears a sentence and identify veracity
in the format of reading comprehension assessment— of the statement) might be able to capture students'
asking children to read a passage and then asking emerging reading comprehension more accurately for
five comprehension questions. This is limiting in students with low reading proficiency.
Illustrative Example: Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
The following activity, Thinker’s Spinner, contributed by Save the Children, is designed to
promote use of reading comprehension strategies (see above).
Create a spinner out of a paper plate

or card stock. Divide and label the
spinner into four segments: predict,
explain, summarize, and evaluate.
When first using the spinner, explain

each thinking task and demonstrate
each task in the context of a story or
text just read.
Predict: What do you think will happen next? What do you think will happen five years from now?
Explain: What are the different steps in this process? What are the causes behind this event?
Summarize: What were the main characters? Where did the story happen? What were the main events
in the story? What is the author’s main idea? What are some ideas used to support the main idea?
Evaluate: Do you think the author used good evidence or argument to support the main idea? Why or
why not? What do you like/not like about the story and why?
Use the spinner to ensure a variety in the types of questions students get to respond to about
a given text.

ICT Considerations and desired instructional approaches and dosage
(intensity) that meet students’ varying needs—for
I
CT applications for literacy offer numerous students at different developmental levels (e.g., for
possibilities for enhancing and assessing students in the initial phase of development), greater
comprehension. For example, students reading a text intensity on decoding might pay off whereas for
on an e-reader, mobile phone, or tablet could answer students beyond the initial phase, increased intensity
a series of on-screen comprehension questions. The in oral language would be more beneficial. Evidence
multilingual Bridges to the Future software, used in about feasible and effective instructional approaches
South Africa, uses a game approach to test children's to differentiated instruction is also needed.
comprehension of reading material (Wagner, D.
A., 2014). Using software such as Tangerine (Kipp,
Strigel, & Pouezevara, 2016), student responses Section E. Writing for Meaning
could be collected by teachers for quick assessment
of reading comprehension, even in a large class. In Background: What is Writing for Meaning
Tangerine, teachers can build assessments aimed and Why is it Important?
at the specific skills their students are working on,
W
and observe changes over time. However, despite riting is producing texts in print at sublexical
the existence of such applications, teacher usage in (e.g., writing orthographic symbols), lexical
developing countries is often limited due to lack of (spelling words), and discourse levels (writing
comfort and faculty with the technology and lack of sentences and paragraphs, also called written
the facilities, infrastructure, and staff to support its composition). Written composition refers to the
use in this manner. ability to express one’s ideas in written texts in a
coherent and organized manner, and is one of the
Research Gaps most challenging learning tasks. As such, written

composition takes years to develop and goes through
M
uch of the extant research in low-income various phases (Kellogg, 2008). Written composition
countries consists of randomized evaluations occurs in various genres including narrative and
of multicomponent interventions. Although this informational texts. Writing is an increasingly critical
approach is highly informative and might make sense skill in daily lives including developing countries.
for cost-effectiveness purposes, more fine-grained Also, although evidence is not available from
information is necessary. As reviewed above, there is developing countries, evidence from the US indicates
large variation in the multi-component intervention that writing development has a positive effect on
effects, ranging from no effect to a large effect on reading development (see a review by Graham &
reading comprehension. However, it is unclear what Hebert, 2010). Therefore, writing instruction should be
explains such large variation. Therefore, systematic an integral part of early literacy instruction.
efforts are needed to elucidate factors that contribute
to differential effects and the conditions under which
What Does it Take to Develop Writing?
literacy interventions do or do not work. Studies
E
have shown that the literacy achievement levels arly writing develops in phases from scribbling
of multicomponent interventions vary by location and drawing, writing strings of orthographic
(urban, rural), school types, gender, language symbols, writing simple words to complex words,
backgrounds, and socio-economic backgrounds sentences, and passages. Figure 5 presents these
(Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; Piper et al., 2015; Raupp skills necessary to develop written composition,
et al., 2015). Additionally, intervention effects may and the structural relations among skills. Written
vary as a function of students’ initial skill levels composition depends on students’ transcription

skills (spelling and handwriting) and expressive
oral language (Berninger et al., 2002; Juel, Griffith, Invented spelling is the student’s best guess or
& Gough, 1986; Kim et al., 2011, 2015; Kim & attempt, but incorrect spelling of a target word,
Schatschneider, in press), both of which, in turn, utilizing his or her knowledge of phonology,
rely on a complex set of language and cognitive orthography, and morphology of the language.
skills (Kim & Schatschneider in press). For written
For example, DRD for dirty is a good, but
composition, students need to develop proficiency in
incorrect attempt, using phonetic and letter
transcription skills and text generation. Transcription
knowledge. The student used letter sound
skills include spelling and handwriting (McCutchen,
2000). Spelling skills rely on development of the knowledge for /d/ and /r/ sounds. The syllable
emergent literacy skills, and require an explicit and final /d/ is also a reasonable attempt because –ty
systematic instruction (see Chapter 2 Section B). sounds very close to name of the letter d.
Written composition also requires generation of ideas
on a given topic. Therefore, oral language skills as
morphological awareness was particularly effective
well as background knowledge are essential because
for poor readers in Grades 4 and 6. Furthermore,
generated ideas cannot be expressed without using
there was a transfer effect of phonological and
words, phrases, and sentences (Berninger et al., 2002;
morphological awareness such that the development
Kim et al., 2011, 2014, 2015; Kim & Schatschneider, in
of phonological awareness facilitated the development
press).
of morphological awareness and vice versa. Although
these studies are promising, there is a dire need for
Evidence from Developing Countries
research in written composition in developing country
E
vidence is extremely environments across different writing systems (e.g.,
limited. Even the few what factors influence writing development, what are
extant studies were about effective instructional approaches).
emergent writing (i.e., copying;
Falconer-Stout et al., 2015) Summary of Important Design
and spelling (RTI, 2016a; Taha Considerations and Challenges
& Saiegh-Haddad, in press)
with virtually no studies on n Explicitlyteach transcription skills
written composition. Classroom (handwriting and spelling).
observations in Nigeria Handwriting instruction should include how to
revealed time spent on writing hold a pencil or chalk for efficient writing, guided
instruction (handwriting and spelling) was extremely practice about how to write orthographic symbols
limited, ranging from 1.6 minutes to 4.5 minutes from memory (e.g., see Berninger et al., 1997).
(RTI, 2016a). Despite this, with a multicomponent Systematic spelling instruction should progress
intervention, Grade 2 students' letter writing and from one-syllable words to multisyllabic words
spelling improved with a small effect (RTI, 2014a) and with attention to orthographic symbol knowledge,
moderate effects (RTI, 2016a). In Taha and Saiegh- phonological awareness, morphological awareness,
Haddad’s (in press) study, elementary grade Arabic and orthographic awareness (Berninger et al.,
readers were provided instruction on phonological 1998; Graham, Harris, & Chorzempa, 2002; Taha
awareness and morphological awareness, and their & Saiegh-Haddad, in press; Wanzek et al., 2006).
spelling skills improved compared to students who Importantly, in systematic spelling instruction,
did not receive instruction in phonological awareness words for spelling instruction should be carefully
and morphological awareness. The development of selected by considering patterns of words (e.g.,

Figure 5. Component skills of writing and their relations sequence of sounds and their connection
based on the model (in Kim & Schatschneider, in press) to orthographic symbols (Frith, 1985;
McBride-Chang, 1998; Senechal,
Ouellette, Pagan, & Lever, 2012). In the
Democratic Republic of Congo, teachers’
corrective feedback in invented spelling
was related to students’ improved
reading performance (EDC, 2014a).
n Teach writing for meaning

(written composition), not just
copying, as soon as students can
start representing sounds using
orthographic symbols.
Many teachers in developing countries
believe that it is not appropriate for
children to write until they can write
properly (typically in Grade 4 and
beyond, EDC, 2013*, 2014a). However,
sentence and paragraph writing
should not wait until students develop
Figure 6. An example of emergent writing conventional spelling skills. When
(I love to eat candy) students can write using invented
spelling, they should be given daily
opportunities to write in sentences for
authentic purposes. For instance,
Figure 6 is a sentence written by a four-
year old child using invented spelling.31
Although this child’s spelling is not
conventionally accurate yet, by using
invented spelling, she has learned that
writing is a means of expressing her
words that have the same pattern or principle; e.g., thought in print, and actively practiced sound-
cat, pat, bat, mat contain at). symbol associations.
Beginning spellers across writing systems should

n Secure time for daily writing, integrated
be encouraged to attempt their best spelling,
called invented spelling. In contrast to the widely-
with reading and other subject areas.
held belief in many developing countries that Writing should be taught on its own and also
students should not be allowed to make mistakes integrated with reading instruction across all subjects
in spelling (EDC, 2014a), evidence is robust that and content areas. This increases opportunities to
invented spelling facilitates reading and spelling practice writing and also promotes authentic writing
development by drawing students’ attention to for different purposes and content areas.
31
One approach to promote writing for beginning writers is the interactive writing approach (see Roth & Guinee, 2011)

n Model how to express ideas using various Figure 7. Iterative writing process
vocabulary words and sentences (Graham
et al., 2012).
Planning
Teachers should model how to use interesting
and precise vocabulary words in writing for
authentic purposes. For example, the teacher can
Publishing Initial draft
demonstrate writing a letter, memo, or stories.
During writing, instead of nice, the teacher might
use fascinating, excellent, stupendous, gorgeous,
delightful, and pleasant, depending on the context. Editing Revising
Teachers can demonstrate word choice by
describing their thinking process (e.g., "I am going
to use the word, delightful, instead of nice because it
is a more interesting word). Teachers may display publishing (sharing) (see Figure 7). Good writers
frequently used, sophisticated words on the word typically do not follow this sequence linearly or
wall or the class may have ‘a word bank’ which spend the same amount of time in each process.
lists synonyms and antonyms of high frequency Instead, they go forward or backward depending
words so that students can use them up during on needs. Different writing strategies are relevant
various processes of writing. and useful in each phase of writing. For instance,
during the planning phase, students need to select
Teachers should also model how to compose
and organize ideas. During the drafting process,
sentences that express intended meaning
students need to find ways to express ideas using
accurately. Teachers can start with simple
precise vocabulary and sentences, and appropriate
sentences and progress toward more complex ones.
text structures (see Graham, 2006, Graham et al.,
Sentence expansion and sentence combining are
2012; Harris, Graham, Mason, & Fridlander, 2008;
useful activities. For example, the two sentences,
Limpo & Alves, in press for further research-
“My brother is tall. My brother is fast.” can be
validated writing strategies). During revision
combined to My brother is tall and fast. This can
process, students revise their writing, paying
be also combined with “He won the race” and
attention to expressions, organizations, and others'
expanded to My tall and fast brother won the race.
feedback. Then, the composition is read with a
Instruction on combining sentences should be
focus on spelling and punctuation and writing
integrated into writing, and should not be an
conventions (i.e., editing). Finally, finished product
isolated drill (e.g., using worksheets). Teachers can
is shared with peers in the class, school, and
demonstrate and model the process of combining
community.
and modifying sentences during various processes
of writing such as drafting and revising.
n Demonstrate how to use multiple writing Characteristics and Resources
strategies during various phases of
W
riting for meaning and various purposes is
writing process (Graham et al., 2012). not a commonly taught activity in schools in
Writing involves an iterative process of various developing countries. In addition, materials to write
phases including planning (what to say and how on are often scarce. Even workbooks for children are
to say the content), drafting (initial, first draft), generally reused from year to year, and students jot
revising (making changes), editing (changes in down answers in their own copy books if they have
writing conventions such as punctuation), and them. In fact, disposable materials are generally

frowned upon as not cost effective. Some options to is relatively more complex, and there are multiple
mitigate the cost of new workbooks for writing every approaches34 (Espin, Weissenburger, & Benson, 2004;
year include having students write down their own Kim et al., 2014). In general, ‘quality’ of writing is
stories or having older grade students make books evaluated using a rubric. Table 3 shows an example
with stories for lower grade students. This sort of of a writing quality rubric, which can be modified to
practice with writing—for expression and not for different scales such as 1-5 or 1-7, for instance.
form—is critical. Story Weaver, from Pratham Books,
Another widely used evaluation approach is writing
and the African Storybook Project, offer opportunities
productivity (amount of writing) as indicated by the
for nascent writers (including students) to write their
number of words written.35 Although the amount of
own stories. However, the online interface that both
writing is not an end goal of writing, quality writing
programs demand could be an obstacle to getting
requires certain amount of writing and elaboration.
students to write in contexts where electricity and
Not surprisingly, writing productivity has a moderate
internet connectivity are an issue.
to strong relation with writing quality, particularly
for beginning writers (Abbott & Berninger, 1993;
Assessment Considerations Kim et al., 2014, Kim, Al Otaiba, Wanzek, & Gatlin,
S
pelling is typically assessed through dictation 2015; Wagner, R. K. et al., 2011). Therefore, writing
tasks. An important aspect of spelling assessment productivity may be used as one indicator of writing
is the analysis of spelling errors—whether proficiency for beginning writers.
student’s misspelling is due to lack of phonological,

Whichever evaluation approach is employed, there
orthographic, or morphological understanding.
are some important guidelines to keep in mind. First,
Careful examination of spelling errors reveals much
establish clear and consistent evaluation criteria.
information about what students know, and know but
When looking for quality of writing, various aspects
confuse (e.g., see spelling error analysis in Arabic,
are considered such as idea development, organization
Abu-Rabia & Taha, 2006), and instruction should
of ideas, use of vocabulary and varying sentence
target areas that students know but confuse (see
structures. Then all these different aspects (ideas,
Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnson, 2012). In
organization, vocabulary, and sentence use) have to
general, spelling words with consistent sound-symbol
be consistently considered across the rating scale. If
correspondences on the syllable initial and final
quality of writing does not include judgements on
position develops first, followed by medial vowels,
handwriting and spelling, then the raters or teachers
and then words with inconsistent sound-symbol
have to be careful not let these writing conventions
correspondences.
influence their scoring of writing quality. Second,
Written composition is typically assessed by asking consistently apply evaluation criteria. When teachers
students to write about a given topic or prompt, evaluate students’ writing quality based on the
which may or may not accompany illustrations rubric, it is important to apply the rubric consistently
or reading materials (writing after gathering across times so that students receive consistent
information from the assigned reading). Compared to scores regardless of when student’s writing was
reading, evaluation of writing (written composition) evaluated (i.e., within-rater reliability). If multiple
34
Most widely used in school settings in the US are quality rubric similar to what is shown in Table 3. Other approaches include writing
productivity (amount of writing) and curriculum-based writing. The latter has been typically used in special education in the US.
Although reliability and validity evidence exists for curriculum-based writing (see McMaster & Espin, 2007), it requires further study
for its utility in school settings.
When counting number of written words, recognizable words with invented spelling are counted. Excluded are nonsensible string of
35
words or multiple repetition of the same words.

Table 3. Sample rubric of writing quality on a scale of 1-4.
Criteria 1 2 3 4
Idea Little evidence of A sense of a main Ideas are overall coherent Main are coherent, focused,
development ideas is present. idea is emerging. but lacks focus. Details are logical, and novel. Details
found. are appropriate.
Organization No evidence of Emerging evidence Logical organization but Logical and effective of
organizational of organizational some mishaps organization
structure structure
Vocabulary Little evidence Vocabulary words Some interesting and Vocabulary words are
and sentence of effect use of are mostly common descriptive vocabulary precise. Sentence structures
use vocabulary and words and sentence words are used, and are appropriate for
sentences (few words structure is simple. attempts to use varied expressing the main idea
and sentences) sentences are made. clearly.
Spelling Few words are spelled Many high frequency, Many words are spelled Spelling is mostly correct.
correctly. one-syllable words correctly, but many errors
tend to be spelled are found for multisyllabic
correctly. words.
Punctuation Punctuation is not Punctuation use is Commonly used Various punctuations

used. limited. punctuations are correctly are attempted and used
used. correctly.
people are involved in evaluation, consistency the use of this software is not currently available.
across raters (inter-rater reliability) needs to be Despite widespread concerns, there is no evidence
established. Establishing consistency or reliability of a negative effect of text messaging among youth
requires rigorous training (Kim et al., 2014; Kim, on conventional spelling (Bushnell, Kemp, & Martin,
Schatschneider, Wanzek, Gatlin, & Al Otaiba, under 2011; Plester, Wood, & Joshi, 2009).
review). Three, collect multiple samples of writing
(Graham, Harris, & Hebert, 2011; Kim et al., under Research Gaps
review). Assessing students’ writing on a single task
T
or genre does not provide a full, clear picture about here is a severe lack of research on writing
the student’s writing skill. Therefore, it is important development and intervention in low-resource
to assess students’ writing skill using multiple countries. Therefore, research is sorely needed
prompts or tasks. to address some foundational questions such as
achievement levels of writing for students in
developing countries, factors that contribute to
ICT Considerations
writing development (school, student level factors
C
omputers, tablets, and mobile devices may including gender), effective instructional approaches
provide opportunities for students to practice to develop spelling and writing skills, and teacher
their writing skills, as well as for teachers to capacity to teach and evaluate writing. In particular,
evaluate student work. Recent innovations include attention is needed to assess writing skills at the
the Bloom software, which enables users to create discourse level (i.e., written composition tasks and
their own books, and Story Weaver software, which evaluative approaches) that is reliable and valid, but
facilitates the writing of stories. However, evidence does not require extensive training.
from developing country settings on the effects of

Chapter 4.
Key Factors and Actors Responsible for
Improving Early Grade Literacy Skills in
Developing Country Contexts
Section A. Promoting Literacy in

L1: First language. A person’s first spoken
Multilingual Environments
language, and usually a mother tongue or a
home language. In multilingual contexts, a
Background: What and Why Literacy
person may have more than one L1.
Acquisition in Multilingual Contexts?
L2: Second language. A person’s second spoken
I
n many parts of the world, literacy acquisition
language, which can be acquired at any point
occurs in multilingual contexts where children are
expected to acquire literacy in multiple unfamiliar after the first, and can be acquired through
languages. Multilingualism impacts learning various mediums, e.g. school, movies, friends
and reading outcomes at several levels and raises and community interactions, or the market. In
important questions about how to ensure that multilingual contexts, a person may acquire
children in multilingual environments are able to more than one L2.
learn in languages they do not speak and understand.
Any learning requires comprehensible input—

out-of-school children do not have access to their
learning cannot occur when content is presented
languages in schools. In many countries, including
in an incomprehensible manner (Vygotsky, 1978).
Brunei, Timor Leste, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Haiti,
One essential component for comprehensibility is
50 to 95% of the children in school are learning in a
the language of instruction (“the language used for
language they do not speak at home (Kosonen, 2005).
teaching the basic curriculum of the educational
system,” Ball, 2011, p. 13)—instruction is delivered When it comes to literacy acquisition in multilingual
in a language comprehensible to students. Students contexts, Cummins (1979, 2001) postulated that oral
learn better, including reading and writing, in a language and cognitive skills depend on each other
familiar language than in an unfamiliar language for development, and cognitive skills developed in
(Alidou et al. 2006; Ouane & Glanz, 2011; PASEC, 2015; L1 facilitate learning in L2 (i.e., transfer of cognitive
Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991; Thomas & Collier, skills from L1 to L2; Ball, 2011; Dutcher, 1994; Hewlett
2002) and students’ learning is negatively impacted Foundation, 2014). Empirical studies have suggested
when students are not familiar with the language that students develop cognitive skills in a familiar
of instruction (Marsh et al., 2002; PASEC, 2015; language better than in an unfamiliar language
Yahannes, 2009). These effects persist over a lifetime, (Dutcher, 1994). Therefore, it is important for
with higher earnings accruing to students who begin students to develop cognitive skills (e.g., higher-order
their schooling in their mother tongue (Patrinos reasoning skills) in a familiar language, which, then,
& Velez, 2009). Yet, more than half of the world’s facilitates L2 literacy acquisition.

Literacy acquisition in multilingual context involves children in tests of Arabic literacy achievement, the
careful consideration at multiple levels of system. At difference disappeared after 5 years of instruction
the child level, each language impacts the learning (Wagner, D. A., Spratt, & Ezzaki, 1989). Finally, in
of the next in significant and predictable ways (see a recent study (PASEC, 2015), students in 10 sub-
below; e.g. August & Shanahan, 2006). As such, Saharan Francophone African countries were assessed
multilingual education contexts present important on their academic achievement in reading and math.
opportunities and some challenges for improving The language of instruction in the vast majority of
learning outcomes. At the regional level, education these countries is a colonial language (i.e., French
stakeholders and parents grapple with the question of and English) that is unfamiliar to most children.
which languages are linked to identity, self-esteem, An exception was Burundi where instruction was
and socioeconomic mobility, and must try to balance provided in language familiar to most students (i.e.,
limited resources to help children access the benefits Kirundi). Findings revealed that in all the countries
of both/all languages. At the national level, policy but Burundi a high percentage of students did not
makers must decide which languages should serve as reach sufficient proficiency level in reading and math.
the languages of schooling, which languages should In contrast, in Burundi, the majority of students—
be taught as additional languages, and at what point approximately 8 out of 10 students in reading and
transitions should occur from one language to the 9 out of 10 students in math—reached sufficient
next. proficiency level. This finding is particularly notable,
given that a greater percentage of students received
Evidence from Developing instruction from teachers without pre-service
Countries training in Burundi than those in the other countries
in the study (PASEC, 2015).
E
vidence about literacy
acquisition in multilingual These results of greater learning in L1 are in line
contexts is moderate. Despite with findings that L2 reading is impacted by L1
a commonly held belief among language and literacy development—L1 skills transfer
some parents and teachers and significantly impact L2 reading development
that L1 instruction might be (e.g., August & Shanahan, 2006; Geva & Zadeh,
unfavorable for L2 acquisition 2006; Koda, 2008). This transfer is manifested in
(Akyeampong et al., 2011; different ways, including: (1) significant correlations
Altinyelken, Moorcroft, & van der Draai, 2014; between phonological awareness in two languages of
Dutcher, 1994), extant evidence suggests that there varying degree of linguistic distances (see August &
is no disadvantage of L1 instruction in L2 language Shanahan, 2006 for two alphabetic languages; Kim,
and literacy instruction, and L2 reading skills might 2009 for alphasyllabic and alphabetic languages;
develop faster if students have already developed and Wang, Yang, & Cheng, 2009 for morphosyllabic
reading skills in L1. Students learning to read in L1 and alphabetic languages) (see Branum-Martin,
had a higher achievement in reading in 14 southern Tao, & Garnaat, 2015); (2) L2 phonological awareness
African countries (Hungi & Thuku, 2010) and other predicting L2 reading; and (3) L1 reading skills
countries (Hovens, 2002; RTI, 2008). In Gambia (RTI, predicting L2 reading skills (see Koda & Reddy, 2008).
2008; Hsieh & Jeng, 2016), South Sudan (Laguarda & Although some degree of transfer occurs in all writing
Woodward, 2013), Guinea-Bissau and Niger (Hovens, system pairs, the degree of transfer is dependent on
2002) students learning to read in L1 performed the pair of languages being acquired, and therefore,
better in reading than those learning to read in L2. the nature of the language and writing system must
In contrast, in Morocco, although Arabic-speaking be taken into consideration when planning language
children initially scored higher than Berber-speaking transitioning. For example, transfer between two

closely-related languages and between two alphabetic instruction in L1 (5-6 years) to help develop
languages is likely to occur more quickly than cognitive skills, which then facilitates L2 acquisition
between two different kinds of writing systems (see (see Ball, 2011 for a review). According to another
Nakamura & de Hoop, 2014). estimate, a child needs to know a certain number
of words in each language to be able to become an
Despite the consistent suggestions that students’
independent learner of that language (e.g. 3,000
achievement is higher when they receive instruction
word families in English and 2,200 in French) (Little,
in a familiar language, and L1 oral language skills
Goullier, & Hughes, 2011). However, research-based
facilitate L2 literacy acquisition, there has been few
thresholds have not been determined for many
randomized control studies that can indicate causal
languages used as L1s in the developing world.
inferences. A recent study, however, employing a
Although initial evidence about the superiority of
randomized control trial design indicates a positive
a transitional bilingual program over a subtractive
effect of L1 instruction on literacy achievement
model in the African context is suggestive (Hovens,
(Piper, Zuilkowski, & Ong’ele, 2016). In this study,
2002), rigorous research using a randomized control
students in Grades 1 and 2 in Kenya were assigned to
design is needed to elucidate conditions which best
two conditions. In one condition, students received
support students’ language and literacy acquisition
literacy instruction in two official L2 (English and
in multilingual contexts, including the point at
Kiswahili). In the other condition, students received
which students have acquired sufficient language
instruction in L1 in addition to the official languages.
proficiency and developed cognitive skills in L1 to
Students who received L1 instruction had higher
benefit L2 acquisition.
achievement in EGRA literacy outcomes measured
with effect sizes ranging from .3 to .6 (Piper et al.,
2016). Summary of Important Design
In multilingual contexts, L1 instruction typically
transitions to L2, and various language transition n To the extent possible, ensure quality
models exist. In subtractive models, students develop instruction in a language most familiar
proficiency in the official language but lose their to the child—most times this will be
L1 proficiency. In many contexts, this is actualized their Mother Tongue or L1
by having the official language or L2 as a medium Learning is facilitated when instruction is
of instruction from the outset of formal schooling provided in a language that is familiar to
and not teaching L1 in the formal school setting. students. The premise of the benefit of learning
In transition models or early/late exit models, the in L1 for L2 acquisition is quality instruction in
target of schooling is to acquire proficiency in the L1. Quality literacy instruction should incorporate
official language (L2), but instruction starts in L1 explicit and systematic instruction on reading
and gradually transitions to the L2 either after 1-3 as well as oral language (see Chapter 3). Oral
years (early exit) or 5-6 years (late exit). In additive language proficiency is a necessary condition
bilingual education, L1 and official language are both for literacy acquisition, and children continue to
used as medium of instruction. develop their L1 language proficiency well into
adolescence. L1 instruction does not just mean
Despite the existence of various language transition
teaching through the language, but should include
models, evidence is highly limited about the
systematic teaching of L1 language itself (Ball,
comparative impact of these various models on
2011; Tabors & Snow, 1994).
language and literacy acquisition in low-income
multilingual contexts. Studies from developed For the most effective literacy outcomes (not
countries suggest a need for providing sufficient only in the mother tongue or local language,

but also in all other subsequent languages), it n Create curricula, standards, benchmarks,
is best to begin teaching literacy to children in assessments, and instructional methods
their mother tongue, L1, or very familiar language that reflect the language systems
first in order to build foundational literacy skills (phonology, orthography primarily)
that can then transfer to L2 literacy acquisition. As noted in chapter 3, languages vary in the
Although the exact threshold point of transfer phonological units that map onto orthographic
is not empirically identified, research suggests symbols. Therefore, it is important to understand
introducing L2 reading instruction after a certain these phonological and orthographic features in
level of L1 reading proficiency is reached (see Ball, phonological awareness instruction. When creating
2011). A corollary of this reasoning would be to curricular sequence and scope parameters in any
group children by skill level in their L1 reading, particular language, it should be in line with the
rather than starting the L2 with all students at cognitive demands of that language and writing
a particular grade. In extremely heterogeneous system. For example, instructional focus on
classrooms or in situations where dividing children symbol-sound correspondences (decoding-related
by language groups seems artificial or unnatural, skills) is prolonged (e.g., grade 5) in South Asian
literacy acquisition can begin in a language of akshara compared to other alphabetic writing
wider communication or a regional language that systems because akshara has a great number of
all children are proficient in. In many contexts, highly similar orthographic symbols.
this requires empirically establishing oral language
proficiency and not relying on self-reports or n Build teachers' own language proficiency
census data for language ability. in the language of instruction
It is not uncommon in multilingual contexts
n Bridging into an L2 by building L2 oral
for teachers not to be proficient in the language
language proficiency
of instruction (often colonial languages) or not
As in L1 literacy acquisition, various aspects of trained on how to use L1 or L2 as a medium of
oral language skills are involved in different instruction (Akyeampong et al., 2011; Gacheche,
aspects of literacy skills. Therefore, language 2010; Mitton, 2008; Muthwii, 2004). In Senegal,
sounds (phonological ability), morphological fewer than 7% of teachers expressed confidence
structures, vocabulary, and discourse level oral in teaching in the language of instruction
language skills in L2 should be explicitly taught (Akyeampong et al., 2011). Only 28% of teachers in
to build foundations for L2 literacy acquisition. Kenya reported that they were trained on using L1
As noted in Chapter 3, small grain size domains as a medium of instruction (Begi, 2014; also see
of oral language such as phonological awareness Akyeampong et al., 2011). When teachers do not
and morphological awareness take a relatively have proficiency in the language of instruction,
short time to learn, provided access to explicit they do not implement the language of instruction
and systematic instruction. In contrast, acquiring and, instead, teach in L2 or in the language in
sufficient proficiency in larger grain sizes such as which they are proficient (Akyeampong et al.,
vocabulary and discourse level oral language skills 2011; Piper & Miksic, 2011; Piper, Schroeder, &
(listening comprehension and oral production) Trudell, 2016). Similarly, approximately two thirds
takes years. of teachers were not comfortable teaching in L2
(English) in Ghana (RTI, 2011). When teachers
teach in a language in which they lack proficiency,
instructional quality is poor—complex concepts
are not explained properly (Muthwii, 2004) and

instruction is dominated by “safe talk” which does implementing L1 language and literacy instruction
not make great demands on students (Gacheche, in a particular region, a good understanding about
2010). In contrast, when teachers teach in their local contexts and languages spoken in the region
proficient language, pedagogy is richer (EdQual, is necessary (e.g., language mapping,36 Benson,
2010). Therefore, teachers should be provided with 2004) to have a clear picture about local language
sufficient training to build their own language instructional needs and ensure that the local
proficiency in the language of instruction and to language needs are met (see Pflepsen, Benson,
learn how to provide instruction in the language of Chatbott, & van Ginkel, 2015).
instruction (e.g., strategic use of code-switching— Moreover, it is important to involve all stake-
alternating between two or more languages in holders (Benson, 2004; Jones, 2012; Pflepsen et
conversations; Akyeampong, 2011; DeStefano et al., 2015) in the decision-making process around
al., 2012; Dutcher, 1994; Falconer-Stout et al., languages of instruction. Although studies from
2015; Kyeyune et al., 2011; Mitton, 2008; Piper & psychological and learning perspectives suggest a
Milksic, 2011). Although building teachers' own favorable outcome of L1 instruction for L1 and L2
language proficiency requires resource allocation language and literacy acquisition, local agency,
and has a high initial cost, it is cost-effective when teachers, and parents might have reservations
considering prevention of repetition and dropout about instruction in local languages or L1 for
(e.g., Guatemala, Patrinos & Velez, 2009). various reasons, including perceived economic
advantages (Akyeampong et al., 2011; Altinyelken,
n Reflect contextual issues and local needs
Moorcroft, & van der Draai, 2014; Commeyras &
Language of instruction is a complex issue, Inyega, 2007; Iyamu & Ogiegbaen, 2007; Khejeri,
embedded in various sociopolitical contexts. 2014; Opoku-Amankwa & Brew-Hammond, 2011;
Therefore, language policy needs to work with Piper & Milksic, 2011; Trudell & Piper, 2014;
local needs and build the necessary infrastructure Watson, 2007). These concerns often motivate
to support language instruction in whatever stakeholders to pressure for an early transition
language(s) are used (Benson, 2004). In many model (i.e., where children transition from learning
multilingual contexts, there is a disconnect in L1 to learning in L2 in early primary; Jones &
between students’ L1, teachers’ L1, and the Barkhuizen, 2011).
language of instruction. It is also not uncommon
that students in the same class have different L1s.
In Zambia, for instance, the number of students
speaking the language of instruction at home
T
varied from 18.7% to 82% depending on the region he choice of a language of instruction has
(Falconer-Stout et al., 2015). In areas of Malawi implications for the development and provision
where Chiyao is the predominant language, 61% of of learning materials (Benson, 2004). While it is
students spoke Chiyao but the majority of teachers desirable for children to receive initial reading
(67%) did not (Chilora & Harris, 2001). In places instruction in mother tongue or at least in a language
like Fiji there is no single dominant L1. In these they understand, some mother tongues or L1s do not
contexts, creative approaches to meet local needs have a written orthography. The process of developing
should be considered including team teaching, and standardizing this can take years, although much
trading classes, and using paraprofessionals from progress has been made both by governments and
the community (Benson, 2004). Therefore, prior to groups like Summer Institute for Linguistics (SIL)
36
Language mapping refers to gathering information about languages spoken in different geographic areas and proficiency levels of
speakers (Pflepsen et al., 2015).

and the Institute for Popular Education in Mali.37 For Wetterberg, 2011), their primary focus is reading,
example, L1 implementation took a prolonged time in and consequently broader language and cognitive
Malawi due to lack of human and material resources assessment (e.g., working memory; inference-
at both the classroom and the teacher training level making) tools are limited (see Chapter 3).
(Kamwendo, 2008). Teachers needed to be trained
to teach in the various L1s but there was a severe
ICT Considerations
lack of materials beyond Chichewa and English.
T
Likewise, publishing in L1 is often not lucrative for echnologies, such as mobile phones, e-readers,
publishers in developing country contexts unless the and tablets, may offer at least partial solutions
government is the principal purchaser. Many people to many of the challenges of multilingual contexts.
do not have disposable income to spend on books, These devices can carry multilingual dictionaries,
and parents often prefer to spend their money on reading material in mother tongues, audio and video,
books in written in former colonial languages such and other electronic media that can help children
as English, French, Portuguese and Spanish (Edwards learn how to read in multiple languages. Where
& Ngwaru 2011; Opoku-Amankwa, Edu-Buandoh, & available, ICTs may be particularly helpful when
Brew-Hammond, 2014). Hence, a serious investment teachers themselves are not first language speakers
of time and resources is required to develop the of the language of instruction. Software such as
materials necessary to effectively implement a L1 that used in the Bridges to the Future Initiative in
language policy in countries where a dominant and/ South Africa actively facilitates learning in multiple
or a colonial language have been used as the national languages, allowing children to switch back and
language of instruction (Klaus 2003; Malmberg, forth between languages (Wagner, D. A., 2014).
Mwaura, & Sylva, 2011; Opoku-Amankwa et al., 2014). Furthermore, resources such as SIL's Bloom software
may increasingly help to produce the types of reading
Strategies to facilitate multiple language materials
material needed in a range of languages, expanding
development processes for multilingual contexts
the often limited amount of content available in
include the development of a common structure
mother tongues.
and agreed upon content to be used in materials
development across languages, flexible formatting to ICTs can provide access to texts in various languages,
accommodate many languages, capacity building of generally at a lower cost than for printed books. A
local technical experts, and community involvement recent review of mobile literacy interventions notes
(Pflepsen et al., 2015). text-provision programs in Chile and South Africa,
for example (Wagner, D. A., 2014), while Worldreader's
mobile and tablet materials available in 43 languages
have been used by more than 2.5 million people since
O
ne potential benefit of L1 instruction is that 2010 (Worldreader, 2014).
it allows one to accurately evaluate whether
students’ learning difficulty is due to lack of language
Research Gaps
skills in L2 or other cognitive functioning issues
E
(which are assessed in L1). However, this requires fforts and initiatives in providing instruction in
availability of language, cognitive, and literacy a language that is familiar to students are under
assessments in L1. Although assessments such as way in developing countries (e.g., Ethiopia, Gambia,
EGRA have been, and can be adapted to L1 considering Kenya, Mali, Philippines), and many of these employ
language and orthography characteristics (Gove & language transitional models—transitioning from
37
For more information on SIL, see http://www.sil.org and for more information on IEP, see http://iepmali.org/index.php?lang=en

local, familiar language to L2 (see Mother Tongue
Based-Multilingual Education;38 Pflepsen et al., 2015 "The quality of an education system cannot
for resources and guidelines). However, information exceed the quality of its teachers"
from rigorous empirical evaluation is lacking about
(quote from a Korean official cited in Barber &
effects and costs of various language transition
Mourshed, 2007, p. 13) aptly describes the fact that
models. The impact of various models of language teachers are at the center of education systems.
transition is unclear for many important outcomes
such as L2 language and literacy acquisition and
repetition/dropout rates in various multilingual instruction is one of the important reasons and forces
contexts. The reading experts interviewed for this in determining the extent to which L1 instruction is
report noted that the transition from L1 to L2 was an adopted and implemented at the local level, it would
area ripe for research in developing country contexts. be informative to investigate the effect of a public
Similarly, although the language transition models are information campaign about L1 instruction.
based on the theoretical model of transfer of cognitive

skills from L1 to L2, our understanding of the transfer
Section B. Teacher Knowledge and
of cognitive skills from L1 to L2 is primarily based on
Teacher Education
correlational studies. Future studies are warranted
to reveal causal evidence. In addition, the hypothesis
of linguistic threshold or optimal transition point Background: What and Why Teacher
(Cummins, 1976) requires a systematic and rigorous Knowledge and Education?
scientific investigation. Although this idea is attractive
A
ny theory of change for improving students'
and plausible, quantifying a threshold is a complex
literacy skills necessarily involves teachers'
task and thresholds are likely to vary depending on
beliefs and knowledge about literacy development
the target skill.
and instruction as well as their ability to use that
Also needed is our understanding about the impact knowledge in their teaching practice. Therefore,
of language policy and implementation at the local teacher education, including pre-service training
levels. In many multilingual contexts, national (initial teacher education) and in-service training
language policy is often not observed at the local (continuing professional development), is central
levels (Trudell & Piper, 2014). Therefore, rigorous to efforts to improve students’ literacy acquisition.
large-scale longitudinal randomized control studies Teacher knowledge and quality teaching40 are
are needed in order to investigate the impact of important to student achievement (McEwan, 2014;
language of instruction in real-life contexts (i.e., Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005), including improving
an intent-to-treat study39). Related critical issues children’s literacy skill development (DeStefano et
include teacher education and training and teacher al., 2012; EDC, 2014a; McCutchen et al., 2002; Moats
assignment in relation to language of instruction & Foorman, 2003; Piasta, Connor, Fishmann, &
(see Section B below). Moreover, given that some Morrison, 2009).
parents and teachers' negative perceptions about L1
http://www.mlenetwork.org/
38
39
The intent-to-treat design in a randomized controlled study, adherence to the treatment or lack thereof is not included in the
analysis. Therefore, all participants are included in the analysis once they The intent-to-treat design in a randomized controlled
study, adherence to the treatment or lack thereof is not included in the analysis. Therefore, all participants are included in the
analysis once they were assigned into conditions regardless of their actual implementation of the treatment (Gupta, 2011).
40
Note that teacher knowledge and practice are influenced by their beliefs, values, and philosophical orientation (Paris, Wasik, &
Turner, 1991; Fang, 1996).

A competent teacher needs to have a complex array Evidence from Developing
of professional knowledge for successful teaching. Countries
Figure 8 shows various aspects of teacher knowledge,
M
including content, pedagogical, and technological any teachers in developing
knowledge. When applied to literacy instruction, countries are not prepared
teachers, for example, have to understand theories to teach reading and writing
and the development of oral language, cognition, with particular difficulty
reading, and writing (Cunningham & Stanovich, 2004; with teaching higher-order
Moats, 2009; see Chapter 3). They also have to know skills such as listenening
how to teach oral language, reading, and writing. comprehenion, and reading
Teachers should be able to use standard educational comprehension (Akyeampong
technologies such as books, chalk and blackboard et al., 2011; Chesterfield et al., 2005; Falconer-Stout
as well as others such as computers, mobile phones, et al., 2015; Kyeyune et al., 2011). Grade 2 teachers in
and tablets. Furthermore, critical in this framework the Philippines showed ‘deficient’ and ‘inadequate’
are the intersections of these different aspects such practices in various aspects of teaching at baseline
as pedagogical content knowledge (what teaching (Clark-Chiarelli & Louge, 2016). Many teachers in
approaches fit the target content); and technological low-income countries do not know how to identify,
pedagogy content knowledge (how to connect monitor progress, and provide intervening instruction
knowledge of technology with literacy skills and use for students who need further help (Akyeampong
it for teaching literacy skills). et al., 2011; Tilson et al., 2013a). Furthermore,
many teachers in sub-Saharan countries had little
understanding about links between L1 and L2 literacy
Figure 8. Aspects of teacher knowledge based on Mishra and Koehler (2006),

modified for teaching literacy skills.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge

• Theory, development, • Teaching and learning about
and assessment of language, cognition, reading
language, reading and and writing
writing development • Engaging and motivating
• Cognitive, socio- students
emotional, and physical Content Pedagogical
• Class management
development Knowledge Knowledge
(instructional time, large
• Local language, culture, classes, student behavior)
and orthography • Teaching in multilingual
contexts
Technological Technological Technological

Content Knowledge Pedagogical
Knowledge Knowledge
• Standard technologies
such as books, chalk and
blackboard
Technological Pedagogical
• Other technologies such as
computer and digital video and Content Knowledge

acquisition and how to teach in multilingual contexts of Congo, teachers’ knowledge of teaching reading
(Akyeampong et al., 2011). and writing explained students’ reading performance
(EDC, 2014a). Students whose teachers received more
Evidence indicates that teachers’ attitudes, practices,
intensive training including coaching outperformed
and instructional strategies are all important
those whose teachers received more a superficial level
predictors of student success (EDC, 2014a; see also
of training (Tilson et al., 2013a). Similarly, students
Westbrook et al. 2013 for a review). High teacher
whose teachers received instruction on evidence-
expectations result in improved student outcomes
based literacy instruction had higher literacy skills
and vice versa (EDC, 2014a). Teachers with greater
in Jordan (RTI, 2014a) and Liberia (DeStefano et al.,
knowledge of literacy instruction after teacher
2013*).
training implemented reading instruction to a greater
extent, and their students achieved higher literacy In sum, accumulating evidence indicates rigorous
skills in the Democratic Republic of Congo (EDC, training can change teachers’ attitudes, knowledge
2014). Effective teaching practices included flexible and instructional practices, and improve students’
use of grouping patterns, frequent use of additional literacy achievements. Although promising, the
learning materials, effective lesson planning, body of literature largely consists of descriptive and
different types of questions (e.g. open and closed), observational studies, or multi-component, project-
and providing both a safe learning environment and based studies of which teacher training and coaching
feedback (see, e.g., Connor et al., 2014; Pianta et al., were part. Consequently, less is known about
2005 for evidence from US; see Westbrook et al., 2013 effectiveness of various teacher training models and
for a review from developing countries41). teacher education policy.
Evidence is growing about the effect of teacher

training on student literacy achievements. In Latin Summary of Important Design
America and Caribbean contexts, teachers who Considerations and Challenges
received in-service training on literacy instruction
T
eacher education is multi-faceted, including
through the CETT (Centers for Excellence in Teacher
regulations, standards, assessment, recruitment,
Training) program had greater knowledge about
initial teacher education, in-service training
teaching literacy, and implemented the literacy
programs, and retention, and evaluation (Wilson,
strategies they were taught, and their students had
2008). Covering all these aspects is beyond the
higher achievements (Chesterfield & Abreu-Combs,
scope of the present report.42 Instead, below are
2011). Training improved knowledge of literacy
key considerations to building capacity for literacy
instruction and attitudes and beliefs toward literacy
instruction in low-income countries.
instruction and acquisition for educators such as
supervisors and teachers (RTI, 2016a). Furthermore,
n Establish curriculum aligned with
training improved literacy instructional practices
for primary grade teachers in the Philippines (Clark- evidence on effective literacy instruction
Chiarelli & Louge, 2016*) and Yemen (Pleiss et al., in teacher education and professional
2016*). In Nigeria, teachers who received training on training.
reading instruction employed reading instructional Teachers need an understanding of how literacy
practices more frequently (e.g., presenting letter is acquired, how to teach literacy skills in the
names and sounds, asking reading comprehension classroom, and how to use assessments to inform
questions) (RTI, 2016a). In the Democratic Republic instruction. Areas for teacher knowledge in
41
Note that many of the studies reviewed here did not include student literacy outcomes.

content, pedagogy, and technology for literacy This creates misalignment between the teacher
instruction (see Figure 8) directly map onto what education curriculum and the elementary grades
is covered in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 (Section A). In curriculum—reading curricula in the elementary
other words, teacher training, either preservice grades in many countries have been updated
teacher education or ongoing professional recently, whereas many teacher education curricula
development, should, at minimum, target the have not been revised in parallel (Akyeampong et
following areas: orthography, oral language, and al., 2011; Pryor, Akyeampong, Westbrook, & Lussier,
cognition. Knowledge about orthography refers 2012). The literacy curriculum should encompass
to how sounds and meanings in a language are content, pedagogy, and technology (or ICT) and
mapped onto the writing system of a language, their intersections shown in Figure 8. Teacher
and includes orthographic symbols, the alphabetic education courses often focus on subject content,
principle, graphophonological knowledge, and but not pedagogy (Akyeampong et al., 2011, 2013;
orthographic patterns. Knowledge of oral language Bunyi, Wangia, Magoma, Limboro, & Akyeampong,
includes phonological structure, semantic structure 2011), which is essential in the professional field
(morphology and vocabulary, grammar), and of teaching (Akyeampong et al., 2013; Bunyi et
language use (pragmatics). Cognitive factors al., 2011). Then, performance benchmarks and
include working memory, attentional control, and standards for teacher education curriculum should
higher-order thinking skills such as reasoning, be clearly defined and aligned with theory and
inference, perspective taking, and comprehension empirical evidence about teaching literacy (see
monitoring. Chapters 2 and 3; Adekola, 2007; Pryor et al., 2012).
The primary place where newly certified teachers Student teaching (or practicum) is an important
gain their knowledge about subject content and part of curriculum in pre-service teacher education
pedagogy is preservice teacher education programs programs, and should be tightly connected
(Akyeampong et al., 2011, 2013; Kyeyune et al., to coursework, and should be systematically
2011). Therefore, curriculum in preservice teacher organized and supervised. However, gaps between
education programs is critical to ensuring that courses and practicum have been consistently
teacher candidates acquire necessary skills for reported (Akyeampong et al., 2011; 2013) such
literacy instruction. As documented Chapters 2 that what is taught in teacher training programs
and 3, evidence about what needs to be targeted does not match with the real world of teaching—
for effective literacy instruction in developing dominant instructional approaches in preservice
countries is accumulating, and therefore, should programs are lectures and taking and copying
be incorporated into the teacher education notes with little connection and opportunity to
curriculum (Piper & Korda, 2011b). In particular, in teach (Akyeampong, 2003). Moreover, student
many low-income countries, there have been no teaching is often short without sufficient
specific courses targeting teaching reading, and opportunities to observe and participate in
reading has been folded into language teaching teaching (Akyeampong et al., 2013; Kyeyune et al.,
in teacher education curriculum (Akyeampong 2011), and are not systematically supervised and
et al., 2011; EDC, 2013; Kyeyune et al., 2011). supported by both expert teachers and college
42
One example of an important factor, but is beyond the scope of the current report is recruitment of qualified teacher candidates
considering local needs. Many prospective teachers in sub-Saharan Africa do not meet qualifying grades for entry into training
programs, which then requires them to take remedial courses (Akyeampong, 2003). When it comes to literacy instruction, recruiting
local teachers who are fluent in the language of instruction and familiar with local social and cultural contexts (Young, 2009) is
important to promote students’ literacy acquisition (Ball, 2011). In order to attract and sustain strong prospective teachers to pre-
service teacher training programs, incentives should be offered such as subsidizing teacher candidates’ studies, particularly for those
who can teach in needed areas (UNESCO, n.d.).

tutors (Akyeampong et al., 2011; Hardman, Abd- Piper & Korda, 2011b; RTI, 2011, 2014c, 2015b). In
Kadir, & Tibuhinda, 2012). a multicomponent intervention study in Ghana,
many teachers were found to adhere to only part
n Develop expertise of teacher education of the teacher's guide on literacy instruction (RTI,
faculty in literacy acquisition and 2011). In Jordan, teachers had difficulty adopting
instruction. new pedagogies into their instructional practice,
An important corollary is building capacity of and expressed that their new literacy curriculum
faculty in teacher education programs about added too much work and burden to them. Perhaps
literacy acquisition and instruction based on this explains teachers' overwhelming response
growing empirical evidence. In many contexts, that they were not likely to continue the systematic
faculty at teacher education programs lack literacy instruction even after they acknowledged
knowledge about literacy acquisition and their positive attitudes towards new literacy
instruction (EDC, 2013) as well as classroom instruction and student outcomes (RTI, 2014a).
teaching experience. Evidence-based curriculum Teachers developed certain teaching styles
is necessary but curriculum itself does not ensure and beliefs over the years based on their own
rigorous, quality training of prospective teachers experience of learning, learning in the teacher
on content and pedagogy of teaching literacy education programs, and their own practice.
skills (Akyeampong et al., 2011; Binks-Cantrell, Therefore, changing their beliefs and instructional
Washburn, Joshi, & Hougen, 2012; Ginsburg, Rose, behaviors would not be achieved easily after
Adelman, 2011; Hardman, Ackers, Abrishamian, a few training sessions (see EDC, 2014b for
& O'Sullivan, 2011). Capacity building of faculty some recommendations about implementing a
in teacher education programs is particularly teacher training program). Support structure is
important for sustainability of quality teacher necessary to sustain newly learned knowledge and
education in literacy education. instructional approaches. Sustaining new behaviors
requires a programmatic, multi-faceted approach
n Provide systematic and sustained in-
where continuing professional development is
service (or continuing) training.
institutionalized and systematic for both newly
Systematic and sustained continuing professional qualified teachers, experienced teachers, and other
development is particularly important in low- stakeholders (e.g., teaching assistants, supervisors,
income countries where new reading curricula and principals; Akyeampong et al., 2011; Bunyi et
in elementary schools have been recently al., 2011; Dall, Losert, Purwadi, Bandi, Triatmoko,
implemented, and consequently the vast majority Maskoen, 2015; EDC, 2014a; Gabr, Gavin, Lambert,
of educators (teachers and supervisors) have & Mourad, 2015; Raupp et al., 2015). Teachers
not received corresponding training in teaching benefit from continued feedback and support,
reading. Actual participation in professional including refresher training, support visits, and
development varies largely in sub-Saharan Africa coaching on a regular basis (e.g., Dall et al., 2015;
(Akyeampong et al., 2011; Hardman et al., 2011; Dubeck et al., 2015; EDC, 2013, 2014a; RTI, 2014a,b,
Kyeyune et al. 2011), and the vast majority of 2016a; Piper & Korda, 2011a; Pouezevara et al.,
trainings are small-scale and ad-hoc one-time 2013).
programs (see Akyeampong et al., 2011).
Cluster-based mentoring programs or Teacher
One consistently reported challenge in Study Groups are examples of continuing
implementing literacy interventions has been professional development strategies implemented
changing teachers' instructional behaviors (Clark- in sub-Saharan Africa, Philippines, and Pakistan
Chiarelli & Louge, 2016; Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; (Barrett et al., 2007; EDC, 2014; Hardman et al.,

of shelves and locking cabinets or trunks in school
"Good teachers are costly, but bad teachers classrooms. While it is clear that the core texts for
cost more." reading instruction, such as leveled readers, cannot be

created by teachers who are just learning how to teach
Bob Talbert
reading, support materials for a print rich classroom
can be, if teachers have the supplies and space. For
2011; Kraft & Epstein, 2014; Piper & Korda, 2011b; instance, in Ethiopia, where clusters were formed, the
Piper & Zuilkowski, 2015; RTI, 2014a, 2016a) and teachers in the cluster schools had access to a resource
elsewhere. Various forms exist, but generally, room at the partner college (Piper, 2010b).
teacher educators or experienced teachers serve as

As for instructional materials for teacher training,
mentors and facilitators, and work with teachers
highly structured, scripted manuals and teacher
in a cluster of schools (see an example in Nigeria,
guidebooks have proven effective for ensuring direct
RTI, 2016a; Pakistan, Barrett et al., 2007; in Liberia,
instruction in reading for in-service trainings (e.g.,
Piper & Korda, 2011b). It is important to ensure
Piper & Korda, 2011; Piper et al., 2015; Tilson et al.,
that coaches spend sufficient time on pedagogical
2013a; EDC, 2013). However, no research is available
support for teachers. For instance, in Kenya, lower
about textbooks and instructional materials for pre-
teacher-coach ratios (10 teachers per coach versus
service training programs.
15 teachers per coach) were related to positive
student outcomes (Piper & Zuilkowski, 2015).
Frequent supervisor or coach visits were associated Assessment Considerations
with higher student reading skills (RTI, 2015a).
S
everal projects developed direct teacher knowledge
For all these options, cost and efficiency must and attitudes assessments (see EDC, 2014a; EDC,
be worked out (Dubeck, Jukes, Brooker, Drake, & 2015; Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; RTI, 2016a), and
Inyega, 2015). Teacher education and professional teacher and leadership surveys and questionnaires
development requires a significant amount of time (Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; Pouezevara et al.,
and associated cost (Darling-Hammond, Chung 2013; RTI, 2014a; Spratt et al., 2013; Tilson et al.,
Wei, Andree, & Richardson, 2009). In examining 2013a). These have been crucial in revealing many
cost and efficiency for initial teacher education characteristics in the current status of teacher
programs, factors such as class sizes, tutor-trainee knowledge, pedagogical approaches in literacy
ratio, contact hours per week (teaching periods), instruction, and teachers and education leaders’
and the cost per trainee should be considered attitudes and beliefs about literacy acquisition and
(Akyeampong et al., 2013) in relation to student instruction in developing countries. However, these
achievement (Tilson et al., 2013a). have been primarily used as part of professional
development in multi-component intervention
projects, and has not been applied yet to pre-service
teacher education contexts. Thus, once pre-service
teacher education curriculum is aligned with recently
T
eacher education should include training on how emerging scientific evidence (see above), assessments
to create instructional materials, and how to use of pre-service teachers’ developing knowledge also
and integrate available resources in local contexts. should be aligned with the revised curriculum. Then,
In addition, teacher resource rooms or centers can the assessments used in these previous project can be
be created within schools or clusters to store and useful starting places to develop such assessment of
share materials, especially in environments where teacher knowledge.
they are scarce; even more desirable is the inclusion

Similarly, classroom observations also reveal valuable hybrid training program for literacy teachers that
information about instructional practices and the combined traditional in-person trainings with a
extent to which effective instructional practices range of online videos and student materials (Greene,
are implemented. Various classroom observation 2015). Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
protocols have been developed and widely used (TESSA) and Bridge IT projects in Latin America
(Adelman et al., 2015; Clark-Chiarelli & Louge, 2016; incorporated smartphones, educational videos, and
Falconer-Stout et al., 2015; Raupp et al., 2015; RTI, MP3s, but technical challenges were encountered (e.g.,
2011, 2014a, b, 2015c, 2016a; Spratt et al., 2014; Tilson difficulty with internet connection; Agyei & Voogt,
et al., 2013a,b), and can be adapted and used in teacher 201143). Therefore, potential roadblocks and solutions
education contexts. in using ICT for teacher education policy should
be carefully considered, including the reliability
of internet access and the identification of devices
ICT Considerations
that can be used with the resources available (e.g.,
I
CTs have the potential to be particularly important solar powered tablets). Despite these issues, teacher-
in areas where the shortage of a quality teaching focused ICT programs have become widespread.
workforce is a serious challenge, or in rural areas, A recent series of UNESCO publications on mobile
where teachers may have less access to face-to- learning details teacher support and training projects
face training. Several ICT options such as use of in North and Latin America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and
video (EDC, 2014a) and other forms of technology the Middle East (UNESCO, 2012).
(e.g., online forums; Kucan, Palincsar, Khasnabis, &
Chang, 2009; Greene, 2015; RTI, 2014b) are potentially Research Gaps
promising and further studies are required to
G
aps are many and wide in all areas noted above,
determine their effectiveness (Abadzi, 2012; Abadzi
particularly as it relates to literacy instruction
& Martelli, 2014). An e-learning portal, for example,
and associated student outcomes. The experts
could provide teachers, supervisors, and school
interviewed for this report also pointed out that
administrators access to learning materials (see work
research on how to train teachers to teach reading
in Egypt, RTI, 2014c; EDC, 2013). Teacher education
for comprehension was lacking. The following
programs could include the distribution of lesson
are some of the salient overarching questions:
plans and teacher guides on tablets, as in the PRIMR
effective incentive programs that attract strong
program in Kenya (Piper, Zuilkowski, & Mugenda,
teacher candidates, keep them in teaching forces
2014), the usage of mobile phones to text information
(e.g., attracting teachers who are proficient in the
to teachers (as in the HALI project in Kenya; see
language of instruction and students' L1), actually
Brooker et al., 2010), or the loading of enrichment
teach at school (e.g., teacher absenteeism, Piper &
activities and pronunciation sound clips on various
Korda, 2011a; Raupp et al., 2015; RTI, 2016a), and
devices. Interactive audio instruction has been used
adopt new evidence-based instructional approaches;
in Mali and South Sudan (EDC, 2013, 2014b) as well as
cost and financing of various approaches to pre-
in the Democratic Republic of Congo (EDC, 2014a).
service and in-service teacher education to enhance
In Indonesia, where internet access via mobile teachers' capacity to deliver effective literacy
phone is fairly widespread, a collaboration of instruction; innovative approaches to connect
the International Literacy Association, the Nokia learning experiences in teacher education and
Corporation, the Pearson Foundation, and the actual classroom teaching with regard to literacy
Collaborative for Teaching Learning implemented a instruction; effective in-service professional
Although this study was in the context of mathematics education, the gist of the idea is applicable here.
43

Illustrative Example of Teacher Training and Coaching
The following example is drawn from the EGRA On Day 3, trainees practiced teaching literacy
Plus: Liberia, which was a two-year project (2008- lessons. Modeling was provided and trainees
2010) with multiple components including explicit practiced in pairs. Instructional components were
instruction of a multicomponent intervention, discussed and clarified with iterative process of
teacher training, coaching of teachers, and sharing modeling and practicing.
student reading performance with parents. This
On Day 4, trainees learned about progress-
example is to illustrate a general approach (and
monitoring assessment, reviewed EGRA assessment,
its variation) to teacher training and coaching
and practiced administering them. Trainees also
that is widely adopted in many multi-component
practiced a different lesson to teach to colleagues or
intervention studies with effects in student literacy
to students on the following day.
outcomes (see above). See Piper and Korda (2011) for
results of the project. On Day 5, trainees taught lessons to the group,
The project employed the “training of trainers” which were videotaped. Strengths of the lesson as
model where coaches were trained by experts, well as recommendations for improvement were
followed by coaches’ training of teachers in a discussed, followed by further practice, if necessary.
cluster-based face-to-face training. Coaches also

In addition to this training, coaches also provided
provided school-based support.
a refresher training for an additional 5 days,
Coaches and teachers were trained for 5 days with a covering topics such as foundational knowledge of
focus on the following content. reading development, lesson plans, instructional
routines, practicing lesson delivery, administration
– Foundational knowledge on how beginning
of assessments, and discussion of working with
readers learn to read, including assessments
parent-teacher association. Coaches visited on a
– Practice in learning to pronounce speech sounds
regular basis (2-3 times per month in Year 1; once
in a target language
per month in Year 2), following a schedule and
– Overview of the curriculum lessons scope of work according to a work plan. During
– How to teach each lesson with an emphasis on visits, coaches conducted the following.
instructional routines – Observe classroom instruction using an
observation checklist, and ensure that reading
On Day 1, trainees learned about the relations of
instruction is implemented daily.
phonological awareness and reading, and received
training on articulating sounds of the target – Examine classroom setup to ensure instructional
language (i.e., English). materials (e.g., word cards, decodable books) are
readily available for instructional use.
On Day 2, trainees learned about assessments
– Provide modeling of instruction. During lesson
(i.e., EGRA), and practiced administration. They
modeling, the teacher observed the coach’s
were provided with assessments, and watched
instruction and completed the observation
demonstration of assessment administration. This
checklist, followed by facilitation of teaching the
was followed by actual practice of administration of
lesson.
tasks with trainers’ supervision. Practice and role-
play included commonly observed administration – Assess a few students on reading skills.
errors. Furthermore, trainees practiced scoring and – Meet with the principal to garner continued
consistency in scoring (i.e., reliability). support for reading instruction.

developmental approaches (see Lewin, 2004 and literature review found mixed evidence for the effects
Westbrook et al., 2013 for types of training programs); of home reading programs, the authors did find
and various approaches incorporating ICT related that the Dialogic Reading approach did have effects
to literacy instruction for teacher training and its on children's vocabulary and other early literacy
impact on teacher knowledge, teacher practice, and outcomes, though the effects may not persist over
student outcomes. In addition, rigorous evaluation of time (Cao, Ramesh, Menendez, & Dayaratna, 2014).
various teacher education policies on student literacy
outcomes is necessary. When randomized control While parental and community
studies are not feasible, alternative approaches such engagement have been studied
as phased implementation should be evaluated with extensively in the U.S. and
rigor (Tilson et al., 2013a). Finally, a large gap exists other developed countries,
regarding capacity building of teacher education less evidence is available in
faculty with regard to literacy instruction. No studies developing countries. A handful
have systematically tested different approaches to of studies do provide some
teacher educator training, how teacher educators emerging evidence on the
develop their own capacity and practice in literacy subject. In Zambia, a study of 72
instruction, and how these factors are linked to first-graders in Lusaka linked
student literacy achievement. orthographic awareness and
decoding ability to parents' attitudes toward reading
and reading activities in the household (Chansa-
Section C. Parental and Community
Kabali, Serpell, & Lyytinen, 2014). In a study of 50
Engagement children in Bangalore, India, Kalia and Reese (2009)
W
found an association between parental book reading
hile this report focuses largely on school-
and early literacy skills. A Save the Children study
based reading programs, children’s
in Malawi found associations between parental
experiences in their families and
attitudes toward children’s literacy learning—for
communities clearly impact literacy development
example, “I feel confident I can help my child learn
as well. Family experiences related to literacy vary
to read”—and children’s literacy skill improvement
in aspects such as the value placed on reading, the
during an academic year (Dowd, Wiener, & Mabeti,
presence of books in the home as well as literacy-
2010). Both parental literacy and the presence of
related practices such as adults reading with children,
print materials in the home were related to children’s
and opportunities for verbal interaction (Hess &
literacy performance in Iraq (Brombacher, Collins,
Holloway, 1984). This is typically referred to as home
Cummiskey, Kochetkova et al., 2012). In a rare
literacy environment and is typically measured by
comparative study across four multiple developing
surveys (see Dowd & Friedlander, 2016 for a sample
countries, Friedlander (2013) found that home literacy
home literacy environment survey).
environment factors accounted for between 1.2 and
In developed countries, a large body of research 14.9% of the variance in models predicting student
demonstrates that various aspects of home literacy literacy outcomes in the Philippines, Uganda, Mali,
environment do indeed affect children’s emergent and Ethiopia. As a whole, these studies suggest
literacy skills, including vocabulary, letter knowledge, that home literacy environment factors support the
and concepts of print (Dynia, Lawton, Logan, & development of children’s literacy skills in developing
Justice, 2014; Hayiou-Thomas, Dale, & Plomin, countries in the same manner as they do in wealthy
2012; Kim, 2009; Niklas & Schneider, 2013; Sénéchal countries. However, it may be that certain aspects
& LeFevre, 2014). While a recent USAID-funded of the home literacy environment, such as access to

print materials, are particularly important in contexts 2015). Despite these challenges, programs around the
where schools and libraries are undersupplied with world have incorporated various degrees of parental
books, and most children have little formal exposure involvement into literacy programs—from the Family
to text. Literacy Project in South Africa to the Vanuatu
Literacy Education Program (UNESCO, 2008).
Further research is needed not only to elucidate
the relationships between the broader home and A recent USAID review investigated the potential of
community environments with literacy development, behavioral change communications approaches to
but also effective strategies to increase community further the impact of early grade reading programs
involvement to promote students’ literacy (Schmidt, 2014). Such methods, which have, to date,
achievement. Although some projects (e.g., RTI, 2015c; generally been used for health promotion, may
also see many Literacy Boost studies by the Save the provide new strategies for literacy promotion at
Children) have implemented home and community the household and community level. For example,
activities, which is in the right direction (see Figure a behavioral change communications intervention
1 in Chapter 2), their effectiveness is unclear. In could focus on changing parent-child reading
particular, it is important to identify effective ways behaviors in the home. Given that school-based
to involve parents and community members with approaches alone have not proved sufficient to reach
low literacy levels into literacy programs. Parents the goal of widespread reading proficiency among
must be able to read well enough to coach their early grade children in many developing countries,
children (Cao et al., 2014). This suggests that parent broadening the scope of literacy interventions beyond
literacy programs may be complementary to early- the school is a necessary step. Some programs, like
grade reading interventions. Older siblings may also Save the Children's Literacy Boost, have begun to
be resources within the household for new readers, routinely incorporate home and community reading
as on average youth literacy rates are higher than components into early grade interventions.
adult literacy rates in developing countries (UNESCO,

Chapter 5.
Long-run Consideration of Literacy
Programs: Costs, Financing, Scaling up,
and Sustainability
Background: What and Why? program was both cheaper per child and more cost-
effective than the existing government program, in
A
ll literacy programs should be designed in terms of words per minute per dollar spent (Piper et
ways that are sensitive to issues of cost and al., 2014). In Mozambique, the full implementation of
sustainability. International aid fluctuates, as it did in the Aprender a Ler early grade literacy intervention
the aftermath of the global financial crisis (Tilson et cost an additional $2.75 per student, but resulted
al, 2013a), and the percentage of aid dedicated to basic in greater literacy learning than in control schools
education varies over time as well. Some countries (Raupp et al., 2015). By contrast, in the Malawi
obtain over 50% of their education budgets from Teacher Professional Development Program every
international aid, putting their education systems at dollar spent per child increased children’s oral
great risk during times of economic turmoil (UNESCO reading fluency by just one word per minute (Tilson et
Institute of Statistics, 2011). al., 2013a), which is relatively expensive. This limited
Improving literacy instruction will have long-term body of research does not allow for a conclusion as to
effects for student outcomes and system efficiency, the likely impact of changes in literacy instruction on
but only if programs are implemented widely and national education budgets.
supported locally as well as at higher levels of the

educational system. In a recent report examining Promising Practices
14 case studies, Robinson, Winthrop, & McGivney
W
(2016) identified four key components of successful hile rigorous evidence is limited, the
scaling up: design, delivery, finance, and enabling experiences of chiefs of party and literacy
environment. While the authors note that contextual technical experts working in developing countries
factors influence scaling processes, these four broad suggest several possible approaches to enhancing
areas are likely critical to long-term success. cost-effectiveness and sustainability. The first
and most critical step in ensuring that literacy
programs are sustainable is the careful examination
Evidence from Developing
of the per-student costs of programs. Costs may
Countries
not be significantly higher than existing costs of
R
elatively little comparable literacy instruction, particularly when the potential
student-level cost enhancements of system efficiency are taken into
effectiveness data is currently account—students who read better may be less
available. In a randomized likely to repeat grades and more likely to complete
control trial in Kenya, the education cycles. However, it is possible to leverage
Primary Math and Reading potential efficiencies through improved technical
Initiative (PRIMR) intervention specifications for books (along with improved capacity

to develop technical specifications), reduction teachers, parents, and other stakeholders to adapt
of corruption in procurements and better supply to new approaches and see positive effects. Longer
chain management, for example. The feasibility cycles allow for more stable planning, as well as for
of establishing a Global Book Fund to help to greater creativity in recipient countries (Birdsall,
mitigate some of these challenges has been explored Levine, & Ibrahim, 2005). It is critical to build
through a combined donor initiative (Results for capacity (Smith, 2005), including among influential
Development, 2016). local champions who will support the program in
the future. As capacity increases, the potential for
For best comparability, literacy program evaluators
significant local ownership increases as well.
need to present per-child costs, including teacher
training and supervision, materials, and information Third, donors and program evaluators must provide
and communication technology. Where possible, countries with the necessary evidence to justify the
program planners and donors should work with continuation and expansion of literacy programs.
existing government structures, such as pre- and in- While there is currently a paucity of publicly-
service teacher education organizations, rather than available cost-effectiveness data, particularly from
creating costly and duplicative structures. Materials medium- and large-scale experimental studies,
costs are another area of concern as regards international donors should jointly commit to the
sustainability; intervention approaches are often too sharing of such information. Guidance is available
costly for national scalability as initially designed from a number of sources on the analysis of cost-
(Davidson & Hobbs, 2013). effectiveness data (Dhaliwal, Duflo, Glennerster, &
Tulloch, 2012). Program effects on their own are
Second, it is important for donors to develop long-
insufficient for the purposes of judging whether
term partnerships to allow for scaling up and
a program is worthy of highly limited resources,
sustainability. When successful aid-supported
particularly in an environment where international
programs transfer to government control, the
education aid is decreasing.
programs’ effects often weaken (Bold, Kimenyi,
Mwabu, Ng’ang’a, & Sandefur, 2013), and system-
Research Gaps
wide success stories are rare (Levin, 2010). One of our
U
interviewees put it as such: nfortunately, there is currently not enough
data from rigorous studies to compare cost-
I think the main issue we deal with is that
effectiveness across types of education interventions
projects are organized to have deliverables
(McEwan, 2014) and early grade literacy programs.
and those deliverables don’t match what
Evaluations have, to date, focused more on outcomes
governments do. So, if you just do the thing
than per-student costs and sustainability factors.
you have to do and convince your donor
The figures presented above for programs in
that you’re doing a good job, and you skip
Kenya, Mozambique, and Malawi suggest that costs
the step of working within the government
may vary, but are not directly comparable due to
structures, you can get a deliverable done,
differences in what is included in per-child program
but you haven’t done it through the people
costs. On a broader scale, greater research is also
who have to sustain it.
needed regarding the political and economic factors
Interviewees also commented that donor agencies that are supportive of long-term educational policy
should commit to longer funding periods that allow change sustainability.

Chapter 6.
Conclusion
S
ubstantial efforts and strides have been made in experience. This is particularly important for
the last decade to promote early literacy skills higher-order skills such as listening comprehension,
for students in developing countries. Reviewing reading comprehension, and written composition as
many documents for the present report convinced us development of these skills depend on development of
that we have a better understanding about what it lower-level language and cognitive component skills.
takes to impact 100 million children’s lives through Similarly, teacher learning is cumulative, and requires
enhanced literacy skills. At the same time, several sustained opportunities to learn and practice new
themes emerged, offering lessons and directions for pedagogical skills and approaches. The vast majority
the next generation as we implement the Sustainable of studies in developing contexts were project-based,
Development Goals, particularly, of ensuring inclusive tied to short-term funding, and did not allow for
and quality education for all and promote lifelong longer-term planning and skill development. This
learning. might be attributed to an unspoken assumption that
change can and will happen in a short time. The
First, improving students’ literacy skills requires incremental nature of reorienting a whole system full
systemic efforts, involving stakeholders at multiple of diverse actors toward new practices and behaviors
levels (see Figure 1 in Chapter 1). As illustrated in the is often unacknowledged. Longer project cycles would
chapters, these involve factors related to student, allow for time to trace systemic change as well as
teachers, family members, those in the community, pupil achievement over a more realistic period of
and in larger contexts. Therefore, simultaneous, time.
concerted, and organized efforts are needed to
address multiple, complex, and large system issues Second, while much has been learned, there are
such as building individual and institutional capacity still large and deep research gaps. Projects with
and garnering commitment and support from multicomponent interventions constitute the venue
government at the national and local levels (political for much of the recent international research on
support and commitments, social and cultural early grade literacy, and projects tend to take a
capital). comprehensive approach (e.g., multiple skills are

targeted, teachers are trained and coached, and
An important corollary to systems change is the materials are developed simultaneously), as opposed
incorporation of a long-term, cumulative-effects- to an experimental study where one or a limited
perspective. Changing systems, and habits of learning number of targets are carefully manipulated. The
(students) and teaching (teachers) themselves take multicomponent intervention is reasonable and
time and practice. Learning is cumulative such that necessary in the contexts where literacy instruction
effective instruction in one grade alone does not is nearly nonexistent. On the other hand, however,
ensure literacy acquisition. Instead, students need to the downside of this approach is that it is difficult
be exposed to quality instruction in oral language, to manipulate and tease specific information on the
reading, and writing throughout their schooling “active ingredient(s)” in a large scale such as effective

combination of components and amount (dosage). For the ministries of education. Others that are not
instance, although emerging evidence suggests that directly addressed in this report, but are important to
scripted lesson plans facilitate literacy instruction, students’ learning, include early childhood education,
fully addressing the effect of scripted lessons requires childhood health factors, and the direct and indirect
manipulating this aspect alone carefully (highly costs of education.
scripted lessons versus lessons with little explicit
The third major theme that emerged in the review
directions and dictions) while holding other things
was a great need for establishing standards for quality
constant (e.g., intervention content).
reporting of projects and studies to inform future
The findings in the present report, in combination projects and studies. As noted earlier, we acknowledge
with previous findings in developed countries, that project reports serve various audiences and
provides good initial ideas about how to provide purposes. However, lack of consistency and necessary
literacy instruction in developing countries. However, information makes it difficult to compare results
some fundamental questions still largely remain across contexts, replicate, and analyze them to
open such as effective ways to enhance higher- identify factors that contribute to success or failure.
order skills such as oral language skills, reading Large variation existed in the documents reviewed
comprehension, and writing (written composition); in the extent to which important information was
and how much instructional time is necessary or reported including quality of measures (e.g., reliability
sufficient for different literacy component skills in in and validity; equivalence of assessments at different
different contexts. While these questions will provide time points), process of assignment to condition,
foundational information about what works, this is implementation quality, sample attrition, analytic
far from sufficient to ensure inclusive and quality approaches (e.g., accounting for unit of assignment,
education for all and promote lifelong learning. We baseline performance), basic statistical information
need to develop a more fine-grained understanding at baseline and endline (e.g., means, standard
about what works for whom in what context. Many of deviations, bivariate correlations), and effect sizes.
the reviewed studies revealed that effects varied All of this information is necessary to adequately
as a function of multiple factors such as student evaluate quality of conclusions and the studies. One
characteristics (gender, socio-economic backgrounds, example of a reporting guideline can be found at the
disability status), home literacy environment, school What Works Clearing House in the US context.44
characteristics (types and management structure),
Also glaringly absent in many documents were a
region (rural or urban), and language context (L1
clear description of instructional approaches in the
vs. L2). Understanding these nuances is necessary
treatment and comparison conditions. When it comes
to move beyond access to and provision of quality
to treatment condition, although many documents
education, and obtain the goal of ensuring inclusive
noted that multi-components were targeted (i.e.,
and equitable quality education (UN Sustainable
phonological awareness, orthographic symbol
Development Goals).
knowledge, word reading, reading fluency, reading
Consistent with its systemic nature, system-level comprehension, and oral language), the nature of
research gaps need to be addressed (e.g., teacher lessons or scope and sequence were not illustrated,
education, and language policy; see relevant chapters). nor were they clearly referenced. Detailed description
For instance, one such question is how to incorporate of comparison condition is also important because
research findings on effective literacy instruction this is the counterfactual condition against which
into the system including teacher education and the treatment condition is pivoted. Note that this
44
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/reference_resources/wwc_procedures_v3_0_standards_handbook.pdf

reference condition is not same across contexts, nor actors were involved in this grand effort, and have
are they the same at different times even in the same played crucial roles to make this positive change
context (e.g., instructional approaches in comparison at a global scale. The positive results we have seen
condition may change). Therefore, clear descriptions in this report behooves us to further challenge
about instructional approaches in the treatment and ourselves to move the field forward by reviewing and
comparison conditions provide crucial contextual reflecting on lessons learned and make even greater
information about what works or does not work in positive changes in students’ literacy acquisition and
what contexts and to what extent. consequent life opportunities for all children.
Efforts thus far changed and improved many

millions of students’ lives around the globe. Many

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Landscape Report on

Early Grade Literacy

August 26, 2016

Young-Suk Grace Kim,1 Helen N. Boyle,2 Stephanie Simmons Zuilkowski,2 and

LICENSE: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO

Section B. Methods and levels of evidence ...................................................................................... 4

Section C. Situational and constraining factors to keep in mind.......................................................6

Section D. Organization of the report..............................................................................................6

Section A. A framework for understanding reading development....................................................... 8

Section B. Cross-cutting factors in literacy instruction.....................................................................9

Section B. Oral language skills: Foundations for reading comprehension.......................................... 25

Section C. Reading fluency: Foundation for reading comprehension................................................. 30

Section D. Reading comprehension.................................................................................................33

Section E. Writing for meaning..................................................................................................... 37

Section A. Promoting literacy in multilingual environments........................................................... 43

Section B. Teacher knowledge and teacher education...................................................................... 49

Section C. Parental and community engagement............................................................................ 57

Chapter 5. Long-run considerations of literacy programs: Costs, financing, scaling up,

and reading comprehension—were central in these Emergent literacy skills Strong

of literacy in developing country contexts still Literacy in multilingual

Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 1

2 Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy

Section A. Overview In this report, we define literacy in a traditional

Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 3

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Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 5

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The structure of each chapter varies to some extent

u What is the topic and why is it important to early

Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 7

Section A. A Framework for

8 Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy

In summary, without appropriate

Figure 3. Language and cognitive skills that contribute to

Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 9

u Provide feedback and corrections instruction on literacy instruction to be helpful in

10 Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy

Instructional time evidence from low-income countries about how

Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 11

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Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 13

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Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 15

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Emergent Considering variation across languages and writing

Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 19

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Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy 21

Illustrative Example on Emergent Literacy Skills Instruction

Table 3. Example of scope and sequence of emergent literacy skills instruction

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

Phonological Sound Oral reading Sound Oral blending Oral blending

22 Landscape Report on Early Grade Literacy

Day 1 Phonological awareness

T: The sound is /m/.

T: Let’s try it together. The sound is /m/. What is the sound?

T: First word is mat.