CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Cebu City
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Electronics Engineering Department

ECE 301
ELECTRONICS 1
( Electronic Devices and Circuits)

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
DC DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

I. OBJECTIVE:

 To be able to utilize a diode operating curve to test a diode by using a typical diode
circuit and verify the results with a multimeter.

II. APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

- F.A.C.E.T.Base Unit
- SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Circuit Board
- Multimeter
- Oscilloscope, dual trace
- Generator, sine wave

MEASUREMENT TOLERANCES

Nominal values have been determined for all measurements in this experiment.
Measured values will differ from nominal due to normal circuit and instrument variations.
Your measurements in the experiment will be acceptable if your power voltages and
circuit measurements lie within the following ranges from nominal unless otherwise
noted in a procedure step:
External power source settings: +15 Vdc = ± 3 percent
-15 Vdc = ± 3 percent

POSITIVE SUPPLY and NEGATIVE SUPPLY settings: Stated value: ± 0.2 Vdc
Multimeter voltage and current measurements: ± 8 percent
Multimeter resistance measurements: ± 20 percent
Frequency/Phase shift/Amplitude (as measured by the oscilloscope): ± 8 percent

III. THEORY:
Check valves in piping systems Figure 2-1 (a)] allow the passage of fluid or gas in one
direction only. Semiconductor diodes, one of which is shown in Figure 2-1 (b), are the
electronic equivalent to check valves. They permit the flow of electrons in only one direction.
Most diodes used today are semiconductor junction diodes.

Figure 2-1. Check valve and diode comparison

When N type semiconductor material is joined to P type material, a depletion region

is formed near the junction, as shown in Figure 2-2(a). The depletion region
develops when a few electrons from the N type material migrate into the P type
material and when a few positive charges from the P type material migrate into the
N type material. These charge migrations partially neutralize the crystal in an area
very close to the junction. As a result, an additional force is required to pass current
through the junction, just as the spring tension on a check valve must be overcome
by sufficient pressure to allow the passage of fluid.
 Figure 2-2. Junction diode showing depletion region

The extra force generated at the depletion region of a semiconductor junction is the
barrier voltage, which is determined by the basic semiconductor material. The barrier voltage
for germanium semiconductors is about 0.3 volts, and for silicon-based semiconductors it is
about 0.7 volts. You may think of the barrier voltage as a small battery opposing current flow
through an ideal diode, as shown for the silicon diode in Figure 2-2(b). This voltage. called
the forward voltage drop (V F) subtracts from the circuit voltage when the diode conducts.
One can easily visualize the operation of the check valve shown in Figure 2-1 (a). When
pressure is applied from the left, the check ball is moved to the right against the pressure of
the spring, and fluid moves through the space around the ball. If pressure is applied from the
right, it merely adds to the pressure of the spring and seals the ball more tightly against the
flow of fluid.
Operation of the diode shown in Figure 2-3(a) is a little more difficult to visualize.
When a negative potential from an external source is applied to the right side of the diode,
electrons in the N type material of the diode cathode are forced closer to the junction.
Similarly, the positive charges in the P type material of the diode anode are attracted toward
the junction by the increased negative charge across the barrier. When the applied voltage
is sufficient to overcome the barrier voltage, the barrier width is effectively reduced, and
electrons move across the junction toward the positive terminal of the voltage source. As
long as this potential exceeds the barrier voltage, the electrons that leave the semiconductor
are continuously replaced by electrons that arrive from the voltage source. At this time. the
diode is forward biased, or in its on state.
 Figure 2-3. Semiconductor diode with bias voltages applied

When the external potential is removed, the negative and positive charges in the
N and P type materials return to their original positions, except for the few charges in the
depletion region. This action is due to the fixed locations of the impurity atoms in the
crystal's structure.
When the external potential is reversed, as shown in Figure 2-3(b), a positive
voltage is applied to the cathode and a negative voltage is applied to the anode.
Electrons in the N type material are attracted away from the junction toward the positive
terminal of the voltage source. Positive charges in the P type material are also attracted
away from the junction, but they are attracted toward the negative terminal of the voltage
source. These charge movements increase the width of the depletion region. The diode
is reverse biased (in its off state) under these conditions, and almost no current flows.
As the reverse bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens further and
continues to block the passage of current until the diode's breakdown rating is exceeded.
Diodes, like check valves, are designed to operate within a limited range of reverse
pressures. If an ordinary diode is subjected to reverse voltages that exceed its
breakdown voltage limits, the diode will be destroyed. This important diode characteristic
is also called the peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating. Circuit designers are careful to select
diodes with PIV ratings that are two (or more) times higher than any reverse voltages
normally present in a circuit.
If an ac voltage large enough to overcome the barrier voltage is applied to a
diode, the diode conducts during alternations when the voltage is in the forward bias
direction. The diode can not conduct during alternations when it is reverse biased. The
resulting current is a pulsating dc; that is, current flows in one direction or not at all. The
process of converting an ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage is rectification, one of the
many applications of semiconductor diodes.
Diodes are also used to perform many other tasks in modern electronic systems,
so they are available in different types of packages. Diodes designed to withstand high
reverse voltage or to pass large currents in the forward direction are often quite
physically large. Some diodes designed for use in logic gating or small signal detection
circuits are less than one-eighth of an inch long. Diodes are designed for specific
operating conditions, and if these ratings are exceeded, the diode may be destroyed.
Diode manufacturers publish application information to help circuit designers
select the most suitable type. Diode types are generally standardized, and most common
diode types begin with 1N, such as 1N829A or 1N4002. The cathode end of a diode is
usually identified by a color dot or band, although some large diode packages are
imprinted with the diode schematic symbol indicating the anode end as well as the
cathode end. Diodes are usually identified with CR (crystal rectifier) on schematic
drawings (CR1, for example).

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

o anode - the end of a diode doped with electron-deficient material. The anode
must be positive with respect to the cathode for conduction to take place. o
barrier voltage - the force resulting from the depletion region at a PN junction.
The barrier voltage must be overcome by the forward bias voltage before current
can flow in a diode.

o breakdown voltage - the reverse voltage that causes a diode to conduct heavily
and destructively in the "wrong" direction. Diodes should be selected to have a
breakdown voltage greater than any normally-applied reverse voltage.

o cathode - the end of a diode doped with excess electron material. The cathode
must be negative with respect to the anode for conduction to take place.

o characteristic curve - a graphic representation of diode current flow versus diode

voltage drop.

o depletion region - a partially neutralized region that occurs at a PN junction due

to charge migration across the junction

o dynamic forward resistance (rf) - the apparent resistance of a conducting diode;

calculated from a measured change in diode voltage drop divided by a
measured change in current.

o forward bias -the condition in which the cathode of a diode is negative with
respect to its anode, and forward current flows.

o forward voltage drop (VF) - the nearly constant voltage that is developed across
a conducting diode.

o front-to-back ratio - the resistance of a reverse biased diode divided by the

resistance measured when the diode is forward biased.

o half-wave rectification - rectification in which output current flows only during

halfcycles of the ac input.

o heat sinks - metal plates, often having vanes or fins, designed to remove heat
from a semiconductor quickly and efficiently.

o leakage current - the very small current that flows through a reverse biased
diode.
 o minority carriers - free electrons in P type material. and holes (positive charges)
in N type material. Minority carriers are caused by the presence of tiny
quantities of natural impurities in the base semiconductor material. They are
responsible for most reverse (leakage) current through a semiconductor.

o peak inverse voltage (PIV) - the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to
a diode without causing damage. This voltage is usually a little less than the
diode's breakdown voltage.
o pulsating dc - the rectifier output puIses of one polarity that correspond to
halfcycles of the rectifier ac input voltage when the diode is forward biased.

o rectification - the process of converting an alternating current into a pulsating

direct current.

o reverse bias - the application of a negative voltage on the anode of a diode with
respect to the cathode. .

o reverse recovery time (trr) - the time required for a diode to stop conducting after
forward bias is removed. Reverse recovery time is due primarily to stored
charges.

o ripple - the pulsations appearing in the output voltage of a rectifier circuit.

o stored charges - positive and negative charges temporarily existing in a forward

biased semiconductor due to current flow. Stored charges reduce the efficiency
of common semiconductors at high frequencies because they increase the time
required for a junction to switch from the forward to the reverse biased state.

DIODE DC CHARACTERISTICS:
A diode operating curve describes the current flow through the diode for a
complete range of applied voltages. This data is presented in the form of a graph called a
dc characteristic curve, shown in Figure 2-4. The part of the graph to the right of the
vertical axis describes diode operation when the diode is forward biased (cathode
negative with respect to anode), while the part of the curve to the left of the vertical axis
shows the reverse bias characteristics (cathode positive with respect to anode).
 Figure 2-4 Silicon diode DC Characteristic Curve
The horizontal voltage scale to the. right of the graph center point indicates the
voltage across the diode when forward bias is applied. This scale is usually calibrated
from fractions of a volt up to a few volts.
The vertical forward current scale above the graph center point indicates current
through the forward-biased diode. It is usually marked in mjlliamps or in amps. The
magnitude of this current, determined by the type Of diode, ranges from a few milliamps
for signal diodes up to hundreds of amps for high power diodes.
The portion of the graph to the left of center shows the reverse bias
characteristics of the diode. The horizontal reverse voltage scale to the left of center is
marked in tens, hundreds, or even thousands of volts, depending on the type of diode.
The vertical reverse current scale below the center point is most often calibrated
in picoamps or microamps. This current range typically depends on the physical size of
the diode; the greater the diode's junction area, the greater the reverse current.
When a small forward voltage is applied to a silicon diode (between 0 and 0.5
volts on Figure 2-4), almost no current flows because the barrier voltage has not been
reached. As the forward biasing voltage increases, the barrier voltage is overcome, and
forward current rapidly increases. For the diode represented in this illustration,
conduction begins when forward voltage reaches approximately 0.55 volts. The
characteristic curve for a germanium diode would indicate conduction beginning at a
lower forward voltage. Note that after conduction begins, the voltage across the diode
increases only a little as current increases. This nearly constant voltage is the forward
voltage drop (VF).
When the diode is reverse biased, the characteristic curve lies almost along the
horizontal axis of the graph. The reason is that as reverse voltage increases from zero, a
normal, very small leakage current flows in the reverse direction. Leakage current
results from the presence of minority carriers in both the anode and cathode regions of
the diode.
 Minority carriers consist of holes (positive charges) in the cathode region and
free electrons in the anode region. They occur due to the virtual impossibility of
manufacturing semiconductors of absolute purity. A very small number of impurities
remain in the silicon or germanium material before doping, and some "of these natural
impurities are of the "wrong" type. Modern diodes are carefully constructed, however, so
they limit leakage currents to very small values.
As reverse voltage continues to increase, a point of reverse breakdown voltage
is reached. At this point, diode current begins to increase rapidly in the reverse direction.
This current is labelled breakdown current in Figure 2-4. The increase in breakdown
current is caused by the high reverse voltage "punching through" the diode junction and
breaking down the diode's structure. If the reverse voltage reaches this level in normal
operation, the diode may be destroyed.
We may conveniently, but not quite accurately, consider the forward voltage drop
of a diode to be a constant value (0.3 volts for germanium diodes, 0.7 volts for silicon
diodes). The forward voltage drop actually increases as forward current increases, and it
is affected to a lesser extent by temperature changes. Because forward voltage does
increase as current increases, diodes have a characteristic called dynamic forward
resistance (rf), often simply called forward resistance. Figure 2-5 shows an expanded
part of the diode dc characteristic curve that illustrates the forward resistance of a high
power diode family operating at a junction temperature of 25 degrees Celsius (77
degrees Fahrenheit).
You can calculate dynamic forward resistance by examining the curve for a
typical diode from the family and performing a few simple calculations. For example,
note from point A in Figure 2-5 that the typical diode has a forward voltage drop of 2.0
volts when diode current is 24 amps. When diode current increases to 33 amps (point
B), forward voltage drop increases to 2.4 volts.

Using the values of these two points on the graph, we can calculate dynamic forward
resistance (rF) as follows:

r F= Measured voltage change = ∆V = 2.4 - 2.0 = 0.4 = 0.044ohm

Measured current change ∆I 33 – 24 9

Figure 2-5. High power diode forward dc characteristic curve.

As you can see, typical diodes have very low dynamic forward resistance. The delta symbol
(∆) is used in the equations to mean difference or change. When you see an expression
such as ∆V/ ∆I, you should read it as the difference in voltage divided by the difference in
current.
Because a forward biased diode offers little resistance to the passage of current an external
resistance must be included in the circuit to prevent damage to the diode. The highest
current allowed through a diode before it is damaged is the maximum forward current, often
abbreviated as (lmax) on diode specification sheets. Maximum forward current is usually
specified at a particular temperature. It must be reduced, or derated, at higher temperatures.
Forward biased diodes dissipate power in the form of heat. A diode's power dissipation is
easily calculated if circuit current and diode forward voltage are known. For example, due to
the combined effects of barrier voltage and dynamic forward resistance, a particular silicon
diode has a forward voltage drop of 1.8 volts when it conducts a current of 10 amperes. At
this current level, the power dissipated within the diode is:
P = IE = 10 x 1.8 = 1 8 watts
Although eighteen watts seems like a small amount of power, it is created in a very small
area near the junction. If the heat is not continuously removed, the diode can be destroyed.
For this reason, diodes with an IF rating of more than a few amps are usually constructed in
metal packages. These metal packages are designed to be'att13ched to larger metal plates
called heat sinks.
A heat sink helps to transfer heat from the diode into the surrounding air; thereby preventing
the temperature of the junction from reaching destructive levels.
A good diode junction has a low forward resistance compared to its reverse resistance,
which is very high. Measuring the actual forward resistance of a diode junction is difficult
because forward current increases very rapidly with small increases in forward voltage.
When an ohmmeter is used to test a diode, the reading should be interpreted as an
indication of conduction (current flow) or no conduction (no current flow). The reading is not
the correct resistance of the junction.
When the ohmmeter is connected to forward bias a good diode junction, it should show a
number (reading), which indicates conduction. The number showing on the meter is not the
actual resistance but indicates only that current is flowing through the junction. The
magnitude of the meter reading depends on the type of meter and the selected meter scale.
It can vary widely for different meters and scales.
When the ohmmeter is connected to reverse bias a good diode junction, it will show an off-
scale (overload) reading, which indicates no conduction.
To forward bias a diode junction with an ohmmeter, connect the positive lead (usually the
red lead) to the anode and the negative lead (usually the black common lead) to the
cathode.
To reverse bias a diode junction with an ohmmeter, connect the positive lead to the
cathode and the negative lead to the anode.
In general, you may test a diode without connecting other circuit components. Power
to the circuit must be shut off to avoid damage to the ohmmeter. If necessary, disconnect
one end of the diode to eliminate parallel circuit paths around the diode.
IV. PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the power sources to +15 Vdc and -15 Vdc. Turn the power sources off. Insert
the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board into the base unit. Do not turn on the
power sources at this time.
2. Locate the TRANSISTOR JUNCTION circuit block. You will use an ohmmeter (digital or
analog) to test the junction of diode CR1.
Connect the black (common) meter probe to the test point at the CR 1 anode. Connect
the red meter probe to the test point at the GB1 cathode. Does your meter reading
indicate that the diode is conducting or not conducting?
The diode is not conducting.

3. Does your meter reading indicate that the diode is forward or reverse biased?
The diode is Reverse Biased.

4. Reverse the meter probes by connecting the red probe to the CR1 anode and the black
probe to the cathode. Does your meter reading indicate that the diode is conducting or
not conducting?
The reading of the resistance is 1.849, which is decreasing. This means
that the diode is conducting

5. Does your meter reading indicate that the diode is forward or reverse biased?
The diode is Forward Biased.

6. Based on the above measurements, is diode CR1 a good or bad diode?

CR1 is a good diode.
7. Locate the DIODES AND ½ WAVE RECTIFICATION circuit block, and connect the
circuit shown in Figure 2-6. Turn on the power sources, and adjust the negative voltage
(VA) to -10 Vdc.

Figure 2-6. Diode dc bias (VA negative)

8. Measure and record the voltages across R1 and R2. Which diode is forward biased,
and which diode is reverse biased?
The forward biased is CR1 while the reverse biased is CR2.

9. Which diode circuit allows current to flow? Does current flow because this diode is
reverse biased or because it is forward biased?
The CR1 diode, because of its forward biased current flow.

10. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-7. Adjust the positive variable supply to 10 Vdc.
Measure and record the voltages across R 1 and R2.
I (R1):0.00283847 I (R2):2.53e-009

Figure 2-7. Diode dc bias (VA positive).

11. Which diode is forward biased, and which diode is reverse biased?
The forward biased is CR2 while the reverse biased is CR1.
12. In the circuit of Figure 2-7, which component determines the amount of current through
the forward biased diode?
The component R2, because when in series, IR = ID

13. Use the current form of Ohm's law to calculate the current through R2. Record your
results.
IR2 = 2.82 mA

_________________________________________________________________

14. Using the value of current that you found in step 13, determine and record the amount
of current through CR2.
IR = ID = 2.82 mA
15. Set the positive variable supply voltage to 0.25 Vdc. Measure V R2 and calculate circuit
current (IR2 = V R2/R2). Calculate the diode voltage drop (Vo = V A - VR2). Record the
measured and calculated values in Table 2-1.
16. Increase the positive applied voltage to each value indicated in the first column of Table
3-1.
At each voltage level, measure VRZ and calculate circuit current and diode voltage drop.
Enter your values in the appropriate columns of the table.

Figure 2-8. CR2 characteristic curve.

17. Compare the results recorded in Table 2-1 with the dc characteristic curve of Figure 2-
8. Based on VD, at what point does your data indicate that the diode is forward biased?
At 0.25V where the current I=5.98E-07 A.
18. Based on your data, does the diode forward voltage remain about the same after the
diode reaches full conduction (that is, forward current of 1 mA or more)?
Yes
19. Turn off the power sources, but do not remove circuit board connections. The
F.A.C.E.T.
setup will be used for the evaluation.

V. EVALUATION:
1. Locate the TRANSISTOR JUNCTION circuit block on the SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES circuit board. Using a digital multimeter or an analog ohmmeter,
forward and reverse the junction of CR1. Set CM switch 1 in the ON position, and
repeat the forward and reverse measurements. Based on these measurements,
CR 1
a. tests good when the switch is off and bad when it is on.
b. tests good when the switch is on and bad when it is off.
c. is bad in both switch positions.
d. is good in both switch positions.

Turn off CM switch 1. Remove all circuit board connections.

2. Diode forward voltage drop is

a. a desirable characteristic for circuit protection.
b. nearly constant when the diode is fully forward biased.
c. not related to the semiconductor material.
d. determined by the circuit resistance.

3. Leakage current
a. flows when the reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded.
b. flows when the barrier voltage is exceeded.
c. improves diode performance.
d. should be very small in a good diode.

4. Diode characteristic curves

a. describe the forward bias operation of the diode.
b. describe the reverse bias operation of the diode.
c. show the forward voltage drop of the diode.
d. All of the above.

5. The cathode end of a diode package

a. is usually marked with a dot or color band.
b. can be located only by measurement.
 c. is marked with an arrow.
d. is positive when the diode is forward biased.
VI. CONCLUSION

In this experiment, we were able to learn new concepts, theories, and

important terminologies on Diodes. Using the LTSpice software, we were able
to successfully perform the experiment. We were able to test out the numerous
theories related to diodes and also learn about the basic working principles
behind them. By varying how the wiring of the circuit is connected, we were
able to get different results and as a result, we were able to understand and
demonstrate what is Forward Bias and Reverse Bias. We have learned that
diodes only allow current flow in one direction and that is exactly why they are
used in electronics; as a one way switch. We were also able to measure the
voltage drop of a diode with varying supply voltage. Most importantly, we were
able to reach the objective of utilizing a diode operating curve to test a diode
by using a typical diode circuit and verify the results with a multimeter. Based
on our observation, we can conclude that diodes are crucial in electronics
where control of the flow of current to get a desired output is very important.