CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Cebu City
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Electronics Engineering Department

ECE 301
ELECTRONICS 1
( Electronic Devices and Circuits)

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
RECTIFIERS

A. HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION:

I. OBJECTIVE:
• To be able to use semiconductor diodes in half-wave rectifier circuit
using a typical half-wave rectifier and to verify the results with an oscilloscope
and a multimeter.

• To be able to utilize a diode operating curve to test a diode by using a

typical diode circuit and verify the results with a multimeter.

II. APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

 F.A.C.E.T. Base Unit

 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Circuit Board
 Multimeter
 Oscilloscope, dual trace
 Generator, sine wave

MEASUREMENT TOLERANCES

Nominal values have been determined for all measurements in this unit. Measured
values will differ from nominal due to normal circuit and instrument variations. Your
measurements in the following exercises will be acceptable if your power voltages
and circuit measurements lie within the following ranges from nominal unless
otherwise noted in a procedure step:
External power source settings: +15 Vdc = ±3 percent
-15 Vdc = ±3 percent

POSITIVE SUPPLY and NEGATIVE SUPPLY settings: Stated value ± 0.2 Vdc
Multimeter voltage and current measurements: ± 8 percent
Multimeter resistance measurements: : ± 20 percent
Frequency/Phase shift/Amplitude (as measured by the oscilloscope): ± 8 percent

III. THEORY:

INTRODUCTION/ HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS

The simplest method for converting an alternating current into a pulsating direct
current is through half-wave rectification. A half-wave rectifier circuit requires only a diode
and a load resistance, as shown in Figure 2-9(a).
A half-wave rectifier can produce either a positive or a negative pulsating dc output,
depending on how the diode is connected in the circuit. Figure 2-9(a) shows positive half-
wave rectification with respect to circuit common, and Figure 2-9(b) shows a negative half-
wave rectification circuit.

Figure 2-9. Basic half-wave rectifier circuit.

In Figure 2-10 (a), the anode of the diode (point A of the drawing) is positive with
respect to the cathode during positive alternations of the ac input waveform, so current
flows. The current flow through CR1 results in a voltage drop across the series-connected
load resistor, R1. This conduction period is indicated by the shaded portions of the V 1N and
VOUT waveforms of Figure 2-10(a). During negative alternations, no current flows because
the anode is negative with respect to the cathode.
If the diode is reversed, as shown in Figure 2-10(b), the diode conducts during
negative alternations of the ac input. The resulting output is negative with respect to
common, as shown by the shaded areas of the waveforms in Figure 2-10(b).
The output from either circuit is no longer an ac voltage, but rather a pulsating de
voltage. The process whereby the diode conducts during one alternation of the input cycle
and blocks current flow during the other is called rectification. For half-wave rectifiers, the
diode will conduct for about one-ha If of every complete ac cycle. This conduction occurs
during either the positive or negative alternation, depending on the direction in which the
diode is connected into the circuit.
An ideal diode would have no forward voltage drop or reverse leakage current.
Practical diodes have leakage currents that are small enough to be ignored. However, when
a diode is fully conducting, electrons are present in the P type material and positive charges
are present in the N type material. When the voltage across the diode switches suddenly
from the forward to the reverse bias direction, these charges must be swept from the diode
before conduction stops. Just as a check valve will allow a small slug of fluid to move in the
reverse direction before the check ball seals, a pulse of current flows in the reverse direction
through a diode until the stored charges are removed from the semiconductor. The time
required to remove these stored charges is called reverse recovery time (tRR).

Figure 2-10. Half-wave rectifier input! output relationship.

The amount of stored charge depends on the size of the diode, the doping material
and doping level, and several other factors. Reverse recovery time limits the operation of
general purpose rectifier diodes to relatively low frequencies (less than 1 kHz) because the
pulses of current allowed in the reverse direction become significant at higher frequencies.
Some diodes are designed to limit the effect of stored charges; these diodes are called high
speed or fast recovery diodes.

Forward voltage drop (VF) is another diode characteristic that can cause significant losses,
especially if applied voltages are small. During l1e forward biasing alternation of the input
signal, no current flows until the input voltage exceeds VF. When that point is overcome, the
diode starts to conduct, and voltage appears across the load resistor. You can estimate the
peak output circuit voltage (Vopeak) by simply subtracting the diode forward voltage drop
(about 0. 7V for silicon diodes) from the peak input voltage (ViPeak).
For example, Vipeak is equal to 2.0V in Figure 2-11. The rectified circuit output voltage is
calculated as follows:
 Figure 2-11 . Voltage levels of a half-wave rectifier.

Figure 2-11 illustrates this relationship between input and output peak waveforms
for a positive half-wave rectifier. Notice that the output waveform contains a positive
pulsation that is only a portion of the positive alternation of the input waveform. During
the negative alternation of the input signal, no current flows because the diode is reverse
biased. Also notice that the starting point of the V OUT pulsation begins when the input
voltage reaches 0.7V, the point at which the diode barrier voltage is overcome.

The VOUT waveform of Figure 2-11. shows that the output pulsation is less than
the input alternation by 0.7 volts at every point. When you use an oscilloscope to
measure the input and output voltages of a half-wave rectifier, you can observe and
compare both signals together. You may measure the 0.7 Vdc forward voltage drop of
the diode by dc coupling both channels.
Oscilloscope readings are peak-to-peak for ac (input) waveforms and peak for
rectified (output) waveforms. By using the conversion factors which follow, you can
convert the values measured on the oscilloscope to approximate rms or average values.
These conversion factors apply only to half-wave rectifiers and only when the rectifiers
are supplied with ac sine wave inputs. Note that the diode forward voltage drop is
accounted for when you view the peak output voltage on the oscilloscope.
Half-wave rectifier voltage conversion factors:
rms output voltage = 0.5 x peak output voltage
average output voltage = 0.318 x peak output
voltage

Figure 2-12 illustrates the relationship between peak, rms, and average values as they apply
to a half-wave rectifier circuit.
 Figure 2-12. Half-wave rectifier voltage relationship.
In Figure 2-12, a voltage is developed across load resistor RL. As a result, current
must flow through the load. When the voltage and load resistance are known, you can
calculate the approximate current through the load by using the following formula and
conversion factors.

Half-wave rectifier current relationships:

The variations in the pulsating dc output of a rectifier are referred to as ripple. The
higher the ripple frequency, the more effective the circuit. The frequency of an ac waveform
is defined by the number of complete cycles in one. second. An alternating current of 60 Hz
has 60 positive and 60 negative alternations in one second. In a half-wave rectifier, the
ripple frequency. is the same as the input voltage frequency because only the negative
or /he positive (depending on how the diode is connected in the rectifier circuit) alternations
are allowed to pass. Figure 2-13 shows the ripple frequency for ac frequencies of 50 and
60 Hz.

Figure 2-13. Half-wave rectifier ripple frequency.

IV. PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust the dc power sources to+15 Vdc and -15 Vdc. Turn the power Sources off.
Insert the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board into the base unit. Turn on the
power sources.
2. Locate the DIODES AND 1/2 WAVE RECTIFICATION circuit block, and connect the
circuit shown in Figure 2-14.

Figure 2-14. Half-wave rectifier circuit.

3. Connect the sine wave generator signal leads to the 50-ohm output of the generator.
If your generator output impedance is not 50 ohms, insert the GENERATOR
BUFFER into the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board. and connect the
buffer between your generator and the circuit. If you use the buffer circuit. connect
the buffer output terminals to the generator terminals on the DIODES AND 1/2
WAVE RECTIFICATION circuit block. Set the generator frequency controls to 1000
Hz and the output level to zero.

4. Connect X10 probes to both channels of the oscilloscope. Set the input controls for
both channels to ground, and adjust the vertical centering controls for both channels
to align both traces exactly on the center horizontal line of the scope graticule. Now
switch the input controls for both channels to dc coupling, and set the calibrated
oscilloscope controls of channels 1 and 2 for 50 mV/cm sensitivity. Set the horizontal
sweep controls for a sweep rate of 0.1ms/cm. Trigger the sweep on channel 1, and
adjust for positive sync level.

5. Connect oscilloscope channel to observe the ac input to the circuit. Adjust the output
level of the sine wave generator for 2 V pk_pk.
6. Set the multimeter to read ac voltage. Connect the multimeter temporarily to the
circuit input and record the voltage reading.

The voltage reading is 0.7V (rms) or 0.636V when measuring the AC average
voltage.

7. Calculate the rms and average voltage values at the circuit input. Note that peak
input voltage is one-half of the peak-to-peak value.

Vrms = 0.707 x 1v = 0.707V

Vave = 0.636 x 1V = 0.636V

8. Do the values in steps 6 and 7 agree?

Yes, they do.

9. Connect oscilloscope channel2 across load resistor R2 and observe the CR2 output
waveform. What is the amplitude of the positive pulsations?

The amplitude is about 0.5 V.

10. Observe the input and output signals on channels 1 and 2, respectively, by using the
oscilloscope CHOP method. Is the ripple frequency the same as the input
frequency?
What is the ripple frequency?

Yes, since the circuit is a half-wave rectifier. The ripple frequency is 1000 Hz.

11. Measure and record the peak voltage displayed on each oscilloscope channel. What
is the difference in voltage, and what causes the difference?
 The difference in voltage is 0.4V. This difference occurs because of the
forward voltage drop of the diode.

12. Set the oscilloscope time base for 50 µs/cm. Set both input channel selector
switches to the GND position. Adjust the vertical position controls for both channels
so that both traces lie along the center horizontal grid line of the oscilloscope
graticule. Set the volts/division control for channel 2 to 20 mV /cm, and set both
input channel selector switches to the dc coupling position.

13. Observe both traces in the CHOP sweep mode, and compare the display with
Figure 215. Adjust the oscilloscope controls to match the figure, if necessary.

Figure 2-15. Comparison of oscilloscope waveforms to reference.

14. What happens (in regard to conduction) at point A on the illustration and the
oscilloscope display?

Diode starts conducting.

15. What happens (in regard to conduction) at point B?

Diode stops conducting.

16. Is the voltage before point A and after point B sufficient to overcome the diode
barrier voltage?

No, the voltage is not sufficient that is why it is not conducting on those areas.

17. What is subtracted from the input peak amplitude to make the peak amplitudes of
the input and output waveforms unequal?

The voltage drop across the diode is what is subtracted from the input peak
amplitude.
18. Adjust the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 ms/cm. Set channel 1 for 50 mV/cm and
channel 2 for 20 mV/cm. Adjust the oscilloscope, if necessary, until the displayed
waveform duplicates Figure 2-16.

Figure 2-16. Oscilloscope waveform adjustment

19. From the appearance of the oscilloscope waveforms, is this a positive or a negative
half-wave rectifier circuit?

This is a Positive half-wave rectifier circuit.

20. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 input to the top of R 1. Why is this circuit a
negative half-wave rectifier?

This is because the output waveform yields negative output pulsations.

21. Do the same input/output relationships apply to both the positive and the negative
halfwave rectifiers?

Yes.

22. Is CR1 conducting or is it cut off during the negative portions of the output
waveform?

CR1 is conducting

23. Place CM switch 7 in the ON position. What now appears at the output?

N/A
24. CM switch 7 connects a 1K resistor across CR1, allowing current to flow during
positive peaks of the input waveform. From your observations, can you conclude
that the normal reverse resistance of CRl is much higher than lK?

Yes, the normal reverse resistance of CR1 is indeed greater than 1K.

25. Does CM switch 7 cause CRl to simulate a good diode with sufficient reverse
resistance or does it cause CRl to simulate a defective diode with insufficient
reverse resistance?

It will not rectify the waveform since the input and output waveform remains
approximately equal which indicates that the diode is in short circuit. This means
that CR1 simulates a defective diode with insufficient reverse resistance.

26. Turn off CM switch 7. Adjust the sine wave generator for a 4 Vpk-pk input signal on
oscilloscope channel. Measure and record the dc output voltage across Rl (use the
dc volts function of your multimeter).

N/A

27. Calculate and record the expected average output voltage based on a 2 Vpk output.
Use this formula for a half-wave rectifier: Average dc output = 0.318 x peak output
voltage

Average DC output= 0.636V

28. Why does the multi meter display a lower reading in step 26 than the value
calculated in step 27?

This is because in Step 27, an ideal diode is assumed, which does not have a
voltage drop.

29. Disconnect the multi meter, and increase the frequency of the generator to 10kHz.
Set the input selector switches for both channels to the GND positi9n. Adjust the
vertical position controls to I align the channel 1 trace along the second grid tine
from the top of the screen, as well as to align the channel 2 trace along the second.
grid line from the bottom. Set both channels to 0.2 V/cm, and set both input selector
switches to dc coupling.

30. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the top of R1. Set the sweep speed of the
oscilloscope to 0.1 ms/cm. What causes the positive peaks that are visible on the
channel 2 trace?

The reverse voltage due to R1 being reverse biased is what caused this.

31. Increase the sine wave generator frequency to 100 kHz and the oscilloscope sweep
speed to 10 us/cm. Can the channel 2 waveform be called pulsating dc?
 Yes.

32. Turn off all power sources and the generator. Remove all circuit board connections.

V. EVALUATION:
1. Refer to Figure 2-17. The signal observed at the output of this circuit with respect
to circuit common would be
a. positive pulsations.
b. negative pulsations.
c. alternating current.
d. None of the above.
CR1

AC
Generator OUTPUT

Figure 2-17. Half-wave rectifier test circuit.

2. If the diode in Figure 2-17 opens, the observed output

becomes
a. positive pulsations
b. negative pulsations
c. alternating current
d. none of the above

3. If the diode in a positive half-wave rectifier circuit has insufficient reverse

resistance, then
a. less current flows when the diode is forward biased.
b. current can flow in the negative direction.
c. the efficiency of the rectifier increases.
d. the circuit acts as a negative half-wave rectifier.
 4. In a half-wave rectifier circuit, the output voltage pulse width (diode conduction time)
a. is greater than one-half of the input cycle time.
b. is equal to one-half of the input cycle time.
c. is slightly less than one-half of the input cycle time.
d. depends on the amplitude of the ac input signal.

5. If ac generator connections A and B were reversed in Figure 2-17,

a. the diode would be destroyed.
b. there would be no effect on circuit operation.
c. ac would appear across RL.
d. the output would reverse its polarity.

VI. CONCLUSION:

In this experiment, we were able to observe the operation of both positive and
negative half-wave rectifier. We have also learned how output pulsations are
determined. We have discovered that the amplitude of the output pulsations are
smaller than the input AC voltage because of the diode voltage drops which depend
on the kind of material being used in the semiconductor. We have also determined
that Half wave rectifiers only allow either positive or a negative half cycle of the input
AC signal and the remaining half cycle of the input AC signal is blocked. Due to this, a
large amount of voltage isn’t utilized. We can easily overcome this by using the full
wave rectifier. In the full wave rectifier, the average DC output voltage produced is
higher than the half wave rectifier. Furthermore, the DC output signal of the full wave
rectifier has fewer ripples than the half wave rectifier. As a result, we can get a
smoother output DC voltage.
B. FULL- WAVE RECTIFICATION:

I. OBJECTIVE:
• To be able to demonstrate rectification using a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit
and to verify the results with an oscilloscope.

II. APPARATUS AND MATERIALS:

• F.A.C.E.T. Base Unit
• SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Circuit Board
• Power supply, 15 Vdc (2 required)
 • Multimeter
• Oscilloscope, dual trace
• Generator, sine wave

MEASUREMENT TOLERANCES

Nominal values have been determined for all measurements in this unit.
Measured values will differ from nominal due to normal circuit and instrument
variations. Your measurements in the following exercise will be acceptable if your
power voltages and circuit measurements lie within the following ranges from
nominal unless otherwise noted in a procedure step:

External power source settings: +15 Vdc = ± 3 percent

-15 Vdc = ± 3 percent

POSITIVE SUPPLYand
NEGATIVE SUPPLY settings: Stated value ± 0.2 Vdc
Multimeter voltage and current measurements: ± 8 percent
Multimeter resistance measurements: ± 20 percent
Frequency/Phase shift/Amplitude (as measured by the oscilloscope): ± 8 percent

III. THEORY:

AC current is simpler and more economical to generate and transmit than is dc

current. For this reason, electric utility companies generate and distribute ac power. But
typical electronic circuits require a de source of power. A rectifier circuit can be used to
convert ac into pulsating dc.
To convert ac to dc, the rectifier circuit must be capable of passing current in one
direction (forward biased) and blocking current in the reverse direction. The diode, with
its unidirectional (one way) current characteristic, is well suited for rectification. Diodes
may be configured in three basic ways to perform rectification.
The first part of this experiment lets you observe how a single diode is able to
perform half-wave rectification on low current applications. Groups of diodes allow a
circuit to perform full-wave rectification, a more efficient process. Figure 3-7 illustrates
the two circuit configurations that provide for full-wave rectification.
 Figure 3-7. Full-wave circuit configurations.
Circuit operation is nearly identical for both configurations. Figure 3-7(a) shows a
center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit. Figure 3-7(b) shows a full-wave bridge rectifier
circuit. Due to design considerations and transformer efficiencies, the circuit
configuration of Figure 3-7(b) is generally preferred. .
Rectification is a process in which a diode conducts during one alternation of the
input cycle (half-wave rectification). The full-wave bridge rectifier makes possible the
rectification of both alternations of the input cycle.

Figure 3-8 shows a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with four diodes (01,02. 03. and 04).
The bridge has two input terminals and two output terminals

Figure 3-8. Full-wave BRIDGE rectifier.

The input terminals are marked with a symbol () that indicates the ac sides of the
bridge. The output terminals are marked with plus (+) and minus (-) symbols that indicate
the positive and negative dc output sides of the bridge. When the bridge is in operation, a
pair of diodes at a time conducts. The diode pairs are D1 and D3, and D2 and D4. Because
of the diode pairing, both alternations of the input ac signal are converted to pulsating dc,
resulting in full-wave rectification.

Figure 3-9 shows the conduction of the bridge for each ac alternation. In Figure 3-
9(a), the positive alternation causes diodes D1 and D3 to be forward biased. As a result,
current flows through D3 and the load resistor, then back to the transformer through D1.
Because diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased at this time, they perform no function in the
circuit, and so they are not shown.

Figure 3-9(a). Conduction paths of a full-wave bridge rectifier.

 Figure 3-9. Conduction paths of a full-wave bridge rectifier

In Figure 3-9(b). the negative alternation causes diodes D2 and D4 to be forward

biased. As a result. current flows through D2 and the load resistor. then back to the
transformer through D4. During this alternation. diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased and
so are not shown.

Notice that both the positive and negative alternations of the input ac voltage are
converted to pulsating dc. Figure 3-9(c) shows the resulting rectified voltage wave shape. ln
addition, the diode pairs steer the pulsating dc output so that current flows through the
loading the same direction during both input voltage alternations.
Because there are two pulses for one complete cycle of the input waveform, as
Figure 39(c) indicates. the output pulse frequency of a fuII-wave rectifier is twice that of the
input frequency. Therefore, the ripple frequency of the output is equal to two times the input,
or line, frequency.
The relationship between peak, rms, and average voltages of a full-wave rectifier are shown
in Figure 3-10. ln general, the average value is twice that of a half-wave configuration. The
rms value increases to 0.707.

IV. PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the dc power sources to +15 Vdc and -15 Vdc. Turn the power sources off. Insert
the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board into the base unit. Do not turn on the
power sources at this time.

2. Locate the FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION WITH POWER SUPPLY FILTER circuit
block, and connect the circuit shown in Figure 3-11. Install the GENERATOR BUFFER
as shown in the figure.

Figure 3-11. Test circuit hook up for full-wave bridge rectifier.

3. What is the purpose of R1?

_____________________________________________________________________
4. Using X10 probes, set oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 for 0.5 VIcm. DC couple each
input. Set the time base for 1 ms/cm. Use posit1ve level triggering, and sync the
oscilloscope on channel 1.

5. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the output terminals of the GENERATOR

BUFFER. Connect channel 2 across the secondary terminals of T1.

6. Measure the transformer secondary, and adjust the generator for a 20 Vpk-pk 100 Hz
sine wave. Compare the secondary voltage to the primary voltage displayed on channel
1 of the oscilloscope. Based on your voltage readings, is the primary-to-secondary a
step-down or a step-up voltage relationship?

__________________
_________________________________________________________

7. Move channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the output side of the bridge (CR1) circuit. Place
the common side of the test probe on the negative point of the bridge. Are one or both
alternations of the input waveform displayed at the output? If one, which one?

_________________________________________________________________________
__

8. What is the frequency of the output pulsations of the full-wave rectifier circuit (measure
the period of the waveform on channel2 of the oscilloscope)?

_________________________________________________________________________
__

9. Set channel 2 for 2 V Icm. Draw the output waveform on the graph of Figure 3-12. What
is the peak output voltage value?
 Figure 3-12. Graph for output voltage waveform.

10. Calculate and record the dc average output voltage (Vavg = Vpk x 0.636). Use the peak
value that you recorded in step 9.

_________________________________________________________________________
__

11. Set your multimeter to dc Volts. Measure the circuit output voltage. Compare your
calculated and measured readings. Are they equal within measurement tolerance?

12. The peak output secondary voltage of the transformer is 10 Vpk. The peak output of
the rectifier circuit is 9 Vpk. Are the readings different due to the forward voltage drop
of the diodes?
_________________________________________________________________________
___

13. Move the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the top terminal of the transformer secondary.
Ensure that the common lead of the test probe is at the negative terminal of the bridge
circuit. Refer to Figure 3-13 for proper circuit measurement points.
 Figure 3-13. One diode drop test points.

14. Using a Xl0 probe, set channel 2 for 0.2 V / cm. Monitor channel 1 of the oscilloscope
and adjust the output of the external sine wave generator for a 10 Vpk_pk signal.
Position the test waveform as indicated by Figure 3-14.

Figure 3-14. Diode drop test waveforms.

15. Refer to the oscilloscope display. During which alternation of the input voltage is the
diode under test forward biased?
_________________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________________
_

16. What is the approximate forward bias voltage drop of the diode being measured?
NOTE: Measure the drop from the channel 2 reference line on Figure 3-14.

_________________________________________________________________________
_

_________________________________________________________________________
_

17. Refer to the test voltages displayed on the oscilloscope. Is the test diode forward or
reverse biased during the positive alternation of the input voltage?
_________________________________________________________________________
_

_________________________________________________________________________
_

18. Move the channel 2 reference line to the middle line of the oscilloscope graticule. Move
the common lead of the channel 2 probe from the negative side of the bridge to the
positive side of the bridge.

19. Refer to your displayed test voltages. During which input alternation does this diode
conduct?
_________________________________________________________________________
_

_________________________________________________________________________
_
20. Is the diode forward drop about the same as that measured in step16?
_________________________________________________________
21. Figure 3-15 shows a full-wave rectifier circuit in a non-bridge configuration. Based on
your test results, which other diode conducts while D1 is forward biased?

_________________________________________________________________________
_

_________________________________________________________________________
_

22. Do not turn off the power source. The F.A.C.E.T. setup will be used for a review
question.
 Figure 3-15. Full-wave rectifier in a non-bridge configuration.

V. EVALUATION:
1. Locate the FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION WITH POWER SUPPLY FILTER circuit
block on the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board. Connect the circuit shown
in Figure 3-16. Place CM switch 16 in the ON position. What effect does this circuit
modification have on the output voltage?
a. None. Only the input signal is converted
b. The output signal is converted to pulsating ac
c. Both output pulses are reversed
d. The output looks like half-wave rectification

Figure 3-16. Test circuit hookup for full-wave bridge rectifier.

Turn off CM switch 16 and the power sources. Remove all circuit board connections.

2. The purpose of a rectifier circuit is to

 a. convert direct current to pulsating current.
b. convert alternating current to pulsating dc.
c. convert pulsating direct current to dc.
d. isolate the source and load voltages.

3. In a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit configuration,

a. only negative input alternations are passed.
b. only positive input alternations are passed.
c. both input alternations are passed at the same time.
d. each input alternation is passed in turn.

4. The output ripple frequency of a full-wave rectifier is

a. double the input frequency.
b. the same as the input frequency.
c. half of the input frequency.
d. 200 Hz.

VII. CONCLUSION: