Report: 

Touchless Elevetor Panel

Touchless Elevetor Panel

by Vivek Singh

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Touchless Elevetor Panel

TOUCHLESS ELEVATOR PANEL
7
B.Tech. Final Year Project Report Submitted
in partial ful llment of the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
By
Mahtab Alam: 1805631902
Anchal Dwivedi: 1705631004

Under the Supervision of

Mr. Rakesh Yadav

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering

8
Af liated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University (AKTU Code:056)
Approved by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
Sector II, Dr. Akhilesh Das Nagar, Faizabad Road, Lucknow (UP) – India, 226028
August-2020
Babu Banarasi Das
Northern India Institute of Technology

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Touchless Elevator Panel

7

Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology

VIII

DECLARATION

We now declare that the work presented in this report entitled "Touchless
9
Elevator Panel" was carried out. We have not submitted the matter embodied in
10
this report to award any other degree or diploma of any other University or
Institute. We have given due credit to the original authors/sources for all the
words, ideas, diagrams, graphics, computer programs, experiments, results
11
that are not our original contribution. We have used quotation marks to identify
verbatim sentences and given credit to the original authors/sources. We af rm
12
that no portion of our work is plagiarized, and the experiments and results
reported in the report are not manipulated. In the event of a complaint of
plagiarism and manipulating the experiments and results, we shall be fully
8
responsible and answerable.

Date: 13-Jul-2021

Signature :

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 Report: Touchless Elevetor Panel

Mahtab Alam
1805631902
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology, Lucknow
7

Signature :
Anchal Dwivedi
1705631004
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology, Lucknow

10
CERTIFICATE

It's certi ed that Mahtab Alam (1805631902), Anchal Dwivedi (1705631004)

11
have carried out the Project work presented in this report entitled "Touchless
Elevator Panel" for the B. Tech. Final Year in the Academic Session 2020-21
12
from Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology (AKTU Code:
056), Lucknow, under my supervision. The report embodies the result of work
and studies carried out by the students themselves, and the contents of the
8
project do not form the basis for the award of any other degree to the
candidates.

Date: 13-Jul-2021

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 Report: Touchless Elevetor Panel

Rakesh Yadav
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electronics & Communication
Engineering

Sanjay Sharma
9
Head of Department
10
Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

11

ABSTRACT
12

We are using Elevator technology to ease people to reach the desired level of
the building, but break out of the global pandemic COVID-19 restricted us from
8
using the elevators at a public place, so some modi cation in the existing
system will enable us to stop the spread.

A contactless elevator panel will help to operate the buttons without touching
them. In the current discussion, the push type of buttons is used to send
commands. For making it contactless, IR sensors are used in a pushbutton to

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trigger the elevator system to follow the user's knowledge. A separate panel
will be installed on the existing buttons with the following circuitry to make
contactless and user-friendly. Another way to operate the elevator is to have an
RFID card for use at small buildings and local places. RFID will be programmed
7
for individual oor locations, and a separate Card will be used for a different
location. This technology will help us have direct interactions with technology
without touching it, and sure it will be constructive to break the chain of virus
spread because touchless is the new normal.

10

11

12

TABLE OF CONTENT

TOPIC
PAGE NO.

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DECLARATION
I
7
CERTIFICATE
II
ABSTRACT
III
TABLE OF CONTENT
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
VI
9
LIST OF FIGURES
10
VII
LIST OF TABLE
VIII
11

12
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1-9
Touchless Technology
8
1
Existing Technology
3
Proposed Model
7
Block Diagram

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CHAPTER-2 SURVEY OF COMPONENTS USED

7

10-43
2.1 Components And Tools Used
10
2.2 Atmega8 microcontroller
11
2.3 RFID
13
9
2.4 Relay Module
10
15
2.5 7805 IC
17
11
2.6 Capacitor
19
12
2.7 Diode
22
2.8 Resistor
8
23
2.9 Motor
26
2.10 IR Obstacles sensor
31
2.11 Crystal Oscillator

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2.12 Transistor
37
2.13 LEDs [Light emitting diode]
7
39
2.14 Pre-board & Headers
40
2.15 Connectors & jumper wires
42

CHAPTER-3 MODULES OF TOUCHLESS ELEVATOR PANEL & IT'S

9
IMPLEMENTATION
10
44-47
3.1 Module 1: IR sensors used as input
44
11
3.2 Module 2: RFID used as input
44
12
3.3 Module 3: IR sensors & RFID both simultaneously
45
3.4 Software Used
8
45

CHAPTER-4 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

48-53
4.1 Circuit Designing

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4.2 Interfacing Of IR Sensor
49
4.3 Interfacing Of RFID
7
50
4.4 Interfacing Of Motor & Motor Driver IC
51
4.5 Circuit Diagram Of Module 1 And Module 2
52
4.6 Working
53

10
CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
54-55
5.1 Applications
11
54
5.2 Advantages
12
54
5.3 Disadvantages
55
8
5.4 Limitations
55
5.4 Conclusion and Future Scope
55

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REFERENCES
56

7
APPENDIX A
57-69
APPENDIX B
70-71

10

11

13
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
12

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech project
8
undertaken during B. Tech nal year. We owe a particular debt of gratitude to
Mr. Sanjay Kumar Sharma (HOD), Department of Electronics & Communication
Engineering, Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology. His
constant and guidance throughout and perseverance have been of inspiration
for us.

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We want to express our gratitude to Dr. V.K. Singh, Director BBDNIIT, for his
invaluable support, which encouraged us to complete our work.

We have the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Rakesh Yadav

157
(Assistant Professor) for her full support and assistant during the development
of the project.

We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of

faculty members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation
during the development of our project. Last but not least, we acknowledge our
friends for their contribution to the completion of the project.

10

11

13

12

8
LIST OF FIGURES

Figures
Page No.

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1.1 Process of Touchless Panel

9
2.1 Atmega8 microcontroller
157
12
2.2 RFID Induction
13
2.3 RFID Working
14
2.4 Relay Module
16
2.5 7805 IC Internal block diagram
9
18
10
2.6 7805 IC
18
2.7 Capacitor
11
20
13
2.8 Ceramic capacitor
12
21
2.9 Diode
22
8
2.10 Resistor
23
2.11 Fixed Resistor
24
2.12 Wire-wound Resistor
25

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2.13 Motor working
26
2.14 Motor Rotor
27
157
2.15 Motor Assembly
28
2.16 Motor's concept
29
2.17 Internal circuit diagram of IR sensors
31
2.18 IR sensors
32
9
2.19 2D Model of IR sensors
10
34
2.20 Crystal oscillator circuit
35
11
2.21 Oscillator
13
36
12
2.22 Transistor
37
2.24 NPN PNP transistor symbol
8
38
2.25 LEDs
39
2.26 LEDs part
40
2.27 Perforated Board

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41
2.28 Headers
41
2.29 Jumper wires
157
43
3.1 IDE Software
45
3.2 Buttons For Running Command
46
4.1 Connection Of IR Sensor
49
4.2 Connection Of RFID sensor with Aurdino
9
50
10
4.3 Connection Of Driver IC And Motor With Arduino
51
4.4 Connection Of Arduino, IR sensors & RFID
11
52
13
A.1 Atmega PIN diagram
12
57
A.2 Atmega Block diagram
60
8
A.3 Arduino UNO board
63
A.4 Arduino PIN diagram
66
A.5 IR Sensors
67

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A.6 7805 IC as +ve regulator
68
A.7 LM358 IC
69
157

LIST OF TABLES

Tables
Page No.
9

10

2.1 Atmega8 microcontroller speci cation

13
11
2.2 RFID speci cations
13
14
12
2.3 Relay Module speci cations
17
2.4 7805 IC PIN details
8
19
A.2.1.3 Arduino Pin description
63
A.2.1.4 Arduino technical speci cations
65
A.5.1 LM358 PIN Con guration

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69

157

Touchless Elevator Panel

Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute Of Technology

Page | 62

9
CHAPTER 1
10

INTRODUCTION
11

13

12

1.1 TOUCHLESS TECHNOLOGY

8
In 2020, with the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, a new issue rose to the
top of facility managers' priority lists: tenant safety. With the widespread
adoption of touchless technology in multi-story buildings, the elevator often
represents the only surface tenants, and visitors must physically interact
within the building's public spaces. Concerns about the cleanliness of elevator
buttons are not necessarily new — research in 2014 by OBP Medical found that

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elevator buttons in hospitals contained more bacteria than toilet ushers in the
same facility — but the pandemic has created a new sense of urgency related
to this issue. The prospect of tenants returning after a long absence and being
faced with crowds in front of elevators and then having to select their oor by
157
pushing a button that has been touched by dozens of other people, despite
regular cleaning, is one many facility managers are looking to avoid. One
solution is touchless elevator controls, and several approaches have been
introduced this year to address this challenge, including foot pedals and
holographic buttons. However, as building owners and facility managers, we
have to consider touchless solutions; we should think beyond the current
situation and consider solutions that address safety concerns while also
delivering additional value through features that include
9

10
Secure - Touchless elevator systems can integrate with building access control
systems to address concerns with security and safety through a single
solution. The control provided by a touchless solution enables building and
11
security managers to limit access to oors to authorized groups or individuals
13
while increasing tenants' con dence that building owners are doing everything
12
possible to ensure safety.

Easy-to-Manage and Interoperable - The touchless elevator system should

8
include a digital interface or command center that enables facility and security
managers to ef ciently manage changes in authorizations as they are required.
The most exible solutions will also work with elevators from all leading
manufacturers.

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IoT-enabled - Unobtrusive and easy-to-install IoT technology supports app-
based systems by recognizing tenants through their smartphones as they enter
the building. With this capability, the solution can automatically call an elevator
cab to take tenants to their default oor without ever taking their phone out of
157
their pocket.

A touchless Elevator panel is a conceptual design to operate the Escalator &

Elevator. It can be used as a medium to interact with machines without
touching them to avoid the COVID-19 spread. This system can be used at any
place where manual pushbuttons are used. In the manual pushbutton, IR
sensors will be installed to send the command to the elevator's microcontroller,
or we can have RFID technology for interaction. There can be several ideas or
9
methods to replace these manual pushbuttons, such as follows.
10

Motion Call Button

11
Elevator has come up with a particular motion recognition system that allows
13
people to communicate with an elevator's buttons by moving their hands up
12
and down, ensuring the ultimate safety and hygiene.

Touchless Button
8

The button is especially suitable for places like hospitals because it prevents
the spread of viruses and infections. It can be used in conjunction with both the
inside and the hallway buttons of an elevator and works much better than
antibacterial lms.

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Touchless Foot Button

This safe and hygienic, non-contact function allows you to call an elevator with
your feet using a sensor recognition technology installed under the hallway
157
button.

1.2 EXISTING TECHNOLOGY

16
An elevator or lift is a type of cable-assisted, hydraulic cylinder-assisted, or
9
roller-track supported machine that vertically carriages people or freight
10
among oors, levels, or decks of a building, vessel, etc. They are naturally
powered by electric motors that drive traction cables and counterweight
systems such as a hoist. However, some pump hydraulic uid to elevation a
11
cylindrical piston similar to a jack.
13

12
In agriculture & manufacturing, an elevator is somewhat a conveyor scheme
used to lift materials in a continuous rivulet into bins or silos. Numerous types
exist, such as the chain & bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor by the
8
principle of Archimedes' screw, or the chain & paddles or forks of hay elevators.
17
Idioms other than English, such as Japanese, may denote elevators by
loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Because of wheelchair access laws,
elevators are often a legal prerequisite in new multi-story buildings, especially
where wheelchair ramps are not conceivable.

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Pre-industrial era

The initial known orientation to an elevator is in the works of the Roman

architect Vitruvius, which reported that Archimedes built his rst elevator
157
probably in 236 BC. Bases from later periods reference elevators as cabs on a
hemp rope, drove by people or animals.

The Roman Colosseum, nished in AD 80, had roughly 25 elevators used for
levitation animals up to the oor. Each elevator could carry about 600 pounds
23 feet up when drove by up to eight men.

16
18
In 1000, the Book of Secrets by Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Spain de ned
199
an elevator-like lifting device to raise a large battering ram to abolish a fortress.
10

In the 17th century, prototypes of elevators were tted in the palace buildings
of England and France. Louis XV of France needed a so-called ' ying chair' built
11
for one of his lovers at the Chateau de Versailles in 1743.
13

12
Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems grounded on hoists and
windlasses. The invention of a system founded on the screw drive was possibly
the most crucial stage in elevator technology since ancient times, foremost to
8
the creation of modern passenger elevators. The rst screw-drive elevator was
17
manufactured by Ivan Kulibin and tted in the Winter Palace in 1793, though
there may have been a former design by Leonardo da Vinci. Numerous years
later, another of Kulibin's elevators was tted in the Arkhangelskoye near
Moscow.

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Industrial era

The progress of elevators was headed by the need for the movement of raw
materials, containing coal and lumber, from hillsides. The technology
157
industrialized by these industries and the introduction of steel beam
construction operated together to provide the passenger and cargo elevators in
use today.

Preliminary in coal mines, elevators in the mid-19th century worked with steam
power and were used for carrying goods in bulk in mines and factories. These
20
strategies were quickly applied to various sets of purposes. In 1823, Burton and
16
18
Homer, two architects in London, constructed and worked a novel tourist
199
attraction named the "ascending room," which elevated customers to a
10
substantial height in the center of London, giving a panoramic view.

Initial, crude steam-driven elevators were developed in the subsequent

11
21
decade. In 1835, a groundbreaking elevator, the Teagle, was established by
13
Frost and Stutt in England. It was belt-driven and used a counterweight for
12
additional power.

In 1845, the Neapolitan architect Gaetano Genovese tted in the Royal Palace
8
of Caserta the "Flying Chair," an elevator into the future of its time, enclosed
17
with chestnut wood outside and with maple wood inside. It involved a light, two
benches, and a hand-operated signal and could be triggered from the outside
without any effort by the occupants. Traction was controlled by a motor
mechanic consuming a system of toothed wheels. A safety system was

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designed to affect if the cords were ruined, containing a beam pushed
outwards by a steel spring.

The hydraulic crane was developed by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily
157
for use at the Tyneside docks for stocking cargo. They rapidly supplanted the
earlier steam-driven elevators, misusing Pascal's law to provide much greater
force. A water pump provided a variable level of water pressure to a plunger
covered inside a vertical cylinder, allowing the platform, carrying a heavy load,
to be raised and lowered. Counterweights and balances were also used to raise
lifting power.
20

16
18
Elisha Otis representing his safety system at the New York Crystal Palace, 1853
199
Henry Waterman of New York is endorsed with developing the "standing rope
10
control" for an elevator in 1850.

In 1852, Elisha Otis presented the safety elevator, which disallowed the fall of
11
21
the cab if the cable broke. He revealed it at the New York exposition in the
13
Crystal Palace in a dramatic, death-defying performance in 1854. The rst such
12
passenger elevator was tted at 488 Broadway in New York City on 23 March
1857.

8
Elisha Otis's elevator patent diagram, 15 January 1861, The rst elevator shaft
17
22
headed the rst elevator by four years. Construction for Peter Cooper's Cooper
Union Foundation building in New York started in 1853. An elevator shaft was
involved in the design because Cooper was assured that a safe passenger
23
elevator would soon be developed. The shaft was cylindrical because Cooper

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thought it was the most effective design. Otis later considered a special
elevator for the building.

24
Peter Ellis, an English architect, tted the rst elevators that could be de ned
157
as paternoster elevators in Oriel Chambers in Liverpool in 1868.

The Equitable Life Building, completed in 1870 in New York City, is the rst
of ce building with passenger elevators.

In 1874, J. W. Meaker patented a method authorizing elevator doors to open &

20
close safely.
16
18

199
The primary electric elevator was manufactured by Werner von Siemens in 1880
10
in Germany. Originator Anton Freissler further developed von Siemens' ideas &
produced a successful elevator enterprise in Austria-Hungary. The safety &
speed of electric elevators were considerably enhanced by Frank Sprague, who
11
21
added oor control, programmed operation, acceleration control, & additional
13
safety devices. His elevator competed faster & with larger loads than hydraulic
12
or steam elevators. Five hundred eighty-four of Sprague's elevators were tted
before selling his company to the Otis Elevator Company in 1895. Sprague also
25
advanced the idea & technology for multiple elevators in a single shaft.
8

17
22
In 1882, when hydraulic power was a well-established technology, a company
later called the London Hydraulic Power Company was shaped by Edward B.
Ellington and others. It built a network of high-pressure mains on both sides of
23
26
the Thames, which eventually extended 184 miles & powered some 8,000
machines, predominantly elevators, and cranes.

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Schuyler Wheeler patented his electric elevator design in 1883.

24
In 1887, American Inventor Alexander Miles of Duluth, Minnesota, patented an
157
elevator with programmed doors that closed off the elevator shaft when the car
was not arrived or departed.

The initial elevator in India was tted at the Raj Bhavan in Calcutta (now
Kolkata) by Otis in 1892.

20
By 1900, completely automatic elevators were accessible, but passengers were
16
18
27
unwilling to use them. Their adoption was aided by a 1945 elevator operator
199
walkout in New York City and the adding of an emergency stop button,
10
emergency telephone, and a calming explanatory automated voice.

An inverter-controlled gearless drive system is smeared in high-speed

11
21
elevators worldwide. The Toshiba company continual research on thyristors for
13
use in inverter control & intensely enhanced their switching capacity, resultant
12
in the development of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) at the end of
the 1980s. The IGBT appreciated increased switching frequency & compact
25
magnetic noise in the motor, removing the need for a lter circuit & allowing a
8
more compact system. The IGBT also permitted the development of a minor,
17
22
highly integrated, highly sophisticated all-digital regulator device containing a
high-speed processor, specially customized gate arrays, and a circuit capable
of controlling large currents of several kHz. In 2000, the initial vacuum elevator
23
26
was presented commercially in Argentina.

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1.3 PROPOSED MODEL

24

157
We propose to have an extra panel that can be mounted on the existed elevator
panels, which will have an IR sensor in place of each pushbutton for
interactions. For the escalator's we can have RFID for authorized use or a
virtual screen over the phone that can be work as the virtual panel to use the
elevator. For our model, we are using two different technologies that are
described as follows. These two different types of technology will have a
20
combined panel for multipurpose use.
16
18
27

199
The rst one is Infrared, and the second one is Radio frequency identi cation.
10
Infrared technology is used in many varieties of wireless operations. This
technology is mainly used in sensing and remote control used in this panel; in
place of manual buttons, IR sensors take direct command from users and send
11
21
signals to the microcontroller, which trigger the elevator or escalator motors to
13
act.
12

The second method is to have interaction with RFID & RFID tags. This
25
technology is based on the standard wireless induction system. All titles in the
8
RFID system are given a unique identi cation. When an autonomous RFID tag
17
22
comes near the RFID reader, the induction between tag and reader occurs. The
data and content logged in the tag are transmitted to the RFID reader and
interpreted into the computational data. Subsequent data translation, the tag
23
26
acknowledgment can be nished, and connected applications are providing.
The Card is used to classify that a user is lawful or not. However, most of these

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applications are founded on the inside surroundings or small area service and
autonomous. In resistance to creating a new implementation or service
environment, many existing systems or applications were deployed. This
24
project aims at implementing an automated elevator management system
157
using radio frequency identi cation technology. This automated elevator
system will enhance the embedding of the code into a tag and assign the same
to a person.

Thus, we have divided our project into two modules such as,

20
Module-I: IR sensors panel housing.
16
18
27
Module-II: RFID panel housing.
199
Module-III: Both used simultaneously
10
These modules are explained in Chapter 3.

11
21
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM
13

12
It is the block diagram of the TOUCHLESS ELEVATOR PANEL. The route of the
arrow indicates the current/signal ow. The connection between the project's
25
microcontroller and the elevator's motor driver is unidirectional. Since we are
8
using two motors as a sample, it is easy and comfortable to see the functioning
17
22
of RFID & IR sensors technology together.

As we can see, there are two different methods proposed to have input from the
23
26
user so that the block diagram will be explained in both conditions. Suppose to
have a person who wants to use the touchless elevator panel has IR sensor-

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based panel to call the elevator or to use the escalator. That same interaction
can happen with RFID tags systems also.

24
First, we understand the IR sensors-based interactive panel where the IR
157
sensor acts as an input receiver for the microcontroller. It will be mounted on
the existing panel or a separate panel. We need to keep our nger on the
desired oor's button without touching it for few seconds, and then it will
detect the obstacle as a command and send the signal to the microcontroller to
process as per the programming.

20
RFID tags case can be understood by assuming the situation where the user
16
18
27
wants to use the escalator, of ce door, small-scale elevators. Users will be
199
given a speci c RFID tag to use escalators. When an authorized person uses
10
their tags, the reader detects the signal and compares it with the pre-
programmed data. After the veri cation command will be sent to the
microcontroller to start the movement of motors.
11
21

13
Also, considering not to use both technologies together, we had added that
12
restrictions in the system for not to act when command received from both
inputs together. The system will be active only when there are only one input
25
system interaction is used.
8

17
22

23
26
Signal to Motor / Lift controller

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24

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Atmega 8
μ controller

20

16
18
27

199

10
RFID Reader
RF ID Scanner

11
21

13

12

25
Fig 1.1 Block Diagram of Touchless Panel
8

17
22

23
26
CHAPTER 2

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SURVEY OF COMPONENTS USED

2.1 COMPONENTS AND TOOLS USED

24

157
The components and tools required for building this project are:-

Components:-

Atmega8 microcontroller
RFID
20
Relay module
16
18
27
7805 IC
199
Capacitor
10
Diode
Resistor
Motor.
11
21
IR Obstacle Sensor
13
A needle and thread
12
Jumper wires
Perforated board
25
Nuts and Screws
8
Plywood base
17
22
Tools:-
Soldering iron with solder wire
Hot glue gun with glue sticks
23
26
Wirecutter/stripper
Paper cutter

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Tape

2.2 ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER

24

157
The acronym of AVR Microcontroller is "Advanced Virtual RISC," and MCU is the
short term of the microcontroller. A Microcontroller is a minute computer on a
single chip, and it is also named a control device. Similar to a computer, the
microcontroller is prepared with a variety of peripherals like input & output
units, memory, Timers, serial data communications, programmable.
Microcontroller applications include embedded applications & automatically
20
controlled devices similar to medical devices, remote control devices, control
16
18
27
systems, of ce machines, power tools, electronic devices, etc. There are
199
numerous Microcontrollers available in the market, like 8051, PIC, and AVR
10
microcontrollers.

28
In 1996, AVR Microcontroller was manufactured by the "Atmel Corporation."
11
21
The microcontroller includes the Harvard architecture that works quickly with
13
the RISC. The features of this microcontroller contain different features related
12
to others like sleep modes-6, inbuilt ADC (analog to digital converter), internal
Oscillator, & serial data communication, which completes the instructions in a
25
single execution cycle. These Microcontrollers were precisely fast, and they
8
operate low power to work in different power-saving modes. Different
17
22
con gurations of AVR microcontrollers are obtainable to perform various
operations like 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit.

23
26

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It is an 8 bit CMOS technology-based microcontroller belongs to the AVR family
of microcontroller developed in 1996. It is built on RISC (Reduced Instruction
Set Computer) architecture. Their main advantage is it doesn't contain any
24
accumulator register, and the result of any operation can be stored inside any
157
register, de ned by an instruction.

AVR microcontrollers are obtainable in three different classes such as TinyAVR,

MegaAVR, and XmegaAVR

The Minute AVR microcontroller is tiny in size and used in many simple
20
applications.
16
18
27

199
Mega AVR microcontroller is very well-known due to its many components,
10
good memory, and modern to multiple applications.

28

11
21
The Xmega AVR microcontroller is functional under challenging applications,
13
which need high speed and colossal program memory.
12

25

8
Fig.2.1 Atmega microcontroller
17
22

23
26
The ultrasonic sensor can be used for:-
Industrial control systems.

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SMPS and Power Regulation systems.
Analog signal measuring and manipulations.
Embedded systems like coffee machines, vending machines.
24
Motor control systems.
157
Display units.
Peripheral Interface system

Table.2.1 Atmega8 microcontroller speci cation

20
Name
16
18
27
Value
199
Program Memory Type
10
Flash
Program Memory Size (KB)
28
8
11
21
CPU Speed (MIPS/DMIPS)
13
16
12
SRAM (B)
1024
25
Data EEPROM/HEF (bytes)
8
512
17
22
Digital Communication Peripherals
1-UART, 1-SPI, 1-I2C
Capture/Compare/PWM Peripherals
23
26
1 Input Capture, 1 CCP, 3PWM
Timers

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2 x 8-bit, 1 x 16-bit
Number of Comparators
1
24
Temperature Range (°C)
157
-40 to 85
Operating Voltage Range (V)
2.7 to 5.5
Pin Count
32

20

16
18
27
2.3 RFID
199
RFID is recognized as Radio Frequency Identi cation System. These
10
technologies are effective and protected relate to other network security
systems. The primary goal of this technology is to habitually identify data that
28
are contained in electromagnetic elds. That can be applied for several
11
21
applications such as security, tracking, inventory detection, and access control
13
applications. RFID technology contains a combination of tags and readers,
12
which is shown in Figure 2.3. & 2.4

25
Fig.2.2 RFID Induction
8

17
22

Fig.2.3 RFID Working

23
26

Table.2.2 RFID speci cation

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Technology
30
Passive
24
An RFID tag without a battery. When radio waves from the reader reach the
157
chip's antenna, it creates a magnetic eld. The tag draws power from the eld
31
and can send back the information stored on the chip.
Semi-passive
Similar to active tags, but the battery is used to run the microchip's circuitry
but not to communicate with the reader. Some semi-passive tags sleep until
they are woken up by a signal from the reader, which conserves battery life.
20
Active
16
18
27
An RFID tag comes with a battery used to power the microchip's circuitry and
199
32
transmits a signal to a reader. Active tags can be read from 100 feet or more
10
away.
33
Logic:
28
All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches.
11
21
Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question;
13
products with all attribute options will be returned as matches.
12
Interface

25
RS232
348
The interface between data terminal equipment and data communications
17
22
equipment employing serial binary data interchange.
RS422
RS422 is a balanced serial interface for the transmission of digital data. It was
23
26
designed for greater distances and higher Baud rates than RS232.
RS485

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RS485 is a balanced serial interface for the transmission of digital data. The
35
advantage of a balanced signal is the more excellent immunity to noise. The
30
difference between RS422 and RS485 is that RS485 can be transformed into a
24
multi-point application.
157
I2C
31
Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) is a bus is an inexpensive type of chip
interconnection that is popular on circuit boards (pronounced "Eye Squared
C").
TTL
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is a common type of digital circuit in which the
20
output is derived from two transistors. More commonly, however, TTL is used to
16
18
27
designate any type of digital input or device.
199
32
USB
10
USB products (Universal Serial Bus) is the original standard that supports data
33
transfer rates of up to 12 Mbps.
28
Wireless
11
21
The interface is wireless.
13
Other
12
Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary interfaces.
36
Logic:
25
All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches.
348
Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question;
17
22
products with all attribute options will be returned as matches.

37
2.4 RELAY MODULE
23
26
A power relay module is an electrical switch that is run by an electromagnet.
The electromagnet is triggered by a separate low power signal from a controller.

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When stimulated, the electromagnet pulls to whichever open or close an
35
electrical circuit.
30
A meek relay consists of a wire coil wrapped around a solenoid or a soft iron
24
38
core, an iron yoke that brings a low reluctance path for magnetic ux, a
157
movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts. The movable
31
armature is hinged to the yoke and linked to 1 or more sets of moving contacts.
39
Held in place by springs, the armature leaves an opening in the magnetic circuit
when the relay is de-energized. While in this position, one of the two sets of
contacts is closed while the other sets remnants open.

20

16
18
27
Fig.2.4 Relay Module
199
32

10
When electrical current is distributed through a coil, it generates a magnetic
33
eld that activates the armature. This movement of the portable contacts
28
40
makes or breaks a connection with the xed contact. When switching off the
11
21
current to the coil, the armature is resumed, by force, to its favorable position.
13
This force is typically provided by a spring, but gravity can also be used for
12
inde nite applications. Most power relays are manufactured to function
36
quickly.
25

418
34
GEP Power Products is the industry leader in high power relay module design &
17
22
manufacturing to distributing power in high current uses.

37
42
GEP's power relay modules are designed for seamless integration in high power
23
26
delivery applications. The suitable integral mounting brackets provide informal
installation and accessibility. With in nite options such as terminal position

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assurance accessible for wire retention, GEP Power Products power supply
35
solutions and off-road industry knowledge are 2nd to none.
30

24
38

157
Table.2.3 Relay module speci cation
31

39
Speci cations
Data
Operating Voltage
5V 4-Channel Relay interface board
20
Current
16
18
27
Requires 15-20mA signal drive Current
199
32
Logic
10
TTL logic compatible
33
Type
28
40
High-current AC250V/10A, DC30V/10A relay
11
21
Feature
13
Status LED
12
Installation
36
43
Equipped with 3.1mm screw holes for easy installation
25
Weight
418
34
61g
17
22
Dimensions
44
75 x 55 x 19.3mm (2.95 x 2.16 x 0.76″)
37
42

23
26

2.5 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC

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A voltage regulator is a regulator intended to automatically maintain a constant
35
voltage level. It may usage an electromechanical mechanism or passive or
30
active electronic components. Depending on the design, it cast-off to regulate
24
38
one or more AC or DC voltages. With the exclusion of shunt regulators, all
157
voltage regulators run by associating the actual output voltage to some internal
31
xed reference voltage. Any change is ampli ed and used to control the
39
regulation element. This forms a -ve feedback servo control loop. If the output
voltage is too small, the regulation element is ordered to create a higher
voltage. If the output O/p voltage is too high for some regulators, then
regulation elements are commanded to produce a lower voltage; it numerous
20
just stop sourcing current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is
16
18
27
lashing to pull the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is
199
32
imprisoned roughly constant. The control loop necessarily is sensibly designed
10
to produce the desired tradeoff among stability and speed of response.
33

28
40
Fig.2.5 7805 Internal Block diagram
11
21

13
Voltage regulators are very public in electronic circuits. They deliver a constant
12
output voltage for a diverse input voltage. In our case, the 7805 voltage
36
43
regulator is an iconic regulator IC that nds its use in most of the projects. The
25
name 7805 signi es two meanings, 78 means that it is a + ve voltage regulator,
418
34
and 05 means that it delivers 5V. So our 7805 regulator IC will provide a positive
17
22
+ 5V voltage as output.
44

37
42

23
26
Fig.2.6 7805 IC

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The productivity current of this IC can go up to 1.5 A. But, the IC hurts from
35
heavy heat loss; hence a Heat sink is endorsed for projects that consume more
30
current. For example, if the input voltage is 11 V and you consume 1A, then (11-
24
38
5) * 1 = 6 W. This 6 Watts will be degenerate as heat.
157

31
Table.2.4 7805 IC PIN details
39

45
Pin No.
Pin
Function
20
Description
16
18
27
1
199
32
INPUT
10
Input voltage (7V-35V)
33
46
In this pin of the IC, positive unregulated voltage is given in the regulation.
28
40
2
11
21
GROUND
13
Ground (0V)
12
In this pin where the ground is given, This pin is neutral for equally the input
36
43
and output.
25
3
418
34
OUTPUT
17
22
Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)
44
The output of the regulated 5V volt is taken out at this pin of the IC regulator.
37
42

23
26

2.6 CAPACITOR

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A capacitor, formerly known as a condenser, is a passive 2 terminal electrical
35
component used to stock energy electrostatically in an electric eld. The forms
30
of real capacitors vary extensively, but all contain at least two electrical
24
38
conductors detached by a dielectric. The conductors can be tinny lms of
157
metal, aluminum foil, or disks, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to
31
upsurge the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic,
39
plastic lm, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are broadly used as parts of
45
electrical circuits in many public electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a
capacitor does not disperse energy—instead, a capacitor stocks energy in the
form of an electrostatic eld between its plates.
20

16
18
27
When there is a latent difference across the conductors, an electric eld
199
32
cultivates across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one
10
plate and negative charge -Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
33
46
devoted to a capacitor for enough time, no current can drift over the capacitor.
28
40
However, if a rushing or alternating voltage is applied across the primes of the
11
21
capacitor, a shift current can ow.
13

12
Fig.2.7 Capacitor
36
43

25
A single continual value categorizes an ideal capacitor for its capacitance.
418
34
Capacitance is conveyed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor
17
22
to the potential difference V amid that. The SI (Système international) unit of
44
capacitance is the farad F, which is equivalent to one coulomb per volt 1 C/V.
37
42
Distinctive capacitance values series from about one pF (10 to 12 F) to about
23
26
one mF (10 to 3 F).

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The capacitance is superior when there is a thinner separation between
35
conductors and when the conductors have a superior surface area. The
30
dielectric among the plates passes a small sum of leakage current and has an
24
38
electric eld power limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and
157
lead present an undesired inductance and resistance.
31

39

45
Fig.2.8 Ceramic Capacitor

Capacitors are extensively used in electronic circuits for obstructive direct

20
current while letting alternating current pass. In analog lter networks, they
16
18
27
at the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits, we tune radios to
199
32
particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they soothe
10
voltage and power ow.
33
46

28
40

11
21

13

12

36
43
2.7 DIODE
25
A diode is a semiconductor device that fundamentally acts as a one-way switch
418
34
for current. It permits current to ow easily in one direction only but strictly
17
22
restricts current from owing in the opposite direction in the circuit.
44

37
42
Diodes are also recognized as recti ers as they alter alternating current into
23
26
pulsating direct current. Diodes are rated rendering to their type, voltage, and
current capacity. Diodes have polarity, determined by an anode (+ ve lead) and

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cathode (- ve lead). Most diodes permit current to ow only when +ve voltage is
35
applied to the anode. A variety of diode formations are displayed in this
30
graphic.
24
38

157
When a diode permits current ow, it is forward-biased. When a diode is
31
reverse biased, it turns into an insulator and doesn't permit the current to ow.
39
The reason is that the Engineers considered the symbol, and their schematics
45
show current owing from the +ve side of the voltage source to the - ve. It's the
same agreement used for semiconductor symbols that include arrows, the
arrow points in the allowable direction of "conventional" ow, and beside the
20
proper direction of electron ow.
16
18
27

199
32

10
Fig.2.9 Diode
33
46

28
40
2.8 RESISTOR
11
21
The resistor is an impassive electrical component to generate resistance in the
13
47
movement of electric current. In nearly all electrical networks and electronic
12
circuits, they can be seen. The unit is ohms. An ohm is a resistance that arises
36
43
when a current 1 ampere passes through a resistor with a 1-volt drib across its
25
terminals. The current is proportional to the voltage across the terminal ends.
418
34
Ohm's law represents that ratio in the given equation:
17
22

44
Ohm's law: R = V / I
37
42

23
26
Resistors are used for numerous purposes. A few examples are electric
currents, voltage division, heat generation, matching, loading circuits, control

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gain, and xed-time constants. They are commercially accessible with
35
resistance values over a series of more than nine orders of magnitude. They
30
also can be used as electric brakes to disperse kinetic energy from trains or be
24
38
lesser than a square millimeter for electronics.
157

31

39
Fig.2.10 Resistors
45

Resistors are used to bound the value of current in a circuit. Resistors deal
20
opposition to the movement of current. They are articulated in ohms, for which
16
18
27
the symbol is 'Ω.' Resistors are generally classi ed as follows.
199
32
Fixed Resistors
10
Variable Resistors
33
46
Fixed Resistors:
28
40
The best collective of low-wattage, static type resistors is the molded carbon
11
21
composition resistor. This resistive material is made of carbon clay
13
47
composition. The leads are prepared of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are
12
readily available in value ranging in different ohms; They have a tolerance range
36
43
of 5 - 20%—the comparative size of all static resistors changes with the
25
wattage.
418
34
An additional variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized type.
17
22
They are made by deposition a similar lm of pure carbon over a glass-ceramic
44
or other insulating material. This type of lm-resistor is occasionally called the
37
42
precision type, and it can be obtained with an accuracy of ± 1 %
23
26

Fig.2.11 Fixed Resistors

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35
A Wire Wound Resistor:
30
Wire wound resistor uses a span of resistance wire example as nichrome. The
24
38
48
wire is wounded onto a rotund hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding
157
are attached to metal pieces injected into the core. Tinned wire leads are
31
attached to metal pieces. This assembly is covered with an enamel coating
39
crushed glass. This coating is very smooth & gives a mechanical guard to
45
winding. Usually available wire wound resistors have resistance values ranging
from 1 Ω to 100K Ω and wattage rating up to about 200 W

20

16
18
27
Fig.2.12 Wire-wound Resistors
199
32

10

33
46
2.9 MOTOR
28
40
Electric motor's operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-
11
21
carrying conductor creates a magnetic eld. When this is then placed in an
13
47
exterior magnetic eld, it will experience a force proportional to the current in
12
the conductor & to the strength of the external magnetic eld. We are well
36
43
aware from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (N and S) polarities attract,
25
while like polarities (N and N, S and S) repel. A motor's inner con guration aims
418
34
to couple the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and
17
22
an external magnetic eld to produce rotational motion.
44
Every motor has six essential parts: axle, rotor, stator, commutator, eld
37
42
magnets, and brushes. In most common motors, the exterior magnetic eld is
23
26
produced by high strength permanent magnet or PM.

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35

30

24
38
48

157

31

39

45

20

16
18
27

199
32

10

33
46

28
40

11
21
Fig.2.13 Motor working
13
47
49
The stator is the stationary portion of the motor; this includes the motor casing
12
and two or more permanent magnet poles pieces. The rotor rotates concerning
36
43
the stator. The rotor contains windings, the windings being electrically linked to
25
the commutator. The above Figure shows a familiar motor layout with the rotor
418
34
inside the stator magnets.
17
22
The geometry of the commutator contacts, brushes, and rotor windings are
44
such that when power is applied, the polarization of the energized winding and
37
42
the stator magnet are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is nearly
23
26
aligned with the stator's eld magnets. As the rotor ranges alignment, the
brushes travel to the subsequent commutator contacts and energize the next

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winding. In the given an example two-pole motor, the rotation contraries the
35
current nished the rotor winding, leading to a ip of the rotor's magnetic eld,
30
lashing it to continue rotating.
24
38
48
However, motors will always have more than two poles (3 is also a general
157
assembly). In speci c, this evades dead spots in the commutator. We can
31
imagine how with our example two-pole motor if the rotor is precisely at the
39
middle of its rotation, it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole
45
motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply.
This would be ruthless for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor
components as well. Yet additional disadvantage of such a simple motor is that
20
it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple."
16
18
27

199
32

10

33
46

28
40

11
21

13
47
49

12

36
43

25

418
34

17
22

44

37
42

23
26
Fig.2.14 Motor rotor

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Each brush changes from one commutator contact to the next when one coil's
35
eld will quickly collapse, as the next coil's eld will quickly charge up. We will
30
see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime, we can see that
24
38
48
this is the shortest result of the coil windings' series wiring: The usage of an
157
iron core armature is relatively public and has several gains. The iron core
31
delivers strong, stiff support for the windings, a mainly important consideration
39
for high torque motors. The core is also designed to heat away from the rotor
45
windings, permitting the motor to move rmer. Iron core construction is also
comparatively inexpensive compared with others, But iron core construction
also has numerous disadvantages. The iron armature has relatively signi cant
20
inactivity, which restricts motor acceleration. This structure also results in high
16
18
27
winding inductances, which bound brush and commutator lifespan.
199
32

10
In small motors, and another design is often used, which features a coreless
33
46
framework winding. This design depends upon the coil wire for structural
28
40
reliability. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can
11
21
be attached to the rotor coil. Core-less DC motors have ample inferior armature
13
47
49
inductance than iron core motors of similar size, outspreading brush, and
12
commutator life.
36
43

25

418
34

17
22

44
Fig.2.15 motor's assembly
37
42

23
26

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Working of Motor
35
The coreless design also permits manufacturers to build reduced-sized motors;
30
meanwhile, due to the absence of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are
24
38
48
slightly disposed to overheating. As a result, this design is usually used just in
157
small, low-power motors.
31

39

45

20

16
18
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10

33
46

28
40

11
21

13
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49

12

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25
Fig.2.16 motor's concept
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34
Direct current motor is one of the 1st machines invented to convert electrical
17
22
power into mechanical power. Permanent magnet direct current convert
44
electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interface of 2 magnetic
37
42
elds. 1st eld is created by a permanent magnet [PM] assembly; the other
23
26
Figure shows the working of dc motor eld is produced by an electrical current
owing in the motor windings.

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These two elds create a torque that leads to rotating the rotor. As the rotor
35
moves, the current in the windings is commutated to create a constant torque
30
output. The static electromagnetic eld of the motor can also be made up of
24
38
48
permanent magnets or cab be wire wound like the armature.
157

31
In any style (wound eld or permanent magnet), the commutator works as half
39
of the mechanical switch and interchanges with the armature as it turns. The
45
commutator is made of conductive segments, usually made of copper or high
conductive materials, which denote the end of individual coils of wire
distributed around the armature. The 2nd half of the mechanical switch is
20
accomplished by the brushes. These brushes typically stay stationary with the
16
18
27
motor's housing but ride on the rotating commutator. As electrical energy is
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32
delivered through the brushes and subsequently through the armature, a
10
torsional force is generated as a response among the motor's eld and the
33
46
armature instigating the motor's armature to turn. As the armature turns, the
28
40
brushes change to end-to-end bars on the commutator. This switching action
11
21
transmits the electrical energy to an adjacent winding on the armature, which
13
47
49
in turn disseminates the torsional motion of the armature.
12
Permanent magnet motors are probably the most commonly used motors. Still,
36
43
some other types of motors [type which use coils to make the permanent
25
magnetic PM eld also] motors operate from a thru current power source.
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34
Movement of the magnetic eld is attained by switching current between coils
17
22
within the motor. This action is called "commutation." Many motors have built-
44
in commutation, sense that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes
37
42
mechanically commutate coils on the rotor. We can use dc brush motors in a
23
26
variety of applications. A simple permanent magnet DC motor is a vital element
in various products, such as a toy, servo-mechanisms, valve actuators, robots,

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locomotive electronics, etc. There are signi cant typical advantages of a PM
35
motor. PM motors are typically physically smaller in nished size and lighter for
30
a speci ed power rating when associated with AC or wound eld motors.
24
38
48
Additionally, since the motor's eld, created by the permanent magnet, is
157
constant, the relationship between torque and speed is very linear. A PM motor
31
can provide comparatively high torque at low speeds, and a Permanent Magnet
39
eld provides some intrinsic self-braking when power to the motor is shut off.
45
There are numerous disadvantages, those being primarily high current
throughout a stall condition and during instantaneous reversal. Those can
damage some motors or be challenging to control circuitry. Moreover, some
20
magnet materials can be damaged when exposed to excessive heat and some
16
18
27
loose eld strength if the motor is disassembled.
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10

33
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2.10 IR SENSOR
28
40

11
21
Introduction
13
47
49
IR sensor stands for the infrared sensor. It is an electronic device, and it
12
measures and detects infrared radiation from objects in its surrounding.
36
43

25
Working Principle of IR SENSOR
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An infrared sensor emits and detects infrared radiation to sense its
17
22
environment. ... The basic principle of an infrared sensor. We are using an
44
Obstacle detector is to transmit an infrared signal; this infrared signal re ects
37
42
from the surface of an object, and the output is received at the infrared signal.
23
26

Circuit diagram of IR sensor

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It is an essential and popular sensor module in an electronic device. This
35
sensor is equivalent to human's visionary senses, which we can use to detect
30
obstacles, and it is the everyday use of IR sensor applications in real-time.
24
38
48

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This circuit comprises the following component.
31
In the IR sensor, there are LM 358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
39
Resistors of the range of kilo-ohms in the IR sensor.
45
In the IR sensor, there are Variable resistors.
LED (Light Emitting Diode).

20

16
18
27
Fig.2.17 Internal Circuit Diagram of IR Sensor
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32

10
Brief about IR sensor module
33
46

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40

11
21

13
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49

12
Fig.2.18 IR Sensor
36
43

25

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34

17
22
50
IR LED Transmitter
44
IR LED emits light in the range of Infrared frequency, which is not visible to us
37
42
51
as its wavelength is much higher than the visible light range[2]. IR LEDs have a
23
26
light-emitting angle of approx. 20-60 degrees and range of approx.[2]. few
centimeters to feet's, the range of frequency depends upon the kind of IR

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transmitter and manufacturer. Many transmitters have a range very high as in
35
kilometers[2]. IR LEDs are transparent in color to give the maximum signal in
30
the range of frequency[2].
24
38
48
Photodiode Receiver
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It acts as the Infrared receiver as it conducts when signal occurrence on it. The
31
photodiode is a type of semiconductor. It has a P-N junction, operating in
39
reverse Bias; it conducts the signal in the opposite direction when signal
45
incidence. The total amount of signal is proportional to the total amount of
light. This property of the photodiode receiver makes it suitable for IR
detection. Photodiode appears like a LED in the physical appearance, with a
20
black covering on its outer side; black color absorbs the highest amount of
16
18
27
light.
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10
LM358 Op-amp
33
46
LM358 is an operational ampli er (Op-Amp) that is used in the IR sensor for
28
40
voltage comparator. Comparator analysis compares the threshold voltage range
11
21
using reset (pin2) and the resistor voltage photodiode (pin3) series.
13
47
49
Photodiode series voltage drop resistor > voltage threshold = op amp output is
12
High Photodiode series voltage drop resistor < voltage threshold = op amp
36
43
performance is Small
25
The LED at the Op-amp output terminal switches ON (Indicating Object
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Detection) when the output of the Op-amps is high.
17
22
50

44
Variable Resistor
37
42
52
51
The use variable resistor here is a reset. It is used to calibrate the distance
23
26
range at which objects need to be detected.

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How to use IR Sensor Module?
35
The Infrared terminal of the module. When no object is detected or present
30
53
within the range of the IR receiver, the output of the LED remains off. The 5 VDC
24
38
48
supply input is given to the VCC pin, and the supply negative is connected to the
157
GND.
31

39

45

2-D model
20

16
18
27

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Fig.2.19 2D Model of IR Sensor
10

33
46

28
40
IR Sensor Application
11
21
It is used in various electronic devices.
13
47
49
• The Radiation Thermometers are the application of IR sensors.
12
• Flame Monitors is the application of IR sensors.
36
43
• Moisture Analyzer is the application of an IR sensor.
25
• Gas Analyzers is the application of IR sensors.
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34
• Obstacle Detection is the application of an IR sensor.
17
22
50
• It is also used in Industrial safety devices
44
• The application of IR is a Wheel encoder
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42
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51
54
2.11 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
23
26

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A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit used in the mechanical
35
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to produce an
30
53
electrical signal with a constant frequency. This frequency is frequently used to
24
38
48
keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to deliver a stable clock signal
157
for digital integrated circuits and soothe frequencies for radio receivers &
31
transmitters. The most shared type of piezoelectric resonator is used a quartz
39
crystal, so oscillator circuits integrating them became known as crystal
45
oscillators. Though, other piezoelectric materials with polycrystalline ceramics
are used in similar circuits.

20

16
18
27
Fig.2.20 Crystal oscillator ckt
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32

10
A crystal oscillator depends on the minor adjustments in the shape of a quartz
33
46
crystal below an electric eld, a property recognized as electrostriction or
28
40
inverse piezoelectricity. A voltage smeared to an electrode on the crystal
11
21
causes it to change shape. When the voltage is detached, the crystal generates
13
47
49
a small voltage as it elastically returns to its original shape. The quartz
12
oscillates at a steady resonant frequency, behaving like an RLC circuit but with
36
43
a considerably higher Q factor. Once a quartz crystal is tuned to a particular
25
frequency (which is affected by the mass of electrodes involved with the
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34
crystal, the alignment of the crystal, temperature, and other factors), it
17
22
50
preserves that frequency with high stability.
44

37
42
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51
54

23
26
Fig.2.21 Oscillator

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Quartz crystals are contrived for frequencies from a few 10s of kilohertz (kHz)
30
53
to hundreds of megahertz. As of 2004, around 2 billion crystals are
24
38
48
manufactured yearly. Most are used for customer devices such as
157
wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Though small-sized
31
and weighted applications are needed, crystals can be swapped by thin- lm
39
55
bulk acoustic resonators, speci cally, if high-frequency resonance is needed.
45
Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such
as counters, signal generators, & oscilloscopes.

20

16
18
27

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10

33
46

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40

11
21
2.12 TRANSISTORS
13
47
49

12
A transistor is an active device. It contains two PN junctions formed by
36
43
sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductors between a pair of
25
opposite types.
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34

17
22
50

44
Fig.2.22 TransistorTransistor
37
42
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51
54

23
26
There are two types of transistors.

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n – p - n transistor
35
p – n - p transistor
30
53

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31
Fig.2.23 Transistor symbol
39
55

45
An n – p - n transistor comprises two p-type semiconductors separated by a
thin section of p-type. However, a p – n - p-type semiconductor is shaped by
two p - sections separated by a thin section of n-type.
20
Transistor has two p - n junctions. The rst junction is forward biased, and the
16
18
27
second is reversed biased. The forward junction has a short resistance path,
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32
while a reverse-biased junction has a high resistance path.
10

33
46
Transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side
28
40
is called an emitter & the section on the opposite side is called a collector. The
11
21
middle section is called the base.
13
47
49

12

36
43

25
Fig.2.24 NPN PNP Transistor symbol
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34

17
22
50
Emitter: The section on one end that supplies charge carriers are called
44
emitter. The emitter is always forward-biased.
37
42
52
51
54
Collector: The section on the other end that collects the charge is called a
23
26
collector. The collector is always reversed biased.

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Base: The middle section, which forms two p n junctions between the emitter
35
and collector, is called the base.
30
53

24
38
48
A transistor upsurges the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an
157
ampli er. The weak signal is smeared between the emitter-base junction, and
31
output is kept across the load connected in the collector circuit. The CC
39
55
[collector current] owing through a high load resistance RC harvests a large
45
voltage across it. Thus weak signal smeared in the input seems in the ampli ed
form in the collector circuit.

20

16
18
27
2.13 LED [LIGHT EMITTING DIODE]
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32

10
A diode junction, such as an LED, can produce light or display
33
46
electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is gained by injecting minority
28
40
carriers into the region of a p - n junction where the radiative transition takes
11
21
place. There is a changeover of an electron from the conduction band to the
13
47
49
valence band, which is probably made by photon emission in radiative
12
transition. Thus, emitted light originates from the hole electron recombination.
36
43
What is obligatory is that electrons should make a change from higher energy
25
level to lower energy level, freeing photons of wavelength consistent with the
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34
energy change associated with this transition. In LED, the supply of high-
17
22
50
energy electrons provides forward biasing the diode, thus inoculating electrons
44
into the n - region and holes into the p - region.
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
The p - n junction of LED is prepared from heavily doped material. On forward
bias condition, majority carriers from together sides of the junction cross the

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potential barrier and enter the con icting side. They are then minority carrier
35
and origin local minority carrier populace to be larger than average. This is
30
53
called a minority injection. This different minority carrier diffuses away from
24
38
48
the connection and recombines with majority carriers.
157

31

39
55
Fig.2.25 LEDs
45

In LED, every injected electron proceeds part in radiative recombination, giving

rise to an emitted photon. Under inverse bias, no carrier injection takes place,
20
and therefore no photon is emitted for the direct changeover from the
16
18
27
conduction band to the valence band the emission wavelength.
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32

10
In practice, every electron does not take part in radiative recombination. Hence,
33
46
the device's ef ciency may be described in terms of quantum ef ciency, which
28
40
is de ned as the rate of emission of photons divided by the rate of supply of
11
21
electrons. The number of radiative recombination that takes place is usually
13
47
49
proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence to the total current owing.
12

36
43

25

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34
Fig.2.26 LED's part
17
22
50

44
2.14 PERFORATED BOARD AND HEADERS
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
The perforated board is used for prototyping electronic circuits, also called DOT
PCB. It is a thin, rigid sheet with holes pre-drilled at standard intervals, usually

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a square grid of 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) spacing. The round copper pads ring
35
those holes. Cheap Perforated board on only one side of the board may have
30
53
pads, whereas higher-quality Perforated board on both sides may have pads.
24
38
48
Discrete components such as resistors, capacitors, and integrated circuits are
157
soldered onto the prototype frame.
31

39
55

45

Fig.2.27 Perforated Board

20

16
18
27

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32
Headers are a thin line of sockets that allow you to plug wires into them. Those
10
wires can be connected to electronic parts like LEDs, displays, sensors,
33
46
motors, etc. In this project, headers and a Perforated board make +5V and GND
28
40
rails as these pins are limited on the Arduino board.
11
21

13
47
49
Fig.2.28 Headers
12

36
43
2.15 CONNECTORS & JUMPER WIRES
25

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Connectors are fundamentally used for the edge between two. Here we use
17
22
50
some connectors for having an interface between PCB and 8051
44
microprocessor Kit.
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
There are two types of connectors Female and male. The one, which is with pins
outside, is male and the other is female.

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Those connectors have bus wires with them for joining. For high-frequency
30
53
operation, the typical circumference of a coaxial cable necessarily be limited to
24
38
48
about one wavelength to decrease multimodal propagation and remove erratic
157
replication coef cients, power losses, and signal distortion. The regularization
31
of coaxial connectors during World War 2 was obligatory for microwave
39
55
operation to preserve a low voltage standing wave ratio or a low re ection
45
coef cient.

Seven different types of microwave coaxial connectors are described below.

20

16
18
27
APC 7
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APC 3.5
33
46

28
40
SMA
11
21

13
47
49
BNC
12

36
43
TNC
25

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34
SMC
17
22
50

44
Type N
37
42
52
51
54

23
26

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Jumper wires have connector pins at each end, which allows them to connect
35
two points without soldering. Jumper wires are used with breadboards and
30
53
other prototyping tools to make it easy to reevaluate a circuit as wanted.
24
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48

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31

39
55
Fig.2.29 Jumper Wires
45

20

16
18
27
CHAPTER 3
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10
MODULES OF TOUCHLESS ELEVATOR PANEL & ITS IMPLEMENTATION
33
46

28
40

11
21
3.1 MODULE 1:- IR SENSORS USED AS INPUT
13
47
49

12
There would be any different IR sensors tted in the panel, same as elevator
36
43
panels. When someone will place their Figure near the sensors and place his
25
nger for few seconds without touching it, then it will detect the motion and
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34
will glow the LED for the user to understand that his command received & at
17
22
50
the same time, the command will be sent to the microcontroller to act
44
accordingly.
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
Structure

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After receiving the command from the IR, the microcontroller of the sensor will
35
activate the escalator's motor & it will be active for few minutes as per the
30
53
desired time to reach the next oor that can be adjusted in the programming.
24
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3.2 MODULE 2:- RFID USED AS INPUT
31

39
55
In the case of RFID, RFID tags will be issued to the authorized person to operate
45
the escalators; when the right RFID is scanned at the scanner, it will send
signals to the microcontroller, and the motor will be activated.

20
Structure
16
18
27
Using an authorized RFID tag microcontroller will send signals to the motor to
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32
operate & it will be activated as per the desired time to reach the next oor that
10
can be adjusted in the programming.
33
46

28
40
3.3 MODULE 3:- IR SENSORS & RFID BOTH SIMULTANEOUSLY
11
21

13
47
49
When someone tries to use both inputs simultaneously, the microcontroller will
12
send any command to operate the motors. There is a restriction to use both
36
43
technologies together at the same time.
25

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34
Structure
17
22
50
RFID & IR sensors, both used as input together, will send two different signals
44
to the microcontroller together, and as per the program, it won't take any
37
42
52
51
54
actions.
23
26

3.5 SOFTWARE USED

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The software used for programming Arduino is Arduino IDE (Integrated
30
53
Development Environment). Arduino IDE is open source software primarily used
24
38
48
for writing and compiling the code into the Arduino Board. It is simply available
157
for operating systems like MAC, Windows, Linux. It runs on the Java Platform
31
with inbuilt functions and commands and plays an essential role in debugging,
39
55
editing, and compiling the code within the environment. A range of Arduino
45
modules available as Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega, Arduino Leonardo, Arduino
Micro, etc. Each of them has a microcontroller on the board that's programmed
and accepts the data in the form of code. The main code is also called a Sketch.
20
This atmosphere supports both C and C++ languages. Sketch created on the
16
18
27
IDE platform will generate a Hex File which is then transferred and uploaded in
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32
the controller on the board.
10

33
46

28
40

11
21
Fig.3.1 IDE Software Working
13
47
49
The IDE environment is distributed into three sections:-
12
Menu Bar
36
43
Text Editor
25
Output Pane
418
34
The bar appearing on top is Menu Bar that has ve different options as follow:-
17
22
50
The bar appearing on top is Menu Bar that has ve different options as follow:-
44
File - open a new window for writing the code or open an existing one.
37
42
52
51
54
Edit - copy and paste the code with further modi cation for the font.
23
26
Sketch – compile and program.
Tools - test projects.

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The Six Buttons under the Menu tab are related to the running program as
35
follow:-
30
53

24
38
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Fig.3.2 Buttons for running the command
31

39
55
The checkmark in the circular button is used to verify the code.
45
The arrow key is used to upload and transfer the required code to the Arduino
board.
The dotted paper is used for creating a new le.
20
The Arduino up arrow is used to access an existing project.
16
18
27
Save current running code using the downward button.
199
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The button on the top right corner is a Serial Monitor
10
A Serial Monitor is a separate pop-up window that plays a vital role in sending
33
46
and receiving the Serial Data. Arduino Module needs to be connected to the
28
40
computer using the USB cable to activate the Serial Monitor.
11
21
The text editor used to write the required code is the main screen below the
13
47
49
Menu Bard.
12
The bottom of the text screen is de ned as an output panel that highlights the
36
43
running code's compilation status: the code used memory, and errors in the
25
program occurred. Before importing the hex le into your Arduino Module, you
418
34
need to x those errors. The sketch is written in a text editor and is saved with
17
22
50
the le extension .ino.
44
Libraries are bene cial to add extra features to the Arduino board. There is a
37
42
52
51
54
list of libraries that can be added by clicking in the menu bar on the Sketch
23
26
button and heading to Include Library. Most libraries are pre-installed in
applications and can be downloaded from external sources as well.

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The Software structure consists of two main functions:
30
53

24
38
48
Setup() function
157
The setup() function is used to initialize the variables, pin modes, start using
31
libraries, etc. The setup function will only run once after every power-up or
39
55
reset of the Arduino board.
45
Loop() function
The loop() function consecutively, allowing your program to change and
respond. It actively controls the Arduino board.
20

16
18
27
Follow these steps to upload your sketch:
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32

10
Connect your Arduino using the USB cable.
33
46
Find Arduino, board, by choosing Tools→Board→Arduino Uno
28
40
Select the correct serial port by choosing Tools→Serial Port→ to come; X marks
11
21
a sequentially or randomly assigned number.
13
47
49
Now verify the code, then upload using the button appearing in the upper left
12
corner, or It can be done using Sketch section and pressing verify/compile, then
36
43
upload.
25
Once code is uploaded, TX and RX LEDs on the board will blink, indicating the
418
34
program is running successfully.
17
22
50

44
CHAPTER 4
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION AND WORKING

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4.1 CIRCUIT DESIGNING
30
53
The circuit is designed using Proteus 8 professional software. Proteus Design
24
38
48
Suite was developed by Labcenter Electronics Ltd. It is a software tool used for
157
creating schematics, simulating circuits, and designing PCB Layouts. Drawing
31
schematics in proteus is very easy; rst, select the component model, then, by
39
55
clicking on pick from libraries, select the required component, which will
45
appear in the devices list. Now place the component in the design sheet and
draw wires by clicking on the terminal of the component or Vcc, Ground, etc.
Schematic capture drawn can be used to simulate designs and the design
20
phase of a PCB layout project.
16
18
27
Interfacing of one component to another component, one device to another
199
32
device, is one of the most crucial roles for project implementation. For this
10
project, we have used several components and devices to achieve the modules
33
46
and purpose.
28
40

11
21
In this project, we have used.
13
47
49
Arduino UNO.
12
IR sensor.
36
43
RFID Readers.
25
DC Motors
418
34
Buzzer
17
22
50
LEDs
44
Breadboard
37
42
52
51
54
Male and Female jumper wire.
23
26

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We will describe module-wise hardware and its interfacing circuit diagram as
35
well.
30
53

24
38
48

157
4.2 INTERFACING OF IR SENSOR
31

39
55
Hardware required
45
Arduino UNO
IR sensor
Male Female Jumper wire
20

16
18
27
The connection of sensor pins with Arduino is made as given below:-
199
32
Pin of the sensor to the digital input pin of the Arduino board.
10
GND pin of the sensor to the GND pin of the Arduino.
33
46
Vcc pin of Arduino to the 5V pin of Arduino board.
28
40

11
21

13
47
49

12
Fig.4.1 Connection of IR sensor
36
43

25

418
34

17
22
50
In the robot, the two IR sensors are connected as:-
44
Vcc pin of all sensors is to headers which are drawn by +5V pin of Arduino.
37
42
52
51
54
GND pin of all sensor is to headers which are drawn by GND pin of Arduino.
23
26
OUT pin of all sensors is to the digital input pin of Arduino.

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4.3 INTERFACING OF RFID
35

30
53
Hardware required
24
38
48
Arduino Board
157
HC-SR04 ultrasonic module
31
Jumper wires
39
55

45
The connection of sensor pins with Arduino is made as given below:-
56
Vcc pin of the sensor to 5V pin of Arduino
GND pin of the sensor to GND pin of Arduino
20
Trig pin of the sensor to the digital input pin of Arduino
16
18
27
Echo pin of the sensor to the digital input pin of Arduino
199
32

10

33
46

28
40
Fig.4.2 Connection of RFID sensor with Arduino
11
21

13
47
49

12
In the robot, one ultrasonic sensor is connected as:-
36
43
Vcc pin of all sensor to headers which are drawn by +5V pin of Arduino.
25
GND pin of all sensor to headers which are drawn by GND pin of Arduino.
418
34
Trig pin of the sensor to pin of Arduino.
17
22
50
Echo pin of the sensor to pin of Arduino.
44

37
42
52
51
54
4.4 THE INTERFACING OF MOTORS AND MOTOR DRIVER IC WITH ARDUINO
23
26

Hardware required

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Arduino Board
35
L293D motor driver IC
30
53
Motors
24
38
48
Jumper wires
157

31
The connection of driver pins with Arduino is made as given below:-
39
55
Enable1, Enable two and Vss pins of the driver to 5V pin of Arduino.
45
Vs. pin of the driver to external supply if the motor needs more voltage as
56
Arduino can supply the only 5V.
Both GND pin of the driver to GND pin of Arduino.
20
IN1, IN2, IN3, and IN4 pin of the driver to digital output pins of Arduino.
16
18
27
OUT1, OUT2, OUT3, and OUT4 pin of the driver is connected to motors
199
32

10

33
46
Fig.4.3 Connection of driver IC and motors with Arduino
28
40

11
21
In the robot, the four motors and the motor driver is connected as:-
13
47
49
Vss, Enable1, and Enable two pins of the driver to headers drawn by +5V pin of
12
Arduino.
36
43
Vs. pin of the driver to 12V external supply as the motor needs 12V to run and
25
Arduino supply only 5V.
418
34
Both GND pins of a driver to headers are drawn by the GND pin of Arduino.
17
22
50
IN1, IN2, IN3 and IN4 pin of the driver is connected to digital output pins of
44
Arduino respectively.
37
42
52
51
54
OUT1 and OUT2 pin of the driver to motor one and motor 2.
23
26
OUT3 and OUT4 pin of the driver to motor three and motor 4.

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4.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF MODULE 1 AND MODULE 2
30
53

24
38
48
This is the circuit diagram of module 1 and module 2. We have shown the
157
interfacing between Arduino, IR sensor, motor driver, and ultrasonic sensor.
31

39
55

45

56
Fig.4.4 Connection of Arduino, IR sensor, and RFID

20

16
18
27

199
32
Circuit description
10

33
46
Vcc pin of the ultrasonic sensor to headers which are drawn by +5V pin of
28
40
Arduino.
11
21
GND pin of the ultrasonic sensor to headers which are drawn by GND pin of
13
47
49
Arduino.
12
Trig pin of the ultrasonic sensor to D11 pin of Arduino.
36
43
Echo pin of the ultrasonic sensor to D10 pin of Arduino.
25
Vcc pin of both IR sensors to headers which are drawn by +5V pin of Arduino.
418
34
GND pin of both IR sensors to headers which are drawn by GND pin of Arduino.
17
22
50
Pin of both IR sensors to D9 and D8 pin of Arduino, respectively.
44
Vss, Enable1, and Enable two pins of the driver to headers drawn by +5V pin of
37
42
52
51
54
Arduino.
23
26
Vs. pin of the driver to 12V external supply as the motor needs 12V to run and
Arduino supply only 5V.

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Both GND pins of the driver to headers are drawn by the GND pin of Arduino.
35
IN1, IN2, IN3, and IN4 pin of the driver to D7, D6, D5, D4 pins of Arduino,
30
53
respectively.
24
38
48
OUT1 and OUT2 pin of the driver is connected to motor one and motor 2.
157
OUT3 and OUT4 pin of the driver to motor three and motor 4.
31

39
55
4.6 WORKING
45
As shown in the circuit diagram, the microcontroller will receive a command
56
from two different input types. When someone chooses to use the IR sensor,
the RFID card will not hamper the command and RFID vise-versa. Command
20
will be received and processed by the microcontroller and forwarded to the
16
18
27
servo motor or Lift controller. IR Sensor will receive the command from the user
199
32
by the nger movement and send a signal to lift controller for speci c
10
functions. The Elevator panel will send reset command to the IR sensor in
33
46
return after execution of the command. RFID interaction section will work on a
28
40
different principle; in the 1st stage Card will be scanned at the scanner of the
11
21
destination oor. The 2nd stage is reading the data from the tag to the reader.
13
47
49
In the 3rd stage, the data is rationalized from the RFID reader to the single
12
location [Database]. The nal stage is to keep track of the person entering the
36
43
elevator.
25

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34

17
22
50
CHAPTER 5
44

37
42
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51
54
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
23
26

5.1 APPLICATIONS

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This technology has unlimited use to replace pushbuttons in public places.
30
53
It can be used in small elevators
24
38
48
It can also be used at escalators.
157
Of ce door opening.
31
Pedestrian crossings.
39
55
Door Bells.
45
Turn off the lights.
56

5.2 ADVANTAGES
20

16
18
27
Economical and Cost-Ef cient:-
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32
Automation of elevators reduces the use of raw materials and increases
10
ef ciency. Hence costs related to supplies are reduced.
33
46

28
40
Wireless:-
11
21
The user can interact with this technology wirelessly; hence it can be used by
13
47
49
anyone.
12

36
43
Safety:-
25
It breaks the chain of Covid-19 spread, so it's bene cial technology.
418
34

17
22
50
Easy to use:-
44
Automation of elevators make thing easy for everyone & it's simple to use.
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
Compact and easy to mount:-
Compact technology can be mount on any existing panels.

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35

30
53
5.3 DISADVANTAGES
24
38
48

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Limited to use:-
31
An authorized person only can use this in RFID technology, and it will not be
39
55
available to the public.
45

56
DC supply needed:-
The whole circuitry works on DC; hence AC to DC converter is needed.
20

16
18
27
5.4 LIMITATIONS
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32

10
IR sensors can detect signal which is not intended:-
33
46
The user has to be careful while using this technology in some cases, it can
28
40
happen when the user wants to press another button, but different oor's
11
21
buttons detect the signal. They can not be reset by the user.
13
47
49

12
RFID cannot be used by the public:-
36
43
As RFID cannot be given to everyone, so it's limited to use for the public.
25

418
34
5.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
17
22
50
Automatic elevators provide lower building costs per staircase slot, as they
44
naturally require less building volume and less ground area than a conservative
37
42
52
51
54
ability with the same aptitude.
23
26
Other costs are usually lower; an elevator offers the tremendous possible
exibility for realizing an optimum automatic secured solution. A single lift

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serves 6 - 12 person spaces per level, taking up a minimum of space. Time-
35
saving vertical and horizontal travels take place simultaneously, ensuring fast
30
53
movement and retrieval times. By replacing the pushbuttons, we can stop the
24
38
48
spread of covid-19, and this technology can be used at any place where the
157
public is using the standard technology. It will also be helpful for any spread
31
where the virus or germs spreads from touching. The primary purpose of
39
55
implementing this project is to give the world a technology that will help people
45
to stop the spread of the virus & I think this is the best idea we can think of as
56
of now. There can be many ways except that two which we have considered in
our project and that need more research & work to have better other options to
20
achieve the same target as we are trying to achieve.
16
18
27

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32
REFERENCES:
10

33
46
https://www.schindler.com/us/internet/en/service-maintenance/equipment-
28
40
upgrades/schindler-safe/touchless-operation.html#button
11
21
https://www.openpath.com/touchless-elevators
13
47
49
https://facilityexecutive.com/2020/11/why-the-time-is-right-to-consider-
12
touchless-elevators/
36
43
https://www.engadget.com/kinetic-touchless-stuck-design-110537124.html
25
https://pom-tec.com/products/touchless-elevators/
418
34
https://pincuselevator.com/touchless-elevator-technology/
17
22
50
https://www.ultraleap.com/company/news/blog/touchless-elevator/
44

37
42
52
51
54

23
26

APPENDIX A

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COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
30
53

24
38
48
57
A.1 ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER
157

31
ATMEGA8 is a 28 pin AVR microcontroller. Although we have many similar
39
55
microcontrollers, ATMEGA8 is popular because it is one of the cheapest
45
microcontrollers and provides many features in lesser pins. With a program
56
58 memory of 8Kbytes, the ATMEGA8 application is very versatile. With various
POWER SAVING modes, it can work on MOBILE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS. With its
20
59 compact size, it can be put on many small boards. With a Watchdog timer to
16
18
27
reset under error, it can be used on systems with minimal human interference.
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32
These features added together in one controller make the ATMEGA8 popular.
10

33
46

28
40
Fig.A.1 Atmega8 PIN diagram
11
21
A.1.1 PIN DIAGRAM
13
47
49

12 1
The key feature of the Atmega8 Microcontroller is that the entire
36
43
microcontroller pins sustenance two signals except for 5-pins. The Atmega8
25
60
microcontroller contains 28 pins where pins 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 are
418
34
used for port B, Pins 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 1 are used for port C, and pins 2,
17
22
50
3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 are used for port D
44

37
42
52
51
54
Pin -1 is the RST (Reset) pin, and applying a low-level signal for a time lengthier
23
26
than the minimum pulse span will create a RESET.
Pin-2 & pin-3 are used in USART for serial communication

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Pin-4 & pin-5 are used as exterior interrupts. One will trigger when an interrupt
35
ag bit of the status register is set, & the other will activate as long as the
30
53
intrude condition succeeds.
24
38
48
57
Pin-9 & pin-10 are used as timer counters oscillators and an external oscillator
157
where the crystal is linked directly with the two pins. Pin-10 is used for low-
31
frequency crystal oscillators or crystal oscillators. If the interior attuned RC
39
55
oscillator is used as the CLK source & the asynchronous timer is allowable,
45
61
these pins can be used as a timer oscillator pin.
56
58 Pin-19 is used as a Master CLK o/p, slave CLK i/p for the SPI channel.
62
Pin-18 is used as Master CLK i/p, slave CLK o/p.
20
59 Pin-17 is used as Master data o/p, slave data i/p for the SPI-channel. It is used
16
18
27
as an i/p when authorized by a slave & is bidirectional when permissible by the
199
32
64
63
master. This pin can also be used as an o/p relate with match o/p, which helps
10
as an external o/p for the timer/counter.
33
46
Pin-16 is used as a slave choice i/p. It can also be used as a timer or counter
28
40
65
one moderately by spacing the PB2-pin as an o/p.
11
21
Pin-15 can be used as an external o/p of the timer or counter compare match
13
47
49
"A."
12
66
Pin-23 to Pins28 have been used for ADC (digital value of analog input)
36
43
channels. Pin-27 can also be used as a serial interface CLK & pin-28 can be
25
60
used as serial interface data.
418
34
Pin-12 and pin-13 are used as an Analog Comparator i/ps.
17
22
50
Pin-6 and pin-11 are used as timer/counter sources.
44

37
42
52
51
54
A.1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
23
26

67
The Atmega AVR Microcontroller architecture includes the following blocks.

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Memory: It has 1Kbyte Internal SRAM, 8 Kb of Flash program memory, and 512
30
53
Bytes of EEPROM.
24
38
48
57

157
I/O Ports: It has three ports, namely port-B, port-C, and port-D, and 23 I/O lines
31
can be attained from these ports.
39
55

45
61
Interrupts: The two External Interrupt sources are located at port D. Nineteen
56
58 different interrupts vectors subsidiary nineteen events produced by internal
62
peripherals.
20
59

16
18
27
Timer/Counter: There are 3-Internal Timers accessible, eight bit-2, 16 bit-1,
199
32
64
63
68
giving many operating modes & subsidiary internal/external clocking.
10

33
46
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI): ATmega8 microcontroller holds three
28
40
65
integrated communication devices. One of them is an SPI; 4-pins are assigned
11
21
to the microcontroller to implement this communication system.
13
47
49

12
66 2 3
USART: USART is one of the maximum powerful communication solutions.
36
43
69
Microcontroller ATmega8 provisions both synchronous & asynchronous data
25
60
transmission schemes. It has three pins allocated for that. In many
418
34
communication projects, the USART module is extensively used for
17
22
50
communication with PC-Microcontroller.
44

37
42
52
51
54
Two-Wire Interface (TWI): TWI is an alternative communication device present in
23
26
the ATmega8 microcontroller. It authorities designers to set up a
67
communication b/n two devices using two wires along with a mutual GND

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connection; as the o/p of the TWI is prepared using open collector o/ps,
35
consequently external pull-up resistors are obligatory to make the circuit.
30
53
Analog Comparator: This module is integrated into the integrated circuit that
24
38
48
57
offers a difference facility between two voltages linked to the two inputs of the
707
15
comparator concluded External pins associated with the microcontroller.
31

39
55
ADC: Inbuilt ADC (analog to digital converter) can alter an analog i/p signal into
45
61
digital data of the 10-bit resolution. For a maximum of the low-end application,
56
58 this much resolution is suf cient.
62

20
59

16
18
27

199
32
64
63
68
Fig.A.2 Atmega8 Block diagram
10

33
46
A.2 ARDUINO
28
40
65
Arduino is an open-source devices stage subject to easy-to-use gear and
11
21
programming. Arduino sheets can understand inputs - light on a sensor, a
13
47
49
nger on a catch, or a Twitter message - and transform it into a yield - initiating
12
66
an engine, turning on a LED, appropriating something on the web. You can
36
43
69
direct your board by sending a lot of rules to the microcontroller on the board.
25
60
To do so, you utilize the Arduino programming language (in light of Wiring) and
41
34
718 the Arduino Software (IDE), given Processing. The Arduino Uno is an open-
17
22
50
source microcontroller board dependent on the Microchip ATmega328P
44
microcontroller and created by Arduino. Cc. The board is out tted with sets of
37
42
52
51
54
computerized and simple information/yield (I/O) sticks that might be interfaced
23
26
to different extension sheets (shields) and different circuits.
67
A.2.1 Arduino Uno

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Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on an 8-bit ATmega328P
35
73
microcontroller. Along with ATmega328P, it consists of other components such
30
53
as crystal oscillator, serial communication, voltage regulator, etc., to support
24
38
48
57
the microcontroller. Arduino Uno has 14 digital input/output pins (out of which
707
15
six can be used as PWM outputs), six analog input pins, a USB connection, A
31
Power barrel jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
39
55
74
A.2.1.1 How to use Arduino Board
45
61
The 14 digital input/output pins can be used as input or output pins by using
56
58 pinMode(), digitalRead() and digitalWrite() functions in Arduino programming.
62
75
Each pin operates at 5V and can provide or receive a maximum of 40mA
20
59 current, and has an internal pull-up resistor of 20-50 KOhms which are
16
18
27
disconnected by default. Out of these 14 pins, some pins have speci c
199
32
64
63
68
functions as listed below:
10
Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx): Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit TTL
33
46
serial data. They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to
28
40
65
TTL serial chip.
11
21
External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be con gured to trigger an
13
47
49
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
12
66
PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9, and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output using
36
43
69
analogWrite() function.
25
60
SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13 (SCK): These pins are used for SPI
41
34
718 communication.
17
22
50
In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with a built-in LED; when pin 13 is
44
HIGH – the LED is on, and when pin 13 is LOW, it's off.
37
42
52
51
54
Along with 14 Digital pins, there are six analog input pins, each of which
23
26
76
provides 10 bits of resolution, i.e., 1024 different values. They measure from 0
67
77

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to 5 volts, but this limit can be increased using the AREF pin with analog
35
73
Reference() function.
30
53
78
Analog pin 4 (SDA) and pin 5 (SCA) also used for TWI communication using the
24
38
48
57
Wire library.
707
15
Arduino Uno has a couple of other pins, as explained below:
31
AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with
39
55
74
analogReference() function.
45
61
Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW resets the microcontroller.
79
56
58 A.2.1.2 Communication
62
75
Arduino can be used to communicate with a computer, another Arduino board,
20
59 or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328P microcontroller provides UART TTL
16
18
27
(5V) serial communication, which can be done using digital pin 0 (Rx) and digital
199
32
64
63
68
pin 1 (Tx). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication
10
over USB and appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The
33
46
ATmega16U2 rmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no external
28
40
65
driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf le is required. The Arduino
11
21
software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent
13
47
49
to and from the Arduino board. There are two RX and TX LEDs on the Arduino
12
66
board, ash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB
36
43
69
connection to the computer (not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A
25
60
SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of Uno's digital
41
34
718 pins. The ATmega328P also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The
17
22
50
Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify the use of the I2C bus.
44

37
42
52
51
54
Fig.A.3 Arduino UNO Board
23
26
76

67
77
80
A.2.1.3 Arduino Pin Description

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Pin Category
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73
Pin Name
30
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78
Details
24
38
48
57
Power
707
15
Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND
31
Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when using an external power source.
39
55
74
5V: Regulated power supply used to power microcontroller and other
45
61
components on the board.
81
56
79
58 3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by the onboard voltage regulator. The maximum
62
75
current draw is 50mA.
20
59 GND: ground pins.
16
18
27
Reset
199
32
64
63
68
Reset
10
Resets the microcontroller.
33
46
Analog Pins
28
40
65
A0 – A5
11
21
Used to provide analog input in the range of 0-5V
13
47
49
Input/Output Pins
12
66
Digital Pins 0 - 13
36
43
69
82
It can be used as input or output pins.
25
60
Serial
41
34
718 0(Rx), 1(Tx)
17
22
50
Used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.
44
External Interrupts
37
42
52
51
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2, 3
23
26
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To trigger an interrupt.
67
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PWM

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3, 5, 6, 9, 11
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Provides 8-bit PWM output.
30
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SPI
24
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10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK)
707
15
Used for SPI communication.
31
Inbuilt LED
39
55
74
13
45
61
To turn on the inbuilt LED.
81
56
79
58 TWI
62
75
A4 (SDA), A5 (SCA)
20
59 Used for TWI communication.
16
18
27
AREF
199
32
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68
AREF
10
To provide a reference voltage for input voltage.
33
46

28
40
65
Table A.1 Arduino Pin Description
11
21

13
47
49

12
66

36
43
69
82

25
60
A.2.1.4 Arduino Uno Technical Speci cations
41
34
718

17
22
50
Microcontroller
44
83
ATmega328P – 8-bit AVR family microcontroller
37
42
52
51
54
Operating Voltage
23
26
76
5V
67
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Recommended Input Voltage

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7-12V
35
73
Input Voltage Limits
30
53
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6-20V
24
38
48
57
Analog Input Pins
707
15
6 (A0 – A5)
31
Digital I/O Pins
39
55
74
14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)
45
61
DC Current on I/O Pins
81
56
79
58 40 mA
62
75
DC Current on 3.3V Pin
20
59 50 mA
16
18
27
Flash Memory
199
32
64
63
68
32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Bootloader)
10
SRAM
33
46
2 KB
28
40
65
EEPROM
11
21
1 KB
13
47
49
Frequency (Clock Speed)
12
66
16 MHz
36
43
69
82
Table A.2 Arduino Technical Speci cation
25
60

41
34
718 Fig.A.4 Arduino Pin Diagram
17
22
50
84
A.2.1.5 Software
44
83
Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is required to program the
37
42
52
51
54
Arduino Uno board.
23
26
76
85
A.2.1.6 Programming Arduino
67
77
80

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Once Arduino IDE is installed on the computer, connect the board with a
35
73
86
computer using a USB cable. Open the Arduino IDE and choose the correct
30
53
78
87
board by selecting Tools>Boards>Arduino/Genuine Uno, and choose the correct
24
38
48
57
port by selecting Tools>Port. Arduino Uno is programmed using Arduino
707
15
programming language based on Wiring.
31
A.2.1.7 Applications
39
55
74
Prototyping of Electronics Products and Systems
45
61
Multiple DIY Projects.
88
56
79
81
58 Easy to use for beginner-level DIYers and makers.
62
75
Projects requiring Multiple I/O interfaces and communications.
20
59

16
18
27
A.3 IR SENSOR
199
32
64
63
68
89
This multipurpose infrared sensor from Easy Electronics can be used for
10
obstacle sensing, line sensing robotics, and an encoder sensor. It provides a
33
46
digital output of 1 or 0 when an object is placed in front of the sensor with logic
28
40
65
zero (0V) output. Get noti ed whether the device receives enough power with
11
21
the inbuilt LED indicators, and start experimenting with your ideas!
13
47
49
s
12
66
Fig A.5 IR Sensor
36
43
69
82

25
60
90
A.3.1 ONBOARD LEDS
41
34 4
718 Onboard LEDs indicate if the module is connected properly and indicate when
17
22
50
84
threshold values are touched. This makes the sensors great for DIY projects
44
83
and Arduino beginners to start experimenting with various ideas.
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
76
85
A.3.2 OPERATING VOL
67
77
80

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A positive tie power pin should be connected to VCC (or +5V), and the ground
35
73
86
pin should be connected to the GND (or 0V) of the microcontroller.
30
53
78
87

24
38
48
57

707
15
A.4 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC
31

39
55
74
Voltage regulators are very public in electronic circuits. They deliver a constant
45
61
output voltage for a diverse input voltage. In our case, the 7805 voltage
88
56
79
81
58 regulator is an iconic regulator IC that nds its use in most of the projects. The
62
75
name 7805 signi es two meanings, 78 means that it is a + ve voltage regulator,
20
59 and 05 means that it delivers 5V. So our 7805 regulator IC will provide a positive
16
18
27
+ 5V voltage as output.
199
32
64
63
68
89

10
7805 as positive + 5V Voltage Regulator
33
46

28
40
65
This is a distinctive application circuit of the 7805 IC. We just need two
11
21
capacitors of vale 33 uf and 0.1 uf to develop this IC working.
13
47
49

12
66

36
43
69
82
Fig A.6 7805 IC as +ve regulator
25
60
90

41
34
718 The input capacitor 0.33 uF is a ceramic capacitor that pacts with the input
17
22
50
84
inductance problem. The output capacitor 0.1 uF is a ceramic capacitor that
44
83
enhances the stability of the circuit. These capacitors should be positioned
37
42
52
51
54
close to the terminals for them to work effectively. Also, they both should be of
23
26
76
85
the ceramic type since ceramic capacitors are much faster than electrolytic.
67
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80

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7805 as adjustable output Regulator
35
73
86

30
53
78
87
This IC can also perform as an adjustable output voltage regulator, which
24
38
48
57
means we can also control the output voltage for our desired value using the
707
15
following circuit.
31

39
55
74
7805 as Output Regulator
45
61

91
56
79
81
88
58 The input voltage can be anywhere between 9V to 25V, and the output voltage
62
75
can be tuned using the value of resistance R1 & R2. The value can be
20
59 considered using the below formulations.
16
18
27

199
32
64
63
68
89
A.5 LM358 VOLTAGE COMPARATOR IC
10

33
46
92 5
LM358 is a dual op-amp IC integrated with two op-amps powered by a common
28
40
65
power supply. It can be considered one-half of the LM324 Quad op-amp, which
21
11 6
93 contains four op-amps with a common power supply. The differential input
13
47
49
94 voltage range can be equal to that of the power supply voltage. The default
12
66
input offset voltage is very low, which is of magnitude 2mV. The typical supply
36
43
69
82
current is 500uA, independent of the supply voltage range and a maximum
25
60
90
current of 700uA. The operating temperature ranges from 0˚C to 70˚C at
41
34
718 ambient, whereas the maximum junction temperature can be up to 150˚C.
17
22
50
84

44
83
Fig A.7 LM358 IC
37
42
52
51
54

23
26
76
85
A.5.1 LM358 PIN Con guration
67
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Pin Number
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Pin Name
30
53
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87
Description
24
38
48
57
1
707
15
OUTPUT1
31
The output of Op-Amp 1
39
55
74
2
45
61
INPUT1-
91
56
79
81
88
58 Inverting Input of Op-Amp 1
62
75
3
20
59 INPUT1+
16
18
27
Non-Inverting Input of Op-Amp 1
199
32
64
63
68
89
4
10
VEE, GND
33
46
92
Ground or Negative Supply Voltage
28
40
65
5
21
11
93 INPUT2+
13
47
49
94 Non-Inverting Input of Op-Amp 2
12
66
6
36
43
69
82
INPUT2-
25
60
90
Inverting Input of Op-Amp 2
41
34
718 7
17
22
50
84
OUTPUT2
44
83
The output of Op-Amp 2
37
42
52
51
54
8
23
26
76
85
VCC
67
77
80
Positive Supply Voltage

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35
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87
APPENDIX B
24
38
48
57

707
15
PROGRAM
31

39
55
74

45
61

91
56
79
81
88
58

62
75

20
59

16
18
27

199
32
64
63
68
89

10

33
46
92

28
40
65

21
11
93

13
47
49
94

12
66

36
43
69
82

25
60
90

41
34
718

17
22
50
84

44
83

37
42
52
51
54

23
26
76
85

67
77
80

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37
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51
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23
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67
77
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1420.
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35
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21. Frost and Stutt in England. It was Elevator - Wikipedia Originality
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62
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33
46
92
patented a method

2825.
40
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21
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13
47
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1226.
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25
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41
34
718 Miles of Duluth, Minnesota, patented
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17
22
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37
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52
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54 ator

23
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67
77
80 microcontroller includes the Harvard Microcontroller Architecture and
architecture that works ...

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72 https://www.elprocus.com/avr-
atmega8-microcontroller-
35
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30
53
78
87
29. microcontroller belongs to the AVR ATmega8 AVR MicroController - Originality
24
38
48
57 family of microcontroller developed javatpoint
in 1996. It is built on RISC (Reduced https://www.javatpoint.com/atme
707
15
Instruction Set Computer) ga8-avr-microcontroller
architecture. Their main advantage is
31
it
39
55
74
30. Passive An RFID tag without a RFID Readers Speci cations | Originality
45
61
battery. When radio waves from the Engineering360
91
56
79
81
88
reader reach the chip's antenna, it https://www.globalspec.com/Spe
58
creates a magnetic eld. The tag cSearch/SearchForm/data_acquis
62
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put_devices/r d_readers
20
59

16
18
27
31. information stored on the chip. Semi- RFID Readers Speci cations | Originality
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199
32
64
63
68
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semi-passive tags sleep until they put_devices/r d_readers
33
46
92 are woken up by a signal from the
reader, which conserves battery life.
28
40
65
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21
11
93
32. a signal to a reader. Active tags can RFID Readers Speci cations | Originality
13
47
49
94 be read from 100 feet or more away. Engineering360
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36
43
69
82 ition_signal_conditioning/data_in
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25
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41
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17
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37
42
52
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23
26
76
85
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67
77
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equipment employing serial binary https://www.globalspec.com/Spe
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29
72 balanced serial interface for the ition_signal_conditioning/data_in
transmission of digital data. It was put_devices/r d_readers
35
73
86 designed for greater distances and
higher Baud rates than RS232.
30
53
78
87
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24
38
48
57
35. immunity to noise. The difference RFID Readers Speci cations | Originality
707
15
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62
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36. Logic: All products with ANY of the Scrubbers Speci cations | Originality
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16
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199
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3337.
46
92 RELAY MODULE A power relay What is a Power Relay Module | Originality
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28
40
65
https://www.geppowerproducts.c
21
11 om/standard-products/power-
93
distribution-fuse-relay-holders-
13
47
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12
66
38. a low reluctance path for magnetic What is a Power Relay Module | Originality
36
43
69
82 ux, a movable iron armature, and Relay Modules
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41
34
718 fuse-blocks/relay-modules/
17
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50
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39. in the magnetic circuit when the What is a Power Relay Module | Originality
44
83 relay is de-energized. While in this Relay Modules
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37
42
52
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54 contacts is closed while the other om/standard-products/power-
distribution-fuse-relay-holders-
23
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76
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67
77
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om/standard-products/power-
35
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86 distribution-fuse-relay-holders-
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30
53
78
87

2441.
38
48
57 GEP Power Products is the industry What is a Power Relay Module | Originality
leader in high power relay module Relay Modules
707
15
design https://www.geppowerproducts.c
om/standard-products/power-
31
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39
55
74 fuse-blocks/relay-modules/

45
61
42. GEP's power relay modules are What is a Power Relay Module | Originality
91
56
79
81
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58
high power https://www.geppowerproducts.c
62
75 om/standard-products/power-
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20
59 fuse-blocks/relay-modules/
16
18
27
43. Equipped with 3.1mm screw holes for 4-Channel 5V Relay Module – Originality
199
32
64
63
68
89 easy installation Solarbotics Ltd.
https://solarbotics.com/product/5
10 2266/
33
46
92
44. 75 x 55 x 19.3mm (2.95 x 2.16 x 0.76 4-Channel 5V Relay Module – Originality
28
40
65 Solarbotics Ltd.
https://solarbotics.com/product/5
21
11
93 2266/
13
47
49
94
45. Pin No. Pin Function Description 1 7805 Voltage Regulator IC Pin Originality
12
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36
43
69
82 voltage is given in technology-trends/learn-
electronics/7805-ic-voltage-
25
60
90
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41
34
718
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17
22
50
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44
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37
42
52
51
54
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23
26
76
85 taken out at this pin of the IC
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67
77
80

47. In nearly all electrical networks and The Practical Applications of Logic Originality
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29
72 https://www. ndlay.edu/of ces/a
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35
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30
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24
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39
55 core. The ends of the winding are Construction of wire wound Originality
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45
61 https://www.polytechnichub.com/
construction-wire-wound-
91
56
79
81
88
58 resistor/
62
75
49. The stator is the stationary portion of Motor/Generator | UCSC Physics Originality
20
59 the motor; Demonstration Room
https://ucscphysicsdemo.sites.uc
16
18
27 sc.edu/physics-5c6c-
demos/electromagnetism/motor-
199
32
64
63
68
89
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50. IR LED Transmitter IR LED emits light IR Sensor Module Pinout, Originality
33
46
92 in the range of Infrared frequency, Features & Datasheet
https://components101.com/sens
28
40
65
ors/ir-sensor-module
21
11
93
51. IR LEDs have a light-emitting angle of Bidirectional Visitor Counter with Originality
13
47
49
94 approx. 20-60 degrees and Light Control using Arduino
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12
66
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36
43
69
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25
60
90

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41
34
718
range at which Features & Datasheet
17
22
50
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ors/ir-sensor-module
44
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37
42
52
51
54
53. The 5 VDC supply input is given to the IR Sensor Module Pinout, Originality
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23
26
76
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ors/ir-sensor-module
67
77
80

54. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR A crystal What is a crystal oscillator? - Originality

oscillator is an electronic oscillator Electrovo

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14
29
72 circuit https://electrovo.com/crystal-
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35
73
86

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53
78
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24
38
48
57 such as counters, signal generators, https://electrovo.com/crystal-
oscillator/
707
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https://github.com/tprlab/pitanq-
39
55
74 prod/
45
61
57. ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER ATMega8 Microcontroller Pin Originality
91
56
79
81
88
58 ATMEGA8 is a 28 pin AVR Diagram, Con guration ...
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62
75 many similar microcontrollers, ocontrollers/atmega8-avr
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20
59 of the cheapest
16
18
27
58. ATMEGA8 application is very Atmega8, For Embedded, 8 Bit, Rs Originality
199
32
64
63
68
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33
46
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21
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47
49 features added together in one ocontrollers/atmega8-avr
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12
66 popular.

36
43
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25
60
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41
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17
22
50
84 RST (Reset) pin, and applying a
44
83
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37
42
52
51
54 used as a Master CLK o/p, slave CLK Microcontroller Architecture and
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23
26
76
85 https://www.elprocus.com/avr-
atmega8-microcontroller-
67
77
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architecture-applications/

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1462.
29
72 Pin-18 is used as Master CLK i/p, Introduction To Atmega8 Originality
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35
73
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30
53
78
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24
38
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57 architecture-applications/

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39
55
74 ads/en/DeviceDoc/mic38300.pdf

45
61
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91
56
79
81
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62
75 can also be used as a timer or https://www.elprocus.com/avr-
atmega8-microcontroller-
20
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16
18
27
65. the PB2-pin as an o/p. Pin-15 can be Introduction To Atmega8 Originality
199
32
64
63
68
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33
46
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28
40
65
66. used for ADC (digital value of analog Introduction To Atmega8 Originality
21
11
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13
47
49
94 28 can be used as serial interface https://www.elprocus.com/avr-
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12
66
an Analog Comparator i/ps. Pin-6 and architecture-applications/
36
43
69
82 pin-11 are used as timer/counter
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25
60
90

67. The Atmega AVR Microcontroller ATMega 8 – 8-bit AVR Originality

41
34
718
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17
22
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44
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37
42
52
51
54 ports, namely port-B, port-C, and
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23
26
76
85

6768.
77
80 internal/external clocking. Serial Introduction To Atmega8 Originality
Peripheral Interface (SPI): ATmega8 Microcontroller Architecture and
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29
72 integrated communication devices. https://www.elprocus.com/avr-
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35
73
86 architecture-applications/
30
53
78
87
69. both synchronous & asynchronous Introduction To Atmega8 Originality
24
38
48
57 data transmission schemes. It has Microcontroller Architecture and
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31
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39
55
74
70. External pins associated with the Introduction To Atmega8 Originality
45
61
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91
56
79
81
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62
75 of the 10-bit resolution. For a atmega8-microcontroller-
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20
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16
18
27
71. The Arduino Uno is an open-source Arduino Uno - Wikipedia Originality
199
32
64
63
68
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33
46
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72. Arduino Uno is a microcontroller Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
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28
40
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21
11
93 ocontrollers/arduino-uno
13
47
49
94
73. other components such as crystal Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
12
66 oscillator, serial communication, Speci cations, Pin Con guration
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36
43
69
82 microcontroller. Arduino Uno has 14 https://components101.com/micr
digital input/output pins (out of ocontrollers/arduino-uno
25
60
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41
34
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74. How to use Arduino Board The 14 Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
17
22
50
84 digital input/output pins can be used Speci cations, Pin Con guration
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44
83
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37
42
52
51
54
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23
26
76
85
75. at 5V and can provide or receive a Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
67
77
80
maximum of 40mA current, and has Speci cations, Pin Con guration
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29
72 default. Out of these 14 pins, some https://components101.com/micr
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35
73
86 below: Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx):
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30
53
78
87
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24
38
48
57
76. 10 bits of resolution, i.e., 1024 Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
707
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39
55
74 ocontrollers/arduino-uno

45
61
77. AREF pin with analog Reference() Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
91
56
79
81
88
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58
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62
75 communication using https://components101.com/micr
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20
59

16
18
27
78. Wire library. Arduino Uno has a Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
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199
32
64
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33
46
92 resets the microcontroller.
28
40
65
79. Communication Arduino can be used Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
21
11
93 to communicate with a computer, Speci cations, Pin Con guration
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13
47
49
94 microcontrollers. The ATmega328P https://components101.com/micr
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12
66
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36
43
69
82 be done using digital pin 0 (Rx) and
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25
60
90 the board channels this…

41
34
718
80. Pin Description Pin Category Pin Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
17
22
50
84 Name Details Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, Speci cations, Pin Con guration
GND Vin: Input voltage to Arduino ...
44
83 when using an external power https://components101.com/micr
source. 5V: Regulated power supply ocontrollers/arduino-uno
37
42
52
51
54 used to power microcontroller and
other components on the board.
23
26
76
85
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67
77
80
81. maximum current draw is 50mA. Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
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72 Resets the microcontroller. Analog ...
Pins A0 – A5 Used to provide analog https://components101.com/micr
35
73
86 input in the range of 0-5V ocontrollers/arduino-uno
Input/Output Pins Digital Pins 0 - 13
30
53
78
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2482.
38
48
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Serial 0(Rx), 1(Tx) Used to receive and Speci cations, Pin Con guration
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31
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39
55
74 PWM output. SPI 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI),
12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK) Used for SPI
45
61 communication. Inbuilt LED 13 To
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91
56
79
81
88
58

7583.
62 AVR family microcontroller Operating Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
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20
59 Voltage 7-12V Input Voltage Limits 6- ...
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16
18
27 Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 ocontrollers/arduino-uno
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199
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63
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33
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84. Software Arduino IDE (Integrated Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
28
40
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47
49
94 ocontrollers/arduino-uno

12
66
85. Programming Arduino Once Arduino Arduino Uno Pin Diagram, Originality
36
43
69
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25
60
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41
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44
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https://components101.com/micr
37
42
52
51
54 ocontrollers/arduino-uno
23
26
76
85
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67
77
80 selecting Tools>Port. Arduino Uno is Speci cations, Pin Con guration
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72 programming language based on https://components101.com/micr
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35
73
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53
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24
38
48
57 communications. ...
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31
89. This multipurpose infrared sensor Easy Electronics 2 Pcs IR Originality
39
55
74 from Easy Electronics can be used Proximity Sensor for line ...
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45
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robotics, and an encoder sensor. It s-Proximity-follower-Obstacle-
91
56
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when an object is placed in front of
62
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20
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16
18
27
90. ONBOARD LEDS Onboard LEDs Easy Electronics 2 Pcs IR Originality
199
32
64
63
68
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33
46
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28
40
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21
11
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36
43
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92. LM358 is a dual op-amp IC Simple 20 LED Vu Meter Using Originality
25
60
90
integrated with two op-amps LM3915 : 6 Steps - Instructables
41
34
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17
22
50
84 LM3915/

44
83
93. a common power supply. The IC LM358 Pinout, Description, Originality
37
42
52
51
54
differential input voltage range can Equivalents & Datasheet
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23
26
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85 c-lm358-pinout-details-
datasheet
67
77
80

94. power supply voltage. The default IC LM358 Pinout, Description, Originality
input offset voltage is very low, which Equivalents & Datasheet

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29
72 is of magnitude 2mV. The typical https://components101.com/ics/i
supply current is 500uA, independent c-lm358-pinout-details-
35
73
86 of the supply voltage range and a datasheet
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30
53
78
87
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24
38
48
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