Science The Air Around Us: Folio

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Folio

Science
The air around
Us

NAME:AFIQAH NURHABREYAH
CLASS:1 ARIF 2

CONTENTS
1.The compositon of air
2.The properties of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
3.air pollution
4.ozone layer
5.greenhouse effect

The composition of air


Nitrogen(78%)
oxygen(21%)
inert gases+other substances(0.97%)
carbon dioxide(0.03%)
The oxygen in the air allows the candle to
burn.The flame goes out when there is no more
oxygen.This is happen when about one-fifth of the
air is used up.This activity shows that about one-
fifth of the volume of air is consists of oxygen.

The properties of
oxygen and carbon
dioxide
properties oxygen Carbon
dioxide
colour colourless colourless
Odour Odourless Odourless

Solubility in water Slightly soluble Slightly soluble in


in water water
Reaction with Not soluble Very soluble in sodium
sodium hydroxide hydroxide(forms
sodium carbonate)
Effects on glowing Relights Burning splinter is
and burning splinter glowing extinguished.carbon
splinter. dioxide does not
support combustion
Effect on moist No effect on Changes moist blue
litmus paper moist blue and litmus paper to
red litmus red.carbon dioxide is
papers.oxygen acidic.
is neutral.
Effect on lime No effect Lime water turns
water cloudy.

Effect on hydrogen No effect Red colour turns


carbonate indicator yellow.carbon dioxide
is acidic.

.
Air pollution
Smog over Santiago

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that
cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural
environment into the atmosphere.

The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life
on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized
as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Pollutants
Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ozone concentration,
(6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides

An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the
environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In
addition, they may be natural or man-made.[1]

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are
substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon
monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level
ozone — one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted
directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to
the Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

 Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the
formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since
coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur
dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2,
forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the
environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high
temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume
downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula
NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
 Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It
is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood.
Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas
vital to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere.
 Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this
field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-
methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which
contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also
significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life
of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air
quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene
are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-
butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial
uses.

 Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or


fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast,
aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be
man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes,
dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human
activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the
globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account
for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased
levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,
altered lung function and lung cancer.

 Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause


cardiopulmonary disease.[2][3]

 Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.


 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products
currently banned from use.
 Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with
the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent
odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial
organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either
directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
 Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
 Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:


 Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a
portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog
does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are
acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine
with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent
of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the
stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical
reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the
atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by
human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a
constituent of smog.
 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

 A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in
USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
 A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to
environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because
of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range
transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have
potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas


Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified
into two major categories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel

 "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities


(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices

 "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of
sound etc.

 Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest
management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a
natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for
foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest
trees, thus renewing the forest.

 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

 Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not toxic; however,


it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an
asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation
may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement

 Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless,
odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of
radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can
accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is
the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
 Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Emission factors

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a
pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that
pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit
weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of
particulate emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of
emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply
averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be
representative of long-term averages.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air
pollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[4] The United Kingdom,
Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as
the European Environment Agency.[5][6][7][8][9]

Indoor air quality (IAQ)


Main article: Indoor air quality

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority
of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and
trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit
formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as
they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is
introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood
fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air,
inside and out[10]. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other
chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and
chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can
result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to
keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or
other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in
industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous
material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting
the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-
containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are
at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are
not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between
several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO),
these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form
of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to
asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates.
Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust
mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal
droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and
spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and
houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the
lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would
otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes
directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air
pollution.[11] "Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each
year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . ."[12] A
study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia
related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[13] Worldwide more deaths per year are
linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents.[citation needed] Published in 2005 suggests that
310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually.[citation needed] Direct causes of air pollution
related deaths include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases,
and respiratory allergies.[citation needed] The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in
diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000
fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900
fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States.[citation needed]

The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[14]
Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc.,
U.S.A., killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to
600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries.[citation needed] The
United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of
1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the
following months.[citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare
laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of
hundreds of civilian deaths.[citation needed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in
the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when
20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[15]

The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and
physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of
existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication
use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature
death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the
body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants
depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the
individual's health status and genetics.[citation needed]
A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los
Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800
people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air
pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is
considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which
average fewer than 2,000 per year [16].

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air
pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber
setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[17]
[18]
This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association
between particulate matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and
mortality.

Effects on cystic fibrosis

Main article: Cystic fibrosis

A study from 1999 to 2000 by the University of Washington showed that patients near and
around particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and
decrease in lung function.[19] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific
pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their
socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United States
in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency.[clarification needed] During the time of
the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. A trend was noticed that patients
living closer or in large metropolitan areas to be close to medical help also had higher level of
pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. With cystic
fibrosis patients already being born with decreased lung function everyday pollutants such as
smoke emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating
devices could add to the disintegration of lung function.[20]

Effects on COPD

Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include diseases such as chronic bronchitis,
emphysema, and some forms of asthma.[21]

A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293
London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns
with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck
drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects
exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea),
reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and
purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study
controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely
cause of the observed differences.[22]

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious
health hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer
mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.[23]

The Great Smog of 1952

Main article: Great Smog of 1952

The Great Smog of 1952 in London.

Early in December 1952, a cold fog descended upon London. Because of the cold, Londoners
began to burn more coal than usual. The resulting air pollution was trapped by the inversion
layer formed by the dense mass of cold air. Concentrations of pollutants, coal smoke in
particular, built up dramatically. The problem was made worse by use of low-quality, high-
sulphur coal for home heating in London in order to permit export of higher-quality coal,
because of the country's tenuous postwar economic situation. The "fog", or smog, was so
thick that driving became difficult or impossible.[24]. The extreme reduction in visibility was
accompanied by an increase in criminal activity as well as transportation delays and a virtual
shut down of the city. During the 4 day period of fog, at least 4,000 people died as a direct
result of the weather.[25]

Effects on children

Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children
living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as
well as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to ensure the youths' health are being
taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help
eliminate the “pea-soup” smog.[26] Research by the World Health Organization shows there is
the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic
world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include
Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in
2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not meet at least one of the
“criteria pollutants” laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards.[27] Those
pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation
they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution.

Health effects in relatively "clean" areas


Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be
substantial and costly. This is because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number
of people can potentially breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British
Columbia Lung Association showed that a 1% improvement in ambient PM2.5 and ozone
concentrations will produce a $29 million in annual savings in the region in 2010[28]. This
finding is based on health valuation of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidity) effects.

Ozone layer
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The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations
of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 93–99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which
is potentially damaging to life on earth.[1] Over 91% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is
present here.[1] It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from
approximately 13 km to 20 km above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and
geographically.[2] The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles
Fabry and Henri Buisson. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist
G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could
be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson
established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations which continues to operate
today. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the columnar density of ozone overhead,
is named in his honour.

[edit] Origin of ozone


Ozone-oxygen cycle in the ozone layer.

The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the
British physicist Sidney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by
ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them
into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with
unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is also unstable (although, in the
stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O2
and an atom of atomic oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle, thus
creating an ozone layer in the stratosphere, the region from about 10 to 50 km (32,000 to
164,000 feet) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained
in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 km, where
they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the
pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only a few millimeters thick.[citation needed]

[edit] Ultraviolet light and ozone

Levels of ozone at various altitudes and blocking of ultraviolet radiation.


UV-B energy levels at several altitudes. Blue line shows DNA sensitivity. Red line shows
surface energy level with 10% decrease in ozone

Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally
important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming
from the Sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these
are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B (315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm). UV-
C, which would be very harmful to humans, is entirely screened out by ozone at around
35 km altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn;
excessive exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer.
The ozone layer is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of
290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the
Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B reaches the surface. Most UV-A reaches the
surface; this radiation is significantly less harmful, although it can potentially cause genetic
damage.

[edit] Distribution of ozone in the stratosphere


The thickness of the ozone layer—that is, the total amount of ozone in a column overhead—
varies by a large factor worldwide, being in general smaller near the equator and larger
towards the poles. It also varies with season, being in general thicker during the spring and
thinner during the autumn in the northern hemisphere. The reasons for this latitude and
seasonal dependence are complicated, involving atmospheric circulation patterns as well as
solar intensity.

Since stratospheric ozone is produced by solar UV radiation, one might expect to find the
highest ozone levels over the tropics and the lowest over polar regions. The same argument
would lead one to expect the highest ozone levels in the summer and the lowest in the winter.
The observed behavior is very different: most of the ozone is found in the mid-to-high
latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres, and the highest levels are found in the
spring, not summer, and the lowest in the autumn, not winter in the northern hemisphere.
During winter, the ozone layer actually increases in depth. This puzzle is explained by the
prevailing stratospheric wind patterns, known as the Brewer-Dobson circulation. While most
of the ozone is indeed created over the tropics, the stratospheric circulation then transports it
poleward and downward to the lower stratosphere of the high latitudes. However in the
southern hemisphere, owing to the ozone hole phenomenon, the lowest amounts of column
ozone found anywhere in the world are over the Antarctic in the southern spring period of
September and October.

Brewer-Dobson circulation in the ozone layer.

The ozone layer is higher in altitude in the tropics, and lower in altitude in the extratropics,
especially in the polar regions. This altitude variation of ozone results from the slow
circulation that lifts the ozone-poor air out of the troposphere into the stratosphere. As this air
slowly rises in the tropics, ozone is produced by the overhead sun which photolyzes oxygen
molecules. As this slow circulation bends towards the mid-latitudes, it carries the ozone-rich
air from the tropical middle stratosphere to the mid-and-high latitudes lower stratosphere.
The high ozone concentrations at high latitudes are due to the accumulation of ozone at lower
altitudes.

The Brewer-Dobson circulation moves very slowly. The time needed to lift an air parcel from
the tropical tropopause near 16 km (50,000 ft) to 20 km is about 4–5 months (about 30 feet
(9.1 m) per day). Even though ozone in the lower tropical stratosphere is produced at a very
slow rate, the lifting circulation is so slow that ozone can build up to relatively high levels by
the time it reaches 26 km.

Ozone amounts over the continental United States (25°N to 49°N) are highest in the northern
spring (April and May). These ozone amounts fall over the course of the summer to their
lowest amounts in October, and then rise again over the course of the winter. Again, wind
transport of ozone is principally responsible for the seasonal evolution of these higher latitude
ozone patterns.

The total column amount of ozone generally increases as we move from the tropics to higher
latitudes in both hemispheres. However, the overall column amounts are greater in the
northern hemisphere high latitudes than in the southern hemisphere high latitudes. In
addition, while the highest amounts of column ozone over the Arctic occur in the northern
spring (March–April), the opposite is true over the Antarctic, where the lowest amounts of
column ozone occur in the southern spring (September–October). Indeed, the highest
amounts of column ozone anywhere in the world are found over the Arctic region during the
northern spring period of March and April. The amounts then decrease over the course of the
northern summer. Meanwhile, the lowest amounts of column ozone anywhere in the world
are found over the Antarctic in the southern spring period of September and October, owing
to the ozone hole phenomenon.
The greenhouse effect
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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A representation of the exchanges of energy between the source (the Sun), the Earth's
surface, the Earth's atmosphere, and the ultimate sink outer space. The ability of the
atmosphere to capture and recycle energy emitted by the Earth surface is the defining
characteristic of the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is caused by an atmosphere containing gases that absorb and emit
infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system, causing
heating at the surface of the planet or moon.[1][2] This mechanism is fundamentally different
from that of an actual greenhouse, which works by isolating warm air inside the structure so
that heat is not lost by convection. The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier
in 1824, first reliably experimented on by John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported
quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.[3]

The black body temperature of the Earth is 5.5 °C.[4] Since the Earth reflects about 28% of
incoming sunlight[5], in the absence of the greenhouse effect the planet's mean temperature
would be far lower - about -18 or -19 °C [6][7] instead of the much higher current mean
temperature, about 14 °C.[8]

Global warming, a recent warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere,[9] is believed
to be the result of a strengthening of the greenhouse effect mostly due to human-produced
increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases.[10]

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