Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College

Laboratory Manual

Microwave and RADAR Engineering

For

Final Year Students

Lab manual made by

Prof.S.D.Jadhav.

©JNEC,Aurangabad
 MGM’S
Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College
N-6, CIDCO, Aurangabad

Department of Electronics &Telecommunication

Vision of the Department:

To develop GREAT technocrats and to establish centre of excellence in the field of Electronics
and Telecommunications.

 Global technocrats with human values

 Research and lifelong learning attitude,
 Excellent ability to tackle challenges
 Awareness of the needs of society
 Technical expertise

Mission of the Department:

1. To provide good technical education and enhance technical competency by providing

good infrastructure, resources, effective teaching learning process and competent, caring
and committed faculty.
2. To provide various platforms to students for cultivating professional attitude and ethical
values.
3. Creating a strong foundation among students which will enable them to pursue their
career choice.
Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College

Technical Document
This technical document is a series of Laboratory manuals of Electronics & Telecommunication
and is a certified document of Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College. The care has been taken to
make the document error free but still if any error is found kindly bring it to the notice of subject
teacher and HOD.

Recommended by,

HOD

Approved by,

Principal
FOREWORD

It is my great pleasure to present this laboratory manual for Final year Engineering students for the
subject of Microwave and Radar Engineering, keeping in view the vast coverage required to visualize the
basic concepts of Microwave and Radar Engineering.

This lab manual provides a platform to the students for understanding the basic concepts of Microwave
and Radar Engineering. This practical background will help students to gain confidence in qualitative and
quantitative approach to Microwave and Radar Engineering.

Good Luck for your Enjoyable Laboratory Sessions.

HOD
SUBJECT INDEX

1. Do’s and Don’ts

2. Lab exercise:

1. Introduction to Microwave Components.

2. To plot mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

3. Study of Microwave TEE’s

4. Study of Gunn Diode Characteristics

5. Study of Isolator and Circulator

6. Study of Microwave Antennas

7. Introduction to RADAR

8. Derivation of RADAR range equation

3. Quiz on the subject.

4. Conduction of Viva-Voce Examination.

5. Evaluation and Marking Systems.

Do’s and Don’ts in Laboratory:

1. Do not handle any equipment before reading the instructions/Instruction manuals.

2. Apply proper voltage to the circuit as given in procedure.

3. Check CRO probe before connecting it.

4. Strictly observe the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor.

Instruction for Laboratory Teachers:

1. Submission related to whatever lab work has been completed should be done during the next lab
session.

2. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and evaluation patterns that
will benefit the sincere students.
 Experiment No.1
Introduction to Microwave components

AIM: - To study microwave components.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :-

Flanges, Twisted wave guide, wave guide tees, Directional Coupler, Attenuator, Isolators,
Circulators, Matched terminator, Slide screw tuner, Slotted Section, Tunable probe, Horn
antennas, Movable Short, Detector mount.

THEORY: - A pipe with any sort of cross- section that could be used as a wave guide or system
of conductors for carrying electromagnetic wave is called a wave guide in which the waves are
truly guided.

(1) FLANGES: - Flanges are used to couple sections of wave guide components. These flanges
are designed to have not only mechanical strength but also desirable electric characteristics.

(2) TWISTED WAVEGUIDE: - If a change in polarization direction is required, twisted section

may be used. It is also called rotator.

(3) WAVE GUIDE TEE: - Tees are junctions which are required to combine or split two signals
in a wave guide. Different type of tees are:-

(a) H - PLANE TEE: - All the arm of the H- plane Tee lies in the plane of the magnetic field
which divides among the arm. This is thus a current or parallel junction.

(b) E- PLANE TEE: - It lies in the plane of electric field. It is voltage or series junction. In this
signal is divided in to two parts having same magnitude but in opposite phase.

(c) MAGIC TEE: - If another arm is added to either of the T-junction. Then a hybrid T- junction
or magic tee is obtained. The arm three or four is connected to arm 1&2 but not to each other.

(4) DIRECTION COUPLER :- The power delivered to a load or an antenna can be

Measured using sampling technique in which a known fraction of the power is Measured so that
the total may be calculated. A number of coupling units used for such purpose are known as
directional coupler.

(5) ATTENUATORS: - It consists of a resistive wane inside the wave guide to absorb
microwave power according to its position with respect to side wall of the wave guide.
Attenuation will be maximum if the wane is placed at center.

(a) Fixed Attenuators: In this the position of resistive wane is fixed, it absorbs constant amount
of power.
(b) Variable Attenuators: - In this the position of resistive wane can be changed with the help of
micrometer.

(6) ISOLATORS: - Ferrite is used as the main material in isolator. Isolator is a microwave
device which allows RF energy to pass through in one direction with very little loss, while RF
power in the reverse direction is absorbed.

(7) CIRCULATORS: - A microwave circulator is a multi port junction device where the power
may flow in the direction from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, & so on...

(8) MATCHED TERMINATION: - A termination producing no reflected wave at any transverse

section of the wave guide. It absorbs all the incident wave. This is also equivalent to connecting
the line with its characteristic impedance.

(9) SLOTTED SECTION: - A length of wave guide in which a non radiating slot is cut on the
broader side. This is used to measure the VSWR.

(10) SLIDE SCREW TUNER:- A screw or probe inserted at the top of wave guide (parallel to E)
to develop susceptance the magnitude & sign of which is controlled by depth of penetration of
screw and it can be moved along the length of wave guide.

(11) H – PLANE BEND: - An H-plane bend is a piece of wave guide smoothly bends in a plane
parallel to magnetic field for the dominant mode (Hard bend).

(12) E – PLANE BEND: - An E-plane bend is a piece of wave guide smoothly bends in a plane
of electric field (Easy bend).

(13) HORN ANTENNAS: - The components which radiates & intercept EM energy is of course
the antenna. The open-ended wave guide, in which the open end is flared so that it looks like a
horn, is called horn antenna. There are several types of horns – Sectional E-plane horn, Sectional
H- plane horn and Pyramidal horn.

(14) MOVABLE SHORT: - It is adjustable load which moves along the length of wave guide
and adjusted to get SWR.

Note: Students are expected to draw diagrams of the above components.

Conclusions: Study of various microwave components has been made.

 Experiment No.2
MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON

AIM:- To study the Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:- Klystron Power Supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator,

Frequency meter, Variable Attenuator, Slotted section with Probe carriage, CRO, Movable Short.

THEORY :-

Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing velocity modulation. These electrons

move towards the repeller (i.e) the electrons leaving the cavity during the positive half cycle are
accelerated while those during negative half cycle are decelerated. The faster ones penetrate
further while slower ones penetrate lesser in the field of repeller voltage. But, faster electrons
leaving the cavity take longer time to return and hence catch up with slower ones. In the cavity
the electrons bunch and interact with the voltage between the cavity grids. It consists of an
electron gun producing a collimated electron beam. It bunches pass through grids at time the grid
potentials is such that electrons are decelerated they give by energy. The electrons are then
collected by positive cavity wall near cathode. To protect repeller from damage, repeller voltage
is applied before accelerating voltage.

PROCEDURE

i) Assemble the components as shown in fig.

ii) After following the necessary precautions, the Klystron Power Supply is switched ON.
iii) To obtain peak voltage, the attenuator is positioned at its minimum attenuation.
iv) Vary the repeller voltage from its maximum negative value and increase it in steps on N and
record output power and frequency.
v) The frequency is measured by tuning the basic frequency meter to have a dip in the output
voltage each time.
vi) The frequency meter is detuned before measuring the output power each time. vii) The mode
characteristics of Reflex Klystron is plotted. (i.e. Output Voltage Vs Repeller voltage and
Frequency Vs Repeller voltage)
BASIC PRECAUTIONS

1. During operation of Klystron, repeller does not carry any current and as such it may severely
be damaged by electron bombardment. To protect repeller from such damage, the repeller
negative voltage is always applied before anode voltage.

2. The repeller voltage should be varied in one direction to avoid hysteresis in klystrons.

3. The heater voltage should be applied first and cooling should be provided simultaneously after
some time other voltages should be applied taking precaution 1.

4. While measuring power, the frequency meter should be detained each time because there is a
dip in the output power when the frequency is tuned.

5. To avoid loading of the klystron an isolator/attenuation should invariably be used between

klystron and the rest of the set-up.

CALCULATIONS
 Figure 1.Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

MODE FREQUENCY(GHZ) Repeller OUTPUT

Voltage(V) VOLTAGE(V)
1

Conclusion: Thus the graph for various modes of reflex Klystron is plotted
 Experiment No.3

Study of Microwave TEE’s (E PLANE, H PLANE AND MAGIC TEE)

AIM :-To determine isolations, coupling coefficients and input VSWR’s for E and H plane
waveguide Tee and Magic Tee junctions.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Klystron power supply, Klystron with mount, isolator, variable attenuator, slotted section, Magic
Tee, Matched termination, detector mount, CRO.
THEORY
H Plane Tee
Figure shows the sketch of an H plane tee. It is clear from the sketch that an auxiliary waveguide
arm is fastened perpendicular to the narrow wall of a main guide, thus it is a three port device in
which axis of the auxiliary or side arm is parallel to the planes of the magnetic field of the main
of the main guide and the coupling from the main guide to the branch guide is by means of
magnetic fields. Therefore, it is also known as H plane tee.
The perpendicular arm is generally taken as input and other two arms are in shunt to the input
and hence it is also called as shunt tee. Because of symmetry of the tee; equivalent circuit of H
plane, when power enters the auxiliary arm, and the two main arms 1 and 2 are terminated in
identical loads, the power supplied to each load is equal and in phase with one another.
If two signals of equal amplitude and in same phase are fed into two main arms1 and 2, they will
be added together in the side arm. Thus H plane tee is an `adder’.
E Plane Tee
Figure 2 shows the sketch of the E plane tee. It is clear from the sketch of the E plane tee that an
auxiliary waveguide arm is fastened to the broader wall of the main guide. Thus it is also a three
port device in which the auxiliary arm axis in parallel to the plane of the electric fields of the
main guide, and the coupling from the main guide to the auxiliary guide is by means of electric
fields. Therefore, it is also known as E plane tee. It is clear that it causes load connected to its
branches to appear in series. So it is often referred to as a series tee.
As indicated in fig, the two main guide arms are symmetrical with respect to the auxiliary guide
arm. As such if power is fed from the auxiliary arm, it is equally distributed in the two arms 1
and 2 when they are terminated in equal loads. However as depicted in the field configuration,
the power flowing out in arm 1 is 180 out of phase to the one in arm 2. As such this tee is known
as `subtracter’ or `differencer’.
Magic Tee
An interesting type of T junction is the hybrid tee, commonly known as `magic tee’ which is
shown in fig. The device as can be seen from fig is a combination of the E arm and H plane tees.
Arm3, the H arm forms an H plane tee and arm 4, the E arm, forms an E plane tee in
combination with arms 1 and 2. The central lines of the two tees coincide and define the plane of
symmetry, that is, if arms 1 and 2 are of equal length, the part of structure on one side of the
symmetry plane shown by shaded area is the mirror image of that on the other. Arms1 and 2 are
sometimes called as the side or collinear arms.
Magic of the MAGIC Tee
The name `magic Tee’ is derived from the manner in which power divides among various arms.
If power is fed into arm3, the electric field divides equally between arms 1 and 2 and the fields
are in phase. Because of symmetry of the T junction, no net electric field parallel to the narrow
dimension of the waveguide is excited in arm 4. Thus no power is coupled in port 4. Reciprocity
demands no coupling in port 3 if power is fed in 4.
Another property that results from the symmetry of the junction is, if power is fed in E or H arm,
it is equally divided between arms 1 and 2.
Further, magic tee being combination of E and H plane tees, if power is fed from arms 1 and 2, it
is added in H arm (3) while is subtracted in E arm (4).
A simple E-H tee has disadvantage of not being matched when seen from E and H arms when
side arms are terminated in matched loads. The VSWR being > 2 the most commonly used
method to reduce VSWR is to introduce discontinuity such as port iris in or near T junction to
cancel out reflections occurring there in.
b) Coupling coefficient
Corresponding to the values of isolation, we can compute
The coupling coefficient by the formula

c) Input VSWR
The are three values of input VSWR associated with a tee, one for each arm. The VSWR of any
arm of a tee is the voltage standing wave ratio existing on a transmission line terminated by that
arm of the tee when the other two arm of the tee are terminated in matched loads.
Magic Tee Parameter:
The basic properties and associated quantities to be measured for a magic tee are defined as
follows:
Input VSWR

Corresponding to each port of a magic tee as load to the line, there is a value of VSWR. Thus
there are four values of VSWR. VSWR is defined as the ratio of maximum voltage to minimum
voltage of the standing waves existing on the line when one port of the tee terminates the line
while other three ports are terminated in matched loads.

Isolations
The isolation between E-and H-arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied
by the matched generator connected to E-arms (port-4), to the power detected in
H-arm (port-3) by a matched detector when collinear arms (1&2) are terminated
in matched loads. It is expressed in db.
 Experiment No.4
Study of Gunn Diode Characteristics

AIM: To plot I-V characteristics of Gunn Diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Gunn oscillator, Gunn power supply, PIN modulator, Isolator,
Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, Detector mount, Waveguide stands, SWR meter, Cables
and Accessories.
THEORY
GUNN Diodes (Transferred Electron Devices):
Gunn diodes are negative resistance devices which are normally used as low power oscillator at
microwave frequencies in transmitter and also as local oscillator in receiver front ends.
J B Gunn (1963) discovered microwave oscillation in Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium
phosphide (InP) and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These are semiconductors having a closely
spaced energy valley in the conduction band as shown in Figure for GaAs. When a dc voltage is
applied across the material, an electric field is established across it. At low E-field in the
material, most of the electrons will be located in the lower energy central valley Γ. At higher E-
field, most of the electrons will be transferred in to the high-energy satellite L and X valleys
where the effective electron mass is larger and hence electron mobility is lower than that in the
low energy Γ valley. Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the mobility, the
conductivity and hence the current decreases with an increase in E-field or voltage in an
intermediate range, beyond a threshold value Vth as shown in Figure. This is called the
transferred electron effect and the device is also called ‘Transfer Electron Device (TED) or
Gunn diode’. Thus the material behaves as negative resistance device over a range of applied
voltages and can be used in microwave oscillators.

Fig.Multi valley conduction band energies of GaAs

 Fig.Current Voltage Characteristics of GaAs

The basic structure of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. below, which is of n-type GaAs
semiconductor with regions of high doping (n+). Although there is no junction this is called a
diode with reference to the positive end (anode) and negative end (cathode) of the dc voltage
applied across the device. If voltage or an electric field at low level is applied to the GaAs,
initially the current will increase with a rise in the voltage. When the diode voltage exceeds a
certain threshold value, Vth a high electric field (3.2 KV/m for GaAs) is produced across the
active region and electrons are excited from their initial lower valley to the higher valley, where
they become virtually immobile. If the rate at which electrons are transferred is very high, the
current will decrease with increase in voltage, resulting in equivalent negative resistance effect.
Since GaAs is a poor conductor, considerable heat is generated in the diode. The diode will be
bonded into a heat sink (Cu-stud).
The electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. below, where Cj and – Rj are
the diode capacitance and resistance, respectively, Rs includes the total resistance of lead, ohmic
contacts, and bulk resistance of the diode, Cp and Lp are the package capacitance and
inductance, respectively. The negative resistance has a value that typically lies in the range –5 to
–20 ohm.
 Fig.Constructional details and equivalent Circuit of Gunn Diode

Gunn Oscillator:
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn Diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case the oscillation
frequency is determined by cavity dimension than by the diode itself. Although Gun Oscillator
can be amplitude-modulated with the bias voltage, we have used separate PIN modulator through
PIN diode for square wave modulation.
Procedure:
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in the Fig.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for maximum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knob of Gunn Power Supply as below:
Meter Switch - ‘OFF’
Gunn bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
Pin bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
Pin Mod frequency - Any position
4. Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below:
Meter Switch - Normal
Input Switch - Low Impedance
Range db Switch - 40 db
Gain Control knob - Fully clockwise
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn Oscillator for required frequency of operation.
6. ‘ON’ the Gunn Power Supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan.
A. Voltage-current characteristics
1. Turn the meter switch of ‘Gunn power supply to voltage position.
2. Measure the Gunn diode Current Corresponding to the various voltage controlled by Gunn
bias knob through the panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10
volts.
3. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in Fig.
4. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.
NOTE: DONOT KEEP GUNN BIAS KNOB POSITION AT THRESHOLD POSITION FOR
MORE THAN 10-15 SECONDS. READING SHOULD BE OBTAINED AS FAST AS
POSSIBLE. OTHERWISE, DUE TO EXCESSIVE HEATING, GUNN DIODE MAY BURN.

Conclusion: Thus the characteristics of Gunn Diode are plotted.

 Experiment No.5
Study of Isolator and Circulator

FERRITE ISOLATORS AND CIRCULATORS

Ferrite isolators and circulators play a fundamental and valuable role in RF systems. They are
passive, ferrite devices that act as traffic conductors for RF energy in a system, routing signals
wherever a system designer needs them to go. Their ability to behave non-reciprocally (non-
reversible, allowing energy to pass in only one direction through the device) when RF energy is
applied to them is very important for a number of applications.

RF CIRCULATOR

An RF circulator can be thought of as a merry-go-round for RF energy. Energy of an appropriate

frequency that enters port 1 of the circulator (gets on the merry go round) will travel clockwise
until it reaches port 2, at which point it will exit the circulator (gets off the merry go round).
There is very little attenuation of the signal while it is inside the circulator. Likewise, energy
entering port 2 of the circulator will travel to port 3, and energy entering port 3 of the circulator
will travel to port 1.
 RF ISOLATOR

An RF isolator can be thought of as a diode for RF energy. An isolator is simply a circulator with
one of its ports terminated with a matched 50Ω load. The device has only 2 ports, and as a result,
has only one path for energy to flow without significant attenuation. Energy can only enter port 1
and travel to port 2. Any energy that enters port 2 will be routed to the matched termination on
port 3, and quickly dissipated as heat. This behavior heavily attenuates any signal entering port 2
before it reaches port 1, yet allows almost all of a signal entering port 1 to reach port 2.

ISOLATOR

Insertion Loss

Insertion loss describes how much energy is lost during the process of transferring a signal from
one port of an isolator/circulator to another. It is essentially a measure of how much energy it
costs a designer to use an isolator/circulator in their system. As stated above, isolators and
circulators are passive components, so a signal traveling through them has to do so using its own
energy. As in any real system, there will be some attenuation to the signal as it travels through
the device. This attenuation is called insertion loss, and it is measured in decibels (dB). The
higher the insertion loss, the more energy it costs to use the isolator or circulator. This energy is
converted into heat on its way through the device. However, insertion loss specifications are
relatively small, so the benefits a system receives from the use of an isolator/circulator are
usually worth the energy cost of implementing them. Typical insertion loss specifications are on
the order of 0.4 dB for octave bandwidth units, however the specification can be as small as 0.15
dB for narrowband units, and as high as 1.7 dB for certain broadband units.
From this calculation, the customer now knows that it will only cost 190 mW to use the isolator
in their system.

Isolation

Isolation is a measure of how well an isolator can carry out its main purpose of decoupling
energy entering port 2 from whatever is attached to port 1. An isolator has isolation because a
termination is attached to port 3 of the device, not a connector. This termination has an element
inside its shell called the load element. When matched well to the isolator, this element will
dissipate any energy it encounters as heat, stopping it in its tracks. Isolation is dependent on two
things primarily: the quality of the termination on the isolator, and the VSWR of port 3 on the
isolator.

With a quality termination attached (having a VSWR of about 1.05:1 or better) isolation of 24-26
dB can be achieved for narrowband units, and 15-20 dB can typically be achieved for broadband
units. One thing to remember is that your isolation will always be at least as high as your VSWR,
and sometimes higher. Just think about it: the spec for VSWR on port 3 will express the absolute
maximum amount of energy that will reflect off of port 3 when a 50Ω load is placed on it.
Isolation exists only because you have a 50Ω load on port 3, so it follows logically that you will
have isolation that is at least equivalent to that VSWR by default. Sometimes, a slight
improvement can be made to the isolation spec when a termination is added to the port, as it is
tuned by a technician to give the absolute highest isolation possible.

Conclusion:

Common applications for circulators are as simple duplexers and as high reflective power
handling isolators. Isolators are typically used to protect active components from distorting or
potentially damaging reflective power.
 Experiment No.6
Study of Microwave Antennas

AIM:To study different Microwave Antennas

In the world of communication basic need is an antenna. This experiment study deals with detail
information of antenna which are operated in the frequency range of GHZ. Antenna is an
important part of any wireless communication system as it converts the electronic signals into
Electromagnetic.

A. Antenna :- “An antenna is any device that converts electronic Signals to electromagnetic
waves (and vice versa)” Effectively with minimum loss of signals.

B.Radiation pattern:- The radiation pattern is the representation of radiation properties antenna as
a function of space coordinate.

C. Polarization: - Polarization of EM fields describes the time variations of the time harmonic
field vectors at a given points. In other words, it describes the way the direction and magnitude
of the field vectors change in time. Polarization is a time harmonic field characterizes.

D.Effective aperture:- The Effective Antenna aperture is the ratio of the available power at the
terminal of the antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna
which polarization matched of the antenna.

E. Directive gain of antenna:- The gain is also called as directive gain when the antenna radiates
power in a particular direction relative to the average power radiated by the Antenna. An antenna
has large aperture has more gain.

F. Directivity:- Directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a particular

direction and the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.

G. antenna Beam width:- It is the angle, measured in a horizontal plane, between the directions
at which the intensity of an electromagnetic beam. Large gain of antenna means smaller beam
width.
H. Antenna side lobes:- Antenna is not able to radiate all energy in single perfect direction. Some
of the energy can be radiated in other direction, often there are small peaks in the radiated energy
in different directions. This peak is referred as side lobes.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTENNA: Antenna can be classified on the basis of

1. Frequency 2. Apertures 3. Polarization 4. Radiation

This study represents the classification of antenna according to frequency.

A. Classification of antenna based on frequency

1. VLF antenna 2. LF antenna 3. HF antenna 4. VHF antenna 5. Microwave

antenna

Microwave antenna:- An antenna which is operated at microwave frequencies is known as

microwave antenna. There are various types of Microwave antenna. And they are used in various
applications.

Classification of microwave antenna

1. Micro strip Patch Antennas 2. Horn antennas 3. Parabolic antenna

4. Plasma antennas 5. MIMO antennas
1. Micro strip Patch Antennas:- The concept of micro strip antennas was first proposed by
Decamps in 1953. Howell and Munson developed the first practical antennas in the early 1970‟s.
Since then, extensive research and development of micro strip antennas and arrays, exploiting
their advantages such as low weight, low volume, low cost, conformal configuration,
compatibility with integrated circuits, and so have led to many diversified applications. The basic
configuration of a micro strip antenna is a metallic patch printed on a thin, grounded dielectric
substrate.

Originally, the element was fed with either a coaxial line through the bottom of the
substrate, of by a coplanar microstrip line. This latter type of excitation allows feed networks and
other circuitry to be fabricated on the same substrate as the antenna element, as in the corporate-
fed microstrip array. The microstrip antenna radiates a relatively broad beam broadside to the
plane of the substrate.

Structure of micro strip patch antennas:-Microstrip antennas are attractive due to their light
weight, conformability and low cost. These antennas can be integrated with printed strip-line
feed networks and active devices. This is a relatively new area of antenna engineering. The
radiation properties of micro strip structures have been known since the mid 1950’s.The
application of this type of antennas started in early 1970’s when conformal antennas were
required for missiles. Rectangular and circular micro strip resonant patches have been used
extensively in a variety of array configurations. A major contributing factor for recent advances
of microstrip antennas is the current revolution in electronic circuit miniaturization brought about
by developments in large scale integration. As conventional antennas is often bulky and costly
part of an electronic system, micro strip antennas based on photolithographic technology. In its
most fundamental form, a Microstrip Patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of a
dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in Fig.1. The patch is
generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape.
The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate

Fig. 1 Structure of Microstrip Patch antenna

Applications
1) Global Positioning Satellite 2) Paging
3) Cellular Phone 4) Personal Communication System.
2.Horn antennas:- The horn antenna is a natural evolution of the idea that any antenna
represents a region of transition between guided and propagating waves. Horn antennas are
highly suitable for frequencies where waveguides are the standard feed method, as they consist
essentially of a waveguide whose end walls are flared outwards to form a megaphone-like
structure. In the case illustrated, the aperture is maintained as a rectangle, but circular and
elliptical versions are also possible. The dimensions of the aperture are chosen to select an
appropriate resonant mode, giving rise to a controlled field distribution over the aperture. The
best patterns (narrow main lobe, low side lobes) are produced by making the length of the horn
large compared to the aperture width, but this must be chosen as a compromise with the overall
volume occupied. A common application of horn antennas is as the feed element for parabolic
dish antennas in satellite systems. A Schematic of the Experimental Setup of Plasma
Applications Horn antennas are extensively used at microwave frequencies when the power gain
needed is moderate. For high power gains other antennas like lines or parabolic reflectors etc are
preferred rather than horn antennas.

3.PARABOLIC ANTENNA:- A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector,

a curved surface with the cross-sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most
common form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The
main advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions similarly to a
searchlight or flashlight reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio
waves from one particular direction only. Parabolic antennas have some of the highest gains that
are they can produce the narrowest beam widths, of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow
beam widths, the parabolic reflector must be much larger than the wavelength of the radio waves
used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high frequency part of the radio spectrum, at UHF
and microwave frequencies, at which the wavelengths are small enough that conveniently-sized
reflectors can be used.

I. Applications Horn antennas are extensively used at microwave frequencies when the
power gain needed is moderate. For high power gains other antennas like lines or
parabolic reflectors etc are preferred rather than horn antennas.
II. Applications
1) Point-to-point communications
2) In applications such as microwave relay links that carry telephone and television
signals between nearby cities, WAN/LAN links for data communications, satellite
communications and spacecraft communication antennas.
 3) They are also used in radio telescopes
4.PLASMA ANTENNA:- A plasma antenna is a column of ionized gas in which the free
electrons emit, Absorb and reflect radio signals just as the free electrons in a metal antenna. The
plasma antenna can be made to appear and disappear in milliseconds. The plasma antenna has an
adjustable high frequency cut off. It can transmit and receive low frequency signals while not
interacting with high frequency signals. The plasma antenna can under special circumstances be
made operational in the plasma antenna under special circumstances has less thermal noise than a
metal antenna.

Applications:-

1. High speed digital communication 2. Radar systems 3. In radio antenna

4. 4G 5. RFID 6. Digital Home

5.MIMO:- In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO is the use of multiple

antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance. It is one of
several forms of smart antenna technology. Note that the terms input and output refer to the radio
channel carrying the signal, not to the devices having antennas.MIMO technology has attracted
attention in wireless communications, because it offers significant increases in data throughput
and link range without additional bandwidth or increased transmit power. It achieves this goal by
spreading the same total transmit power over the antennas to achieve an array gain that improves
the spectral efficiency or to achieve a diversity gain that improves the link reliability. Because of
these properties, MIMO is an important part of modern wireless communication standards. The
multiple antennas in MIMO systems can be exploited in two different ways. One is the creation
of a highly effective antenna diversity system; the other is the use of the multiple antennas for
the transmission of several parallel data streams to increase the capacity of the system
 Fig.Working of MIMO antenna

APPLICATIONS:-

1. WLAN – WiFi 802.11n 2. Mesh Networks 3.WMAN – WiMAX 802.16e 5 RFID

CONCLUSION: From the above elaborate study we conclude that a Microwave antenna is an
essential part of wireless communication. This study gives detail information about types of
antenna and applications. And also contains the basics of antenna. The antennas which are
mentioned here are being used in Radar, satellite, Radio, communication.
 Experiment No.7
Introduction to RADAR

Aim: To study basic block diagram of Radar.

Theory:

RADAR is an acronym of Radio Detection and Ranging. It is a system used to detect the object
and determine the range (determine the distance) azimuth (bearing) and height of the airborne
object. The term “radio” refers to the use of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in so called
radio wave portion of the spectrum, which covers a wide range from 10^4 KM to 01 cm.

Strong radio waves are transmitted by the antenna and a receiving antenna listens for reflected
echoes. By analyzing the reflected signal, the reflector can be located, and sometimes identified.
It can operate in darkness, haze, fog rain and snow. It has the ability to measure distance with
high accuracy in all weather conditions.

Basic principle of operation:

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the properties of radiated
electromagnetic energy:

1. Electromagnetic energy normally travels through space in a straight line, at a constant speed,
and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions.

2. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at approximately the speed of light.

3. Reflection of electromagnetic waves.

Block Diagram of Radar

TRANSMITTER
ANTENNA
DUPLEXER

RECIEVER DISPLAY

Fig 1.A simple Block Diagram

1. Transmitter

The transmitter creates the radio wave to be sent and modulates it to form the pulse train. The
transmitter must also amplify the signal to a high power level to provide adequate range. The
source of the carrier could be Klystron, TWT or magnetron.

2. Receiver

The receiver is sensitive to the range of frequencies being transmitted and provides amplification
of the returned signal. In order to provide greatest range, the receiver must be sensitive without
introducing excessive noise. The ability to discern a received signal from background noise
depends on the signal-to noise-ratio(S/N)

3. Duplexer

This is a switch that alternately connects the transmitter or receiver to the antenna. Its purpose is
to protect the receiver from the high power output of the transmitter. During the transmission of
an outgoing pulse, the duplexer will be aligned to the transmitter for the duration of the pulse.
After the pulse has been sent, the duplexer will shift back to the transmitter. Duplexer is not
required if the transmitted power is low.

4. Antenna

A common antenna is used to transmit the EM energy in to the space and receives the reflected
signals from the target. Furthermore, the antenna must focus the energy into a well defined beam,
which increases the power and permits a determination of the direction of the target.

5. Display

The most basic display type is called an A-scan (amplitude v/s Time delay).The limitation of A-
scan display is that it provides no information about the direction of the target.

The most common type of display is PPI (plan position indicator)The PPI is perhaps the most
natural display for the operator and therefore the most widely used.

Application of Radar

1. Military applications

2. Targeting radars

3. Navigational radars

4. Weather Radars

5. General purpose radars

6. Radar altimeters

7. Air Traffic Controls

8. Law Enforcement and Highway safety

Conclusion: - Hence the basics of Radar are studied.

 Experiment No.8
Derivation of RADAR range equation

Aim: To derive the free space Radar Range Equation.

Theory:

1. The Radar range equation relates to the range of radar to the characteristics of the Transmitter,
Receiver, antenna target and the environment (medium).

2. Free space means that the radar set and the target are isolated in an unbounded empty space. It
indicates that there are no obstacles between radar antenna and the target.

3. Free space is transparent and homogeneous with respect to the refractive index at the radar
frequency.

Radar Range Equation

1. If the power of a radar transmitter is denoted by Pt and the power density at a distance R from
the radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface area of sphere of radius R as
shown in fig i.e power density at a distance R from an isotropic source is

= Pt/4πR2 watts/m2--------- (1)

2. Radars usually employ directive antennas to direct the transmitted power P t into some
particular direction. The gain G of an antenna is a measure of the increases power radiated in the
direction of target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from an isotropic
antenna.

Power Density at a distance R from directive antenna of power gain G,

= Pt G/4πR2 watts/m2--------- (2)

3. The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and radiates it various directions. a
measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and reradiated back in the
direction of radar is denoted as the radar cross-section of target (σ).

The total power intercepted by a target having an area σ is

= ( Pt G/4πR2 ) σ watts/m2 --------- (3)

σ = area of the target as seen by the radar. It has unit of area in m 2. σ is a characteristic of a
particular target and is a measure of its shape and size.
4. The power density of echo signal at radar station is

[(Pt G σ) / (4πR2)]*(1/4πR2) = Pt G σ / (4πR2)2 watts --------- (4)

The Radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the effective area of the receiving
antenna is denoted by Ae, the power Pr received by the radar is given by,

Pr = (Pt G σ Ae) / (4πR2)2 watts --------- (5)

Maximum Radar Range (Rmax)

Maximum Radar Range is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected. It occurs
when the received echo signal power Pr just equals the minimum detectable signal (Smin)

i.e. when Pr = Smin, R = Rmax and when substituted in equation (5) ,we get;

Smin = (Pt G σ Ae) / (4π) 2Rmax4 --------- (6)

Rmax = { [(Pt G σ Ae)]/ [(4π) 2 Smin]} 1/4--------- (7)

Equation (7) gives the maximum radar range equation.

Factors affecting the radar range equation

1. Transmitter power

2. Frequency

3. Target Cross section area

4. Minimum received signal

Conclusion: Hence the Radar range equation is derived.

3.Quiz .

1. What is RADAR?

2. On what parameter does the range of Radar depends?

3. What is a digital filter?

4. What are the different types of Radar?

5. What are the several types of tees used in microwave communication?

6. What is the S-Matrix of H-plane Tee function?

7. What is a hybrid `T’ or magic `T’?

8. Application of magic Tee.

9. List some of the basic magic Tee parameters.

4. Conduction of Viva-Voce Examinations:

Teacher should conduct oral exams of the students with full preparation. Normally, the objective
questions with guess are to be avoided. To make it meaningful, the questions should be such that
depth of the students in the subject is tested. Oral examinations are to be conducted in cordial
environment amongst the teachers taking the examination. Teachers taking such examinations
should not have ill thoughts about each other and courtesies should be offered to each other in
case of difference of opinion, which should be critically suppressed in front of the students.

5. Evaluation and marking system:

Basic honesty in the evaluation and marking system is absolutely essential and in the process
impartial nature of the evaluator is required in the examination system to become. It is a wrong
approach or concept to award the students by way of easy marking to get cheap popularity
among the students, which they do not deserve. It is a primary responsibility of the teacher to see
that right students who are really putting up lot of hard work with right kind of intelligence are
correctly awarded.

The marking patterns should be justifiable to the students without any ambiguity and teacher
should see that students are faced with just circumstances.