BLOOD – CHAPTER 11 HEMATOPOIESIS

Functions of Blood ➢ Hematopoiesis is the process that produces

formed elements.
1. Transport of gases, nutrients and waste
➢ In the fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in several
products
tissues, including the liver, thymus, spleen,
2. Transport of processed molecules
lymph nodes, and red bone marrow.
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
➢ After birth, hematopoiesis is confined primarily
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
to red bone marrow, but some white blood cells
5. Maintenance of body temperature
are produced in lymphatic tissues.
6. Protection against foreign substances
➢ All the formed elements of blood are derived
7. Clot formation
from a single population of cells called stem
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD cells, or hemocytoblasts.
➢ These stem cells differentiate to give rise to
Plasma: different cell lines, each of which ends with the
➢ 55% of total blood formation of a particular type of formed
➢ pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells element.
➢ 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other ERYTHROCYTES
Formation Elements: ➢ Red blood cells (RBC)
➢ 45% of total blood ➢ Disk-shaped with thick edges
➢ cells and cell fragments ➢ Nucleus is lost during development
➢ erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes ➢ Live for 120 days
➢ Function: transport O2 to tissues
Albumin:

➢ 58% of plasma proteins

➢ helps maintain water balance

Globulins:

➢ 38% of plasma proteins

➢ helps immune system

Fibrinogen:

➢ 4% of plasma proteins
➢ aids in clot formation

HEMOGLOBIN

➢ Main component of erythrocytes

➢ Transports O2
➢ Each globin protein is attached to a heme
molecule
➢ Each heme contains one iron atom
➢ O2 binds to iron
Oxyhemoglobin:

➢ hemoglobin with an O2 attached

PRODUCTION OF ERYTHROCYTES

1. Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to

increase production of erythropoietin.
2. Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to
produce more erythrocytes.
3. Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in
blood O2 levels.
1. In macrophages, the globin part of
hemoglobin is broken down to individual
amino acids (red arrow) and metabolized or
used to build new proteins.
2. The heme of hemoglobin releases iron. The
heme is converted into bilirubin.
3. Blood transports iron to the red bone
marrow, where it is used to produce new
hemoglobin (green arrows).
4. Blood transports bilirubin (blue arrows) to
the liver.
5. Bilirubin is excreted as part of the bile into
the small intestine. Some bilirubin
derivatives contribute to the color of feces.
FATE OF OLD ERYTHROCYTES AND HEMOGLOBIN 6. Other bilirubin derivatives are reabsorbed
from the intestine into the blood and
➢ Old red blood cells are removed from blood by
excreted from the kidneys in the urine.
macrophages in spleen and liver
➢ Hemoglobin is broken down LEUKOCYTES
➢ Globin is broken down into amino acids
➢ White blood cells (WBC)
➢ Hemoglobin’s iron is recycled
➢ Lack hemoglobin
➢ Heme is converted to bilirubin
➢ Larger than erythrocytes
➢ Bilirubin is taken up by liver and released into
➢ Contain a nucleus
small intestine as part of bile
➢ Functions:
- fight infections
- remove dead cells and debris by
phagocytosis

TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES

Granulocytes: contain specific granules and include

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
 1. Neutrophils: BLOOD LOSS
- most common
➢ When blood vessels are damaged, blood can
- remain in blood for 10 to 12 hours then
leak into other tissues and disrupt normal
move to tissues
function.
- phagocytes
➢ Blood that is lost must be replaced by
2. Eosinophils:
production of new blood or by a transfusion.
- reduce inflammation
- destroy parasites PREVENTING BLOOD LOSS
3. Basophils:
- least common 1. Vascular spasm:
- release histamine and heparin - temporary constriction of blood vessel
2. Platelet plugs:
Agranulocytes: no specific granules - can seal up small breaks in blood vessels
3. Blood clotting (coagulation)
1. Monocytes:
- largest sized white blood cells VASCULAR SPASM
- produce macrophages
2. Lymphocytes: ➢ Vascular spasm is an immediate but temporary
- immune response constriction of a blood vessel that results when
- several different types (T cells and B cells) smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel
- lead to production of antibodies contracts.
➢ This constriction can close small vessels
TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS completely and stop the flow of blood through
them.
➢ Vascular spasm is stimulated by chemicals
released by cells of the damaged blood vessel
wall and by platelets.

PLATELET PLUG FORMATION

➢ A platelet plug is very important in maintaining

the integrity of the damaged blood vessels
➢ The formation of a platelet plug can be
described as a series of steps, but in actuality
many of these steps occur at the same time.
➢ Platelet adhesion occurs first, when platelets
stick to the exposed collagen in the damaged
PLATELETS blood vessel wall.
➢ After platelets adhere to collagen, they become
➢ Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each
activated, change shape, and release chemicals.
consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm
➢ In platelet aggregation, fibrinogen forms bridges
surrounded by a cell membrane.
between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous
➢ They are produced in the red bone marrow
platelets, resulting in a platelet plug.
from large cells called megakaryocytes.
➢ Small fragments break off from the
megakaryocytes and enter the blood as
platelets.
➢ Platelets play an important role in preventing
blood loss
 CLOT FORMATION CONTROL
1. Platelet adhesion occurs when von Willebrand
factor connects exposed collagen to platelets. ➢ Clots need to be controlled so they don’t spread
2. During the platelet release reaction, ADP, throughout the body
thromboxanes, and other chemicals are Anticoagulant:
released and activate other platelets.
3. Platelet aggregation occurs when fibrinogen ➢ prevent clots from forming
receptors on activated platelets bind to ➢ Example - heparin and antithrombin
fibrinogen, connecting the platelets to one Injury causes enough clotting factors to be activated
another. The accumulating mass of platelets that anticoagulants can’t work in that particular area of
forms a platelet plug. the body
BLOOD CLOTTING CLOT RETRACTION AND FIBRINOLYSIS
➢ Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel Clot Retraction:
Clot: ➢ condensing of clot
➢ network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that ➢ serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
trap blood cells and fluid ➢ helps enhance healing
➢ depends on clotting factors Fibrinolysis:
Clotting factors: ➢ process of dissolving clot
➢ proteins in plasma ➢ plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot
➢ only activated following injury (fibrin)
➢ made in liver
➢ require vitamin K

STEPS IN CLOT FORMATION

1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting

factors to become activated due to exposed
conn. tissue or release of thromboplastin
2. Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and
acts upon prothrombin
3. Prothrombin is switched to its active form
thrombin
4. Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active
form fibrin
5. Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)
BLOOD GROUPING Rh BLOOD GROUP

➢ Injury or surgery can lead to a blood transfusion ➢ Rh positive means you have Rh antigens
➢ 95 to 85% of the population is Rh+
Transfusion reactions/Aggulination:
➢ Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is
➢ clumping of blood cells (bad) exposed to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from
mother to fetus
Antigens:
Rh INCOMPATABILITY IN PREGNANCY
➢ molecules on surface of erythrocytes
➢ If mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ the mother can
Antibodies: be exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal blood leaks
➢ proteins in plasma through placenta and mixes with mother’s
blood.
Blood groups: ➢ First time this occurs mother’s blood produces
➢ named according to antigen (ABO) antibodies against antigens.
➢ Any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction.
ABO Blood Groups
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF NEWBORN
➢ In the ABO blood group system, there are two
types of antigens that may appear on the This Condition
surface of the red blood cells, type A antigen ➢ occurs when mother produces anti-Rh
and type B antigen. antibodies that cross placenta and agglutination
➢ Type A blood has type A antigens, type B blood and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occurs
has type B antigens, and type AB blood has both ➢ can be fatal to fetus
types of antigens. ➢ prevented if mother is treated with RhoGAM
➢ Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens. which contains antibodies against Rh antigens
➢ The types of antigens found on the surface of
the red blood cells are genetically determined. DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS
➢ Antibodies against the antigens are usually ➢ Complete Blood Count:
present in the plasma of blood. - provides information such as RBC count,
➢ Type AB blood plasma has neither type of hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count
antibody, and type O blood plasma has both ➢ Hematocrit:
anti-A and anti-B antibodies. - % of total blood volume composed of RBC
➢ In Caucasians in the United States, the ➢ Hemoglobin:
distribution is type O, 47%; type A, 41%; type B, - determines amount of hemoglobin
9%; and type AB, 3%. - indicate anemia
➢ Among African-Americans, the distribution is
type O, 46%; type A, 27%; type B, 20%; and type
AB, 7%.

BLOOD DONOR AND RECIPIENT ACCORDING TO ABO

BLOOD TYPES

➢ O are universal donors because they have no

antigens
➢ Type A can receive A and O blood
➢ Type B can receive B and O blood
➢ Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood
➢ Type O can only receive O blood
DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS

➢ Prothrombin Time:
- time it takes for blood to begin clotting (9 to
12 sec.)
➢ White Blood Cell Count:
- total number of white blood cells

White blood cell differential count:

➢ Determines the % of each 5 kinds of leukocytes

➢ neutrophils: 60 to 70%
➢ lymphocytes: 20 to 25%
➢ monocytes: 3 to 8%
➢ eosinophils: 2 to 4%
➢ basophils: 0.5 to 1%

WHITE BLOOD CELL DISORDERS

➢ Leukopenia:
- low white blood cell count
- caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs,
tumors, viral infections
➢ Leukocytosis:
- high white blood cell count
- caused by infections and leukemia
 ABO BLOOF GROUPS

AGGLUTINATION REACTION