WATER RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
 Water-resources engineering is
concerned with the utilization of
water, control of water, and water
quality management. Water is
utilized for various beneficial
purposes such as irrigation, water
supply, hydropower and
navigation.
.
 Water is controlled and
regulated for a variety of
purposes such as flood control,
land drainage, sewerage and
bridges so that it does not
cause damage to property,
inconvenience to the public, or
loss of life.
.
 Water-quality management or
pollution control is also an
important phase of water
resources engineering to
maintain the required quality
of water for municipal and
irrigation uses and to preserve
the environment and
ecological balance.
Erosion protection structure upstream of
dam (USA).
 RESERVOIR
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake
created by constructing a dam across
a river . Any water pool or a lake may
be termed a reservoir. However, the
term reservoir in water resources
engineering is used for a
comparatively large body of water
stored on the upstream of a dam
constructed for this purpose. Thus a
dam and a reservoir exist together.
 Reservoir

spillway
Dam
.
 If a reservoir serves only one
purpose, it is called a single-
purpose reservoir. On the
other hand, if it serves more
than one purpose, it is termed
a multipurpose reservoir.
The various purposes served by
a multipurpose reservoir include
 (i) irrigation (ii) municipal and
industrial water supply, (iii)
flood control (iv) hydropower,
(v) navigation, (vi) recreation,
(vii) development of fish and
wild life, (viii) soil conservation
(ix) pollution control and (x)
mosquito control.
Types of Reservoirs
Depending upon the purpose served,
the reservoirs may be broadly
classified into five types:
1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs
2. Flood control reservoirs
3. Multipurpose reservoirs
4. Distribution reservoirs.
5. Balancing reservoirs
 1. Storage reservoirs
 Storage reservoirs are also called
conservation reservoirs because they
are used to conserve water. Storage
reservoirs are constructed to, Store the
water in the rainy season and to
release it later when the river flow is
low. Storage reservoirs are usually
constructed for irrigation, the
municipal water supply and
hydropower.
 Typical Storage Dam

Tha Thung Na Dam

Maeklong Dam
 Typical Storage Dam

Vajiralongkorn Dam

Srinagarind Dam
 .
Although the storage reservoirs
are constructed for storing
water for various purposes,
incidentally they also help in
moderating the floods and
reducing the flood damage to
some extent on the
downstream. However, they are
not designed as flood control
reservoirs.
 2. Flood control reservoirs

A flood control reservoir is constructed

for the purpose of flood control It
protects the areas lying on its
downstream side from the damages
due to flood. However, absolute
protection from extreme floods is not
economically feasible. capacity of the
channel downstream.
A flood control reservoir reduces
the flood damage, and it is also
known as the flood-mitigation
reservoir. Sometimes, it is
called flood protection
reservoir. In a flood control
reservoir, the floodwater is
discharged downstream till the
outflow reaches the safe
Ru River at low flow in April. There is cultivation on all surfaces near the river. At high
water the whole river ravine is filled. During the floods in 1975 and 1982 the water
spread out for several kilometers over the agricultural land on the plateau above.
.
 When the discharge exceeds the
safe capacity. The excess water is
stored in the reservoir. The
stored water is subsequently
released when the inflow to
reservoir decreases. Care is,
however, taken that the discharge
in the channel downstream,
including local inflow, does not
exceed its safe capacity.
Derbendikhan Dam and Reservoir
.
A flood control reservoir is
designed to moderate the flood
and not to conserve water.
However, incidentally some
storage is also done during the
period of floods. Flood control
reservoirs have relatively large
sluice-way capacity to permit
rapid drawdown before or after
the occurrence of a flood.
3. Multipurpose Reservoirs

A multipurpose reservoir is
designed and constructed to serve
two or more purposes. Most of
the reservoirs are designed as
multipurpose reservoirs to store
water for irrigation and
hydropower, and also to effect
flood control.
4. Distribution Reservoir
A distribution reservoir is a
small storage reservoir to tide
over the peak demand of water
for municipal water supply or
irrigation. The distribution
reservoir is helpful in
permitting the pumps to work
at a uniform rate.
.
It stores water during
the period of lean
demand and supplies the
same during the period
of high demand. Water is
pumped from a water
source at a uniform rate
throughout the day for
-
24 hours but the demand
varies from time to time.
During the period when the
demand of water is less
than the pumping rate, the
water is stored in the
distribution reservoir.
.
 On the other hand, when
the demand of water is
more than the pumping
rate, the distribution
reservoir is used for
supplying water at rates
greater than the pumping
rate.
Levee break in Elbe during 2002 flood.
5. Balancing reservoir
A balancing reservoir is a
small reservoir
constructed D/S of the
main reservoir for
holding water released
from the main reservoir.
Available Storage Capacity of
a Reservoir
 Whatever may be the use of a
reservoir, its most important
function is to store water
during floods and to release it
later. The available storage
capacity of a reservoir depends
upon the topography of the
site and the height of dam.
To determine the available
storage capacity of a reservoir
up to a certain level of water,
engineering surveys are usually
conducted. For accurate
determination of the capacity, a
topographic survey of the
reservoir area is usually
conducted, and a contour map
of the area is prepared.
-
A contour plan of the area is
prepared to a scale of 1 cm = 100
m or 150 m with a contour interval
of 1 to 3 m, depending upon the
size of the reservoir. The storage
capacity and the water spread area
at different elevations can be
determined from the contour map,
as explained below.
(a) Area-Elevation Curve
 From the contour plan, the water
spread area of the reservoir at any
elevation is determined by measuring
the area enclosed by the
corresponding contour. Generally, a
planimeter is used for measuring the
area. An elevation-area curve is then
drawn between the surface area as
abscissa and the elevation as ordinate
(b) Elevation-Capacity Curve
 The storage capacity of the
reservoir at any elevation is
determined from the water
spread area at various
elevations. The following
formulae are commonly used
to determine the storage
capacity (i.e. storage
volumes).
1. Trapezoidal formula
 According to the
trapezoidal formula, the
storage volume between
two successive contours
of areas A1, and A2 is
given by:
In New Orleans there is a levee between the Mississippi and the city.
-
∆V1= h (A1+A2)/2…….(1)
Where h is the contour interval.
Therefore, the total volume V of
the storage is given by :
V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 + ∆V3+..
=∑∆V
or V =h[ A1 + 2A2 + 2A3+
…...+2 An-1 + An ]/2…….….(2)
where n is the total number of
areas.
2. Cone formula
 According to the cone formula,
the storage volume between two
successive contours of areas A1
and A2 is given by:
∆V1 = h(A1+A2+√(A1+A2))/3
….(3)
The total volume V is given by:
V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 + ∆V3 +.............
= ∑∆V
……………………….(4)
3. Prismoidal formula
According to the prismoidal formula,
the storage volume between 3
successive contours is given by:
∆V=h(A1 +4A2 +A3 )/3
…………(5)
The total volume is given by
V =h[( A1 + An)+4(A2 + A4 +
A6 +.......) + 2 (A3 + A5 +
.....)]/3 ...(6)
where A3, A5, etc are the areas with
odd numbers : A2, A4, A6, etc are the
areas with even numbers A1 and An
are respectively, the first and the last
area.
The Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier, between the islands Schouwen-Duiveland and
Noord-Beveland, is the largest of 13 ambitious Delta works series of dams, designed to
protect a large part of the Netherlands from flooding.
-
 The prismoidal formula is
applicable only when there are
odd numbers of areas ( i.e. n
should be an odd number). In the
case of even number of areas, the
volume up to the last but one area
is determined by the prismoidal
formula, and that of the last
segment is determined by the
trapezoidal formula.
Storage Volume from cross-
sectional areas
 Inthe absence of adequate contour
maps, the storage volume can be
computed from the cross-sectional
areas of the river. Cross-sectional
areas are obtained from the cross-
sections of the river taken upstream of
the dam up to the u/s end of the
reservoir. The volume is determined
from the prismoidal formula,
V =d[( A1 + An)+4(A2 + A4 +.......)
+ 2 (A3 + A5 + .....)]/3 ...........(7)
 where A1, A2 etc. are the
area of the cross-section of
the river up to the full
reservoir level and d is the
distance between the
sections.
.
 The formula is applicable for
odd number of sections.
 An elevation-storage volume is
plotted between the storage
volume as abscissa and the
elevations as ordinate ,
Generally, the volume is
calculated in Mm3 or M ha-m.
-
(c) Combined Diagram
 It
is the usual practice to plot
both the elevation-area curve
and the elevation-storage curve
on the same paper . The reader
should carefully note the
abscissa marking as the areas
and volumes increase in the
opposite directions:
-
Submerged area
 In addition to finding out the
capacity of a reservoir, the
contour map of the reservoir can
also be used to determine the
land and property which would be
submerged when the reservoir is
filled up to various elevations.
 Itwould enable one to
estimate the compensation to
be paid to the owners of the
submerged property and land.
The time schedule according
to which the areas should be
evacuated, as the reservoir is
gradually filled, can also be
drawn.
Example
Areservoir has the following
areas enclosed by contours
at various elevations.
Determine the capacity of
the reservoir between
elevations of 200.00 to
300.00.
 -
Elevatio 200.0 220.00 240.00 260.00 280.00 300.00
n 0

Area of 150.0 175.00 210.00 270.00 320.00 400.00

contour 0
(km2)
Use (a) trapezoidal formula, (b)
prismoidal formula
Solution (a)
From Eq. 2,
V =h(A1 + 2A2 +2 A3 + 2A4 +
2A5 + A6)/2
=20 (150 + 2 x 175 + 2 x 210 +
2 x 270 + 2 x 320 + 400)/2
Rapids without water. Dams are generally built on rapids and near waterfalls, the fauna
and flora of which suffer when the flow of water decreases or disappears
= 25000 m-km2 = 25000 Mm3
= 2.5 Mha-m
 (b) In this case, there are
even number of areas. The
prismoidal formula is
applied to first 5 areas.
From Eq. 6, considering the
first 5 areas,
V1 =h[(A1 + A5) + 4 (A2 +
A4) + 2A3]/3
 = 20[(150.00 + 320.00) + 4(175 +
270) + 2 x 210]/3
= 17800 m-km2 = 17800 Mm3
Volume between the last two areas
from Eq. 1,
 V2 =h(A5 + A6)/2
=20(320 + 400)/2 = 7200 m-
km2
= 7200 Mm3
Total volume V = V1 + V2
= 17800 + 7200 =25000 Mm3
= 2.5 Mha-m
 In this case, the computed
volumes from both methods
are equal. In general, it is not
always the case.
Example
 Given the following data :
Elevation H (m) Area A (km2)
100 0
120 125
170 260

 Assume the following relation between H and

A:
 H= c1*A2 +c2 A +c3
 Where c1 , c2 and c3 are constants.
 1- Find the relation between H and the volume
 2- Find the volume of water at h=120,170m.
Investigations for Reservoir

The following investigations

are usually conducted for
reservoir planning.
1. Engineering surveys
2. Geological investigation
3. Hydrologic investigations
The Yangtze River passes through the Three Gorges, the site of the world’s largest
dam
1. Engineering surveys
(a) Dam site
 For the area in the vicinity of the dam
site, a very accurate triangulation
survey is conducted. A contour plan to
a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually
prepared. The contour interval is
usually 1 m or 2 m. The contour plan
should cover an area at least up to 200
m upstream and 400m downstream
and for adequate width beyond the two
abutments.
(b) Reservoir
 For the reservoir, the scale of the
contour plan is usually 1/15,000 with
a contour interval of 2 m to 3 m,
depending upon the size of the
reservoir. The area-elevation and
storage-elevation curves are
prepared for different elevations up
to an elevation 3 to 5m higher than
the anticipated maximum water level
(M.W.L).
2. Geological investigations

(i) Suitability of foundation

for the dam.
(ii) Water tightness of the
reservoir basin
(iii) Location of the quarry
sites for the construction
materials.
3. Hydrological investigations

 The hydrological investigations

are conducted for the following
purposes :
 (i) To study the runoff pattern and
to estimate yield.
 (ii) To determine the maximum
discharge at the site.
Storfinnforsen is a Swedish buttress dam of concrete. It is one of the types of dam
described in the article.
(i) Run off pattern and yield
 The most important aspect of the
reservoir planning is to estimate
the quantity of water likely to be
available in the river from year to
year and seasons to season. For
the determination of the required
storage capacity of a reservoir,
the runoff pattern of the river at
the dam site is required.
 If the stream gauging
has been done for a
number of years before
the construction of the
dam, the runoff pattern
will be available from
the record.
Itis generally assumed
that the runoff pattern
will be substantially
the same in future
also. The available
record is used for
estimating the storage
capacity.
-
However, if the stream gauging
records are not available, the
runoff and yield have to be
estimated indirectly by the
empirical (or) statistical
methods. These are :
 (i) Runoff expressed as a
percentage of rainfall.
 (ii) Run off expressed as a
residual of rainfall after
deducting losses due to
evaporation, transpiration
and ground water
accretion.
 (iii) Run off expressed as a
function of mean annual
temperature and rainfall.
(ii) Maximum discharge
The spillway capacity of the
dam is determined from
the inflow hydrograph for
the worst flood when the
discharge in the river is
the maximum.
Flood routing is done to
estimate the maximum
outflow and the maximum
water level reached during
the worst flood. The
methods for the estimation
of the maximum flood
discharge are:
-
 (i) Empirical relations mostly
correlated with the catchments
area
 (ii) Statistical methods
 (iii) Unit hydrograph method
 (iv) Flood frequency studies
Usually for big reservoirs, a 1000
years flood is taken for spillway
design.
Selection of Site for a Reservoir
1. Large storage capacity :
The topography of the site should
be such that the reservoir has a
large capacity to store water.
2. Suitable site for the dam :
a- There should be good
foundation for the dam.
b-The reservoir basin should
have a narrow opening in the
valley so that the length of
the dam is small.
c-The cost of the dam is often
a controlling factor in the
selection of a site for the
reservoir.
The gigantic Three Gorges hydroelectric dam on the Yangtze was completed in 2006
after eight years of construction. The reservoir has drowned around a dozen small towns
and more than 300 villages.(China)
3. Water tightness of the
reservoir
 The geological conditions of the
reservoir site should be such that
the reservoir basin is watertight.
The reservoir sites having
pervious rocks are not suitable.
The reservoir basins having
shale, slates, schist, gneiss,
granite, etc. are generally
suitable.
4. Good hydrological
conditions
 The hydrological conditions of
the river at the reservoir site
should be such that adequate
runoff is available for storage.
The catchment area of the river
should give high yield. There
should not be heavy losses in the
catchment due to evaporation,
transpiration and percolation.
5. Deep reservoir
 The site should be such that a
deep reservoir is formed after the
construction of the dam. A deep
reservoir is preferred to a shallow
reservoir because in the former
the evaporation losses are small,
the cost of land acquisition is low
and the weed growth is less.
6. Small submerged area
 The site should be such that the
submerged area is a minimum. It
should not submerge costly land
and property. It should not affect
the ecology of the region.
Monuments of historical and
architectural importance should
not be submerged.
View of the Golan Heights that are occupied by Israel.
7. Low silt inflow
 The life of the reservoir is
short if the river water at the
site has a large quantity of
sediments. The reservoir site
should be selected such that
it avoids or excludes the
water from those tributaries
which carry a high percentage
of silt.
8. No objectionable minerals
 The soil and rock mass at the
reservoir site should not
contain any objectionable
soluble minerals which may
contaminate the water. The
stored water should be
suitable for the purpose for
which the water is required.
9. Low cost of real estate

The cost of real estate

for the reservoir site,
dam , dwellings,
roads. railways, etc.
should be low.
The removal of the St Etienne de Vigan dam on the Upper Allier River.
Basic Terms and Definitions
 1. Full Reservoir Level (FRL)
The full reservoir level (FRL) is the
highest water level to which the
water surface will rise during
normal operating conditions. The
effective storage of the reservoir
is computed up to the full
reservoir level.
 The FRL is the highest level at
which water is intended to be held
for various uses without any
passage of water through the
spillway. In case of dams without
spillway gates, the FRL is equal to
the crest level of the spillway .
However, if the spillway is gated,
the FRL is equal to the level of the
top of the gates .
Normal Conservation Level
(NCL)
 It is the highest level of the reservoir
at which water is intended to be
stored for various uses other than
flood. The normal conservation level
is different from the FRL as the latter
may include a part of the flood.
However, if there is no storage for
flood up to FRL, the normal
conservation level and the FRL
become identical.
2. Maximum Water Level
(MWL)
 The maximum water level is the
maximum level to which the
water surface will rise when the
design flood passes over the
spillway. The maximum water
level is higher than the full
reservoir level so that some
surcharge storage is available
between the two levels to absorb
flood.
3. Minimum pool level
 The minimum pool level is the
lowest level up to which the
water is withdrawn from the
reservoir under ordinary
conditions. The minimum pool
level generally corresponds to
the elevation of the lowest
outlet (or sluiceway) of the
dam.
 However, in the case of a
reservoir for hydroelectric
power, the minimum pool
level is fixed after considering
the minimum working head
required for the efficient
working of turbines. The
storage below the minimum
pool level is not useful and is
called the dead storage.
4. Useful storage
 The volume of water stored
between the full reservoir level
(FRL) and the minimum pool
level is called the useful
storage. The useful storage is
subdivided into :
(a) the conservation storage for
other purposes and
(b)the flood control storage
for the flood control, in
accordance with the
adopted plan of operation
of the reservoir.
The useful storage is also
known as the live storage.
The Höljes Dam is an 80 m high dam on the river Klarälven in Central Sweden.
5. Surcharge storage
The surcharge storage is
the volume of water stored
above the full reservoir
level up to the maximum
water level. The surcharge
storage is an uncontrolled
storage which exists
only when the river is in
flood and the flood
water is passing over the
spillway. This storage is
available only for the
absorption of flood and
it cannot be used for
other purposes.
6. Dead storage
 The volume of water held
below the minimum pool
level is called the dead
storage. The dead storage
is not useful, as it cannot
be used for any purpose
under ordinary operating
conditions.
7. Bank storage
 If the banks of the reservoir are
porous, some water is
temporarily stored by them when
the reservoir is full. The stored
water in banks later drains into
the reservoir when the water
level in the reservoir falls. Thus
the banks of the reservoir act like
mini reservoirs.
8. Valley Storage
The volume of water
held by the natural river
channel in its valley up
to the top of its banks
before the construction
of a reservoir is called
the valley storage.
 The valley storage depends
upon the cross section of the
river, the length of the river
and its water level. The net
increase in the storage
capacity after the construction
of a reservoir is equal to the
total capacity of the reservoir
up to FRL minus the valley
storage.
9. Yield from a Reservoir
Yield is the volume of
water which can be
withdrawn from a
reservoir in a specified
period of time.
10. Safe yield (Firm Yield)
Safe yield is the
maximum quantity of
water which can be
supplied from a reservoir
in a specified period of
time during a critical dry
year.
 There is generally a firm
commitment by the
organization to the consumers
that the safe yield will be
available to them. It is
therefore also called the firm
yield or the guaranteed yield.
11. Secondary Yield
 Secondary yield is the
quantity of water which is
available during the period
of high flow in the rivers
when the yield is more than
the safe yield.
12. Average yield
 The average yield is the
arithmetic average of the
firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long
period of time.
13. Design yield
The design yield is the
yield adopted in the
design of a reservoir.
Generally, a reservoir for
the domestic water
supply is planned on the
basis of firm yield.
7- Determination of the
Required Capacity
a) Graphical method,
using mass curves.
b) Analytical method
c) Flow-duration curves
method
 Graphical method
Storage required for uniform
 (a)
demand:
1. Prepare a mass inflow curve from the
flow hydrograph of the site for a
number of consecutive years
including the most critical years (or
the driest years) when the discharge
is low, as discussed in the preceding
section.
.
2-Prepare the mass demand
curve corresponding to the
given rate of demand. If the
rate of demand is constant,
the mass demand curve is a
straight line. The scale of the
mass demand curve should be
the same as that of the mass
inflow curve.(See Figure)
-
 3. Draw the lines AB, FG, etc. such
that
 (i) They are parallel to the mass
demand curve, and
 (ii) They are tangential to the
crests A, F, etc. of the mass
curve.
 The points A, F. etc. indicate the
beginning of the dry periods
marked by the depressions.
Derbendikhan Dam
 4. Determine the vertical
intercepts CD. HJ, etc.
between the tangential lines
and the mass inflow curve.
These intercepts indicate the
volumes by which the inflow
volumes fall short of demand,
as explained below :
 Assuming that the reservoir is
full at point A, the inflow
volume during the period AE is
equal to ordinate DE and the
demand is equal to ordinate
CE. Thus the storage required
is equal to the volume
indicated by the intercept CD.
 5. Determine the largest of the
-
vertical intercepts found in
Step (4). The largest vertical
intercept represents the
storage capacity required.
 The following points should be
noted:
(i) The capacity obtained in the net
storage capacity which must be
available to meet the demand.
The gross capacity of the
reservoir will be more than the
net storage capacity. It is
obtained by adding the
evaporation and seepage losses
to the net storage capacity.
 -
 (ii)The tangential lines AB, FG; etc.
when extended forward must
intersect the curve. This is
necessary for the reservoir to
become full again, If these lines do
not intersect the mass curve, the
reservoir will not be filled again.
However, very large reservoirs
sometimes do not get refilled every
year. In that case, they may become
full after 2-3 years.
(iii)
The vertical distance
such as FL between the
successive tangents
represents the volume of
water spilled over the
spillway of the dam.
(b) Storage required for Non-
uniform Demand (Variable demand)
If the demand rate is not
uniform, the mass
demand curve is a curve
instead of a straight line
as assumed above. The
following procedure is
used.
 The mass demand curve is
superposed on the mass
inflow curve such that it
chronologically coincides
with the latter. In other
words, the mass demand for
the period 1950-51. must
coincide with the mass inflow
for 1950-51. and so on.
-
 The vertical intercepts are
then determined between the
mass demand curve and the
mass inflow curve, where the
demand curve is higher. The
required storage capacity is
equal to the maximum of the
vertical intercepts so obtained.
Derbendikhan Dam and Reservoir
(c) Storage required when the
demand is equal to the average
discharge of the river
 1. Join the end points of the mass
inflow curve by a straight line A B to
determine the average discharge of
the river over the entire period of
the curve
 2. Draw two line A’ B’ and A” B” such
that they are parallel to the line AB
and also tangential to the mass
curve at the lowest point C and the
highest point D respectively.
- 3. Determine the vertical intercept
between the two tangents. The
required capacity is equal to this
vertical intercept.
 If the reservoir having this capacity is
assumed to have a volume of water
equal to the intercept A ‘A at the
beginning of the period (in 1950),
then the reservoir will be full at D
and empty at C.
8 -Determination of Yield of
a Reservoir
 1. Prepare the mass inflow curve
from the flow hydrograph of the
river.
 2. Draw tangents AB, FG, etc. at the
crests A, F, etc. of the mass inflow
curve in such a way that the
maximum departure (intercept) of
these tangents from the mass
inflow curve is equal to the given
reservoir capacity.
- 3. Measure the slopes of all the
tangents drawn in Step 2.
 4. Determine the slope of the flattest
tangent.
 5. Draw the mass demand curve from
the slope of the flattest tangent (see
insect). The yield is equal to the slope
of this line.
 [Note. The tangents when extended
must intersect the mass inflow curve;
otherwise the reservoir will not be full
again.]
 Example 2
 The average annual discharge of a
river for 11 years is as follows:
Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Discharge 1750 2650 3010 2240 2630 3200 1000 950 1200 4150 3500
(m3 /s)

 Determine the storage capacity required

to meet a demand of 2000 m3/s
throughout the year.
Solution
1 m3/s- year = 1 x 365 x 24 x
60 x 60 = 31.536 x 106 m3 =
3153.6ha-m
 Yearly demand = 3153.6 x 2000
= 6.31 Mha-m
 Inflow volume in 1960 = 1750 x
3153.6
 = 5.52 x 106 ha-m = 5.52 Mha-
m
Van Norman Dam in USA close to collapse after earthquake.
The inflow volume and cumulative
inflow are calculated in the table
below:
The Figure shows the mass inflow curve. The
tangents are drawn at the crests at the slope of 6.31
Mha-m per year. The maximum intercept is 7.7
Mha-m. Storage capacity = 7.7 Mha-m.
9 - Analytical Method for
Determination of Storage Capacity
 1. Collect the stream flow data at the
reservoir site during the critical dry
period. Generally, the monthly inflow
rates are required. However, for very
large reservoirs, the annual inflow
rates may be used.
 2. Ascertain the discharge to be
released downstream to satisfy water
rights or to honor the agreement
between the states or the cities.
-
 3. Determine the direct precipitation
volume falling on the reservoir during
the month.
 4. Estimate the evaporation losses
which would occur from the reservoir
‘The pan evaporation data are
normally used for the estimation of
evaporation losses during the month.
 5. Ascertain the demand during
various months.
 6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different
months as follows:
 Adjusted inflow = Stream inflow + Precipitation
- Evaporation – Downstream Discharge
 7. Compute the storage capacity for each
months.
 Storage required = Adjusted inflow - Demand
 The storage would be required only in those
months in which the demand is greater than the
adjusted inflow.
 8. Determine the total storage capacity of the
reservoir by adding the storages required found
in Step 7.
Example 3
The monthly inflow and monthly pan-evaporation
during a critical dry year at the site of a proposed
reservoir are given below.
 The net increase in pool area is
500 ha and the prior rights require
the release of the full stream flow
or 10 ha-m, whichever is less.
Assume that 40% of the
precipitation that has fallen on the
submerged area reached the
stream earlier and 60% of that
directly falls on the reservoir.
Determine the storage capacity.
Take pan coefficient as 0.80.
Solution
The solution is given in the tabulator form below.
Example:
The monthly inflow and monthly pan-evaporation during a critical
dry year at the site of a proposed reservoir are given below.

The net increase in pool area is 500 ha and the prior rights require the release of the full
stream flow or 10 ha-m, whichever is less. Assume that 30% of the precipitation that has
fallen on the submerged area reached the stream earlier and 70% of that directly falls on
the reservoir. Determine the storage capacity. Take pan coefficient as 0.72.
Example:
Given the following annual rainfall data for watershed area:

year Depth(mm) year Depth(mm) year Depth(mm)

1977 45.8 1988 59 2003 70

78 43 89 89.5 2004 41

79 30.5 90 31.7 2005 110

80 108.6 91 80 2006 72

81 45.5 97 43 2007 59

82 48.8 98 48

83 56 99 58

84 58 2000 92

85 61 2002 54
 If the area of watershed =27 Km2
 Pe (mm/year)=(P-0.2*S)^2/(P+0.8*S)
 S=(25400/CN)-254 ,
 CN= 84.5
 Where Pe=runoff (mm/year)
 Using graphical method.
 1- Find Volume of Reservoir .
 2- If Volume of Reservoir=2600000 m3
,Find the annual demand
10 Economic Height of Dam
 Theoretically, economic height of dam is the
height of dam corresponding to which the cost
of dam per million cubic meter of storage is
the minimum. This height of dam is
determined by preparing approximate
estimates of cost for several heights of dam at
a given site, somewhat above and below the
level, where the elevation storage curve shows
a fairly high rate of increase of storage per
meter of elevation; while at the corresponding
elevation the cross section of the dam site
shows the length of dam to be moderate, as
shown in fig. for a typical dam site.
-
 After thus determining the approximate
cost per million cubic meter of storage
for four or five alternative heights, the
cost per million cubic meter of storage is
plotted against height to assess the
most economical height of dam as
shown
11 Reservoir Losses
 a)Evaporation Losses
They depend on reservoir area and
are expressed in cm of water depth.
The other factors influencing
evaporation are temperature, wind
velocity, relative humidity ,
proximity of other structures etc.
-
 Cetyl alcohol is usually used for
reducing evaporation losses in
reservoirs. When added to water, a
mono-molecular layer is formed over
the surface of water. The invisible
film is non-toxic and retards
evaporation, while allowing free
passage of rain, oxygen and
sunlight.
b) Absorption Losses
 They depend on the type of soil forming
the reservoir basin. They may be quite
large in the beginning, but gradually
reduce as the pores get saturated.
c) Percolation or Seepage Losses
 They are usually small but may be quite
significant where there may be continuous
seam of porous strata or cavernous or
fissured rock.
 Watershed Sediment Yield
 Watershed erosion is characterized by
the detachment and entrainment of
solid particles from the land surface .
Erosion occurs under the influence of
water, gravity, wind and ice.
 Water erosion can be classified as
sheet erosion and channel
erosion.
 Sheet erosion is the detachment
caused by raindrop impact and
the thawing of frozen grounds
and the subsequent removal by
overland flow.
 Universal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE)
 USLE was developed to predict the long term
average soil losses in runoff from field areas
under specified cropping and management
system.
 [A = soil loss due to sheet and rill erosion]
 A = R .K. L. S. C .P
Where
A=Soil loss in tones/acre /year
(1 acre=4046.873m2)
R=Rainfall erodibility factor
 K=Soil erodibility factor (tones/acre)
 L=Slope length factor normalized to
a plot length of (72.6ft or 22.1m)
 S= Slope steepness factor to a field
slope of 9%.
 C= Cropping management factor
normalized to a tilled area with
continuous fallow
 P= Conversion practice factor
normalized to straight row farming
up and down the slope .Table (3)
 R=0.01 ∑(E.I)
 Where the summation is for the time
increments of the storm and
 E= Kinetics energy per foot-tones per
acre-inch, is given by :
 E=(916+331 log(I) )
 Where I= Rainfall intensity (inch/hr)
 K, the soil erodibility factor describes
the inherent erodibility of a given soil to
erode, (tones/acre) given by table (1)
Table 1. K Factor Data (Organic Matter Content)
Textural Class Average Less than 2 % More than 2 %
Clay 0.22 0.24 0.21
Clay Loam 0.30 0.33 0.28
Coarse Sandy Loam 0.07 -- 0.07
Fine Sand 0.08 0.09 0.06
Fine Sandy Loam 0.18 0.22 0.17
Heavy Clay 0.17 0.19 0.15
Loam 0.30 0.34 0.26
Loamy Fine Sand 0.11 0.15 0.09
Loamy Sand 0.04 0.05 0.04

Loamy Very Fine Sand 0.39 0.44 0.25

Sand 0.02 0.03 0.01

Sandy Clay Loam 0.20 - 0.20
Sandy Loam 0.13 0.14 0.12
Silt Loam 0.38 0.41 0.37
Silty Clay 0.26 0.27 0.26
Silty Clay Loam 0.32 0.35 0.30
Very Fine Sand 0.43 0.46 0.37

Very Fine Sandy Loam 0.35 0.41 0.33

 LS=(ℷ/72.6)m (65.41 sin2(θ)+4.56
sin(θ)+0.065)
 Where ℷ=actual slope length in ft.
 θ=angle of slope .
 m=exponent ranging from (0.5 for
slope ≥5% to 0.2 for slopes ≤1%.
 The cropping management factor (C)
accounts for the crop rotation ,tillage
method , crop residue treatment ,
productivity level. Given by table ( 2)
Table 2A. Crop Type Factor
Crop Type Factor
Grain Corn 0.40

Silage Corn, Beans & Canola 0.50

Cereals (Spring & Winter) 0.35

Seasonal Horticultural Crops 0.50

Fruit Trees 0.10

Hay and Pasture 0.02

Table 2B. Tillage Method Factor

Tillage Method Factor

Fall Plow 1.0
Spring Plow 0.90
Mulch Tillage 0.60
Ridge Tillage 0.35
Zone Tillage 0.25
No-Till 0.25
Table 3. P Factor Data
Support Practice P Factor

Up & Down Slope 1.0

Cross Slope 0.75

Contour farming 0.50

Strip cropping, cross slope 0.37

Strip cropping, contour 0.25

Table 4. Soil Loss Tolerance Rates

Potential Soil Loss

Soil Erosion Class
(tons/acre/year)
Very Low (tolerable) <3
Low 3-5
Moderate 5 - 10
High 10 - 15
Severe >15
 Table(5). Management Strategies to Reduce
Soil Losses
Factor Management Strategies Example
The R Factor for a field cannot be
R --
altered.
The K Factor for a field cannot be
K --
altered.
Terracing requires additional
Terraces may be constructed to reduce
investment and will cause some
LS the slope length resulting in lower soil
inconvenience in farming. Investigate other
losses.
soil conservation practices first.
The selection of crop types and Consider cropping systems that
tillage methods that result in the lowest will provide maximum protection for the
C
possible C factor will result in less soil soil. Use minimum tillage systems
erosion. where possible.
The selection of a support practice that Use support practices such as cross slope
P has the lowest possible factor associated farming that will cause deposition
with it will result in lower soil losses. of sediment to occur close to the source.
Example
 Given : R=50
 Very fine sand
 0.5 % organic mater content
 Grain Corn
 No Till
 Gross slope
 S=5%
 L=300 ft
 Compute soil loss.
 From table (1) for Organic mater
<2% , K=0.46
 m=0.5
 θ=tan-1(5/100)=0.049958
 ℷ=300ft
 LS=0.927
 C=0.25*0.4=0.1
 P=0.75
 A=R.K.L.S.C.P
 =50*0.46*0.927*0.1*0.75
 =1.599 tones/ acre <3, Very Low
(tolerable)
Example
 R Factor = 100
 Fine sandy loam soil with an average
organic matter content
 The sample field is 800 feet long
with a 6% slope.
 The sample field was plowed in the
spring and grain corn was planted.
 Cross slope farming is used on this
sample field.
 R Factor = 100
 K Factor = 0.18
 LS Factor = 1.91
 Crop Type Factor for grain corn = 0.4
Tillage Method Factor for spring plow = 0.9
 C Factor = 0.4 x 0.9 = 0.36
 P Factor = 0.75
 A = R x K x LS x C x P
 = 100 x 0.18 x 1.91 x 0.36 x 0.75
 = 9.28 tons/acre/year
 Referring to Table 4 in this
Factsheet, you will see that this
soil loss rate of 9.28
tons/acre/year is in the moderate
range and considerably higher
than the "tolerable loss level" of 3
tons/acre/year. To reduce the soil
losses for this sample field below 3
tons/acre/year we will make the
following changes to the above
example.
 Change tillage method from "spring plow
(0.9)" to "no-till (0.25)"
 Therefore, C Factor (Revised) = 0.4 x .25 =
0.10
 The adjusted annual soil loss value is:
 A = R x K x LS x C x P
 = 100 x 0.18 x 1.91 x 0.10 x 0.75
 = 2.58 tons/acre/year
 Thus by changing the tillage practice, the
average annual predicted soil loss for this
field is below the "tolerable soil loss" of 3
tons/acre/year.
 12 Sedimentation in Reservoirs
 All rivers carry certain amount of silt
eroded from the catchment area during
heavy rains. The extent of erosion, and
hence the silt load in the stream depends
upon the following:
I. Nature of soil of the catchment area.
II. Topography of the catchment area.
III. Vegetation cover.
IV. Intensity of rainfall.
-
 The sediment transported by the river can
be divided into two heads:
1. Bed load
2. Suspended load
The bed load is much smaller 10-15% of the
suspended load.
Density Currents:
Are gravity flow of fluid under another fluid of
approximately equal density . In case of
reservoirs the water stored is usually clear
and the inflow during floods is generally
muddy.
Measurement of Sediment
Load
 The a mount of silt or the sediment
load carried by the stream is
determined by taking the samples of
water carrying silt, at various depths.
The samples are then filtered and the
sediment is removed and dried.
 There are no accurate devices to
measure the bed load. ( taken as
about 15% of the suspended load ).
Life of Reservoir
Example
 1

1
-
 Col. (2)= Col.(1) *30*106
 Col. (3)= Col. (2)/60*106
 Col.(4) from table
 Col.(5)= average of Col.(4)
 Col.(6)= Col.(5) * 0.30*106
 Col.(7)= 6*106 /Col.(6)
11. Flood Routing
 It is the process of calculating water
levels in reservoir, the storage
quantities and outflow rates
corresponding to a particular inflow
hydrograph various instants.
 Method of Flood Routing :
1) Calculus Method
2) Step by Step Method
2-a) Graphical Method.
2-b) Trial and error Method.
a) Graphical Method
(Inflow-Storage Discharge Curve Method)
 The Governing relation between inflow, outflow
and change in storage is :
 Ia – Oa =Δs …………………………………..(1)
 Where
 Ia = average inflow during a given time period.
 Oa= average outflow during a given time
period.
 Δs=volume of water stored in the reservoir
during the same period. Equation (1) can also
be written as :
 (I1 + I2)t/2 - ( O1 + O2)t/2= s2 – s1 …….(2)
-  Where
 I1 and I2 = inflow rates at the beginning
and end of the time interval t.
 O1 and O2 = outflow rates at the
beginning and end of the time interval t.
 s1 and s2 = storage volumes at the
beginning and end of the time interval t.
 Equation (2) can be written as :
 (I1 +I2) + ( 2s1 /t –O1 ) = (2s2 /t +O2 )
……….(3)
 Following graphs are required to
proceed further with the analysis.
1--Inflow flood hydrograph from which
ordinates I1 and I2 etc. can be found at
chosen interval of time period.

Fig.(13). Inflow Flood Hydrograph.

2-Elevation-outflow curve of the reservoir (Graph No. II)
3-Elevation-storage curve of the reservoir (Graph No. III)

Fig.(14).Elevation Outflow and Elevation Storage Curves.

 Before starting the actual routing
operation by the graphical method,
the curves of (2S/t ± O) v/s outflow O
are derived, as shown in Fig. 15.
 To do this, the value of S and O are
taken, from (Fig.14), for various
values of reservoir elevations.
 Knowing the corresponding values of
s and O, values of (2S/t ± O) are
computed and plotted against the
corresponding outflow rates (Fig.15).
In this, t is any chosen time interval.
Fig.(15).Flood Routing By Graphical Method.
The Graphical Method Can be summerized:
Example:
*10^4 *10^4
Fig.(15) Fig.(15) Fig.(14)
 Factors Affecting
Sedimentation
 ( i ) Extent of catchment area and the Unable
nature of its different zones.
 ( ii ) Amount of sediment load in the rivers.
 (iii) Type of rainfall and snowfall in each zone.
 (iv ) Mean monthly and annual temperature in
each zone.
 ( v ) Monthly and annual run-off from catchment
or sub-catchment.
 (vi) Slope of each zone of catchment.
 (vii) Vegetation in each zone of catchment.
 (viii) Geological formations of each zone and
estimated relative weathering and erosion with
due regard to climatic conditions.
Failure of a small dam, the breach and the flooding downstream
 -
 (ix) Presence of upstream reservoir and
extent of trapping of sediment therein.
 (x) Amount of sediment flushed out through
sluices.
 (xi) Degree of consolidation of the
accumulated sediment depending upon the
extent of exposure to air, sun and wind.
 (xii) Volume of water in the reservoir and its
proportion to the mean annual flow in the
river i.e. capacity inflow ratio.
 (xiii) Operation schedule of the reservoir.
Control of Silting of Reservoirs
 1. Adequate consideration of the silt factor
for the selecting of site and design of the
dam.
 (a) Selection of reservoir site.
 (b) Ratio of reservoir capacity and size of
drainage area:
 A reservoir should hold at least 3.6 hectare
meter of water per square km of drainage
area in order to have a safe life of 100 years.
2. A plan of water release designed to eject
the maximum possible sediment load .
 (a) Reservoir design —A lower darn in
the first instance with provision in its
structural design for its being raised
in stages, as its capacity is
encroached, would be a better
proposition.
 (b) In some of the reservoirs, sluices
may be provided to take advantage of
formation of density currents and
thus eject a significant share of
Sediment load.
Failure of a small dam, the breach and the flooding downstream
-
 (c) The reservoir may be filled, only after
passing the peak flood.
3. Control of soil erosion and sediment
movement in the catchments area.
 (a) Control of sediment inflow —Small check
dams may be constructed on all tributaries
of the main river. Vegetation screen on the
catchment would go a long way in reducing
erosion.
-
 (b) Control of sediment deposit—
The outlets may be opened at the
time when there is maximum
inflow of sediment in the
reservoir i.e. during monsoon
periods; also ejection of reservoir
water at lower levels would help
in reducing silt in the basin.
-
 (c) Removal of sediment deposit—
Scouring, excavation, dredging etc. may
be resorted to. But these methods are
expensive. Loosening the sediment and
or pushing it towards the sluices by
mechanical means simultaneously with
scouring would increase the effectiveness
of the scouring action to some extent.
-
 (d) Erosion control in the catchments
area Soil conservation methods, like a
forestation, control of grazing, terrace
cultivation, provision of contour bunds,
gully formation by providing small
embankments, where necessary, debris
barriers , weed growth etc. all help to
control soil erosion and thus reduce
sediment entry in the reservoir.
 Gravity Dam

Gravity dams are dams which resist

the horizontal thrust of the water
entirely by their own weight.

Concrete gravity dams

are typically used to
block streams through
narrow gorges.
 Gravity Dam

Cross Section Plan View

Material of Construction:
Concrete, Rubber Masonry
.
The ratio of the base width to
height of most of the gravity
dam is less than 1.0. The
upstream face is vertical or
slightly inclined. The slope of
the downstream face usually
varies between 0.7: 1 to 0.8: 1.
The first masonry dams were
those built in Spain in the 16th
and 17th centuries ; they are
about 20 m high,
 havea vertical upstream
face and are approximately
rectangular in section. The
highest gravity dam in the
world is Grand Dixence Dam
in Switzerland, which is 285 m
high. The second highest
gravity dam is Bhakra Dam in
India, which has a height of
226 m.
Basic Definitions
1. Axis of the dam: The axis of the
gravity dam is the line of the
upstream edge of the top (or crown)
of the dam.
2. Length of the dam: The length of the
dam is the distance from one
abutment to the other, measured
along the axis of the dam at the level
of the top of the dam.
 .
3. Structural height of the dam: The
structural height of the dam is the
difference in elevations of the top of the
dam and the lowest point in the
excavated foundation.
4. Maximum base width of the dam: The
maximum base width of the dam is the
maximum horizontal distance between
the heel and the toe of the maximum
section of the dam in the middle of the
valley.
(Full Res. Level)
.
5. Toe and Heel: The toe of the dam is
the downstream edge of the base, and
the heel is the upstream edge of the
base. When a person moves along with
water current, his toe comes first and
heel comes later.
6. Hydraulic height of the dam: The
hydraulic height of the dam is equal to
the difference in elevations of the
highest controlled water surface on the
upstream of the dam and the lowest
point in the river bed.
 Forces Acting on Gravity
Dam
A gravity dam is subjected to the following main
forces:
1. Weight of the dam
2. Water pressure
3. Uplift pressure
4. Wave pressure
5. Earth and Silt pressure
6. Ice pressure
7. Wind pressure
8. Earthquake forces
9. Thermal loads.
These forces fall into two categories as:
a) Forces, such as weight of the dam and
water pressure, which are directly
calculable from the unit weights of the
materials and properties of fluid
pressures
b) Forces, such as uplift, earthquake loads,
silt pressure and ice pressure, which can
only be assumed on the basis of
assumption of varying degree of
reliability.
 2 Criteria for Selection of
Dam Site
 (i) A narrow gorge at dam site, opening
upstream.
 (ii) Sound rock able to resist static and
dynamic forces including earthquakes.
 (iii) Stable valley and abutment slopes.
 (iv) Foundations having same value of
elastic constants preferable.
-
(v) The foundations and reservoir walls
watertight, resistant to erosion, and
other detrimental effects of wetting,
drying, freezing and thawing.
(vi) Good location for spillways and
power house.
(vii) Availability of good construction
material near by
(viii) Proximity of construction facilities,
like electric supply, road and rail
communications etc.
3 Foundation Treatment
 The purpose of the foundation
treatment are :
 (i) to prepare stable support for the
dam.
 (ii) to safeguard against uplift and
water creeping through the junction of
dam and foundation, and
 (iii) to safeguard sliding.
 (a) Preparation of rock at dam
interface.
 (b) Foundation grouting.
 (c) Treatment of faults, shear joints
etc.
 (d) Drainage.
1. Weight of the dam
1. The weight of the dam is the main
stabilizing force in a gravity dam. The dead
load to be considered comprises the weight
of the concrete or masonry or both plus the
weight of such appurtenances as piers,
gates and bridges.
2. The weight of the dam per unit length is
equal to the product of the area of cross-
section of the dam and the specific weight
(or unit weight) of the material.
3. The specific weight of the concrete is usually
taken as 24 kN/m3, and that of masonry as 23
kN/m3 in preliminary designs.
2. Reservoir and Tail water
loads (Water pressure)
 The water pressure acts on the
upstream and downstream faces of
the dam.
 The water pressure on the upstream
face is the main destabilizing (or
overturning) force acting on a
gravity dam. The tail water pressure
helps in the stability.
.
 The water pressure intensity p (kN/m2)
varies linearly with the depth of the water
 measured below the free surface y (m)
and is expressed as
 p =ɣw y
Where ɣw is the specific weight of water (=
9.81 kN/m3 for ρw =1000 kg/m3). For
simplification, the specific weight of
water may be taken as 10 kN/m3 instead
of 9.81 kN/m3.
(a) U/s face vertical:
 When the upstream face of the dam is
vertical, the water pressure diagram is
triangular in shape with a pressure
intensity of ɣwh at the base, where h is
the depth of water. The total water
pressure per unit length is horizontal
and is given by
 F=1/2 * ɣw h2
 It acts horizontally at a height of h/3
above the base of the dam.
(b) U/s face inclined:
 The vertical component PV of water
pressure per unit length is equal to
the weight of the water in the prism
ABCD per unit length . For
convenience, the weight of water is
found in two parts PV1 and PV2 by
dividing the trapezium ABCD into a
rectangle BCDE and a triangle ABE.
 Thus the vertical component
 PV= PV1 + PV2
 = weight of water in BCDE + weight of
water in ABE.
 The lines of action of PV1 and PV2
will pass through the respective
centroids of the rectangle and
triangle.
Example (1)
 Determine the forces due to
self weight and water
pressure on the non overflow
dam. Take specific weight Wc
= 24 kN/m3 and w = 9.81
KN/m3 .
Solution
Water pressure
3. Uplift pressure
The uplift pressure is defined as the upward
pressure of water as it flows or seeps through
the body of the dam or its foundation.
(i) If there are no drainage galleries or if they
are choked, the uplift is assumed to vary
linearly from ɣw H to ɣw h
(ii) If drainage galleries are working, the
reduction in water pressure head at the
gallery is taken as 2/3 rd of the difference
between ɣw H and ɣw h or net pressure being
ɣw H -2/3 (ɣw H-ɣw h),
4. Earth and Silt Pressures
 .
Gravity dams are subjected to earth pressures
on the downstream and upstream faces
where the foundation trench is to be
backfilled.
A. Horizontal silt and water pressure is
assumed to be equivalent to that of a fluid
with a mass of 1360 kg/m3, and
B. Vertical silt and water pressure is
determined as if silt and water together
have a density of 1925 kg/m3.
C. Experimental and analytical procedures
have both shown that an earthquake
acceleration up to about 0.3 g is only about
half as effective in silt or soil masses, as it
is in water.
5. Ice Pressure
 The rate of 250 kPa applied to the face
of dam over the anticipated area of
contact of ice with the face of dam.
6. Wind Pressure
 In designing a dam section, wind
pressure is generally not considered. It
may be taken as 100 to 150 kg/m2 for
the area exposed to the wind pressure.
7. Force due to waves
 Wind blowing over the reservoir area
causes a drag on the surface. The effect
of the drag is to pull the surface along the
direction of wind and thus ripples and
waves are formed.
 The following formulae given by Molitor
Stevenson may be used to evaluate the
height of waves.
 hw = 0.032 (V.F )^0.5+ 0.763 – 0.27 (
F)^0.25
 for F < 32 km, and
.
 hw = 0.032 (V.F)^0.5 for F > 32 km
 where hw = height of waves in metre
 V = wind velocity in km per hour
 F = fetch or the straight length of
expanse in km
 The pressure intensity due to waves is
given by the formula (in t/m2)
 Pw = 2.4 γw .hw
 γw = unit weight of water= 1 ton/m3
 The total pressure is given by the relation
(in tons )
 Fw = 2.0 γw .(hw) 2
8. Force due to Temperature
Variation
 The forces caused due to variation
in temperature are of secondary
importance in gravity dams since
these only cause secondary
stresses.
9. Seismic forces
 9.1. Effect of Horizontal Acceleration:
Horizontal· acceleration causes two forces:
 9.1.1.Hydrodynamic pressure of water.
 Theoretical calculations indicate that the
distribution of hydrodynamic pressure due
to an earthquake on the upstream face of
dam is nearly parabolic. The following
formula of U.S.B.R may be used to evaluate
pressure intensity due to earthquake
.
 Pe = C a w . h
 where Pe = Pressure intensity in t/m2
 a = Horizontal seismic coefficient
e.g. 0.1 in earthquake intensity of
0.1 g
 w = Unit weight of water = 1 t/m3
 h = Maximum depth of reservoir in m
 C = A coefficient, given as below :
 =Cm /2 [z/h (2-z/h) + (z / h(2 -
z/h))0.5 ]
.
 where
 z = Depth in m from top of reservoir to the
point under consideration
 Cm depends on upstream slope and it is
calculated as:
 Cm = 0.73 ( ø/90o )
ø= angle in degrees that the upstream slope
of the dam makes with the horizontal.
 The total pressure Pe on the portion of the
dam up to depth z from top is given by
 Fe (force)= 0.726 Pe z.
 The moment Me about the plane up to
which pressure is taken , is given by
 Me = 0.3 Pe z2
.
A horizontal acceleration
towards the reservoir causes a
momentary increase in water
pressure as the foundation and
dam accelerate towards the
reservoir and the water resists
the movement owing to its
inertia. Thus the force is taken
acting in the opposite direction
of the earthquake acceleration.
.
 When the upstream face is partly
vertical and partly sloping two cases
arise.
 (i) When the vertical portion is more
than half the depth; the entire face is
taken vertical
 (ii) When the vertical portion is less than
half the depth; the slope of the face is
given by the line joining the heel to the
water surface level at the upstream
face.
.
9.1.2. Inertia force in the body of the
dam
The inertia force acts in a direction
opposite to the acceleration
imparted by, earthquake forces and
is equal to the product of the mass
of the dam and the acceleration.
F=W.α
Where α=acceleration due gravity
.
 W=weight of the dam
 The force should be considered at the
center of gravity of the dam.
 This inertia force shall be assumed to act
from upstream to downstream or
downstream to upstream to get the worst
combination for design. It causes an
overturning moment about the horizontal
section adding to that caused by
hydrodynamic force.
 9.2. Effect of Vertical
Earthquake Acceleration
 The increase in gravity acceleration in
down ward direction therefore causes
increase in weights of both the dam and
the water and they have to be multiplied
by (1+αv) while decrease in gravity
acceleration, which results due to
upward movement causes decrease of
weight which have then to be multiplied
by (1- αv). [αv = vertical earthquake
acceleration coefficient].
Thus the net effect of the vertical
earthquake acceleration may be
summarized as below :
1. On sloping faces of the dam the
weight of the water above the
slope should be modified by the
appropriate acceleration factor.
2. The unit weight of the concrete
should also be modified by this
acceleration factor.
.
 3. For high and important
dams, the components of
water pressure normal to the
upstream face of the dam is
modified by the given
acceleration factor i.e. taken
as 1 +αv or 1-αv times the
normal pressure.
 Effect of Earthquake on
Spillways
 If He and h represent the head of
water above the spillway crest
and the total depth of water
respectively, the percentages of
force and moments due to
earthquake may be taken as
given in the following Table
Table . Recommended reduced
values of pressures and moments
5. Safety Criteria
Safety against Overturning
 If the resultant of all the forces
acting on a dam passes outside
the base, the dam would overturn
unless it can resist tensile
stresses. Since the dam is usually
designed on no tension basis, it
follows that the resultant should
pass through the middle third.
.
 If other safety criteria like
maximum compressive stresses
and sliding are also fulfilled,
then usually a factor of safety
between 1.5 to 2.5 is available
against overturning. Factor of
safety against overturning may
be defined as the ratio of the
stabilizing moments to the
overturning moments about the
toe of the dam .
Safety against Sliding
 Inorder that the dam may not
slide on any plane, the total
forces tending to slide the dam
should not exceed a certain
ratio of the normal force on the
plane. Expressing
mathematically ƩH/ƩV < f,
where f is the coefficient of
friction. The safe value of 'f' is
usually taken up to 0.75.
.
 In certain cases this value,
under abnormal loading
conditions, becomes more
than 0.75. When 'f,
becomes more than 0.75,
the shear friction factor
may be calculated.
 S.F.F = (f ƩV + r s A)/Ʃ H
.
 where
f = 0.7
 s = shearing strength which
varies from 140 t/m2 for poor
rocks to 500 t/m2 for good
rocks.
r = averaging factor = usually
0.5
 A = area in m2
.
 As per U.S.B.R. recommendation the value
of shear friction factor should not be
allowed to go below 5 under normal
loading, and in abnormal loading
conditions it may be encroached up to 4.
However uneconomical sections of dam
result with this criterion when dam height
exceeds 150 m. It is recommended that
for dams higher than 150m, these factors
be taken as 4 for normal loading and 3 for
extreme loading conditions. The
recommended shear friction factors are
given by the following table:
Loading S.F.F
condition

A,B,C 4.0

D,E 3.0

F,G 1.5
Load Combinations
 Gravity dam design should be based on
the most adverse load combination A, B,
C, D, E, F or G given below using the
safety factors prescribed.
1. Load Combination A (Construction
Condition) - Dam completed but no
water in reservoir and no tailwater.
2. Load Combination B (Normal Operating
Condition) - Full reservoir elevation,
normal dry weather tailwater, normal
uplift; ice and silt (if applicable).
 .
3. Load Combination C (Flood Discharge
Condition) - Reservoir at maximum flood
pool elevation, all gates open, tailwater at
flood elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if
applicable ).
4. Load Combination D - Combination A, with
earthquake.
5. Load Combination E - Combination B, with
earthquake but no ice.
6. Load Combination F - Combination C, but
with extreme uplift (drains inoperative).
7. Load Combination G - Combination E, but
with extreme uplift (drains inoperative).
Example (2)
 Forthe overflow section
shown in Figure, determine
the horizontal force due to
water pressure on the
upstream face. Take velocity
of the approach as 3 m/s.
Solution
 Gravity Analysis
Assumptions in the design
The dam is considered to be made up of a
number of vertical cantilevers which act
independently of each other. The following
assumptions for the gravity analysis are
made
(i) The material in the foundation and in the
body of dam is isotropic and homogeneous.
(ii) The stresses in the foundation and the body
of the dam are within elastic limits.
(iii) No movements are caused in the
foundations due to transference of the load.
.
(iv) The foundation and the dam behave
as one unit, the joint being a perfect
one.
(v) No loads are transferred to the
abutments by beam action.
(vi) The stability analysis of the dam is
based on considering a slice of the dam
one meter thick at the base line.
(vii) Small openings are supposed to have
a local effect only.
Compression or Crushing
 In order to calculate the normal
stress distribution at the base, or at
any section, let ΣFH be the total
horizontal force, ΣFV be the total
vertical force and R be the resultant
force cutting the base at an
eccentricity e from the centre of the
base of width b (Fig.), which is equal
to
 b/2 − x’
.
 where x’ is the distance of the
resultant force R from the toe given
by
 X’ = (ΣM(+) − ΣM(-) )/ ΣFV
 The normal stress at any point on
the base will be the sum of the
direct stress and the bending
 stress. Thus, direct stress σcc is
 σcc = Σ FV /(b*1)
 and bending stress σcbc at any fiber
at distance y from Neutral Axis is
.
 σcbc =± (Σ M) y / I
 Where I=moment of inertia
 Since Σ M = Σ FV e ; I =1*b3/12
 For rectangular section of 1 m wide
and (b) m deep;
 and y = b/2 for extreme fiber at toe
or heel,
 hence the total normal stress σz is
given by
 .
 σz = σcc +σcbc = Σ FV /(b*1) ±6 Σ FV
e/b2
 Or σz = Σ FV /b (1 ±6e/b)
 The positive sign will be used for
calculating normal stress at the toe,
since the bending stress will be
compressive there, and negative
sign will be used for calculating
normal stress at the heel.
.
 Thus, the normal stress at the toe
is
 σz (toe)= Σ FV /b (1+ 6e/b)
 And
 σz (heel)= Σ FV /b (1- 6e/b)
Safe Stresses
 The stresses in the dam should be
within the specified limits for the
body of the dam and in the
foundations. If the stresses at the
toe and heel are excessive, they
can be brought within permissible
limits with the provision of fillets.
The height of these fillets above
the heel and toe are given by the
following relations. For heel
hf = 6H -H2 /1.52-1.07
 where
 H = height of dam in 100 meter and
 hf = height of fillet in meter
 For toe
 hf = 6.5 H – 1.1 H 2 – 0.9
 Usually sloping fillets with 2 horizontal
to 1 vertical at downstream and 1
horizontal to 2 vertical on the upstream
are provided.
 Tensile stresses should not be
higher than 5 kg/cm2 for height
concrete dams under the most
adverse loading conditions, with
gravity analysis.
 The maximum permissible
compressive stress in a dam
depends on the crushing strength
of concrete, which is usually
between 150 to 300 kg/cm2 .
A factor of safety of 3 to 4 is
considered adequate for
determining the stresses. In case
of unusual loading conditions ,
U.S.B.R. recommends lowering of
safety factor to 2 and allowable
compressive stress 100 kg/cm2 .
In extreme loading condition
U.S.B.R. allows safety factor of
even 1.0.
Example
 Considering earthquake forces in
addition to the hydrostatic
pressure and uplift pressure ,
determine the base width of the
elementary profile of gravity dam
so that resultant passes through
the outer third points.
Tension
 From equation for the normal
stress at the heel it is evident
that if e > b/6, the normal stress
at the heel will be (–ve) or tensile
as shown in Fig. When the
eccentricity e is greater than b/6
a crack of length lc will develop
due to tension which can be
calculated as:
Effect of Tension Cracks
 Since concrete cannot resist the
tension, a crack develops at the
heel, which modifies the uplift
pressure diagram, as illustrated
in Fig. Due to tension crack, the
uplift pressure increases in
magnitude and net downward
vertical force or the stabilizing
force reduces.
.
 The resultant force thereby
gets further shifted towards
the toe and this leads to
further lengthening of the
crack. The base width thus
goes on reducing and the
compressive stresses on toe
goes on increasing, till the toe
fails in compression or sliding.
 Quality and Strength of
Concrete and Masonry
 The strength of concrete/masonry
shall exceed the stresses anticipated in
the structure by a safe margin.
 The compressive strength of concrete
should satisfy early load and
construction requirements and at the
age of one year it should be four times
the maximum computed stress in the
dam or 14 N/mm2, whichever is more.
 The allowable working stress in
any part of the structure shall not
also exceed 7 N/mm2. The
compressive strength of masonry
should satisfy early load and
construction requirements and at
one year it should be five times the
maximum computed stress on the
dam or 12.5 N/mm2 whichever is
more.
Example
 Prove X’= ∑M/ ∑V
 Solution:
Fx
 Let Fv= ∑V, Fx= ∑Fx
 θ R
y
Fv X’


x
θ
m
 Y*Fx-x*Fv=R*m=R *x’* cos θ
 X’= ∑M/R cos θ = ∑M/ ∑V
Principal and Shear Stresses
.
 Let ds, dr and dy be the
lengths of AC, AB and BC;
 p = intensity of water
pressure;
 σ1 = principal stress on plane
AB;
 τ =shear stress;
 and pn = normal stress.
 Considering unit length of
the dam, the normal forces
on the planes AB, BC and
CA are respectively σ1 dr,
pn dy and p ds. Resolving
all the forces in the vertical
direction, we get:
σ1 dr =Principal stress*dr
P ds=water
Pressure*ds
φ
φ

Pn dy=σn dy =normal stress *dy

 pn dy =pds sinφ + σ1 cosφ dr
 But dr = dy cosφ and ds = dy
sinφ , therefore
 pn dy = pdy sin2φ+ σ1 dy cos2 φ
 Or pn = p sin2 φ + σ1 cos2 φ
 Hence
 σ1 =(pn - p sin2 φ )/ cos2 φ
 Or σ1 =pn sec2 φ - p tan2 φ
 If pe is the intensity of
hydrodynamic pressure due to
an earthquake, then the
principal stress is given by
 σ1 =pn sec2 φ – (pe +p) tan2 φ
This equation is known as the
principal stress relationship,
and is applicable to both
upstream and downstream
faces.
.
 Ifpe’ is the intensity of
hydrodynamic pressure of
tailwater due to an
earthquake the principal
stress at the downstream
becomes
 σ1 =pn sec2 φ – (p-pe’) tan2 φ
Shear Stress
 Resolving all the forces in the
horizontal direction, we get
 τ dy= σ1 dr sinφ -p ds cosφ
 Or τ dy= σ1 dy cosφ sinφ -p
dy sinφ cosφ
 Substituting the value of σ1
we get
 τ =(pn sec2 φ - p tan2 φ –p)
cosφ sinφ
 .
 Or τ =(pn – p) tan φ
 The above equation is applicable
for downstream side only.
 For the upstream side, the τ will be
the same but its direction will be
reversed.
 If tail water is neglected (p= zero),
the shear stress at the downstream
side will be maximum.
.
 Considering the hydrodynamic
pressure due to earthquake,
the shear stress at
downstream is given by
 τ =(pn – (p-pe’)) tan φ
 Similarly, the shear stress for
the upstream side is given by
 τ =(pn – (p+pe’)) tan φ
Example (3)
 Check the stability of the overflow
section of the gravity dam shown in
Figure. Assume the weight of
concrete, gates, piers and water over
crest, etc. = 3.0 x 104 KN. Moment
of the weight of concrete, gates,
piers and water over crest, etc. about
toe = 106 KN-m. Neglect all force
other than weight, uplift pressure
and water pressure. Take f = 0.75
and s = 1400 KN/m2.
Solution

 The Calculation are shown in the table

below.
heel Because tan(θ)=0
12 .Elementary Profile of a
Gravity Dam
 Ifwe consider only hydrostatic
force, the elementary profile
will be triangular in section
see (Fig.), having zero width at
the water level; where water
pressure is zero,
 and a maximum base width
b, where the maximum
water pressure acts.
Thus the section of the
elementary profile is similar
to the shape of hydrostatic
pressure distribution
diagram.
. The same profile will provide the
maximum possible stabilizing
force against overturning,
without causing tension at the
base. In the triangular profile the
resultant, in case of empty
reservoir condition, the gravity
load only acts at a distance of
b/3 from the heel i.e. at the
extreme upstream middle third
point.
 Minimum base width required
for elementary profile under
different design conditions
 (i) Dam safe against overturning, (no
uplift)
 Taking moments about toe. (see Fig.)
 With b=mh
 Moment of W about toe =(Υc mh2 /2)
(2mh)/3= Υc m2 h3 /3
 Moment of H about toe =w. h3 /6
 For safety
 (Υc m2 h3 /3)-(w h3 /6) ≥0
.
 or m ≥ √(w /2 Υc ) ≥ 0.456
 (Υc = 2.4 t/m3 ; w = 1 t/m3 )
 i.e .b ≥ 0.456 h
 (ii) Dam safe against overturning
(uplift considered triangular
distribution)
 From the above figure, we have for
stability
 Υc m2 h3/3- w h3/6-w m2h3 /3 ≥ 0
 Or m> √w/2(Υc- w) ≥ 0.595
 i.e. b ≥ 0.595h
(iii) Dam safe against overturning (uplift
considered full uplift of intensity w h on
full base width)
 We have
 Υc m2 h3/3- w h3/6-w m2h3/2 ≥0
 or m ≥√[w /(2Υc -3w) ]≥0.748
 i.e. b ≥0.748h
(iv) Dam safe against sliding (uplift
not considered) from safety
considerations
 H/W<f≤0.75 say
 Or (w h2/2)/(Υc mh2/2) ≤0.75
 Or m≥(4 w)/(3 Υc ) ≥ 0.555
 i.e. b ≥ 0.555 h
(v) Dam safe in sliding (uplift
considered - triangular distribution)

 H/(W-U)≤f≤0.75
 Or (wh2 /2)/(Υc mh2 /2- wm h2 /2) ≤0.75
 Or m ≥ 4w/[3(Υc -w)] ≥0.952
 i.e. b ≥0.952 h
(vi) No tension in the dam (uplift not
considered)

 бz u=W/b (1-6e/b)≥0………….(1)
 Since W= (Υc mh2 /2)=Fv
 b=mh, e=b/2-x’, x’=ΣM/Fv…….(2)
 ΣM= (Υc m2 h3 /3)-(w h3 /6)…….(3)
 Substituting equations (2) and (3) into
(1) one obtains
 m≥SQR(w/Υc )≥0.645 (prove it)
(vii) Vertical compressive stress at each level
should exceed the water pressure at that point,
for allowing uplift (Mauric Levy’s criterion):

 This means that (from condition vi)

 бz u=W/b (1-6e/b)≥wh
 Using the same above way one
obtains:
 m ≥SQR(w/(γc –w)) ≥ 0.845 i.e. an
increase of about 31% over the
criterion vi.
(viii) Dam safe for no tension
with triangular uplift considered
 Considering above figure and criterion
vi, the effect of uplift is to reduce
compressive stress at heel due to
gravity load.
 бz u=W/b (1-6e/b)≥0………….(1)
 Since W= Υc mh2 /2
 Fv=W-U= Υc mh2 /2-wmh2/2.
 b=mh, e=b/2-x’, x’=ΣM/Fv…….(2)
 ΣM= (Υc mh2 /2-wmh2/2)*2mh/3-(w h3
/6)-…….(3)
 Substituting equations (2) and (3)
into (1) one obtains:

 m ≥SQR(w/(γc –w)) ≥ 0.845 i.e. the

same by criterion as given Levy.
Top Width And Free-Board
 The top width of a gravity dam is
generally fixed by the provision of a
road-way and side walls. The
economical top width of a dam is
about 14% of the height of dam. The
usual widths provided vary from 6 to
10 meters.
 .
 The free board in the dam should be
ample to avoid overtopping of the
dam during maximum flood coupled
with waves. Usually a free - board of
1.5 hw (hw is the height of wave
calculated in the preceding sections
) is given. The economical free-
board is approximately 5% of the
height of the dam.
 Design Of Gravity Dam
I DESIGN OF NON - OVERFLOW SECTION
Design Example
 Design the non- overflow section of a gravity
dam with the following data:
 ( i ) R. L. of deepest foundation level 100 m
 ( ii ) R. L. of roadway at the top of dam 161 m
 ( iii ) Maximum pond level 152 m
 ( iv ) Maximum tail water level 123.9 m
 ( v ) Location of centre of drainage gallery
form U/S face of dam 7 m
 ( vi ) Roadway width at the top 6.1 m
 .
 ( vii ) Downstream vertical face up to EI.
154.28 m
 (viii) Upstream face of dam vertical
 ( ix ) Downstream face of dam 0.9 horizontal
to1.0 vertical
 ( x ) Density of silt laden water 1.36 t/m3
 ( xi ) Weight of concrete 2.4 t/m3
 ( xii ) Safe bearing capacity 15 kg/cm2
 (xiii) Shearing resistance of concrete (average)
21 kg/ cm2 .
 (xiv) Minimum allowable shear friction factor
under
 ( i ) normal loading = 5.0
 ( ii ) abnormal loading = 4.0
 ( xv ) Maximum coefficient of sliding under
normal loading = 0.75
 ( xvi ) Horizontal seismic coefficient = 0.20 g
 ( xvii ) Vertical seismic coefficient = 0.10 g
Design
A. Selection of Dam Profile
 The preliminary dam section is
chosen on the basis of existing dam
section of similar height. Usually
upstream face is vertical and
downstream slope varies from 0.9 to
horizontal to 1.0 vertical; the flatter
slope being given when earthquake
forces are acting on the dam and
extra section is required.
 The position of the foundation
gallery is about 0.1 H, where H is the
dam height, from upstream face. In
this case, a gallery at a distance of 7
m been provided.
 The top width of the dam is
provided for the roadway and is
usually taken 6 to 9m. In the present
case, the dam is medium high and
hence top width is taken 6.1 m only.
B. Steps in the Stability
Analysis
1. Determination of forces and their
moments
(a) Dead weights
 The weight W1 in the dam section pertains
to the top triangle of width 6.1 m and
height 6.72 m (width of dam section
normal to the plane of figure is taken as
1.0 meter) . The weight is given by
 W1=(2.4* 6.1* 6.72)/2=49
tons
 acting at a distance 2/3 * 6.1 =
4.06m from upstream heel is
therefore
 M1= 49* 4.16 = 198 t.m.
 We consider in this example all
clockwise moments about heel.
The moment of this weight W1
about heel as negative and all
anticlockwise moments as
positive. Thus the moment due to
all dead weights are negative.
(b) Water Thrust
 water thrust = ½ * 52 * 52* 1 =
1350 t
 It acts at a distance of h /3 i.e
52 /3 m from heel.
 Hence moment is negative and
equals to 1350 x 52 /3 = -
23400 t.m.
(d) Hydrodynamic Pressure
due to earthquake
Stress Analysis
Case I. (See Figure )
 (i) Reservoir full
 (ii) No tail water
 (iii) Uplift considered
 (iv) Drains working
 (v) Horizontal earthquake acceleration
upstream
 (vi) Vertical earthquake acceleration
downward
Case II
 (i) Reservoir full
 (ii) No tail water
 (iii) Uplift considered
 (iv) Drains working
 (v) Horizontal earthquake
acceleration acting upstream and
vertical acceleration acting up.
 (vi) Silt considered
Case III
 (i) Reservoir full up to 152 elevation
 (ii) No tail water
 (iii) Uplift considered
 (iv) Drains working
 (v) Horizontal earthquake
acceleration acting upstream and
vertical acceleration action up
 (vi) Wave's force considered (hw =
1.5 m)
Case IV
 (i) Reservoir upto EI. 152 m
 (ii) Drains chocked
 (iii) No earthquake
Case V
Arch Dam
 Arch Dam

I. Constant radius arch dams

for U-shaped valleys
have vertical US face
constant extrados radii for U-shaped valley
suitable to install gates at the US face

II. Constant angle arch dams

for V-shaped valleys
have curved US face
no possibility for gate installment
Arch Dam
Section
Arch Dam
Section
 Arch Dam
Reaction Forces on Arch Dam

hr
t
 allow Arch Dam with an
B
2 Overflow Spillway
k 
2Sin( / 2)
Buttress Dam
 Buttress Dam

Buttress Dam
: is a gravity dam reinforced by structural
supports.

Buttress
:a support that transmits a force from a roof or
wall to another supporting structure.

This type of structure can be considered even

if the foundation rocks are little weaker.
 Buttress Dam
Shapes of Buttress Dam

Typical Sections of Buttress

Dams
 Buttress Dam

Multiple-Arch Dam
(Buttress Dam)
Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Timber Crib Dam

A timber crib dam in

Michigan.
Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Steel Dam

Red Ridge steel

dam in Michigan.
Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Stone Masonry Dam

Stone Masonry dam.

Miscellaneous Types of Dam
Coffer Dam

A coffer dam during the

construction of locks at
the Mongomery Point
Lock and Dam.
 Dam Failure

Tailing Dam at Aznalcollar Mine, Spain

April 25, 1998: the tailings dam at the Aznalcollar

mine near Sevilla, Spain failed. This has had BIG
societal implications -- the toxic waste has killed
many fish and birds and flooded thousands of
hectacres of farmland.

February 26, 1999 marks the 27th anniversary of the failure of another
tailings dam on Buffalo Creek, West Virginia. 125 peoople were killed
and 4,000 were left without homes. The dam failure was compounded
by the fact that it was waste that was escaping; the waste caught fire
and an explosion eventually occured.
 Types of Dam

Stone Masonry 10%

Concrete 11%

Rockfill 3%

Earthfill 58%
Other 16%
Timber Crib 2%
 Dam Failure

Teton Dam, Idaho

June 5, 1976: the failure in the Teton Dam led to flooding in the
cities of Sugar City and Reburg in Idaho. The dam failure killed 14
people and caused over $1 billion in property damages.

The dam failed because the bedrock was not strong enough to
support the structure. Currently the dam is once again used for
hydroelectric power.
 Dam Failure

Folsom Dam, USA

July 17, 1995 : a spillway gate of Folsom Dam failed, increasing

flows into the American River significantly. The spillway was
repaired and the USBR carried out an investigation of the water
flow patterns around the spillway using numerical modelling.

No flooding occured as a result of the partial failure, but flooding

is still a major concern for this area. It seems that the Folsom Dam
may be due for a height increase as an answer to this concern