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Bacteriocins — a viable alternative

to antibiotics?
Paul D. Cotter1,2, R. Paul Ross1,2 and Colin Hill2,3
Abstract | Solutions are urgently required for the growing number of infections caused
by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Bacteriocins, which are antimicrobial peptides produced by
certain bacteria, might warrant serious consideration as alternatives to traditional antibiotics.
These molecules exhibit significant potency against other bacteria (including antibiotic-
resistant strains), are stable and can have narrow or broad activity spectra. Bacteriocins can
even be produced in situ in the gut by probiotic bacteria to combat intestinal infections.
Although the application of specific bacteriocins might be curtailed by the development of
resistance, an understanding of the mechanisms by which such resistance could emerge will
enable researchers to develop strategies to minimize this potential problem.

Probiotics
It could be argued that the identification and development modifications (class I) and unmodified peptides (class II)
Live microorganisms that of antibiotic therapy represents the most significant scien- (BOX 1; TABLE 1). Many bacteriocins have a high specific
confer a health benefit on the tific achievement of the twentieth century in terms of an activity against clinical targets (including antibiotic-
host when administered in impact on human morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, resistant strains), have mechanisms of action that are dis-
adequate amounts.
several problems have arisen that limit these initial ben- tinct from current chemotherapeutic products and, given
efits and cast doubt on how useful antibiotics will prove their proteinaceous nature, are amenable to gene-based
to be in the twenty-first century. Pathogens have emerged peptide engineering. Although several broad-spectrum
that are resistant to single, and subsequently multiple, bacterio­cins exist that can be used to target infections of
antibiotics. Moreover, there is a shortage of new fami- unknown aetiology, potent narrow-spectrum bacteriocins
lies of antibiotics that could potentially compensate for have also been identified that can control targeted patho-
resistance to existing antibiotics, in part owing to the high gens without negatively affecting commensal popula-
costs and risks associated with developing and using such tions12,13. It should be noted that the emergence of resistant
products1,2. Finally, it has become clear that the admin- bacteria is still a possibility, albeit one that might be mini-
istration of broad-spectrum antibiotics can lead to ‘col- mized through a detailed understanding of bacteriocin
lateral damage’ to the human commensal microbiota, mechanisms of action and through peptide engineering.
which has several key roles in host health3–5. The potential In this Review, we highlight the key traits of bacte-
association between the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics riocins which suggest that these compounds represent
and the increasing incidence of atopic and autoimmune potential alternatives to antibiotics. When using the term
diseases is a particular cause for concern3,4. bacteriocins, we refer specifically to small peptide anti-
As a consequence, there is a need for the development microbials and thus do not discuss the clinical potential
1
Teagasc Food Research
Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy,
of new antimicrobials that can be used in clinical settings. of larger proteins such as the bacteriolysins, colicins and
Cork, Ireland. Alternatives that have been investigated include plant- pyocins. Bacteriocins have also been investigated with
2
Alimentary Pharmabiotic derived compounds6, bacteriophages and phage lysins7, respect to their potential in animal health14, in marine
Centre, Cork, Ireland. RNA-based therapeutics8, probiotics9, and antimicrobial environments15 and in enhancing food safety and quality11,
3
Microbiology Department,
peptides from a variety of sources10. One option that but these applications have been reviewed previously
University College Cork,
College Road, Cork, Ireland. can no longer be ignored is a subgroup of antimicrobial and are not addressed here.
e‑mails: peptides known as bacteriocins. These are small, bacteri-
[email protected]; ally produced, ribosomally synthesized peptides that are Benefits of bacteriocins
[email protected]; active against other bacteria and against which the pro- Bacteriocins have many properties which suggest that
[email protected]
doi:10.1038/nrmicro2937
ducer has a specific immunity mechanism11. Bacteriocins they are viable alternatives to antibiotics. These include
Published online are a hetero­geneous group and are usually classified into their potency (as determined in vitro and in vivo),
24 December 2012 peptides that undergo significant post-translational their low toxicity, the availability of both broad- and

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Box 1 | Classification of bacteriocins

been modified to create LFF571 (Novartis) and exhibits
potent activity against C. difficile and most other Gram-
Several approaches have been taken to classify bacteriocins. One, which is used to positive organisms (with the exception of bifidobacteria
classify the bacteriocins of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), divides these peptides into class I and lactobacilli)21. Among the other modified bacte-
peptides, which undergo post-translational modification, and class II peptides, which riocins, the sactibiotic thuricin CD has been found to
are largely unmodified (or undergo modest modification; for example, the formation of
be particularly potent against C. difficile12, and another
disulphide bridges, circularization or the addition of N‑formylmethionine)11. This system
proposes that larger proteins be removed from the bacteriocin category. Similarly, the
sactibiotic, subtilosin A, displays a narrow spectrum of
antimicrobials that are ribosomally synthesized by Gram-negative organisms can be activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyo-
divided into small peptides, such as microcins, and larger proteins, such as colicins. The genes and Listeria monocytogenes22, as well as Gardnerella
microcins have previously been divided on the basis of the presence (class I) or absence vaginalis23. Although the glycocin sublancin 168 does
(class II) of significant modification150. We argue that the designation bacteriocin should not seem potent enough to justify commercial applica-
be retained for peptide antimicrobials, and thus, ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial tions24, it may be that other glycocins will be identified
proteins are not covered in this Review. or created that show greater potential. The proteu-
In addition to subdividing bacteriocins on the basis of their modifications, further sin polytheonamide A has been found to be active at
subdivisions exist. In the case of modified bacteriocins, a comprehensive nomenclature microgram-per-millilitre concentrations against some,
for ribosomally synthesized, post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) has recently
albeit non-pathogenic, Gram-positive strains25, whereas
been proposed151. Given that the RiPPs include modified bacteriocins, this nomenclature
is also adopted here. Thus, class I (modified) bacteriocins can be subgrouped as
bottromycin A2 exhibits potent activity against MRSA
lantibiotics152, linaridins118, proteusins25, linear azole- or azoline‑containing peptides153, and VRE26.
cyanobactins (including patellamide-like and prenylated, anacyclamide-like There are also many examples of unmodified, class II
cyanobactins)67, thiopeptides154, lasso peptides155, sactibiotics156, bottromycins157, bacteriocins with potent antimicrobial activity against
glycocins158,159, and modified microcins that do not belong to other subgroups (for Gram-positive targets. This includes some class IIa bac-
example, microcin C7-C51)160 (TABLE 1). In some of these families, peptides with teriocins, which are active against L. monocytogenes 27
antimicrobial activity are rare (linardins) or not well characterized (cyanobactins). and other Gram-positive pathogens28. Class IIc peptides
The unmodified or circular (class II) bacteriocins can be divided into five groups that such as the enterococcal bacteriocin (enterocin) AS‑48
correspond to the four subclasses of unmodified LAB bacteriocins and one of the have been investigated predominantly with a view to use
subclasses of unmodified microcins. These subclasses are peptides that contain a
in non-clinical applications, but do nonetheless possess
YGNGV motif (in which N represents any amino acid; the class IIa peptides); two-peptide
bacteriocins (class IIb peptides); circular bacteriocins (class IIc peptides); unmodified,
antimicrobial activities, which suggests that other appli-
linear, non-pediocin-like, single-peptide bacteriocins that do not belong to other cations might be worth pursuing 29. Several class IId
subclasses (class IId peptides); and the microcin E492‑like bacteriocins (class IIe peptides; bacteriocins — for example, epidermicin NI01 — have
formerly known as the class IIb microcins). We propose that subclass IIc should be also provided interesting in vitro results30.
expanded to include the unmodified anacyclamides161 and that subclass IId should Although there are many examples of bacteriocins
incorporate certain microcins, such as microcin V and microcin S89,150. Although with substantial activity against Gram-negative bacte-
subclass IIe peptides are categorized within the class II bacteriocins, it should be noted ria in vitro, the generally held view is that bacteriocins
that peptides such as microcin E492 might carry a siderophore-type post-translational exhibit less potential as chemotherapeutics for infec-
modification71. tions with Gram-negative organisms. Bacteriocins
produced by Gram-negative bacteria — normally
termed microcins, despite representing different classes
narrow-spectrum peptides, the possibility of in situ pro- of bacteriocin (BOX 1) — typically show the greatest
duction by probiotics and the fact that these peptides can potential in this regard. It should be noted that they
be bioengineered. often display a narrow spectrum of activity and that
there have been few studies in which specific activi-
In vitro potency. The potency of bacteriocins against ties have been assessed. In relation to the modified
clinically important pathogens varies both across and microcins, notable observations include the activ-
within the various peptide subclasses. In general, the class I ity of microcin C7-C51 (MccC7-C51) against at least
bacteriocins, including lantibiotics and thio­peptides, some strains of Escherichia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella,
are most active against Gram-positive pathogens. Salmonella, Shigella, Proteus and Yersinia spp.31, the
Lantibiotics, such as nisin, planosporicin, Pep5, epider- activity of the lasso type bacteriocin MccJ25 against
min, gallidermin, mutacin B-Ny266, lacticin 3147 and some strains of Escherichia and Salmonella spp.32,33,
actagardine (and their bioengineered derivatives) exhibit and the activity of the linear azole‑containing peptide
notable in vitro activity against clinically important MccB17 against a wide range of Gram-negative bacteria,
pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, staphylo­ including Escherichia, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, Salmonella,
cocci (including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Shigella and Pseudomonas spp.34,35. With respect to the
aureus (MRSA)), vancomycin-resistant enterococci unmodified microcins, it has been established that
(VRE), various mycobacteria, Propionibacterium acnes MccV36 and MccL37 (from subclass IId), and MccE492
and Clostridium difficile16. Thiopeptides are also pre- (REF. 38), MccM39 and MccH47(REF. 39) (from subclass IIe)
dominantly active against Gram-positive pathogens. all exhibit activity against at least some Gram-negative
Thiopeptides exhibit highly potent in vitro activity, targets.
but their commercial development has been ham- Although lantibiotics are generally thought to have
pered by their poor solubility. Notable thiopeptides poor activity against Gram-negative organisms, puri-
include nocathiacin I and derivatives17, philipimycin18, fied lantibiotics such as nisin and epidermin have been
GE2270 A19 and the thiomuracins20. GE2270 A has also found to kill some of these bacteria40,41. The sactibiotic

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Table 1 | Class I and II bacteriocins

Group Distinctive feature Examples
Class I (modified)
MccC7-C51‑type bacteriocins Is covalently attached to a carboxy‑terminal aspartic acid MccC7-C51
Lasso peptides Have a lasso structure MccJ25
Linear azole- or Possess heterocycles but not other modifications MccB17
azoline-containing peptides
Lantibiotics Possess lanthionine bridges Nisin, planosporicin, mersacidin,
actagardine, mutacin 1140
Linaridins Have a linear structure and contain dehydrated amino acids Cypemycin
Proteusins Contain multiple hydroxylations, epimerizations and methylations Polytheonamide A
Sactibiotics Contain sulphur–α-carbon linkages Subtilosin A, thuricin CD
Patellamide-like cyanobactins Possess heterocycles and undergo macrocyclization Patellamide A
Anacyclamide-like cyanobactins Cyclic peptides consisting of proteinogenic amino acids with prenyl Anacyclamide A10
attachments
Thiopeptides Contain a central pyridine, dihydropyridine or piperidine ring as well as Thiostrepton, nocathiacin I,
heterocycles GE2270 A, philipimycin
Bottromycins Contain macrocyclic amidine, a decarboxylated carboxy‑terminal thiazole Bottromycin A2
and carbon‑methylated amino acids
Glycocins Contain S‑linked glycopeptides Sublancin 168
Class II (unmodified or cyclic)
IIa peptides (pediocin PA‑1‑like Possess a conserved YGNGV motif (in which N represents any amino acid) Pediocin PA‑1, enterocin CRL35,
bacteriocins) carnobacteriocin BM1
IIb peptides Two unmodified peptides are required for activity ABP118, lactacin F
IIc peptides Cyclic peptides Enterocin AS‑48
IId peptides Unmodified, linear, non-pediocin-like, single-peptide bacteriocins MccV, MccS, epidermicin NI01,
lactococcin A
IIe peptides Contain a serine-rich carboxy‑terminal region with a non-ribosomal MccE492, MccM
siderophore-type modification
Mcc, microcin.

subtilosin A is another unusual example of a modi- In vivo activity against pathogens. Although in vitro
fied bacteriocin that is produced by a Gram-positive studies have highlighted the potential value of bacteri-
organism and has activity against some Gram-negative ocins as alternatives to antibiotics, it is crucial to assess
bacteria22. Finally, there are rare examples of class IIa this activity in more clinically relevant circumstances. Of
bacteriocins that are produced by Gram-positive the different categories of bacteriocins described above,
organisms and exhibit activity against Gram-negative the lantibiotics and thiopeptides have been most exten-
bacteria42. sively investigated from this perspective. For example,
It should be noted that the effectiveness of indi- lantibiotics have been shown to control or prevent the
vidual bacteriocins could be further enhanced growth of staphylococci and/or enterococci in and on
through combination with other antimicrobials or catheter tubing 48. Moreover, nisin has been shown to
membrane-active substances. Although there have target S. pneumoniae and to be 8–16 times more active
been few studies in this area, nisin showed syner- than vancomycin in an intravenous regimen49. Similarly,
gistic activity with the antibiotics polymyxin E and a naturally occurring nisin variant, nisin F, effectively
clarithromycin against Pseudomonas  aeruginosa 43 controls S. aureus in vivo when incorporated into bone
and with ramoplanin and other non‑β‑lactam anti- cement 50, inhibits the growth of the pathogen in the res-
biotics against many strains of MRSA and VRE 43,44. piratory tract of rats when administered intra­nasally 51
Other combinations that have produced interest- and briefly suppresses the growth of this species in
ing results include the membrane-permeabilizing the intraperitoneal cavity 52. Moreover, the lanti­biotic
peptide (KFF) 3K with MccJ25 against Salmonella B-Ny266 was found to be active in vivo against S. aureus
enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium45, the in a mouse model of intraperitoneal infection, having
class IIa enterocin CRL35 with several antibiotics against a median effective dose (ED50) comparable to that of
Median effective dose L. monocytogenes46, and the sactibiotic subtilosin A with vanco­mycin53. Similar studies have revealed that the
The amount of an antimicrobial
that is required to produce a
glycerol monolaurate, lauric arginate or ε‑poly‑l‑lysine ED50 values of the lantibiotic mersacidin are even lower
specific effect in half an animal (or with a combination of two of these compounds) than those for vancomycin54 and that mersacidin is
population. against bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens47. effective when treating MRSA harboured in the nasal

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cavity 55, despite the fact that the in vitro activity of the class IId peptide MccE492 induced biochemical
this bacteriocin is not particularly notable 56. Finally, and morphological changes typical of apop­tosis, and at
plano­sporicin had a good efficacy in a mouse model of higher concentrations (>20 μg per ml), a necrotic pheno-
S. pyogenes‑induced septicaemia57. type was observed70. However, it has been suggested that
The efficacy of thiopeptides for systemic applica- this phenotype could be exploited such that MccE492
tions was originally thought to be restricted by their could be used as an antitumour agent 71.
insoluble nature. However, philipimycin, thiazomycin
and nosiheptide have given impressive results when Broad- and narrow-spectrum bacteriocins. There are
assessed using a mouse model of S. aureus infection18,19,58. many bacteriocins that exhibit broad-spectrum anti-
Several semi-synthetic analogues of thiopeptides have microbial activity. As with broad-spectrum antibiotics,
also been generated that address the issue of solubility. this is an attractive trait, as it allows us to target infec-
These include compound 19, an amide derivative of a tions of unknown aetiology. However, broad-spectrum
nocathiacin; compound 19 dramatically outperformed antibiotics are known to damage the commensal human
the antibiotics linezolid and vancomycin with regard to microbiota, so there is an appreciation of the value
reducing S. aureus survival in a systemic mouse infec- of using narrow-spectrum antimicrobials in specific
tion and in mouse thigh models of MRSA infections, circumstances.
respectively 59. Furthermore, LFF571, a derivative of the C. difficile-associated diarrhoea (CDAD) is a par-
thiopeptide GE2270A, was more effective than vancomy- ticularly appropriate example of such a circumstance,
cin in an experimental model of primary and relapsing in that in this case the disease often results from, and is
C. difficile infection60. treated with, antibiotics that can modulate the resident
Other than research assessing the lantibiotics and gut microbiota. C. difficile can competitively benefit from
thiopeptides, many of the other relevant studies relate antibiotic-induced disruption of the microbiota and can
to the class IIa bacteriocin peptides. In various inves- then flourish in this altered environment. The subse-
tigations, the administration of such bacteriocins has quent growth and toxin production by C. difficile results
provided protection from L. monocytogenes infection in in CDAD, which requires further antibiotic treatment.
mice61,62. Furthermore, liposomes containing the class IIa This can address the acute problem, but can also lead
bacteriocin E50‑52 were found to inhibit the intracel- to further disruption of the commensal population, and
lular growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and prolong the disease often recurs72. Screening the gut for narrow-
the survival of mice in an acute-tuberculosis model63. spectrum bacteriocins that target C. difficile led to the dis-
In vivo studies with purified peptides from other covery of the sactibiotic thuricin CD, which is produced
subclasses of bacteriocins are rare, although it is notable by Bacillus thuringiensis 12. Thuricin CD was found to
that, when tested in a mouse model of intraperitoneal exhibit antimicrobial activity comparable to the activities
infection with Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar of the antibiotics vancomycin and metronidazole (both of
Newport, treatment with the lasso peptide MccJ25 sig- which are used to treat CDAD in the clinic) in a model
nificantly decreased pathogen numbers in the liver and of the human distal colon. Importantly, however, thu-
spleen compared with those in control mice64. ricin CD did not significantly alter the composition of the
commensal microbiota, whereas both vancomycin and
Low toxicity. Another benefit of many bacteriocins is metronidazole brought about a dramatic increase in the
their low oral toxicity for the treated host. Indeed, many abundance of organisms of the phylum Proteobacteria at
bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria, in particu- the expense of organisms of other phyla73 (FIG. 1).
lar, have been consumed in fermented foods for millen- There have been numerous other efforts to identify
nia. By virtue of its wide-scale use as a food preservative, and develop antimicrobials with narrow-spectrum activ-
nisin has been the focus of particular attention in this ity against C. difficile. One outcome of these efforts is a
regard. The lack of toxicity of nisin and other lantibiotics semi-synthetic derivative of the lantibiotic actagardine13.
has been demonstrated in several studies57,65. It should Furthermore, another semi-synthetic peptide, thiopep-
be noted that the Enterococcus spp.-associated cytolysin tide LFF571, is active against C. difficile, but does not
(a lantibiotic) does exhibit cytotoxic activity, but it is the exhibit as narrow an antimicrobial spectrum as thuricin
only lantibiotic thus far to be shown to have this prop- CD and the actagardine derivative; nonetheless, the
erty 66. By contrast, antibacterial activity among cyano- relatively low activity of LFF571 against lactobacilli and
bactins is rare, whereas cytotoxic activity is common67. bifidobacteria has been highlighted21. Similarly, among
There have been few studies in which the cytotoxicity the unmodified bacteriocins, the class IIa bacteriocin
of unmodified, class II bacteriocins has been tested. pediocin PA‑1, which effectively treats mice infected
Although pediocin PA‑1 (when used at 10–20 μg per ml) with L. monocytogenes 74, has been shown to be inactive
displayed some cytotoxicity against Vero monkey against most gut bacteria in vitro and in vivo75,76.
kidney cells and simian virus 40‑transfected human Such narrow-spectrum activity could also be benefi-
colon cells68, other class IIa bacteriocins, such as the cial at other sites of infection. For instance, the activity
carnobacteriocins BM1 and B2, displayed no significant of subtilosin A against the vaginal pathogen G. vaginalis
cytotoxicity against Caco‑2 (human epithelial colorectal and the lack of subtilosin A activity against probiotic
adenocarcinoma) cells, even when used at concentra- Lactobacillus spp. isolates77 suggest that further investi-
tions 100‑fold higher than those required for antimicro- gations to test the ability of this peptide to treat vagino-
bial activity 69. At low and intermediate concentrations, sis are merited. Finally, although the narrow-spectrum

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a b 108 strain Lactobacillus casei str. LAFTI L26, as well as

the beneficial impact of administering Lactobacillus
T0
johnsonii str. La1 supernatant to children to control
106

Number of bacteria
Helicobacter pylori colonization83. It is also interesting to
α
T24 note that when a five-strain probiotic mixture was suc-
104 cessfully used to control S. Typhimurium-induced diar-
rhoea in pigs84, the only bacteriocin-producing strain,
β Lactobacillus salivarus str. DPC 6005, dominated over
102
co‑administered strains, both in the ileal digesta and in
the mucosa. However, the specific contribution of bac-
0
Before Metronidazole Thuricin CD
teriocin production to pathogen control in this particu-
treatment (90 μM) (90 μM) lar case was not established85. To address this issue, it is
necessary to use controls in the form of isogenic non-
c
bacteriocin-producing mutants for comparison. This
was achieved when oral administration of L. salivarius
str. UCC118, which produces the class IIb bacteriocin
Metronidazole ABP118, was shown to control L. monocytogenes infec-
(90 μM)
tion in mice: this protective effect was abolished when
Bacteriodetes
a non-bacteriocin-producing derivative of L. salivarius
Firmicutes
str. UCC118 was administered86 (FIG. 2). Moreover, an
Proteobacteria L. monocytogenes strain that is immune to ABP118 could
T0 T24
Actinobacteria successfully establish an infection even when the bacteriocin-
Lentisphaerae producing L. salivarius str. UCC118 was present86. Recent
Spirochaetes investigations using L. salivarius str. UCC118 have also
revealed that the operon for ABP118 synthesis is sig-
Thuricin CD
(90 μM) nificantly upregulated following adhesion of the bacte-
rium to epithelial cells, possibly because adhesion causes
a sufficiently high local concentration of bacteria to
trigger quorum sensing-mediated induction of ABP118
Figure 1 | Narrow-spectrum activity of thuricin CD.  a | The structure of thuricin CD, a production87.
two-peptide sactibiotic, showing the α and β components (Protein Data Bank accession Similarly, Pediococcus acidilactici str. MM33, which
2L9X and 2LA0). b | Thuricin CD and the antibiotic metronidazole have a comparable effect produces the class IIa bacteriocin pediocin PA‑1, has
on Clostridium difficile after 24 hours (T24) in a human colon infection model73|. c | The
Nature Reviews Microbiology
effect been shown to be more successful at controlling VRE
of both metronidazole and thuricin CD on the gut microbiota73. Although thuricin CD has than the mutant P. acidilactici str. MM33A, which does
a minimal effect on the composition of the gut microbiota (depicted here at the phylum not produce the bacteriocin; compared with the addition
level), metronidazole markedly alters the balance of these microbial populations.
of this non-producer mutant, addition of the producer
strain resulted in a much greater reduction in pathogen
numbers (by 1.85 log10 colony-forming units per gram)
activity of many bacteriocins produced by Gram-negative 3 days post-infection88. Finally, in vitro studies high-
bacteria is noteworthy, in some instances the spectrum lighted that the production of the class IId bacteriocin
of activity might be too low to justify commercial MccS by E. coli str. G3/10 (one of six E. coli strains pre-
exploitation. sent in the probiotic Symbioflor 2) inhibited the adher-
ence of enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) to epithelial
Potential for the use of probiotic-produced bacteriocins. cell lines, and this effect was not observed when using
Some bacteriocins benefit from the fact that, in addi- an EPEC strain that heterologously expressed the gene
tion to being administered by standard methods, they conferring immunity to MccS89.
have the potential to be produced at the site of infection With respect to the oral cavity and the oral pathogen
by probiotic bacteria. Many gut bacteria have previ- Streptococcus mutans, a strain that produces the bacteri-
ously been shown to require bacteriocin production for ocin mutacin 1140 has been developed to control plaque
gut colonization. For example, when a MccV producer formation (SMaRT Replacement Therapy, developed by
and a non-producing derivative were co‑administered Oragenics). In human trials testing a non-pathogenic
to mice, the non-producing strain could not colonize S. mutans strain that had been engineered to eliminate
and was thus eliminated from the large intestine78. With lactate dehydrogenase production to ensure that the
respect to probiotic gut microorganisms, the produc- bacterium did not contribute to plaque formation90,
tion of a bacteriocin has long been considered to be a this SMaRT strain was found to exclude other S. mutans
beneficial trait (for reviews, see REFS 79,80), but the evi- strains. It is noteworthy that the SMaRT strain was
dence supporting this theory has often been indirect or retained by some individuals for up to 14 years after a
circumstantial. single inoculation91. Similarly, it has been demonstrated
Previous studies had reported the significant inhi- that the bacteriocin-producing Streptococcus salivarius
bition of L. monocytogenes and enterohaemorrhagic str. K12 can control several plaque-forming and hal-
Escherichia coli in mice81,82 by the bacteriocin-producing itosis-causing bacteria92, and bacteriocin-producing

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a bacteriocins to target the specific bacterial populations

Bacteriocin+ strain Bacteriocin– strain
that are associated with chronic or acute diseases will
allow researchers to definitively establish disease cau-
sality. These antimicrobials could also be used to target
these as‑yet-unculturable pathobionts for therapeutic
applications. This theory was the foundation for a recent
proof‑of‑concept study 97 testing the potential of L. sali-
varius str. UCC118 to control weight gain in mice. The
authors found that the strain producing ABP118 con-
b trolled weight gain more successfully than its isogenic
non-producing counterpart in animals fed a high fat diet.
Placebo + However, this effect was transient, and eventually the
L. monocytogenes
difference in weight between the two groups of animals
L. monocytogenes decreased to below significant levels97. Thus, further
investigations are required to identify a probiotic–
bacteriocin combination that will contribute to weight
management over a longer period. More recently,
Bacteriocin+ strain ABP118‑producing and non-producing L. salivarius
+ L. monocytogenes strains have been shown to have different effects on the
gut microbiota of non-obese pigs and mice98, further
highlighting the key importance of bacteriocin produc-
tion with respect to the ability of a probiotic to influence
gut microbial populations.
Bacteriocin– strain Evidence has also recently emerged regarding the
+ L. monocytogenes effect of bacteriocins on the immune system. Specifically,
two studies99,100 identified a number of Lactobacillus
plantarum str.  WCFS1 genes, many of which are
involved in bacteriocin production or secretion, that
seem to influence the immune response by dendritic
Figure 2 | Probiotic delivery of bacteriocins.  The cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells, respec-
bacteriocin-producing probiotic Nature Reviews | salivarius
Lactobacillus Microbiology
tively. However, a detailed discussion of these findings
str. UCC118 (bacteriocin+) or a non-bacteriocin-producing
is beyond the scope of this Review.
isogenic mutant (bacteriocin−) were the focus of a particular
study86. a | There is a zone of inhibition (that is, an area
where bacterial growth has been prevented) around the Bacteriocins are amenable to bioengineering. Owing to
bacteriocin+ strain but not around the bacteriocin− strain their peptide nature (that is, because they are directly
when grown with Listeria monocytogenes on agar. b | Mice encoded by genes), bacteriocins are often more amena-
were administered (fed) a placebo (no bacterium), the ble to engineering than classical antibiotics. Engineering
bacteriocin+ strain or the bacteriocin− strain before oral of bacteriocins can be carried out by bacteriocin gene
infection with luciferase-tagged L. monocytogenes. manipulation, can involve in vitro harnessing of the bio-
30 minutes after infection, no light could be detected in the synthetic enzymes required for peptide production and/
bacteriocin+-fed animals, but significant light was detected or can rely on partial or complete chemical synthesis of
in the control mice and those fed the bacteriocin− strain.
the antimicrobial. In most cases, the engineered peptides
have been important for furthering our understanding of
the fundamentals of bacteriocin activity and structure–
S. salivarius strains have also shown promise in control- function relationships. However, there is also an increas-
ling S. pyogenes-associated pharyngitis93. Several studies ing number of engineered peptides that exhibit enhanced
have reported that bacteriocin-producing probiotics can functionalities (activity and/or stability) which make
control microorganisms associated with vaginosis94, but them more attractive from a clinical perspective.
the specific contribution of in vivo bacteriocin produc- For example, bioengineered derivatives of the lanti­
tion to controlling this condition has yet to be assessed. biotics nisin, actagardine and nukacin ISK‑1, as well
The ability of probiotics to produce bacteriocins as derivatives of lacticin 481 that have been generated
in situ may become an even more attractive trait in the in vitro 101, exhibit enhanced specific activity against
future as culture-independent, next-generation DNA Gram-positive and/or Gram-negative targets (for a
Pathobionts
sequencing-based approaches continue to facilitate a review, see REF. 102); synthetic forms of lactocin S are
Microbial components of the
gastrointestinal tract that have more comprehensive analysis of the human microbiota, more stable than their natural counterpart 103; and nisin–
the potential to cause disease. and the human gut microbiota in particular. These vancomycin hybrids are active against VRE104. In the case
investigations have highlighted the importance of a of thiopeptides, semi-synthetic derivatives have been
Isogenic ‘balanced’ gut microbiota and have led to unexpected generated that have increased water solubility, includ-
Pertaining to a microbial strain
derivative: identical to the
revelations regarding the contribution of microorgan- ing several nocathiacin derivatives59 and GE2270 A105.
parental strain except for a isms to many diseases, including coeliac disease, obesity An interesting variant of the linear azole‑containing
defined mutation. and diabetes95,96. The application of probiotic-produced peptide MccB17, containng an extra oxazole moiety,

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 REVIEWS

has been isolated and found to be 1.5 times as active as or Fiu (all of which are iron siderophore receptors) in
the standard MccB17 variant without the extra moiety106. the outer membrane and then passes through this
Moreover, three MccC7-C51‑like compounds contain- membrane, via a mechanism that depends on the outer-
ing a terminal aspartic acid, glutamic acid or leucine membrane receptor TonB128, en route to forming pores
have been chemically generated and shown to function in the inner membrane. It is also thought that the pro-
in a manner similar to the wild-type, bacterially pro- teusin polytheonamide A functions through a mecha-
duced peptide (which contains a terminal aspartic acid nism that involves pore formation, but precisly how this
and inhibits aspartyl-tRNA synthetase), but to inhibit occurs and whether a receptor is involved have yet to
aspartyl-, glutamyl- or leucyl-tRNA synthetases, respec- be elucidated25.
tively, suggesting that new MccC‑like peptides that target A smaller subset of lantibiotics, such as cinnamycin
any one of the 20 tRNA synthetases could be produced107. and related peptides, function by binding phosphatidyl­
Numerous class IIa derivatives have also been generated. ethanolamine in cell membranes and, in turn, inhibit-
This topic has been recently reviewed108, and highlights ing the enzyme phospholipase A2 (REF. 129). Finally,
of this work include the production of derivatives with a large-conductance mechanosensitive channel (MscL)
broadened spectrum, enhanced stability 109,110, increased is crucial for sublancin 168 activity, but it is not known
cell binding 111 or increased trypsin resistance112. whether this protein serves as a direct target for the
The development of strategies to engineer bacterio­ glycocin or as a gate of entry to the cytoplasm130.
cins has also provided researchers with the means to
access the many apparently silent bacteriocin gene Inhibition of gene expression and protein production.
clusters that have been identified through the in silico Bacteriocins can kill their target cells by interfering
inspection of bacterial genomic and metagenomic DNA with DNA, RNA and protein metabolism. For exam-
(for a review, see REF. 113). Such in silico approaches have ple, MccB17 passes through the outer membrane via
uncovered the existence of a large variety of novel gene the porin OmpF and is transferred across the inner
clusters potentially encoding uncharacterized lanti­ membrane in a manner that is dependent on SbmA (an
biotics114,115, thiopeptides116,117, linardins118, glycocins119, inner-membrane peptide transporter). The bacteri­­ocin
cyanobacterial bacteriocins120 and class II bacteriocins121. then functions by inhibiting DNA gyrase-mediated
The recent harnessing of lantibiotics encoded within the DNA supercoiling, thereby interfering with DNA
genomes of Geobacillus spp. and S. pneumoniae indicate replication131.
the potential benefits of such strategies122,123. The lasso bacteriocin MccJ25 is recognized by the
iron siderophore receptor FhuA at the outer membrane
Mechanism of action and requires TonB and SbmA at the inner membrane
Bacteriocins have been found to have many distinct to enter the cell. After entering the cell, MccJ25 inhib-
mechanisms of action (FIG. 3) that differ from those of its transcription by blocking the secondary channel of
antibiotics. These mechanisms can be broadly divided RNA polymerase 132. In the case of MccC7-C51, passage
into those that function primarily at the cell envelope and through the inner layer of the E. coli cell wall occurs
those that are active primarily within the cell, affecting via the YejABEF transporter 133, after which the bacteri-
gene expression and protein production. ocin is processed by one of the many broad-specificity
cytoplasmic aminopeptidases of the bacterium134 to
Cell envelope-associated mechanisms. Nisin and several generate a modified aspartyl-adenylate135. This, in turn,
lantibiotics, in addition to some class II bacteriocins, tar- inhibits aspartyl-tRNA synthetase, thus blocking mRNA
get lipid II124,125. Lipid II is a key intermediate in the pep- synthesis.
tidoglycan biosynthesis machinery within the bacterial Nocathiacins, thiostrepton, thiazomycin and several
cell envelope and is also the target of the antibiotic van- other thiopeptides target the bacterial ribosome, bind-
comycin. Importantly, nisin and other bacteriocins bind ing the 23s rRNA of the 50S ribosomal subunit 136.
lipid II at a site distinct from the vancomycin-binding Bottromycins function by blocking aminoacyl-tRNA
site and thus retain activity against vancomycin-resistant binding to the 50S ribosome26. Other thiopeptides, such
Gram-positive pathogens126. Thus, by targeting lipid II, as GE2270 A, bind the bacterial chaperone elongation
these molecules inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis, and for factor Tu (EF‑Tu) to inhibit protein synthesis136.
some this is the sole mechanism of action. Other lan-
tibiotics can also use lipid II as a docking molecule to Resistance
facilitate the formation of pores in the cell membrane, For any antimicrobial under investigation with a view
Siderophore resulting in a loss of membrane potential and, ultimately, to clinical applications, the potential emergence of
A low-molecular-mass cell death124,125. resistant pathogens is an issue that must be addressed.
compound that binds ferric
Other bacteriocins also damage or kill target cells Bacteriocins have not been extensively used in a clini-
iron extracellularly to form a
stable chelate for transport of through pore formation in the cell membrane. For cal setting, so our understanding of this potential threat
iron into the cell. example, class IIa peptides and some other class II bac- for these antimicrobials has been revealed primarily
teriocins (such as lactococcin A127 and microcin E492) through laboratory-based research.
Porin bind to the cell envelope-associated mannose phospho- Possible resistance mechanisms have been identified
A large protein that crosses a
cellular membrane and acts as
transferase system (Man-PTS), which then leads to pore for those bacteriocins that function primarily by target-
a pore through which formation. In the case of the class IIe peptide microcin ing the cell envelope. For example, studies indicate that
molecules can diffuse. E492, the bacteriocin is first recognized by FepA, CirA enhanced resistance to lipid II‑targeting lantibiotics

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REVIEWS

a Gram-positive targets b Gram-negative targets

Class I Class II
(e.g. nisin) (e.g. lactococcin A) MccB17 MccJ25 MccC7-C51

Cell wall

OmpF FhuA OmpF Outer membrane

Cell wall

Lipid II

Cell Inner membrane

membrane SbmA SbmA

TonB YejABEF
Man-PTS
Inhibition of Inhibition Inhibition of
Inhibition of Pore formation Pore formation DNA gyrase of RNA Asp-tRNA
peptidoglycan polymerase synthase
synthesis

Figure 3 | Mechanism of action of representative bacteriocins. a | Some bacteriocins, and in particular many of those
that inhibit Gram-positive bacteria, function by targeting the cell envelope. Some class I bacteriocins inhibit |lipid
Nature Reviews II on the
Microbiology
cell membrane, thereby abrogating peptidoglycan synthesis. Other bacteriocins form pores to inhibit or kill their target
bacterium. For example, class II bacteriocins such as lactococcin A bind to the pore-forming receptor mannose
phosphotransferase system (Man-PTS). Nisin and some other class I bacteriocins both inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis and
form pores. Other class I peptides, such as the thiopeptides and bottromycins, control Gram-positive bacteria by targeting
translation (not shown). b | Many bacteriocins that inhibit Gram-negative bacteria (and thus need to be transported
through the outer and, in many cases, inner membranes before functioning) control their target bacteria by interfering
with DNA, RNA and protein metabolism. For example, microcin B17 (MccB17) inhibits DNA gyrase, MccJ25 inhibits RNA
polymerase, and MccC7-C51 inhibits aspartyl-tRNA synthatase. There are also exceptions, such as MccE492, that function
through pore formation.

could emerge as a consequence of reduced accessibility ribosomal protein L11 or the GTPase-associated region
to the receptor (as is the case in S. aureus with intermedi- of the bacterial ribosome142.
ate resistance to vancomycin126) or other changes in cell Another potential concern that could limit the
envelope composition33,137,138. A reduction in or loss of deployment of bacteriocins in clinical practice is immune
expression of cell envelope-associated receptors might mimicry. This term is used to describe the resistance
also be an issue in the clinic and has been particularly that occurs in non-bacteriocin-producing strains which
notable in the laboratory in strains exhibiting resistance possess bacteriocin immunity genes, or immunity as
to Man-PTS-targeting class II bacteriocins139. It should a consequence of producing a closely related bacteri-
be noted that there is a second category of resistant ocin143. Proteolytic cleavage of bacteriocins is another
mutants in which the Man-PTS system is expressed potential route through which resistance could occur.
normally, but the underlying mechanism of resistance This phenomenon has been observed in lactococci that
to Man-PTS-targeting class II bacteriocins has yet to be are resistant to nisin144 and in bacteria that are protected
determined for these mutants139. against MccC7-C51 as a consequence of containing
Research has also revealed that resistance to bacteri- MccC7-C51 self-immunity protein (MccF) or ortholo-
ocins that have intracellular targets could arise through gous serine peptidases145. It has also been speculated that
mutations in the genes encoding the bacteriocin targets. the proteolytic activity of YqeZ could be responsible for
Specifically, cells become resistant to MccJ25 owing to the protection provided by the yqeZyqfAB operon against
certain mutations in the RNA polymerase subunit genes sublancin 168 in bacilli146.
(altering the secondary channel of the polymerase)140, to These observations remind us of the need for vigi-
MccB17 as a consequence of point mutations in the DNA lance when deploying such potent bacterial inhibitors. In
gyrase-encoding gene141, and to ribosome-targeting thi- some cases, bacteriocin resistance arises at a sufficiently
opeptides because of mutations in the genes encoding low rate to allow commercialization of the peptide in its

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© 2013 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved

 REVIEWS

natural form. In other cases, knowledge of the potential bacteriocins, the natural producer of mutacin 1140
resistance mechanisms, such as those described above, has been engineered for use in preventing tooth decay
could be crucial for minimizing the emergence of resist- (SMaRT Replacement Therapy). There have also been
ance when clinical applications commence. Potential efforts to scale up the production of the lantibiotic
solutions include the further derivatization of bacte- lancovutide with a view to treating non-infectious
riocins to create compounds that can bind receptors indications, including cystic fibrosis and dry eye syn-
even in bacteria in which receptor gene mutations have drome (in trials with AOP Orphan Pharmaceuticals),
occurred, the modification of peptides to reduce their and microbisporicin is being developed as an inject-
sensitivity to proteases147 or the use of bacteriocins in able therapy to control multidrug-resistant Gram-
combination with other bacteriocins or antimicrobials positive pathogens149. It is also important to note that
with distinct mechanisms of action. several commercially produced probiotics synthesize
bacteriocins. Although often the bacteriocins in ques-
Conclusions tion are uncharacterized and their activity spectra are
Many bacteriocins have properties which suggest that unknown, there are exceptions to this rule, such as the
they could be of value in clinical settings. However, to bacteriocins produced by the BLIS K12 probiotics used
date, the primary focus for use of these bacteriocins has in oral hygiene products.
been on animal, rather than human, health. Existing Ultimately, the clinical application of bacteriocins
commercial examples include the use of thiostrepton in will depend on our understanding of their mechanisms
combination therapy ointments to treat dermatological of action and on the development of strategies to pre-
indications in domestic animals and the use of nisin as vent or curtail resistance in the future. The production
the active agent in the mastitis prevention product Wipe of engineered bacteriocins with value-added properties
Out (ImmuCell Corporation). continues to provide considerable cause for optimism,
A lack of sufficient investment has been a signifi- but this will need to be matched by the development of
cant problem with respect to the medical application of processes that allow these peptides to be produced at
bacteriocins. Notably, however, there is some evidence a sufficient scale and quality and, crucially, by further
to suggest that this issue is finally being addressed, as investments in clinical trials to determine or substanti-
several bacteriocins are now being developed with ate in vivo efficacy. Nonetheless, given the vast array
a view to human applications. These bacteriocins of different bacteriocins available, their diverse struc-
include many thiopeptides, such as LFF571 (derived tures and mechanisms of action and, importantly, the
from GE2270 A), as well as Mu1140‑S (a synthetic adaptability of the peptides and of their cognate bio­
form of the lantibiotic mutacin 1140) (Oragenics) and synthetic machinery with respect to peptide engineering,
NVB302 (a semi-synthetic derivative of the lantibiotic it is surely a question not of ‘if ’, but rather ‘when’ these
deoxyactagardine B)148. In addition to these synthetic peptides will have widespread use in clinical settings.

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Competing interests statement
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