T

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Text © Darren Forbes 2014
Original illustrations © Oxford University Press 2014

CXC® and CSEC® are registered trademarks of the Caribbean Examinations

Council (CXC®).

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted

First published by Nelson Thomes Ltd in 2013
This edition published by Oxford University Press in 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University
Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms
agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization.
Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above
should be sent to the Rights Depal1ment. Oxford University Press, at
the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must
impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
978-1-4085-2243-1

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Printed by Multivista Global Ltd.

Acknowledgements
Cover photograph: Mark Lyndersay, Lyndersay Digital, Trinidad
www.lyndersaydigital.com
lliustrations include artwork drawn by GreenGate Publishing
Page make-up: GreenGate Publishing
Thanks are due to Lancelot Caesar, Yvette Mayers and Earl Skerritt for their
contributions in the development of this book.
Although we have made every effort to trace and contact all
copyright holders before publication this has not been possible in all
cases. If notified, the publisher will rectify any errors or omissions at
the earliest opportunity.
Unks to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith
and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for
the materials contained in any third party website referenced in
this work.
 Contents

Introduction Section 3 Waves

3.1 Wave motion 76
Section 1 Mechanics
3.2 Describing waves 78
1.1 Base units, derived units and measuring 3.3 Electromagnetic waves 80
density 2 3.4 Light rays and shadows 82
1.2 Making measurements 4 3.5 Reflection of light 84
1.3 Variables and graph plotting 6 3.6 Refraction of light 86
1.4 Graphical ana lysis 8 3.7 Refractive index and total internal
1.5 Vectors and scalars 10 reflection 88
1.6 Forces 12 3.8 Converging lenses 90
1.7 Moments 14 3.9 Diverging lenses and the eye 92
1.8 Stability 16 3.10 Magnification 94
1.9 Investigating Hooke's law 18 3.11 Diffraction, interference and theories
Section 1 Practice exam questions 1 20 about the nature of light 96
1. 10 Moving objects and displacement-time 3.12 Sound waves 98
graphs 22 3.13 Experimenting with sound waves 100
1.11 Acceleration and velocity- time graphs 24 Section 3 Practice exam questions 102
1.12 Newton's law of motion 26
1.13 Momentum and impulse 28 Section 4 Electricity and magnetism
1.14 More about momentum 30 4.1 Static electricity 106
Section 1 Practice exam questions 2 32 4.2 Electric fields and the Van de Graaff
1.15 Energy and energy transformations 34 generator 108
1.16 Energy sources fo r electricity 36 4.3 Uses and dangers of static electricity 11 0
1.17 Potential energy and kineti c energy 38 4 .4 Electric current 112
1.18 Conservation of energy 40 4 .5 Electrical energy transformations 114
1. 19 Power and efficiency 42 4.6 Simple circuits and components 116
1.20 Pressure 44 4 .7 Series and parallel circuits 118
1.21 Floating, sinking and density 46 4.8 Cells and batteries 120
Section 1 Practice exam questions 3 48 4.9 Resistance 122
4 .10 Investigating current and potential
Section 2 Thermal physics and kinetic theory
difference charact eristics 124
2.1 Heat, energy and temperature 50 4.11 Circu it analysis 126
2.2 Thermometers and temperature scales 52 Section 4 Practice exam questions 1 128
2.3 The states of matter 54 4.12 Direct current and alternating current 130
2.4 Gas laws 56 4.13 Mains electricity in the Caribbean 132
2 .5 Heat ca pacity 58 4.14 Mains safety 134
2.6 Changes of state and evaporation 60 4.15 Conversion of a.c. to d.c. 136
2.7 Heating, cooling and latent heat 62 4 .16 Logic ci rcu its 1 138
2.8 Specific latent heat 64 4 .17 Logic circuits 2 140
2.9 Thermal conduction 66 Section 4 Practice exam questions 2 142
2.10 Convection currents 68 4 .18 Permanent magnets 144
2.11 Infra-red radiation 70 4 .19 Magnetic fields 146
2.12 Applying thermal energy transfer 4 .20 Electromagnetism 148
principles 72 4 .21 Forces from magnetic fields 150
Section 2 Practice exam questions 74 4 .22 Electromag netic induction 152
4 .23 The d.c. motor and the a.c. generator 154
4.24 Tra nsformers 156
Section 4 Practice exam questions 3 158
Contents

Section 5 The physics of the atom

5.1 Models of the atom 160
5.2 Electrons, the nucleus and the periodic
table 162
5.3 Radioactive emissions 164
5.4 Nuclear decays and reactions 166
5.5 A model of radioactive decay 168
5.6 Nuclear decay and half-life 170
5.7 Applications of radioisotopes 172
5.8 The release of nuclear energy 174
Section 5 Practice exam questions 176

Glossary 178
Index 182
Acknowledgements 187
 Introduction

This Study Guide has been developed exclusively • On Your Marks activities provide sample
with the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC®) to examination-style short answer and essay type
be used as an addit ional resource by candidates, questions, with example candidate answers
both in and out of school, following the Caribbean and feedback from an examiner to show where
Secondary Education Certi fica t e (CSEC®) programme. answers could be im proved. These activities wi ll
bui ld your understanding, skil l level and confidence
It has been prepared by a team with expertise in
in answering examination questions.
the CSEC® syllabus, teaching and examination.
The contents are designed to support learning by • Test Yourself activities are specifical ly designed to
providing tools to help you achieve your best in provide experience of multiple-choice examination
Physics and the features included make it easier for questions and helpful feedback will refer you to
you to master the key concepts and requirements of sections inside the study guide so that you can
the syllabus. 00 remember to refer to your syllabus revise problem areas.
for full guidance on the course requirements and • Answers are incl uded on the CD for summary
examination format' questions and practice exam questions, so that you
can check your own work as you proceed.
Inside this Study Gu ide is an interactive CD which
includes electron ic activities to assist you in This unique combination of focused syllabus content
developing good examination techniques: and interactive examination practice will provide you
with invaluable support to help you reach your full
potential in CSEC® Physics.
 When we measure a quantity we need to incl ude the u n its of the
LEARNING OUTCOMES
measurement. The length of a desk should be given as, for example,
At th e end of t his topic you 1.2 metres or 1.2 m, not just 1.2.
should be able to:
• st ate and use a range of 51 Base units
units and prefixes A set of seven units, based on the metre, kilogram and second, has
• derive units for quantities been agreed internationally. They are known as the 51 base units and
• measure the density of are shown in Table 1.1.1.
regu larly and irregularly
shaped objects. Derived units
There are many more units in addition to the seven base units.
Table 1.1.1 These units can all be derived di rectly from the seven, based on
mathematical relationships and definitions .
Quantity Base unit Symbol
mass ki logram kg For example, the speed of an object is defined from the equation :
length metre m distance moved (m)
spee d =
time second s time (s)
current ampere A This means that the unit for speed is a distance divided by a time:
metres per second (m s- ') .
temperature kelvin K
Every other derived quantity can be worked out this way.
amount of mole mol
substance For convenience (and to honour important scientists) some of the
luminous candela cd derived units have been given special names. For example, the unit
intensity for a potential difference derived from the base units would be
m'kgs- 3 A- ' . This unit is given the special name volt (V).

Standard form
The SI base units have very To avoid using very large or very small numbers, scientists use
precise defin itions or derivat ions . standa rd form . In standard form the number is always written in
Find out wh at these are. the format A x 10", where A is a number between 0 and 10 and x
is the number of places to move the decimal point. A positive value
of x indicates movement to the right while a negative value indicates
movement to the left.
• 4500 is written as 4.5 x 103
• 0.0006 is written as 6 x 10- 4

Prefixes
Scientists oft en need to use very large or very small numbers and
so use a set of prefixes which may be attached to any unit. These
are shown in Table 1.1.2. This set of prefixes allows a quantity like
8.4 x 10' watts to be written as 8.4 megawatts or 8.4MW
in design ing the Half-Way
Tree Transport Centre in
Kingston,1Jamaica.
Using units: density Table 1.1.2 Prefixes for SI units

The density of a material is the mass per unit volume. In non- Prefix Symbol Represents
scientific la nguage this is how much mass t here is in a cu bic metre or tera T 10 "
cubic centimetre of the material. The equation defining density is:
giga G 109
. mass m mega M 10'
density = - -- or p = -
volume V kilo k 10'
centi c 10- 2
/ WORKED EXAMPLE 1 I mil li m 10-'
Find the derived 51unit of density. micro J.I 10-'
Mass is measu red in kilograms (kg). Volume is measured in cu bic nanD n 10- 9
metres (m 3). pico p 10- "
The equation defining densi ty shows that density is a mass
divi ded by a volume and therefore the 51unit of density is kg m- '.

Use the technique described on

Measuring density these pages to find the density
To measure t he density of a regularly shaped object you must of a rang e of irregularly shaped
measure the mass using a balance and then calcul ate t he volume by objects.
taking approp riate measurements for th e dimensions and using a
form ula.
To measure t he volume of an irregula r object, place th e object inside
a measuring cylinder partly full of w ater. The level of the w ater w il l
rise by th e volume of t he object.

1\ 1\
WORKED EXAMPLE 2

A rough stone has a mass of 30 g. It is placed in a measu ring 10 10

cyl inder containing 20cm' of water and the level of the water
rises to the 24cm 3 mark (Figure 1.1.2).
The density of the stone is found using :
. mass (g) 30 g
denSity =
3
= 7.5 g cm-'
volume (cm ) (24 - 20)cm' Figure 1.1.2

KEY POINTS
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
1 Scientists use a standard
1 Use the following equations to work out the appropriate set of base units (51) for
derived units for velocity, acceleration and force. quantities.
. distance 2 Units for most quantities
ve IoClty = -,.-.- -
time are derived from these base
units.
. change in velocity
acce Ieratlon = -~'------'­
time 3 The density of an object is
force = mass x acceleration .
given by d ' =
enslty maH
--"-:=-
volume
2 Write these quantities using the base unit and standard form: 83 and the unit is kg m-3 or
milliamperes, 4.9 micro moles, 2400 picoseconds, 0.2 gigavolt. gcm - 3 .
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Common measurements

At the end of this topic you Length

should be able t o:
Many lengths can be measured with a ruler or tape measure. These
• select an appropri at e instruments typical ly have a reso lutio n of 1 mm. The resolution of an
Instrument to measure length instrument is the smallest difference in a reading the instrument can
in a ra nge of experiments measure.
• identify systematic error If a smaller length needs to be measured, callipers or a micrometer
and random error in ca n be used. Call ipers have a resolution of 0.1 mm and a high quality
measurements screw gauge micrometer wi ll have a resolution of 0.01 mm.
• use the appropriate number
of significant figures in Time
calculations and answers. Time intervals are generally measured with a digital stopwatch. Many
stopwatches have a resolution of 0.0 1 second but, as human reaction
times are more than 0.1 second, it may be unnecessary to measure to
the full resolution.
To measure times more precisely, we can use automatic stopwatches
triggered by events such as the breaking of a light-beam. These have
much better response times.

Mass
Mass is measured by a balance which compares an unknown mass to
a known one or, more often, by a top-pan balance. A variety of tap-
pan balances is available, some with a resolution of 0.01 g.

'-'-=::":"'=:..:...J This micrometer is being Uncertainty and error

used to measure the gauge
of a wire. When we make a measurement it may not be exactly the same
as the 'true va lue' . Readings from instruments introduce error in
measurements leading to some uncertainty in our calculations.

Systemati c error
A systemat ic error is usually t he resu lt of some flaw in the measuring
device or the measurement technique. For example, a metre rule
could have a damaged end so that it shows all lengths as 1 mm too
short.
Systematic errors will make the readings recorded shift away from the
t rue measu rement.

Random error
Random error is an unpredictable error introduced into a
Human reaction time is measurement when you take a reading . Sometimes this is because of
'-'-=::":"'=:::....l a factor when us ing a
t he technique you use such as poor positio ning of your line of sight
stopwatc~.
while measuring length (Figure 1.2.3).
 observe~ k Observer ACTIVITY

Use a range of instruments

9'
line of sight : \, line of sigh!
to take measurements of the
j Bar
Metre rule
properties of objects. Find out

'Tr~~ r~a~i~g' O; L Cn;o~r~d' r::~i:9' 0; rig~t-~~n~

how to measure the thickness
Correct reading of ' :'nd of a sheet of paper.
left-hand end of the bar right·hand end of the bar of the bar due to 'line of sight' error

Figure 1.2.3 I A line of sight error a b

Student A Stu dent B
Random errors will cause readings to be scattered around the true
value. The effects of random error can be reduced by performing repeat 55 "cl==-
readings and finding a mean value. Readings which were slightly too True
value
high wi ll tend to cancel readings which were sligh tly too low.

50 "C~~ 50 "c ~:='1

Accu racy and precision
If a measurement is close to the true value of a quantity it is said
to be accurate. It is not possible to know if a reading is accurate
without repeating the measurement several times and calculating 45 "C 45 "CI---
Precise Accurate
a mean value. All possible systematic errors must be avoided. If all (but not accurate) (but not precise)
of the measurements taken are close to the mean then you can be
Figure 1.2.4 Demonstrating a precision
confident that the results are accurate.
and b accuracy
A precise measurement is a measurement where all of the repeated
readings show very little difference. They are all very close to the WORKED EXAMPLE
mean value of the readings.
The diameter of a small ball
It is possible to obtain results which are precise but not accurate due bearing is measured with
to a systematic error (Figure 1.2.4a). Results can also be accurate but callipers giving a value of
not precise (Figure 1.2.4b). The very best experiments produce results 6.4 mm . Using the formula
which are both accurate and precise. for volume gives an answer
of 137.258mm' . Record the
Quoting answers volume to a sensible number of
The number of significant figures you quote in any answers is a significant figures.
reflection of how certain you are of the precision of your answer. You The volume is recorded as
should never use more sig nificant figures than are justified by the 1.4 x 10'mm'.
resolution of your instruments. In general, answers should be given
to two or three significant figures unless more significant figures are
given in questions or by measuring instruments. KEY POINTS

1 Systematic errors
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
produce a constant
amount of uncertainty in
1 How can you increase the accu racy of a measurement?
measurements.
2 Table 1.2.1 shows three sets of results for the measurement of
2 Random errors produce
the diameter of a metal rod of true diameter 5.0 mm. Which sets
a varying amount of
of resu lts are accurate, which are precise and which are both?
uncertainty in measurements.
Table 1.2.1
3 The number of significant
Set a/mm 4.3 5. 6 5.5 4. 2 4 .9 5.1 figures shown in the result
Set b/mm 5.1 4. 9 5.0 4.9 4. 9 5.1 of a calculation is an
indication of the uncertainty
Set C/mm 4.7 4.8 4.6 4.8 4 .6 4.7
in the answer.
 Scientific investigations are highly controlled in order to reveal
LEARNING OUTCOMES
connections between quantities and behaviour. In an ideal experiment
At the end of this topic you a phYSicist would be able to alter one variable in an experiment and see
should be able t o: the effect of this change in isolation.

• select an independent variable

and investig ate its effect on a Key variables
dependent variable The independent variable is the variable which is manipulated by the
• identify and control experimenter to see what effect changing it has on the experiment.
other va riables during an The dependent variable is the variable which is expected to change
investigation in response to altering the independent variable.
• plot an accurat e and well-
Scientists explore the connection between these two variables in
scaled graph.
an experiment by finding a relationship between them and then
explaining the cause of that relationship.
For example, if you were investigating the hypothesis 'The colder a
EXAM TIP sample of water is the denser it will be' then the independent variable
would be the temperature of the water as this is what you would be
Cjoool e.x.l'eyi""-t""ta l manipulating. The dependent va riab le would be the density of the
olesig"" allows us water, as this is the quantity you expect to change in response to
to i""vestigate tfte changing the temperature.
; elat ioV\,Sft il' betwee"" o""t Control variables
L~epe~e""t wlYiable a""ol
O""t olepe~e""t vaYiable There are usually a wide range of other factors that need to be taken
into account during an experiment so that they do not have an effect on
wft~le co""tYolli""9 all otfteY
vaYLables . the results. These are known as control variables. Good experimental
designs ensure that these factors do not alter during the experiment.

Graphs
One of the best ways to show the relationship between two variables
WORKED EXAMPLE I is to plot a graph (Figure 1.3.1). If there is a clear pattern shown
Find out if the colour of a in the graph then a clear relationship has been demonstrated.
container affects the rate of Scientists would then try to explain how this relationship occurs. If an
cooling. Your experimental explanation can be given then the relationship is causal.
design should ensure that these Perfect graph plotting takes time and practice. Use these tips to help
factors are kept constant: produce yours.
• The temperature of the
• Use a sharp pencil and ruler.
surroundings
• When you draw the axes make sure you leave enough space to
• The size of the containers
label them clearly.
• The volume of liqu id in the • Plot the independent variable on the x-axis.
containers
• Plot the dependent variable on the y-axis.
• Air flow
/ • Plot the graph so that the data points occupy as much of the graph
paper as possib le horizontally and vertically.
• Use increments of 2, 5 or 10 (or their mU ltiples) for your scales if
possible.
 a
B
Clamp
7
6
-:,. 5
~4
'u \ - --Thread
0
w 3
>
2
Maximu m angle of
a swing about 10 c
n
10 20 30 40 50
Time/s
Figure 1.3.1 I A well-drawn graph has clearly labelled axes and the data points fill
up the available space
~."....,---.

Bob

A pendu lum is a simple device that can be used to measure time.

A mass on the end of a thread or wire is allowed to swing freely
from side to side (Figure 1.3 .2). One complete oscillation is a
swing back and forth to the same position. b

The following three facto rs may affect the period (time it takes
for one complete oscillation).
Investigat e each of the three factors independently while
controlling the other two. Collect data and plot separate graphs
comparing each of the independent variables to the period.
:
. - -.
--'
e

b
,Start
One complete oscillation =
b

a
•
a+ b+
f. ~-

C
'
•

.. )

• Length of the thread

Figure 1.3.2 Timing a pendulum
• Mass of the pendulum bob
• Initial angle of displacement
You will need to use the data to produce a graph in the next topic.
KEY POINTS
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
1 An independent variable IS
a variable that is changed
1 Think about the following hypotheses and outline a basic
during an investigation to
experi ment to investigate them . For each one identify clearly
see if this change has any
the independent variable, dependent variable and any other
effect.
varia bl es you will have to cont rol.
a The great er the current in a light bulb the bright er it wi ll be. 2 A dependent variable is a
variable which is measured
b The further away from a sound you are the qu ieter it will seem.
to determine the effect of
c The larger the force you put onto a spring the more it wil l changing the independent
stretch. variable.
2 Table 1.3.1 shows the data from an investigation int o 3 To make sure that only
resistance. Plot a graph usi ng this data. the effect of altering the
Table 1.3.1 independent variable
affects the outcome of the
Potential 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
experiment, other factors have
differeneeN
to be carefully controlled.
Current/A 0.00 0.60 1.02 1.57 2.07 2. 52 3.0 1 These are control variables.
 A graph can be analysed to find the relationship between the two
LEARNING OUTCOMES
variables.
At the end of this t opic you
should be able t o: Graphs showing linear relationships
• plot a straight line of best fit Lines of best fit are drawn onto graphs to identify the relationship
t hrough a set of poin ts between the independent and dependent variables. These lines follow
• determine t he gradient of a simple shapes (straight lines or curves) that pass through or close to
straight line graph the po ints.
• analyse a graph to describe
the relationsh ip between the Straight lines
two variables . If the points on a graph appear to be in a straight line, you can use a ruler
to draw a line of best fit (Figure 1.4.1). Draw the line so that it passes
through the points with an equal number above and below the line.
Some data points may not fit the pattern of results, These may be due to
unexpectedly large random errors or uncertainties produced during the
experiment You may also have made mistakes in recording the data, Do
not use these anomalous results when drawing the line of best fit

Use the data you collected when

investigating the relationship
between the period of a
pendulum's swing and the
length of the pendulum or use
the data provided in Table 1.4.1 . 50

Table 1.4.1

Length/m Period 2j s2
40
I p t>y 55,0 - 20.5
35.5m
0.05 0.20,
Point to be
0.10 OAO checked
0,15 0,60
0.20 0.80
0,25 101 20
1 ,21 t>x 8.0 3.0 5.05
0.30
0.35 1 AI
OAO 1,61 10

• Plot a graph comparing the

length of the pendulum with
the square of the period (P), o
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• Describe the relationship Time/s
shown in th e graph.
, Figure 1.4 .' . .1 Drawing a line of best fit
Gradients
The grad ient of a li ne can be used to find a mathemati cal relationsh ip
between th e two va riables. EXAM TIP
To find the gradient: It LS eas Le ~ t o oI~aw a
• Draw a la rge. ri ght-angled triangle on the graph so that the ~ Kn:eol g ~apl1 p-OVJA.
t ria ngle meets two poi nts on th e line of best fit. If possible. select L""-SLoIe' t l1e CKnle. Rotate
points th at are w idely spaced and those whose values are easi ly ~l1e g ~apl1 pape~ a ~oKI'\,oI Lf
read (f or exa mple. points that lie on t he gridlines). ; t ,l1eLps . YOK VJA.L.<5t ~ve~
• Use th e triangle to find the change in th e y-va lue (~y) and t he J OLI'\, a g ~apl1 as a se~Les of
change in th e x-value (~) . oIot-to -oIots.

• The grad ient (m) is given by m = ~y

~

Intercepts
Sometimes the line of best fit wi ll pass directly throug h t he origi n. In
thi s case t he two va riables are in direct proportion to each other:
independent vari able ~ dependent varia ble
If the line does not pass throu gh the origin the relationship is described
as li near. The line will cu t the y-axis at a point known as the intercept
(c) and the relat ionship between the variables will be of the form:
y = mx + c x
Figure 1.4.2 J You can sometimes find a
w here y is th e dependent variable. x is th e independent va ri ab le. m is
pattern by plotting x
th e gradi ent and c is th e intercept on the y-a xi s. . 1
against -
y

Graphs showing other relationships

Table 1.4.2 Examples of relationships
The poin t s on a graph may also foll ow a curve. This may also which occur between
represent a simple mathematical rel ationship between the variables. variables in physics

Instead of plotting a graph comparing the x and y variables directly. Relationship Produces a straight-
line graph when
functions such as plotting.y' or ~
y may show the relationship more clearly. x~y x plotted agai nst y
x oc y2 x plotted agai nst y'
1
x ~- x platted agalnst-
. 1
SUMMARY QUESTION y y

There is a mathematical relationship between the light

illuminance (brightness) of a lig ht source and the distance from KEY POINTS
that source. Data are provided in Table 1.4.3.
1 A line of best fit is used
Use graphical techniques to find out if this relationship is either:
to show the relationship
between two variables.
illuminance ~ or illuminance ~ ...,,-------::
distance distance' · 2 A straight line of best fit
Table 1.4.3 passing through the origin
shows direct proportionality.
Distance/m 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3 Curves can also show
Illuminance/cd m- 2
16.0 4.0 1.8 1.0 0.6 0.4 mathematical relationships.
 There are two classes of quantity in physics: scalars and vectors.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) but no di rection .
At the end of this topic you
• A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
shou ld be able to:
• describe the difference Comparing a scalar and a vector
betw een a scalar and a vector
quantity Distance and displacement are both lengths which can be measured
in metres:
• use a vector diagram to find
the resultant of two vectors. • Distance is a scalar quantity. It is how far an object moves without
reference to the direction.
• Displacement is a vector quantity. It is a measure of how far an
object is from its origin (original position).
For example, if you walk 10 metres northwards, turn around and
walk 5 metres back towards your starting point you have covered a
distance of 15 metres. However, your displacement is 5 metres north
of your starting point.

Combining quantities
Vector calculations are Scalars, such as mass and volume, simply add together or are
'-"=:":":=.:....J used in predicting the
subtracted from each ot her:
paths of hurricanes.
• Adding a mass of 40kg to a mass of 30kg gives a mass of 70kg.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 • Removing 40 cm 3 of water from 100 cm 3 of water will always leave
60 cm 3 of water.
Find the resultant of the three
forces acting on the ball in Vectors, such as velocity and force, cannot be simply added together.
Figure 1.5.2. To find the resultant of vectors you must also take their direction into
account.
I7l
... 6 1N
~:;;.~-~W,
. 4.8N
[?
5.2 N
Parallel vectors

Figure 1.5.2 If the vectors are parallel to each other, then you can add or subtract
to find a resultant. Always give the direction of the resultant in your
Resu lta nt = 5.2 N + 4.8 N - answer.
6.1 N = 3.9 N to the right
Non-parallel vectors: the parallelogram rule
The parallelogram rule allows us to find the resultant of two non-
parallel vectors by drawing a scale diagram (Figure 1.5.3). Two

P
i2J F,

Figure 1.5.3 -I The parallelogram rule

adjacent sides of the parallelogram (in red) represent the two vectors
to be added (F, and F,). The lengths of F, and F, are in proportion to
their magnitude. The resultant (R) of the two vectors is represented
by the diagonal of the parallelogram, shown in green.

li.
 W ORKED EXAMPLE 2

Wha t is t he resu ltant of th e tw o vectors shown in Figu re 1.5 .4 7

~"'O(f----,7. 5:.-,N
R
y
__

Figure 1. 5.4
x
Check t hat the vectors are drawn to t he same scale. Then draw Figure 1.5.6
the other tw o sides of the pa rallelogram and the diagonal
(Figu re 1.5 .5) . Measure the length and ang le of the diagonal,
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
and use the sca le fact or to find its value in newto ns.
1 You fo llow the instructions
below in a treasure hunt.
Calculate the total distance
travelled and the final
Figure 1.5.5 displacement: Walk SOm north,
then 40m east, then 70m
south and finally 10m east.
Vectors at ri ght angles 2 Draw a scale diagram t o find
the resu ltant of tw o velocity
Where the vectors are at right angles to each other. you can use
vectors acti ng on a boat
Pythagoras's theorem and trigonometry. The two vectors form
two sides of a right-angled t riangle with the resultant forming the
crossing a river, as shown in
Figure 1.5.7.
hypotenuse of the triangle (Figure 1.5.6) . The size of the hypotenuse
can be found using:
hypotenuse' = adjacent' + opposite'
R' = x' + y'
The angle of the resultant vector can be found using:

tan e = opposite = ~
adjacent x
wh ich leads t o the relationship: e= tan- 1 (~).

Fi gure 1.5.7

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
KEY POINTS
A remote-contro lled toy is instructed to move 80 m south
fo llowed by a movement of 60 m west. What is the displacement 1 Scalars have magnitude
of the toy after this movement? (size) but not direction. They
Magnitude of displacement: can be added or subtracted
R' = 80' + 60' = 10000 m' simply.
R = -110000 = 100m 2 Vectors have both
Direction of displacement: magnitude and direction.
Addition of vectors has
e = tan- (:~) = 3r
1 to take into account th e
direction of the vectors .

5
 Forces acting on an object can change its shape or the way it is
LEARNING OUTCOMES
moving.
At the end of this topic you
shou ld be able to: Describing forces
• describe the effect s of simple As forces are vector quantities (they have size and direction) they are
forces acting on objects represented in diagrams as arrows. The direction of the arrow gives the
• find the resultant of a set of direction of the force and the length represents the size of the force.
forces
The unit of force is the newton (N).
• calculate the weight of an
object from its mass and the Example forces
gravitational field strength.
Contact forces
When objects need to be touching for the force to exist, these forces
are described as contact forces.
• When two surfaces move past each other, forces attempt to prevent
this movement. These types of forces are known as friction, drag,
EXAM TIP or air resistance depend ing on where they originate from. This gives
objects grip against each other.
• Floati ng object s experience upthrust from the fluid in which they
float.

Non-contact forces
In some situations the objects are not in direct contact but forces still
exist between them.
• Planets are held in orbit around the Sun by the forces of gravity.
• Electrons are bound to atoms by electromagnetic fo rces. The
same forces cause attraction and repulsion in magnet s.
• The nucleus of an atom is held together by strong nuclear forces.

Combining forces
The combination of all of the forces acting on an object is called the
resultant force. In many situations you will find that the resu ltant
force is zero.

Weight
Weight is a force which acts on an object because of the gravitational
attraction between the object and the Earth.
The weight of the object depends on two factors: the mass of the
object and the gravitational field strength (g = 10 N kg -I on Earth).
W (N) = m (kg) x 9 (N kg - I)
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 "ACTIVITY .1
Figure 1.6.1 shows a tug -of-war. Which team is winning? Use some plasticine to explore
the effects of forces .
o Stretch it until it snaps .
o Squash it.
o Roll it into a ball shape and
then roll the ball along the
desk.
400N + 600N lOON + lOON o Throw a ball against the wall.
o Rub it along the desk to feel
Figure 1.6.1
the frictional force and see
Forces to the left = 400 N + 600 N = 1000 N what it does to the plasticine.
Forces to the right = 300 N + 700 N = 1000 N Draw force diagrams to explain
The forces are balanced so the resultant is zero . what happens.
Now explore the effects that bar
magnets have on each other.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 o Arrange them so they repel or
attract.
A student of mass 45 kg jumps off a diving board into a deep pool.
o Try to balance one magnet so
After the dive the student then floats on the surface of the pool.
that the N-pole floats above
a Calculate the weight of the student. the N-pole of the other.
W = mg Draw force diagrams for these
situations.
= 45kg x 10Nkg- 1 = 450N ./
b Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the student as
he falls and as he floats on the surface of the water. Give the
size of these forces where possible.

Air resistance
450N

450N
~ SUMMARY QUESTIONS
450N
1 The lunar landing module
Figure 1.6.2 which visited the Moon had
a mass of 15000 kg . What
would this weigh on the
KEY POINTS Earth and on the Moon?
(gM~ = 1.6N kg - ')
1 Forces are vector quantities.
2 If the largest mass you could
2 The resultant of a force is a single force which would have the lift on the Earth is 150 kg.
same overall effect of the other forces combined. What is the largest mass you
3 The weight of an object is the product of the mass and the could lift when standing on
gravitational field strength . (W = mg) the Moon?

2
LEARNING OUTCOMES The turning effect of a fo rce
When a force acts on an object it may cause a turning effect, known as
At the end of this topic you
the moment of the force. This turning effect depends on the size of
should be able to:
the force applied and the distance from the pivot or point of rotation .
• determine the moment of a
force acting about a fulcrum Calculating moments
(pivot)
The moment of a force is the product of the force and the
• combine moments to find a perpendicular distance to th e pivot:
resultant moment
M (N m) = F (N) x d (m)
• analyse systems in equilibrium
to find forces and distances.
Combining moments
When there are severa l forces acting a resultant moment can be found .

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Figure 1.7.1

A long spanner is used to turn a Figure 1.7.2

nut using a force of 2S N. What Two workers are using a large lever to lift up a concrete slab (Figure
is the moment of. the force when 1.7.2). Worker A applies a force of 400 N at a distance 2.2 m from
the spanner is held 40cm from the pivot. Worker B applies a force of SOD N at a distance 2.5 m
the nut? from the pivot. What is the total turning effect produced?
M (N m) = F (N) x d (m) Total moment = moment (w orker A) + moment (worker B)
M=2SNxOAm = (400 x 2.2) + (SOD x 2.S) = 880 + 12 S0
M = 10Nm = 2130Nm

Moments acting agai nst each other can be subtracted in a similar way.

Clockwise and anticlockwise

When descri bi ng the action of moments, the terms clockwise and
anticlockwise are used t o describe the direction of action (Figure 1.7.3).
Figure 1.7.3
Moments and equilibrium / ACTIVITY I
When an object is in equilibrium it is not accelerating or rotati ng. The
Test the principle of moments
two equ ilibrium conditions are:
by suspending a ruler from
• There is no resultant force acting on t he object. its centre (a hole through the
• The clockwise moment is equal to the anticlockwise moment. centre works best) and then
suspending masses on either
The second of these points is called the principle o f m o m ent s.
side. Try various combinations
of masses until the ruler is
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 ba lanced (Figure 1.75).

Metre or
half-metre
r
I
rule ; d1 : dz y: Wire loop
....----,-
.. ,

Slotted
mass -
hanger FOR Slotted
~ Pivot
E;;;~ masses
2
(nail hole through
centre of ruler)
Figure 1.7.4
Figu re 1.7.5 Testing the principle of
Find the distance d of the third child from the pivot if the seesaw moments
is in equilibrium (Figure 1.7A). Calculate the moments acting
For a seesaw in equi librium: on each side using the weights
of the masses and the distance
• there is no overall resultant f orce
from t he pivot point.
• clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments .
You should find that the ruler
These two facts can be used to find the values of the force Rand is only balanced when the
distance d. clockwise moments are equal to
The upwards force R must equal the sum of the downward forces: the anticlockwise moments.
R = 400N + 200N + SOON = 1100N
The moments are also ba lanced .
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
(0.6m x SOON) = (DAm x 400N) + (d x 200N)
300Nm = 160Nm + 200dNm KEY POINTS
200d = 300 - 160
1 A force can cause a turning
140
d =- = 0 .7m effect (moment).
200
2 The moment of a force is
the product of the force and
the perpendicu lar dista nce
SUMMARY QUESTIONS to t he pivot. (M = Fd)

1 What are the two cond itions requ ired for an object to be in 3 An object is in equilibrium
equ ilibri um? when the clockwise
moments are equal to the
2 Three people of equal weig ht sit on a seesaw of total length anti clockw ise moments and
4 .0 m. Sketch a diagram showing the possible positions where there is no overall resultant
the three people could sit so that the seesaw would be balanced. force.
 Objects are composed of bi llions of particles each of w hich is
LEARNING OUTCOMES
attracted by the gravitational pull of the Earth. Instead of considering
At the end of this topic you each of these forces separately we use a single equivalent resultant
should be able to: force and call this the weight of the object as a whole. This single
force seems to come from a single point in the object. This is called
• find the centre of gravity for a the centre of gravity.
range of object s
The centre of gravity is the point from which the weight appears to act.
• compare the stability of
objects using the position of
the centre of gravity. Finding the centre of gravity
As the weight of an object acts from the centre of gravity an object
will always be in equilibrium when it is suspended from a point
directly above the centre of gravity.
This idea can be used to find the centre of gravity for a lamina
(Figure 1.8.1). A lamina is a thin sheet of material in any shape.

• Make several small holes

Second point near the edges of the lamina.
Suspend the lamina so that
Stand it can rotate freely. When it
comes to rest the centre of
gravity is directly below the
First
pain point of suspension.

Centre • Attach a plumbline at the point

WORKED EXAMPLE of gravity of suspension. Use a pencil to
draw a line from the point of
Why do some tightrope walkers suspension and following the
carry a very long flexible pole 7 I
Plumbline (a string with plumbline. (This line must pass
The pole can be held so that it a small mass on the end) through the centre of gravity.)
lowers their centre cif gravity • Repeat the process using
and increases stabil ity. The ends at least two more points of
of the pole bend downwards Figure 1.8,1 Finding the cent re of suspension.
and lower the centre of gravity gravity of a triangular
• The point where the lines meet
even further (Figue 1.8 .2). lamina
is the centre of gravity.

Three-dimensional objects
Three-dimensional objects are a little more difficult to investigate.
They can also be suspended from a number of points but it's hard to
draw lines and see where they meet. The centre of gravity is usually
where you would expect for regularly shaped objects (e.g. where the
diagonal lines join ing the corners of a cube meet, the centre of a
Figure 1.8.2 A tightrope walker
, sphere, the middle of a uniform ruler).
Stability
An object standing on a table will be in equilibrium when its centre
of gravity is directly above the point where the reaction force acts, i.e.
above the base. If the object is tilted and the centre of gravity moves
beyond the base it will topple (Figure 1.8.3c).

a
'Centre'
" of :
g",y~y

" II" Pivot

Weight Weight
~=:..::...-=~ If the centre of gravity is outside the base of the object it will topple,

An object that can be tilted and will return to its original position
when released is said to be in stable equilibrium . This occurs
if tilting the object results in the centre of gravity being moved
upwards.
If the object falls over with a slight push then the object was in During a judo match the
unstable equilibrium. This happens when the centre of gravity '-'-=:..:....-=-'-' competitors spread their
lowers and so the object falls into a position where it is more stable. feet and bend down. Both
of these actions make
them more stable.
Designing for stability
A stable object has a low centre of gravity and a wide base. A racing
car has a wide wheelbase and low centre of gravity to make it more
stable when it travels around corners. A car with a higher centre of
gravity might topple over. Balance a range of objects on
a flat surface and see how far
they can be tilted before they
SUMMARY QUESTIONS fall over. You can tilt the object
by gently pushing from the side
1 Why does a chest of drawers become more unstable if you or by tilting the surface itself.
only fill the top drawers?
/

2 Describe how you could find the centre of gravity for a

laboratory stool. KEY POINTS
3 Which of the objects in Figure 1.8.5 is in stable equilibrium 1 The centre of gravity of an
and which is in unstable equilibrium? object is the point at which
the weight of the object
appears to act.
2 The centre of gravity can be
found by suspending the
object from different points.
3 Stability of an object
depends on the position of
Figure 1.8.5 its centre of gravity.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Extension
The increase in length of a spring caused by a stretching force is
At the end of this topic you
called the extension . When the force is removed the spring may
should be able to:
return to its original shape and size .
• describe the relationship
In the 17t h century, Robert Hooke found that there was a simple
between the force acting on a
relationship between the extension of the spring and the force acting
spring and its extension
on it.
• compare the extension of
different springs. The extension of a spring is proportional to the force acting on it.
Expressed mathematically Hooke's law is:
F = kx
w here F is the force, x is the extension and k is a constant known as
the spring constant . The spring constant represents the size of the
fo rce required to stretch the spring by one metre. The spring constant
is effectively a measure of the stiffness of a spring. A high spring
constant indicates a stiff spring.

WORKED EXAMPLE
A sprin g is loaded wit h a 5.0 kg mass and its len gth increases
from 20cm to 45cm .
a What is t he sp ring constant of this spring?
F = kx
k = C= 5.0 kg X 10Nkg-' = ~ = 200Nm-'
x 0.45m - 0.20m 0.25m
b How long is t he spring if a load of 7.0 kg is applied?

x = C=7.0 kg X 10N kg-' = 0.35 m

k 200Nm-'
The spring ha s extended by 0.3 5 m from its original length of
0.2 m, so the new length is 0.55 m.

EXAM TIP

MIIR.e SKre t/1l1t !:jOK Limit of proportional ity

re""-tV><.ber t/1e liV><.itlltio"'-S
Hooke's law only applies up until a point called the limit of
to t-toOR.e'S' lI!w liS well lis proportionality. If the load is increased after this point the spring
tne lI!w itself will continue to extend but this additional extension will not be in
proporti on to the force appl ied.
Elastic limit
If the spring is stretched even further then it will become permanently
,Beyond
deformed. This means it will not return to its original length. This E elastic limit
E
deformation happens when the spring is stretched beyond a point
called the elastic limit. "o
.;;;
c p
E Elastic limit

The graph in Figure 1.9.2 shows the extension of a spring when a S

force is applied. The spring follows Hooke's law up to point P (the Increasing the force
limit of proportionality). It continues to stretch up to point E (the
elastic limit). Up to this point the spring is able to return to its original o Stretching force/N
length if the force is removed. Beyond the elastic limit the spring will
be permanently deformed. Figure 1.9.2 Stretching a spring

ACTIVITY: FINDING THE SPRING CONSTANT

Investigate a spring using the technique described here.
• Suspend a spring from a stand as shown in Figure 1.9.3.
• Measure and record its length . iiiiii
• Add a sma ll mass and record the new length. Spirals pring
• Add more masses one at a time, recording the length each time. 1()

• Calculate the extension for each length.

20 Po inter
• Remove the masses one by one to check that the same pattern
is followed during unloading. If not, then the spring was 30 - H anger
loaded beyond the elastic limit and the last few data points .31 51 otted masses
may be invalid. 44l -(
• Plot a graph of the load (x-axis) against total extension (y-axis)
and find the gradient using a line of best fit.
mm scale
-
50 Load or stretching force
r--
• The gradient of this graph is:
Figure 1.9.3 Investigating Hooke's
lly = extension law
6x load
and so the spring constant is given by k = 1. .
gradient
• Investigate the extension of a rubber band using the same
process.
• To what extent do the spring and the rubber band obey
Hooke's law'

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

, Calcu late the length of a spring of origina l len gth 50cm and 1 Hooke's law states that
spring constant 40 N m- 1 when a mass of 2.0 kg is suspended the extension of a spring
from it. is proportional to the load
acting on it. (F = kx)
2 Use the data in Table 1.9.1 to determine the spring constan t.
2 The spring constant for a
Table 1.9.1 spring is the force required
to produce unit extension .
Force applied/N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Length/em 0 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16.0 19.2 3 Stiffer springs have a larger
spring constant.
SECTION 1: Practice exam questions 1

1 What 51 units are used for the following 4 Find the resultants of these displacements
quantities? using Pythagoras' theorem.
a Mass a 16 km east and 20 km south
b Time b 27 km west and 50 km north
c Length 5 The mass and volume of a small sample of
d 5peed meteorite are measured as shown in the
e Density diagrams. Calculate the density of the sample.
f The moment of a force ,-- ,--
om' om'
9 Pressure
~25 ~25
2 Complete this table of descriptions of
~20
measurements with the appropriate prefixes
and standard forms. 1 20

JL. 1 15
T
"" 1S

Description Using
prefixes
51 unit and
standard form
~ ~lO

~s
a force of 5000 ....... kN 5 x 10'N I H!U! gl l' Jitl
~"
newton ~
7
a length of ....... nm 7. 2 x 10 m
seven hundred
6 An expedition to the planet Mars is being
and twenty
planned. The landing module has a mass of
nanometres
50000kg.
a current of 30 ..... mA
a Draw a labelled force diagram showing
milliampere
this module resting on the surface of
990 ~g Mars. Include the size of the forces.
(gM'" = 3.7 N kg-')
3 Use a scale diagram to f ind the resu ltant of b The closest approach between Mars
these combinations of forces. and Earth is 56 million kilometres. If the
a spacecraft can only carry supplies for 600
ON days how fast must it travel in order to get
f to Mars and back before these supplies
------~ -- run out?
50N

b
20N
~ N.:.--,~.
_ ..,......:4::.:0 __ 4~·_____ _
c
7 On a building site a crane is used to lift heavy 9 A group of students were asked to investigate
iron girders. To counteract the turning effect the stretch ing of a spring and elastic band.
a concrete block, of mass 2.0 x 10' kg, is They measured the extension of the spring
mounted on the other side of the crane. The and then the elastic by loading masses and
position of this block can be adjusted between recording the extension, producing the results
2.0 m and 10.0 m from the pivot in order to shown in the table.
balance loads of different sizes.
load/N Spring Elastic
The mass of the girder is 4.2 x 10' kg and the length/em length/em
lifting cable is connected 3.0 m from the pivot.
0 5.5 8.0
a Where should the concrete block be
placed for the crane to be in equilibrium? 1 6.2 8.9

b What is the largest load the crane can lift 2 6.9 10.4
while staying in equilibrium if the load 3 7.6 12.2
always has to be connected 3.0 m from 4 8.3 14
the pivot?

.,
5 9.0 15.8
/ . . 1\ ______________ 6 9.7 17.6
0 7 10.4 19.4
0
l .Om 8 11. 1 20.9
~
2.0XIO ' kg

2< ~ot
9 11.8 22.2

)< /~ a Plot a suitable graph allowing the

)< comparison of the extensions of the spring
4.2xIO'kg
~
)<
and the elastic.
b During which part of the extension was
)< the elastic band stretching proportionally
c::'~b to the load?
c Determine the spring constant for the
8 Describe how to fing the centre of gravity of spring .
an irregularly shaped metal sheet of uniform
thickness. 10 A single spring was used to suspend a block
of mass 40 kg. The spring extended by 0.5 m.
a What is the spring constant for this
spring?
b How can two identical springs be arranged
so that the spring constant for the
combination is:
i twice that of a single spring
ii half that of a single spring?
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Key defin itions

At the end of thi s t opic you Displacements and distances

should be able to:
The displacement of an object is the distance it is from the origin
• define key definitions used (starting point) in a stated direction .
in describing the motion of
The total dista nce an object travels is not always the same as the
objects
displacement, as the object may move backwards or forwards during
• describe the motion of an the motion . A pendulum swinging will travel a considerable distance
object by interpreting a during one minute but its displacement will never be very large.
displacement- t ime graph.
Speed and velocity
The speed of an object is the distance it covers in a particular time.

Table 1.1 0. 1 Units and symbols used in The average speed for a whole journey (or part of that journey) is
motion equations given by:

Quantity Unit Symbol distance x

average speed = . or v = -
distance m x time t
displacement m 5
The 51 unit of speed is the metre per second (rn S ~l ) but kilometres per
hour (kmh ~l) and miles per hour are also used.
time s t
ms- 1 At different points an object may be travelling faster or more
speed v or c
slowly than average. The speed at any particular time is called the
velocity ms- 1 v or u insta nta neous speed.
acceleration ms- 2 a The velocity of an object is the speed in a particular direction.

Displacement-time graphs
Displacement-time graphs represent the dista nce of an object
from the origin over a period of time. The time is plotted on the
100
1/ horizontal axis while the displacement is plotted on the vertical axis.
V
1/ The graph in Figure 1.10.1 can be used to determine how far away
E
1/ the sprinters are from the starting line at any time. It also shows that
'"c
~
E 1/ the blue sprinter took longer than the red sprinter to reach the 100 m
~ 50
~ r7. finishing line.
~ 1.&
<5
L~ The velocity can be found from the gradient of a displacement- time
I, graph:
17 . MC_:..:ha:::n~9,-=e:..:i",n--,d:..:is:. cp:. :1a:::c:::e",m",e::..:.:nt
0 veoCity
I = - =-
0 5 10 !1t change in time
Time/s
Figure 1.10.-11 The displacement of two WORKED EXAMPLE
sprinters dunng a race
What is t he veloci ty of the red sprinter as shown in Figure 1.10.1?
. M 100m
Veloci ty ( m s~l ) =- = -- = 1 0m s~ 1
!1t lO s
More complex journeys, involving changes in velocity, can be
represen t ed by a graph (Figure 1.10.2) . These changes will be shown
as changes in the gradient:
• The steeper the gradient the greater the velocity.
• A zero gradient (flat line) indicates zero velocity.
• A negative gradient (downward slope) w ill indicate movement back
towards th e startin g point.

300
D
250
c SUMMARY QUESTIONS
E 200
'"
c
~

E
B 1 Ca lcu late the velocity of the
~
u 150 blue sprinter in Figure 1.10.1
ro
~ and the taxi during parts A
<5 A
100 and Cof Figure 1.10.2 .
2 Sketch a more realistic
50 disp lacement graph for
a sprinter showing him
0 speeding up at the start of
0 100 200 300 the race and then slowing
Time/s down after he has passed the
Figure 1.10.21 The graph shows the journey of a taxi through a town. It can be 100 m finish li ne.
analysed to give the information shown In Table 1.10.2.

Table 1.10.2 Describing the mot ion of a taxi

Journey part Description of the movement of the taxi How the graph shows this movement
A During the first sixty seconds the taxi is The line on the graph slopes upwards showing
0-60s moving at a steady speed. that the displacement is increasi ng.

B The taxi stops for 60 seconds. From 60 s to 120 s the line on the graph is
60- 120s horizontal. The displacement is not changing
and so the taxi is not moving .

C The taxi moves at a steady speed again. The slope of the line on the graph is upwards
120-240s This speed is slower than for part A of the but has a shallower slope than fo r part A. This
journey. means the taxi is travell ing more slowly.

D Finally, the taxi stops again. The line on the graph is horizontal again and so
240-300s the taxi has stopped.

KEY POINTS
Acceleratio n 1 A displacement-time graph
When an object changes velocity it accelerat es. The graph above shows the movement of an
is unrealistic as it shows instant changes in velocity. In reality the taxi object over a period of time.
wou ld accelerate for several seconds and, instead of a sharp change, the 2 The velocity of an object can
displacement-time graph would show a curve as the speed changed
be found from the gradient of
gradual ly. Similarly the sprinters would accelerate from the starting blocks
a displacement-time graph.
until they reached a top speed and then slow after the finishing line.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Acceleration
The acceleration of an object is the rate of cha nge of velocity:
At t he end of this topic you
should be able to: . ( 2) change in velocity (ms- ' ) v- u
acce Ieratlon m s- = or a = --
• describe the motion of an
time (s) t
object by interpreting a w here u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity and t is the time
velocity-time graph during which the object changed velocity.
• find the acceleration of an
object using the graph WORKED EXAMPLE 1
• find the distance travelled by A rally car accelerates to 25 m S- I from a stand ing start in 15 s.
an object using the graph . What is the acceleration of the car?
Noting that the initial velocity is 0 gives:
Velocity/m5-1 1
a = v-u = (25 -0)ms- = 1.7ms-2
30 t 15s
25 X
20 /'
Y
15 /' /' Velocity-time graphs
10 /" A second way to represent the mot ion of an object is t hrough a
,-::/
5/ velocity-time graph. On these graphs:
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 • the t ime is represented on the x-axis
Time/s
• the velocity is represented on the y-axis .
Figure 1.11.1 1 A simple velocity- time
graph Figure 1.1 1.1 compares the movements of two cars . Car X accelerates
uniformly from 0 to 10 seconds . Car Y accelerates for the fi rst six
Velocity/ms- 1 seconds but then reaches a steady speed . It is important to notice
that car Y does not stop. It keeps travelling at 18ms- 1 until the end
6
B of the test.
5
4 /
II \ Using velocity- time graphs to find acceleration
3 A
C The acceleration can be found from the gradient of a velocity- t ime
2
1 I graph:
0 1\ Time/s
10 D 5 E 20 . M change in velo city
-1 acce Ieratlon = - = -~'-------"-
I N cha nge in time
-2
3 I
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Figure 1.11 .2 l Motion of a toy. Du ring
phase A the toy IS
What is the acceleration of car X throug hout th e test, show n in
accelera ting. In phase B the
toy is at a constant velocity.
Figure 1. 11.17
During phase C the toy a = v- u = (25 - 0)ms- ' = 2.5ms-2
decelerates. Phase D shows
that t he toy is now moving
t lOs
w ith a negative velocity; it
is movi ng backward s and
accelerating. Finally, du ring As with displacement- t ime graphs, velocity- time graphs can show
ph\i se E the toy slows and several phases of motion (Figu re 1.11 .2).
comes to rest.
 EXAM TIP
Using velocity-time graphs to find the distance travelled by TI!~ CCl~t V\.O t to co""fust
an object tnt two d£ffe re""t """-ot£oV\,
You can find the distance travelled by an object by measuring the g,~Cl~n5. '1I1t1:j ""'Cl1:jloo~
area beneath the line on a veloci ty-tim e graph. This area can be 5''''''''.Cl~ b",t tnt1:j ~ep~est""t
broken down into simple shapes and the area calculated. Where d£ffe~t""t q'"Cl""t£t£es I
simple shapes cannot be used the area may be estimated.

W ORKED EXAMPLE 3 ·---- ~L

The simple velocity- time graph in Figure 1.11.3 represents Velocity/m 5- 1
the motion of a robot. What distance does it travel?
4.5
The graph is broken down into three simple shapes: 4.0
triangle A, rectangle B and triangle C. 3.5
The areas are calculated: 3.0
Area A ~ ~ x base x height ~ ~ x 5 x 4 ~ 10 2.5
Area B ~ base x height ~ lOx 4 ~ 40 2.0
1.5
\
Area C ~ ~ x 6 x 4 ~ 12 \
1.0
The tota l area is 10 + 40 + 12 which represents a distance 0.5
travelled of 62 m.
0
1\ Time/s
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 1.11.3

o Attach ticker tape to an object. Thread the tape through a

vibrating pin or pen which produces a dot on the paper at
regular intervals (usually 50 dots per second). SUMMARYQU ESTIONS
o Let the object fall, allowing a pattern of dots to be made on
the strip. 1 Calculate the acceleration of
the toy in ea ch part of the
o This pattern reveals the distance the object has travel led in
graph in Figu re 1.11.2.
each s'oth of a second and so the velocity and acceleration can
be calculated. . 2 a Calculate the total
distance travelled by the
~o===="iiIi"J.?J"'D.- Ticker toy in Fig ure1.11.2.
Object . '4r timer
b What is t he final
released-? i
displacem ent of the toy?

Clamp
to hold
base of
-
~ Ticker
tape
4 Speed KEY POINTS

1 The accelera tion of an object

stand can be foun d from the
gradient of a velocity-ti me
graph.
, i Time 2 The distance travelled by an
c-==2 Soft pad
G ': Ticker tape object can b e found using
with dots the area un der the line of a
Figure 1.11.4 Investigating falling using a ticker tape timer velocity-tim e graph.
 The Greek scientist Aristotle thought that a force was required to
LEARNING OUTCOMES
keep an object moving at a constant velocity. The greater the force
At the end of this topic you the faster the object would be moving (v = FJ. He based this idea
should be able to: on his observation that an object tends to come to rest unless there
is an obvious force acting on it. However, Aristotle performed no
• state and apply Newton's
experiments to verify his idea and when, hundreds of years later, tests
three laws of moti on in a were carried out by Galileo, the idea was found to be wrong . Isaac
range of situations.
Newton fully developed our ideas about forces and movement. Some
of his key discoveries are called the laws of motion .

First law of moti on

If there IS no resultant force acting on an object it will remain at
EXAM TIP constant velocity

l';e ccwefIAL "'ot t o g et The object will continue to move in a straight line at constant speed
co"'flASed &lboIAt ti1e {1.yst (or remain unmoving) unless acted on by a resultant force. This
L&lw &I",d tl1e t l1.Yd l&!w. reluctance to change behaviour is ca lled inertia .
.JlASt bec&llASe ti1eYe &lye Roll a marble along a smooth desk and you will see that it continues
eq IA&I L&I ",d o1'1'os.te fo yces in a straight line unless it encoun t ers something that produces a f orce
~oes "'Dt V><e&l", t i1&1t t l1eYe on it. Note that frictional forces are acting and these will slow the
oS ,"'D yeslALt&l ",t f oyce. The marble down.
p&loY~d fo yces &lLw&ltJs &lct This first law leads to the idea that it is always resultant fo rces which
0", doffe,Ye"'t objects, slAcl1 cause an object to accelerate.
&Is tl1e g w La",d tl1e cl1a.y
(F.glAye 1..1.2.:<'&1) . Second law of motion
The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force
acting on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
This sta t ement leads to t he mathematical relationship:
force = mass x acceleration or F = ma
When mass is expressed in kg and acceleration in m S- 2 t he unit of
force is called the newton (N) in honour of Newton·s work

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

A cru ise ship of mass 1.5 x 107 kg is pushed by an engine

force of 2.3 x 104N. The water resistance acting on the ship is
1.2 x 10 4N. W hat is the acceleration of the sh ip?
The resultant force acting on the ship is (2.3 - 1.2) x 10'N
= 1.1 X 104N.
F 4
,-,-=.:.::...c;.:.::.:c.J The acceleration of a ship a =-= 1. 1 x 107 N = 7.3 x 10-4ms-2
depends on its mass and m 1.5 x 10 kg
thl= resultant force.
Third law of motion a Readion force
When an object A exerts a force on object 8 then object 8 exerts an
equally sized force in the opposite direction on A.
• When you sit on your chair your weight acts downwards on the
chair. The chair produces a reaction fo rce equal to your weight but
in an upwards direction (Figure 1.1 2.2a) .
• The Sun exerts a force on the Ea rt h which keeps it in orbit, but the
Earth also exerts an equa lly sized force on the Sun causing it to
wobble (Figure 1.1 2 .2b). These stel lar wobbles have been used to
detect some large planets orbiting other stars .

Rockets
Weight
Gases from burning fuel are expelled from the base of a rocket as b
they expand. These hot gases gain momentum as they are pushed
downwards and the rocket gains an equal and opposite momentum <::::::::=:__--"::::uo:....:-~ ~~
upwards.
Earth
As the fuel is used and leaves the rocket, its mass decreases and the
acceleration of the rocket wi ll increase (as a ~ ;) . Figure 1. 12.2 Examples of the third law
in action

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

At launch, th e initial mass of a rocket and fuel is 7.80 x 105kg .

The rocket produces a maximum force of 13.5 MN.
a What is the acceleration of the roc ket at launch?
Remember that the resultant force acting on the rocket w ill be
the thrust minus the weight.
The weight of the rocket is given by:
W ~ mg ~ 7.80 x 10S kg x 10Nkg- 1 ~ 7.80 x 10 6 N
a ~ !.- ~ 13.5 x 10' N - 7.80 x 10'N ~ 7.3ms-2
m 7.80 x lO S kg
b One minute into the flight the rocket has used 1.0 x 10 S kg of
fuel but still produces t he same thrust. What is the acceleration
of the rocket at this stage?
Now use the reduced mass of the rocket to find the acceleration: from French Guiana.
a ~!.-~ 13.5 x 10' N - 6.80 x 10 N ~ 9.9ms-2
6

m 6.80 x 10 S kg KEY POINTS

1 The first law of motion

SUMMARY QUESTIONS shows that resultant
forces are needed to cause
1 Draw a diagram showing a ladder leaning against a wall, so
acceleration.
that someone can climb up it. Draw all of the forces acting on
the ladder, wall and floor. 2 The second law of motion
shows that F ~ ma
2 A skydiver of mass 60 kg experiences an air resistance of 400 N
just before opening her parachute and an ai r resistance of 3 The third law of motion
1000 N just after. Ca lculate the acceleration of the skyd iver at shows that forces always act
these two instants. (g ~ 10 N kg ' ) in equal and opposite pairs.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Momentum
Momentum is a vector quantity related to the mass and velocity of
At the end of this topic you
an object.
should be able to:
p = mv
• state the law of conservation
of linear momentum An analysis of the units shows that the units of momentum are kg m S- 1
• use the law of conservation
of momentum to find the
/ WORKED EXAMPLE 1 I
velocity of objects before and
after impacts. What is the momentum of a minibus of mass 2000 kg when
moving at 5.0 m s- 1 7
p = mv = 2000 kg x 5.0 m S- 1 = 1.0 x 104 kg m S-1

Impulse
As you saw in the previous topic, resultant forces are required to
change the velocity and therefore the momentum of an object. The
change in momentum caused by a force is called the impulse of the
force and this impulse is the product of the force and the time for
which it acts:
impulse = Ft = change in momentum
The units for impu lse are N s. As this is a change of momentum this
means that the units of impulse and momentum are identical:
kgms- 1 "Ns
The symbol" means 'is identical to'.

Conservation of momentum
As the momentum of an object can only be changed when a force
A B
acts on it then, from Newton's third law, you can see that when the

~
momentum of an object changes then the momentum of another
object must change by an equal and opposite amount.
In an interaction between two objects A and B the fo rces acting
Figure 1.13.11 Momentum is conserved
as the Impulse IS the same
on the two objects must be of the same size and last for the same
size on both objects. amount of time. This means that the impulse on object A is given by
Ft and the impulse on B is given by -Ft. The two objects gain equal
quantities of momentum but in opposite directions (Figure 1.13.1).
This gives the law of conservation of linear momentum:
In any interaction the total amount of momentum is conserved.
This law means that the amount of momentum after any collision is
exactly the same as the momentum before the collision. This law can be
used to analyse situations where two objects collide with each other.
Investi gating momentum and movement
To investigate the law of conservation of momentum, trolleys ca n be
used (Figure 1.13.2). Their movement is monit ored using a ti cker ta pe
timer or by ultrasonic measurements of their position.
To carry out the experiment successfully the effect of frictional forces
needs to be reduced. To do this a trolley is placed on a ramp and the
ramp is tilted so that a ticker tape attached to the trol ley has equally
spaced dots. This shows that the trolley is movi ng at constant velocity Use a ramp and trolleys to
and the friction forces have been compensated . The masses of the collect data for a range of
trolleys can be varied by placing additional blocks of metal on to them. collisions to verify the law of
conservation of momentum .
Ticker timer Tape Pin Cork
Your results w ill not demonstrate

~ e
/§i······· .\ ...~\L l-···41···········~
- ·~·r i51- - --- - --- --- -5)
- ---
that the relationship is exact
so discuss the sources of
experimental error.
Trolley B Trolley A (at rest initially)
~ Flgur.::113:~21 A ramp can be used to compensate for frictional forces .

The first trolley is pushed and allowed to collid e wit h a second trolley
partway down the ramp . The trolleys may have Velcro stri ps, magnets
or a pin and cork to make them stick to each other after th e collision .
The movement data can then be analysed to confirm the law of
conservation of momentum .

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 WORKED EXAMPLE 3

In a ramp experiment a trolley of mass O.S kg is pushed at a Why does running into a wa ll
velocity of 0.3 m s· ' . It collides with a second stati onary trolley of hurt more than walking into it?
mass 1.0 kg and sticks to it. The resulting trolley pa ir moves off The change of momentum
with a velocity of 0.1 m s· '. Has momentum been conserved? will be greater when you are
Find the momentum before the collision : moving faster and the impact
p = mv = O.Skg x O.3ms· ' = O. l Skgms· ' time w ill also be shorter. This
means that the force
Find the momentum after the col lision remembe ring tha t th e
trol leys have a combined mass of 1.S kg . (F = ch ange in momentum)

P = mv = 1.S kg x 0.1 m s·' = 0.1 Skg m s·' time

will be much larger.
This show s that momentum was conserved in the collision (as it
always is).

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Copy and complete Table 1.13 .1 by finding the missing values. KEY POINTS
Table 1.13.1 1 Momentum is the product
of the mass and the velocity
Object MasS/kg Velocity/m s·' M omentum/ kg m 5 - 1
of an'Object. (p = mv)
cricket ball 0.16 20
2 Momentum is a vector
meteorite SOOO 6.5 x 106
quantity.

2 A car is pushed using a constant fo rce of SOO N for S seconds . 3 Momentum is conserved in
How much momentum does the car ga in? all interactions.

L
 The concept of momentu m can be applied to situations where
LEARNING OUTCOMES
objects col lide and bounce off each other and also to explosions and
At the end of t his topic you rocket propulsion .
should be able to:
• ap ply t he law of conservation More collisions
of energy to a range of Duri ng col lision both objects could be moving . This is often the case
situations includ ing coll isions in a traffic collision. The objects may not stick together in a coll ision,
and explosions instead t hey can rebou nd and separate after the impact.
• apply the laws of motion to
rocket systems.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1

In a game of bill iards/ pool, balls of mass 0.20 kg are used. During
a match the wh ite cue ba ll colli des head on w ith the object
ball. Initially the balls are moving in opposite direct ions. The cue
ball has velocity of 0.30 m s-' and t he object ba ll has velocity
- 0.10 m s- ' . After the coll ision the cu e ba ll con tinues to move in
its origina l di rection but at a red uced velocity of 0.05 m s- '. Wha t
is the velocity of the object ball after the collision?
Befo re:
~
0
OJOms - 1
~
•
-O.10ms - 1

After:
~
0
0. 05 ms-'
~•?
Figure 1.14.1

Choose the cue ball direction as positi ve, and the opposite
direction as negative . Subscripts t, c and 0 identify the total, cue
bal l and object bal l.
Find the in itial total momentum of the balls:
PI = P, + Po = (0.20kg x O.3ms- ' ) + (0.20kg x - 0.1 ms-' )
= 0 .04 kgms-'
Find the momentum of the cue ball after the collision:
P, = 0.20kg x 0.05ms-' = 0.01 kgms- '
they don't stick together.
The total momentum after the coll ision is the same as the
They often move off with
different velocities.
momentum before and so the momentum of the object ball
must be 0.04 - 0.01 = 0.03kgms- ' .
Finally find the velocity of the object ba ll:
v = Po = 0.03kgms-' = 0 15ms-'
o m o 0.20 kg .
As the answer is positive, this means that the object ball is now
moving in the same direction as the cue bal l.
Explosions
The law of conservation of momentum appl ies even when the initial
momentum of a system is zero. This can be demonstrated in the
following way (Figure 1.14.3)
• Two identical gliders are placed in the centre of a linear air track.
The track floats the gl iders on a cushion of air and so eliminates
most of the friction.
• The gliders are held together with a sma ll spring between them so
that when they are released they will be forced apart by the spring.
• The initial momentum of the system is zero as their velocity is zero .
• When the gliders are released they wi ll move apart and reach the
end of the track at the same time showing that they have equal
and opposite velocities and therefore equal and opposite amounts
of momentum . This means that the total momentum after the
release (explosion) is still zero.
• Further experiments can be carried out using gliders of different
masses and measuring the velocities after the explosion .

/~"'''.4gJ... I ... . . ~ Airtrack

Gliders

F i9!!re , ' :~14.3J Using a linear air track to investigate explosions

Similar experiments can be carried out using two trolleys on a t rack.

KEY POINT
Recoil
1 The law of conservation of
When a gun is fired the bu llet is propelled forwards at hig h velocity momentum can be applied
by rapidly expanding gases. The bullet has gained momentum. At to collisions of pairs of
the same time the gun must gain an equal and opposite amount of objects and explosions.
momentum. It therefore moves backwards (recoils).

W ORKED EXAMPLE 2 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

A ri fle of mass 4.5 kg fi res a bu llet of mass 10 g forwards w ith a 1 A satell ite has a mass of
vel ocity of 300ms- ' . Wha t is the reco il velocity of the rif le? 500 kg. To adjust its speed
Use a subscript b t o identify the bullet and r for the rifle. it ejects 50 kg of fuel at
Find t he momentum of t he bullet: 40ms- I . What is the change
in momentum and change in
Pb ~ mbvb = 0.01 kg x 300m s- I ~ 3.0kgms-'
speed of the satellite?
The rifle must also ga in the same momentum but in the opposite
2 If the fuel ejected in Question
direction.
1 is ejected over a period of
v ~£,. ~ - 3.0kgms- ' ~-067ms-' 1 minute what is the average
'm, 4.5 kg . force acting on the satellite?
SECTION 1: Practice exam questions 2

1 The displacement-time graph shows the 4 During an experiment a trolley of mass 4.0 kg
height of a skydiver during a dive. moves with a velocity of 0.5 m S- 1. It collides
a Find the velocity of the skydiver between with a stationary trolley of mass 3.0 kg and
20s and 50s. the two trolleys stick together moving off at a
new velocity. What is the velocity of the trolley
b Find the velocity of the skydiver between
combination?
50 sand 100s.
5 During a docking manoeuvre a supply pod
HeighVkm
of mass 4000 kg accidently collides with the
International Space Station (mass 100000 kg)
with a relative velocity of 2.0 m S- 1. Assuming
the pod attaches to the station what is the
1.5 change in velocity of the space station 7
6 During a game of snooker a player attempts
1.0 to pot the final black. The white ball strikes
the stationary black with a velocity of 1.2ms- 1
and the black ball is propelled forwards
0.5 w ith a velocity of 1.0 m S-1 after the impact.
Assuming that both balls have equal mass,
calculate the velocity of the white bal l after
o n_ the impact.
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
7 A billiard ball of mass 0.3 kg hits a cushion
2 A car takes 8s to slow down from a speed of with a velocity of 2.5ms- 1. It rebounds off
15 m S- 1 to 5 m S- 1 as it approaches a junction. the cushion in the opposite direction with a
velocity of - 2.4ms- 1.
a What is the acceleration of the car?
a What is the initial momentum of the
b If the car has a mass of 800 kg, what is the billiard bal1 7
braking force required to slow the car?
b What is the final momentum of the billiard
3 During take-off a jet aeroplane of mass ball?
10000kg can produce a maximum thrust
of 40 kN. At the point of take-off the plane 8 An artillery gun of mass 1500kg fires a shell
experiences a drag force of 20 kN. of mass 10 kg at a velocity of 400 m S-1. What
is the recoil velocity of the gun?
a Calculate the initial acceleration of the

b
plane.
Calculate the acceleration of the plane at
the poi nt of ta ke-off.
o
10kg ----
400ms-1

1500 kg
9 A group of students investigated the law of a What is the acceleration of trolley X as it
conservation of momentum using two trolleys, travels down t he ramp?
X and Y. Trolley X was allowed to roll along a b What distance did trolley X travel before
ramp and accelerated before moving along a the impact with trolley Y)
ramp adjusted to counteract frictional forces.
The troll ey th en collided with trolley Y causing The mass of trolley X was 0.5 kg.
both trolleys to continue to move forvvards c Calculate t he momentum of trolley X just
separately. before and just after the impact.
d Calculate t he mass of trolley Y.
The impact between the two trolleys lasts for
0.25s.
e What is the average force acting on trolley
The graph shows the motion of the two Y during the impact?
trolleys duri ng an investigation.

Velocily/m s 1 Troll,yX - - -
Troll,yy .-----.
2.5

2.0
/

/
1.5

II

1.0
1/
I

I I
0.5
I

I
/
o
o 2 3 4 5 6
Time/s
LEARNING OUTCOMES
The concept of energy is fundamental to physics. All events occur
due to a transfer or transformation of energy.
At the end of this topic you Energy is defi ned as the capacity to do work, for example when a
should be able to: force moves an object through a distance. This is sometimes referred
• define energy to as mechanical work.
• describe energy transfers and Al l energy (and work done) is measured in a unit called the jou le (J) .
energy transformations One joule of energy is quite a small quantity and so ki lojoule (kJ) is
• calculate the work done often used.
(energy transferred) by a force
acting through a distance. The forms of energy
Energy is sometimes referred to as being in different forms, as shown
in Table 1. 15.1, to help us describe the transfer of energy. A change
in form of energy is referred to as a transformation.

Table 1.15.1 Forms of energy

Energy form Description

thermal This refers to the heat energy stored within an
object.
light Light is an electromagnetic wave and it can
carry energy from place to place very quickly
w ithout the need for a medium .
sound Sound energy is the energy associated with the
vibrating particles in a sound wave.
kinetic Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object.
potential energy Potential energy is the energy stored in an
object due to its position (being off the
ground), its physical state (such as a spring
Thin k about a ra nge of being stretched) or chemical state.
electrica l devices and w hy th ey electrical energy Electrical circuits transfer energy through wi res
are so usefu l to us. Descri be in an electric current.
the energy transformations
nuclear energy This energy is stored in the nucleus of atoms.
that take place in as many
as you can, including rad ios,
televisions, telephones, Fo r transfers involving electrical energy see 4.5, and for transfers of
thermal energy see 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11.
microphones, electric motors
and lig ht bul bs.
Make sure tha t you id enti fy any
Energy transfer and t ransformati on
wasted energy. The ideas of energy transfer and transformation can be used to
explain how devices operate.
Examples :
• When you walk up stairs the potential energy sto red in the
chemicals in your body is transferred into gravitational potential
energy and heat energy (Figure 1.15 .1).
• When you stretch a catapult to fire a stone, potentia l energy is
stored in the elastic. When you release it the energy is transformed
into kinetic energy as the stone flies outwards (Figu re 1.15.2) .
• Fireworks transform the potential energy stored in their chem ica ls
into heat, light sound, kinetic energy and even gravitational
potentia l energy as they shoot up into the air (Figure 1.15.3).
Chemical poten tial
'-'--="'-"'-'C-:.J energy in you r cells ~
Wasted energy
gravitational potential
In any energy t ransfer or transfo rmation some of the energy is energy + heat energy
tra nsformed into thermal energy which cannot be used to do any
more useful work. This energy has not disappeared . It has just
become spread out to the surroundings or dissipated .

Mechanical work
When a force acts and moves an object throug h a distance we say
th at work has been done by the force . The amount of work done is
given by the relationship:
work done = force x distance moved in the direction of t he f orce Elastic potential energy
~~---' in the elastic ~ kinetic
or W = Fd energy of the stone

WORKED EXAMPLE
A broken-d own motorcycl e has t o be pushed to a garage 2.5 km
away along a f lat road using a force of 80 N. How much work
wi ll be done?
W = Fd = 80 N x 2.5 x 103 m = 2.0 x 10 5 J

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Chemical potential energy
1 Describe the energy transformations involved in : '--='-=---'--'- ~ heat + light +
a using a battery-operated torch sound + kinetic energy
+ gravitational potential
b charging a mobile phone energy
c boil ing a kettle.
KEY POINTS
2 Copy and complete Table 1.15.2 comparing work done, fo rce
and distances for mecha nical work. 1 Scient ists descri be events
Table 1.1 S.2 in terms of energy
transformation and energy
a b c transfer.
Work done 5.0 kJ 4.3 J 2 A mechanical transfer of
Force 40N 2000N energy is called work done
and this is found using the
Distance 60m 20cm
equ ation W = Fd
 Electricity is an important form of energy as it is simple to transfer
LEARNING OUTCOMES
over very large distances and to transform it into other forms such as
At the end of this tOPIC you light, kinetic energy or heat. There is a constantly increasing demand
should be able to' for electricity which is met by using a wide range of energy sources.

• describe how alternative

energy resources can be used Non-renewable energy sources
to generate electricity Non-renewable energy sources are fuels that cannot be replaced
• state some advantages and and so are in limited supply or have limited lifespans.
disadvantages of using
alternative energy resources. Fossil fuels
Fossil fue ls include coal, oil and natural gas, formed from the remains
of plants and anima ls that died millions of years ago.
These fuels are burnt in a furnace producing waste gases and
Research the use of fossil fu els large amounts of thermal energy. The heat is used to produce high
and renew able energy in th e pressu re steam t o spin turbines which drive electricity generators.
Cari bbean and w rite a short Burning fossil fuels can produce very large amounts of energy but
report about what shou ld be vast quantities of carbon dioxide are released leading to global
done to reduce the dependency warming. Su lfur dioxide is also released, especially from burning coal,
on fossil fuels. and this causes acid rain.
Oil is the most significant energy source used in the Caribbean,
accounting for more than 90% of the total electricity production.
SUMMARY QUESTION
Nuclear power
1 Which energy sources:
a require a large amount of A nuclear power station produces heat using nuclear fuels such as
land? uranium. These fu els are not burnt but release thermal energy inside a
reactor core when the nuclei split through a process called nuclear fission.
b da mage the atmosphere?
C are unreliable? Nuclear power plants are very expensive to build and dismantle but
are fairly cheap to operate. They can produce very large quantities
d can be used on a small
of electricity. However, they also produce radioactive waste which
scale near to wh ere the
is very dangerous and requires safe storage for thousands of years.
electricity is requ ired?
Accidents are very rare but the escaping radioactive material can
contaminate large areas of land.
No nuclear power sta tions operate in the Caribbean and none are
currently planned. Cuba started construction of a nuclear power
station in the 1980s but abandoned the project before the reactor
had been built. You can find additional detail about nuclear reactions
in SA.

Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources produce electricity without being used
up. The sources are either quickly replaceable or have effectively
unlimited lifespans. Several examples are shown in Table 1.16.1.
Table 1.16.1 A summary of some renewable energy sources in the Caribbean

Energy source Example How it operates Key advantages Key disadvantages

Solar power There are no The energy No fuel required. Can't produce electricity
(photovoltaic large-scale solar from sunlight Plenty of sunlight at night so battery storage
cells) power plants in is converted in the Caribbean. required.
the Caribbean directly to Electricity can be Quite expensive to build.
but many new electricity using produced on the
buildings have semiconductor building in which
panels installed. cells. it is to be used.
Most homes in
Barbados have
solar water heaters
on their roofs.
Hydroelectricity The Dominican Water is No fuel required . Floods large amounts of land
Republic has trapped behind Can produce which is a precious resource
twenty dams a dam and large amounts on islands.
providing 10% used to drive of electricity very Only small- and medium-
of the electricity turbines as it quickly. scale systems can be used on
needs. is allowed to Caribbean islands as there are
escape. few large valleys or rivers.
Tidal power Tidal flows around Water is No fuel required. There are very few sUitable
the Caribbean trapped in Predictable energy estuaries in the Caribbean
could provide estuaries and output. islands.
energy but are not drives turbines. Alters habitats and wildlife.
used currently.
Wind turbines The Wigton wind The wind spins No fuel required. Offshore turbines could affect
farm on Jamaica turbine blades Plenty of wind tourism by spoiling views.
produces 20 MW mounted on around island Some noise pollution is
of electricity. towers. systems. produced especially from
Large-scale large wind farms.
wind farms
or small-scale
local generation
possible.
Geothermal Beneath the Thermal energy No pollution Only a very few locations are
energy volcanic islands released by is caused and suitable.
of St Kitts and radioactive sources are very
Nevis there are decay within reliable.
vast reserves of the Earth is
geothermal energy. used to heat
Research projects water into
are undervvay to steam and the
develop a power steam drives
station. turbines.
Biofuels Sugar cane is Biological New supplies can The land used to grow fuel
grown on many material, such be grown fairly crops may be better used
islands and some as wood, quickly. to grow food for increasing
could be used to sugar cane, Does not add populations.
produce oils or or ethanol, is extra carbon
ethanol to replace burnt. dioxide to the
crude oil. atmosphere.
 Potentia l energy can arise because an object is stretched or
LEARNING OUTCOMES
compressed. When you investigated Hooke's law in 1.9 you added
At the end of this topic you masses to the spring and the force caused the spring to stretch . This
should be able to: force acted through a distance and therefore did work in stretch ing
the spring .
• calculate the kinetic energy of
objects
• calculate the change in
Gravitational potential energy
gravitational potential energy An object that can fall due to the pull of gravity has gravitational
in a range of si tuations. potential energy. When it changes its height then there is a change
in its gravitational potential energy:
change in gravitational gravitational chang e
potential energy ~ mass x field strength x in height
EXAM TIP
or !'.E, ~ mg!'.h
The t~tI V\.sl'os't'oV\. of This equation matches the equation for mechanical work done.
tl1e ~'vcet'c eV\.e~gtl
eqlA.tlt'oV\. [s l'~obtlbLtI tl1e
",,:ost d[WCIA.Lt ovce tl01A.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
w.LL V\.eed to do. If tl01A.
strnggLe tl1eV\. memo ~,se How much energy is required to
tl1e tlLte~V\.&!te ve~s 'oV\.s lift 500 kg of sand to a height of
sl1owV\. OV\. tl1ese l'tlges. 20 m (Figure 1.171)7 DOD
The work done lifting the sand DOD
w ill be equal to the gravitational
potential energy gained: 20 m
DOD
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Mp ~ mg/'<.h
DOD
~ 500 kg x 10 N kg-' x 20 m DOD
a A fast bowler can bowl a
cricket ball of mass 160 g at ~ 1.0 x 10' J DOD
40ms· ' . How much kinetic
energy does this ball have7
E , = l,mv 2 Figure 1.17.1 Gainin g gravitat ional
potential energy
~ ~ x 0.16kg x (40ms·')'
~ 128J
b What is the speed of a
powerboat of mass 600 kg if Kinetic energy
it has 40 kJ of ki netic energy 7
The kinetic energy of an object is the energy associated with its
The rearrangement of the movement. The relat ionship is:
kinetic energy eq uation gives:
ki netic energy ~ ~ x mass x speed' or E, ~ ~mv'
v ~ ~2 X E, ~
3
2 x 40 x 10 J
m 600kg As you ca n see an obj ect w ith a la rge mass and hi gh speed will have
more kinetic energy than a small, slow moving object.
~1 1 . 5 m s·'
•
Transposition of the equation WORKED EXAMPLE 3
To find v if given the mass and the kinetic energy, you need to
A coconut of mass 0.5 kg falls
rea rrange the equation. Here is the process.
25 m fro m a tree. How fast wi ll
• Orig inal equation: , ,
E = l. mv2 it be travelling when it reac hes
• Multiply both sides by 2 2E, = mv' t he ground?
2E, = v' Fi nd the gra vit ational potenti al
• Divide both sides by m :
m energy lost:
M p = mgM
• Take the square root of both sides: ~=v = 0.5 kg x 1 0 Nkg ~1 x 25m
= 125J
Transfer between Ep and Ek Use the ki netic energy equati on
Tra nsformation of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy
is common. It happens every time something falls. The equations
for kinetic energy and potential energy can be used to calculate the
v = f
to find th e speed :
mX Ek = "2:-x:-:-1"'2'"'5'"'J
0.5 kg
speed of the fall ing object, assu ming there is negligible air resistance.
= 22 .4 m s~ l

Oscillat ions of a pendulum

A pendulum serves as an example of the transfer between kinetic and
gravitational potential energy. As the pendulum swings from side to
side there is a transfer of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy
and back again. The quantities of energy involved can be calcu lated
using the equations in the worked example for the falling coconut. SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Calculate th e speeds a 1.0 kg

mass and then a 2.0 kg
coconut w ill reach when
fall ing to th e ground from
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 25 m. What do you notice?

A pen du lum bob of mass 60 g is displaced si deways so th at it is 2 An Airbus A380 jet aircraft
3 cm above its equ ilibrium position and th en allowed to sw ing has a fully loaded mass of
free ly. W hat is th e maximum speed of the bob? 550000kg. It can travel at a
height of 12 km wi th a speed
Find the gravitational potential energ y t he bob loses as it swings
of 250ms~ 1
to the equ ili brium positi on:
a How much kinetic energy
M p = mgM = 0.06kg x 1 0 Nkg~1 x 0.03m = 1.8 x lO~' J
does it have?
When t he pendulum reaches the cent ra l posi ti on all of th is
b How much gravitational
potent ial energy wil l be lost, matched by a ga in in kinetic energy
potential energy does it
and the speed can be calculated (Fig ure 1. 17.2) .
have?
v= f: E,

2 x 1.8 x 10 ' J
Maximum Maximum KEY POINTS
0.06kg gravitational gravitational
potential potential
= 0.77 m s~ l energy ene rgy 1 The change of gravitational
potential energy is given by
.... --
- .. --
~
---"_
,.. .... .......
'"
M p = mgM

Figu re 1.17.2 En ergy chan ges

1
Maximum kinetic 2 The kinetic energy of an
in a pendulum swing energy object is given by E, = l mv'
 The most important rule about energy is the law of conservation of
LEARNING OUTCOMES
energy which states:
At the end of this topic you Energy cannot be created or destroyed It can only be transferred or
should be able to: transformed.
• state and apply the law of This rule allows us to analyse and explain a wide variety of systems.
conservation of energy
• provide examples where
Spotting energy loss t o the surroundings
energy is dissipated into
the surround ings as heat There is always a loss of energy to the surroundings in energy
reducing the amount of transformations, usually as heat. This means that it often looks as
energy available for future though energy is disappea ring when in fact the energy is still present
transfers. but no longer useful for doing work.

Dropping objects
If you pick up a wooden block and drop it onto the ground the
Gravitationa l gravitational potential energy w ill transform to kinetic energy as the
potenu nergy block falls but then the block will st op. The original energy has been
transformed into thermal energy warming up the block and some
sound energy (Figure 1.18.1). Even the sound energy dissipates into
the surroundings and becomes heat.
Kinetic energy
, I, I: A similar process happens when you kick a football. With repeated
I, !---9h
1 'l.I
I i
Heat and sound
on impact
kicks the ball gains and loses kinetic energy. Over time the ball will
warm up as some of the energy turns into heat within the bal l. The
rest is lost to the surroundings .

Pendulums
When a pendulum oscillates over a period of time, the height of
Figure 1.18.1 Ene rgy is dissipated into
the swing wi ll decrease. Some of the energy is leaving the system.
the surroundings.
There are two transformations happening lead ing to this loss. As
the pendulum moves through the air it experiences frictional forces.
This frictional force will reduce the kinetic energy of the pendulum
bob. The kinetic energy is transformed into random motion of the
air particles (heat energy). At the point where the pendul um wire is
attached to the stand there will be a small frict ional force as the wire
rubs against the stand . This also reduces the kin etic energy of the
system and transfers it into heat energy.
Eventually the pendulum will stop swinging due to these energy
losses. Because of this gradual energy loss the pendulums in clocks
need to be provided with energy to keep swinging fo r long periods
of time. Masses are attached to a system which drives the pendulum .
As these masses move downwards very slowly t heir gravitational
potential energy is provided to the pendulum .
Swinging
When you are on a swing you can keep it moving for a long time
even though there is energy loss to the surroundings. By adjusting
your centre of gravity you can drive the swing and so you seem to
gai n kin etic or gravitational potential energy. However, you are using
chemical potentia l energy to drive the swing w hen you produce
forces w ith your muscles.

Investigate the energy losses due to friction by rolling a trolley or

ball down a ramp of different gradients (Figure 1.18.3) .
• Measure the height difference to calculate the loss of
gravitational potential energy. EXAM TIP
• Measure the speed of the trolley or ball at the end of the ramp
If ij0L<. olo "'ot "<",ow
to find the kinetic energy.
wl1eYe tl1 e "<.' ss''''9
Explain the losses: does a steeper ramp waste more or less
e"'eYgij ~as go"'e ' ''' a
energy?
t ya"-SfoY"<.at'o", ,t ~as
pyoba bLij tya"'Sfo y"<.eol
,,,,to l1eat.

KEY POINTS

Figure 1.18.3 Investigating energy losses 1 Energy is always conserved.

2 During energy transfers
some energy is transformed
into heat in the surroundings
and this energy can no
WORKED EXAMPLE longer be used.
Describe the changes when a heavy ball is dropped onto a
trampoline.
The ball starts with gravitational potential energy and th is is SUMMARY QUESTIONS
transformed into kinetic energy as it fa lls. When the ball hits the
trampoline the trampoline stretches, this is because the kinetic 1 How is energy lost when
energy is being transformed into elastic potential energy. When you push a book across your
the ball has no kinetic energy left the elastic strain energy will desk?
be transferred back into kinetic energy and the ball will move 2 When you place a mass onto a
upwards gaining kinetic energy and gravitational potential spring it stretches. If the mass
energy. The ball will continue upwards until all of its kinetic is then pulled downwards and
energy has been transferred to gravitational potential energy. released the system oscillates
The cycle will continue but during each stretching of the up and down. Describe the
trampoline some energy wi ll be converted to heat until energy transfers in this process
eventuailly all of the initial energy will have been tranferred to and explain why the mass
heat and the ball will stop moving. eventually stops.
 Some devices t ransfer energy at a greater rate t han others . For
LEARNING OUTCOMES
example, a large car engine w ill be able to transfer more energy in
At the end of this topic you one second t han a sma ll moped engine, as it is more powerful.
should be able to:
• calculate power Power
• calculate the efficiency of an The rate of energy tra nsfer is cal led power and is defi ned by t he
energy transfer or device. eq uat ion :
work done (energy t ransferred)
power ~ - - - ---'-- - = -- ----'-
time taken

or p~~
t
The un it of power is t he J S- 1 w hich has t he special name wa tt (W)·
The power equation applies to any tran sfer of energy or any work
done and so can be used for mechanical work, electri cal energy
transfer or heati ng'

/ WORKED EXAMPLE 11
An electric motor is used to lift an elevator and passengers with
0 t otal mass of 600 kg t hrough a height of 40 m (Figure 1.19.1).
This process takes 30 seconds .
0 a What is the work done by the elevator motor?
~

Remember to use the weigh t of the elevator and not the mass:
0 Weight ~ mass x gravitational field strength
=
~ 600 kg x 10Nkg- 1
0 ~ 6000N
=
40 m 0 Elevator with
Now calcu late the weight:

0
~J passengers
~ 600 kg
W ~ Fd ~ 6000 N x 40 m ~ 2.4 x 10 5 J
b What is the effective power rating of the elevator motor?
=
p ~ ~ ~ 2.4 x 10 J ~ 8.0 kW
5

0 t 30s
=
0
- -- =
Figure 1.1 9.1 Lifti ng
Efficiency
Du ring any energy transfer some energy is wasted and lost to the
environment. This w asted energy depends on the specific device but EXAM TIP
there is always some heat produced.
If i:J 01.<. ever -f1.vca III'\,
The efficiency of a transfer is a measure of how much energy is
ef(i.cie""'tJ of !:wellter
transferred usefully:
HIliI'\, :1..oo'{o t~el'\, go bllc~
· .
eff IClency =
output value
x
1000'/0 lI1'\,c;I, t'1::j t~e ql.<.estiol'\,
input value
IIgll,I'\,. Yol.<.r IIl'1,Swer is
Here the output value represents the useful energy or power output of a c;le-f1.I'\,iteltJ "'-Dt correct.
transfer and the input value represents the total energy or power input.
As there is always some energy wasted the output is always sma ller than
the input and so no transfer can have an efficiency of greater than 100%.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

If the lift motor mentioned in Worked example 1 is 70% efficient,

how much energy is wasted when lifting the elevator and
passengers?
First find out how much energy was supplied to the motor:
efficiency = output value x 100%
input value
. I
Input va ue = output value
x
1000''0 = 2.4 x 10' )
x
100°'"0
efficiency 70%
= 3.4 x 10' )
The energy wasted by the motor can now be found using the
law of conservation of energy:
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Energy wasted = energy supplied - useful energy output
= (3.4-2.4) x 10' ) = 1.0 x 10' ) 1 What is the power rating of
an engine which transfers
40kJ per minute?
2 How much useful energy
Use a small electric moior attached to a joulemeter to lift objects is provided by an electrical
(Figu re 1.19.2). Calcu late the gain in potential energy and the motor with an efficiency of
electrica l energy supplied to the motor to find its efficiency. 75% in one hour if it has a
• Does the efficiency of the motor change when the load is power rat i ng of 150 W?
changed?

Ruler
Wire KEY POINTS

Motor 1 The power of a device is the

rate at which it does work
(tra nsfers energy) as given by
P=~
t
2 Efficiency is a measure of
Metal block.o;!;k"..,,!~
how effective an energy
transfer is at producing
Figure 1.19.2 Measuring the efficiency of an electric motor useful energy.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Pressure on surfaces
When you walk on a sandy beach you leave a trail of footprints
At the end of this topic you
behind. Your weight is pushing down on the sand and it acts over the
should be able to:
area of your feet causing a pressure.
• calculate the pressure acting force F
Pressure = - - or p = -
on a surface area A
• describe how pressure increases The unit of pressure is N m - ' which is also known as the pascal (Pa).
w ith the depth in a fluid.
Pressure can also be measured in N cm- 2 As 1 m' = 10000 cm',
1 N cm' = 10 000 Pa.

Draw around your feet onto some squared paper. Use the squares
to estimate the area of your feet and then measure your weight.
Calculate the pressure you exert on the floor (Figure 1.20.2).

150cm 2

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Figure 1.20.2 How much pressure do you produce on the floor?
I have a mass of 60 kg and the
total area of my feet is 0.04 m 2
Pressure in liquids
What is the pressure on the
sand? Pressure acts throughout a liquid and increases with depth. This can
F 600N be demonstrated simply by allowing water to flow out of holes in a
P= - = = 15kPa container. The further down the hole is from the surface of the liquid
A 0.04m'
the further the water squirts out. This shows that it is experiencing a
greater force or pressure.

I'ACTIVITY .J
Drill some small holes into a tal l, plastic, measuring cylinder and
fill it with water. Compare the distance the water is ejected to the
depth of the water in the container. What happens as the water
Water
level decreases (Figure 1.20.3)?
Squeezy
bottle Another pressure experiment uses Pascal's vases.
Jets of
water
Explaining the increase in pressure
When a submarine is under water the weight of the water acts
Figure 1.20.3 The pressure in a liquid
downwards onto the skin of the submarine. This produces pressure
increases with depth.
acting on the surface of the submarine.
• Imagine the water above the su bmarine to be a rectangle w ith
width IN. and length / giving an area of / x IN. (Figure 1.20.4).
/' ;;
• The volu me of the water directly above the submarine would be
given by:
volume = length x width x height or V =/x IN. X h Column of
liquid of
• The mass of the water above the submarine would be given by: density p
h
mass = volume x density or m = / x IN. X h x p
• The force acting downwards on the submarine would be the
wei ght of the water which would be given by:
weight = mass x gravitational field strength
1/
0I ~
or W = / x IN. x hxpxg • •
Ww
f
• The weight of the water ads over the surface of the submarine, / x IN.
Figure 1.20.4 [ Pressure within a liquid
• The pressure acting on the submarine is:
force / x IN. X h x p x 9
pressure = - - = = h xp x 9
area / x IN.

This shows that the pressure in a liquid is consta nt at a particular

depth (h) as long as the density of the liquid is the same throughout.
At very great depths the pressure is so high that the liquid is
com pressed and the density increases slightly.

( WORKED EXAMPLE 2 I

Mercury has a density of 13.5 x 10 3 kg m- 3 What is t he increase

in pressure at a depth of 30 mm beneath the su rface of a pool of SUMMARY QUESTIONS
mercury?
p =h x p x 9 = 0.030m x 13 .5 x 103 kgm -3 x 10Nkg - 1
1 A na il is kn ocked into a
plank of w ood using a force
= 4.05 x 103 Nm-' of 60 N. The point on the
nail has an area of 1.0 mm'
(1.0 x 1O- 6 m' ). What is the
Pressure in gases pressure acting on t he wood
w hen the nai l is hit?
The atmosphere
2 Water has a density of
The Earth's atmosphere is a deep layer of gases reaching beyond 1000 kg m - 3 What is t he
100 km above the Earth's surface. Pressure in t he atmosphere pressure 40 m beneath the
increases in depth in a simi lar way to the pressure in a liquid but the surface? Don't f orget to
difference in density as you travel deeper into the atmosphere is far include t he pressure of the
greater than that in liquids and so the relationship is not as simple. atmosp here above t he water.
At sea level the pressure is approximately 100 kPa which is often
referred to as 'one atmosphere' pressure. If you cl imbed to the top
of the Blue Mountain Peak in Jamaica you wou ld reach a height of
KEY POINTS
2.2 km above sea level. At this height the air pressure is only 80 kPa
(0.8 atmosphere). 1 The pressure acting on a
As water is much denser than air, travelling to a depth of 10 metres . . b F
su rf ace IS given y p = -
in water will increase the pressure acting on you to two atmospheres. A
Deep-sea divers can reach a depth of nea rly 500 m causi ng them to 2 The pressure in a liquid is
experience a pressure of 50 at mospheres. given by p = hpg
 Floating, sin
density

Archimedes was a Greek scientist who lived in the 3rd century BCE. Legend
LEARNING OUTCOMES
has it that, when asked to investigate if a crown was made from pure
At the end of this topic you gold, he discovered a key principle which explains why objects float or sink.
should be able to:
• explain why some objects Arch imedes' principle
float and why some sink Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a
• calcula te the resu ltant f orce force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
acting on an object as a result
It is important to note that this principle applies to objects which are
of its weight and buoyancy.
floating and to objects which are submerged in the fluid.
In addition submerged objects will displace a volume of water equal to
their own volume. This fact is often used to calculate the density of
materials.
When you get into a bath of water you will notice the water level rise. The
weight of that displaced water will be the same as the upthrust you feel.

Investi gate Archimedes' principle using a displacement can (a lso

call ed a Eu reka can) (Figure 1.21.1) .
Measure the wei ght of water displaced when an object is
su bmerged in t he water. Compare this to the apparent reduction
in the weig ht.

Spring
balance

Weight of steel
block ~ 8 N
Weight of steel
block ~ 5 N

Displacement can
filled to overflowing

Weight of Weight of
empty beaker empty beaker
~2N plus dISplaced
water = 5N

Plimsoliline or water line.

, Figure 1.21 .1 Investigating Archimedes' principle
Floating objects WORKED EXAMPLE 1
An object will float as long as the upthrust (or buoyancy) is equal to
A ferry is used to transport cars
the weight of the object. Solid objects w ith a density greater than
from St Lucia to Martinique. The
that of water will always weigh more than the water they displace
ferry has a fully loaded mass of
and so will sink.
5000 tonnes (5.0 x 10' kg). The
Ships are built from steel which has a much higher density than water. density of seawater is 1 .02 x
They float because they contain large volu mes of air and this reduces 103 kg m - 3 . What is the volume
their average density to much lower than the density of wa ter. of water the ferry needs to
displace to remain floating?
For the ship to float it must displace the sam e weight of water as it
wei ghs. Loading up the ship with cargo will increase the weight of The mass of the water displaced
the ship and therefore the weight of water displaced. This means that must be the same as the mass
the ship wi ll sink lower into the water. of the ferry.

If too much cargo is added to the ship then it will sink too low in
. mass
Density = - - -
the sea. The Plimsoilline indicates how heavily loaded the ship is and volume
ensu res that enough extra buoyancy is kept in reserve in case waves
V =m = 5.0 x 10' kg
cause water to start entering the ship (Figure 1.21 .2).
p 1.02 x 103 kgm 3
If the ship is damaged and water enters into the hull then the
weight of the shi p increases and it sinks lower into the water until, = 4.9 x 103 m'
eventually, it sinks. The average density of the ship as a whole
becomes greater than the density of the water.
/'WORKED EXAMPLE 2 I
Submerged objects A hydrogen balloon has a total
mass of 40.0 kg and a volume
Wh en an object is beneath the surface of a fluid Archimedes' principle
of 40 m' . If the surrounding air
tells us there will be an upthrust force acting on the object equal to
has a density of 1.225 kg m- ' ,
the weight of the fluid displaced . Thi s upthrust force will seem to
how large is the upwards force
reduce the weight of the object by decreasing the resultant force.
acting on the balloon?
Submarines First find the mass of the air
displaced:
Submarines can alter their average density by allowing ballast tanks
to fill w ith w ater. This increases the weight of the submarine which m = p x V = 1.225 kg m - ' x
makes it sink in the water, To gain additional buoyancy the water can 40m' = 49kg
be pushed out of the tanks using compressed air and this decreases This means the weight of the air
the weight of the submarine. displaced is 490 N (W = mg). The
weight of the balloon is 400 N.
Balloons Finally resolve the forces:
A balloon or airship is also submerged in a fluid , the air. Th is means upwards force = upthrust -
that there will be a force acting upwards on the balloon equal to weight = 490N - 400N = 90N
the weight of air which has been displaced. This buoyancy allows
ball oons and ai rsh ips to float as long as the upthrust is greater than
their wei ght. KEY POINTS

1 The density of a material is

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
. b m
given yp = V
1 Draw a diagram showing all of the forces acting on a submarine
which is accelerating forwards while sinking in the ocean. 2 An object floating on, or in,
a fluid displaces a weight of
2 A balloon of mass 109 is filled with helium of mass 0.4 kg so fluid equal to the object's
t hat its volume is 5.0 m'- Will the balloon float in the air? weight.

2
SECTION 1: Practice exam questions 3

1 A student has been asked to investigate the 2 Describe the energy transfers and
motion of a ball bearing fired from a spring tra nsformations that take place when:
mounted at the edge of a table. The ball a a helicopter takes off
bearing is pushed into the spring so that
b a bungee jumper dives off a bridge
the spring is compressed a distance x. The
spring is then released and the ball bearing c a tree falls over in a forest.
follows a curved trajectory as it falls to the 3 A car of mass 600 kg is pushed up a hill using
floor. The student measures the distance a force of 500 N. The slope is 50 m long and
travelled by the ball bearing for a range of the car rises by 4 m.
compressions of the spring and investigates
a How much work is done in pushing the car?
the relationship between the length of the
compression of the spring and distance the b How much gravitational potential energy
ball bearing travels before reaching the floor. does the car gain?
The ball bearing is fired three times for each c Assuming that gain in potential energy
compression of the spring. is counted as useful work, calculate the
efficiency of the energy transfer.
4 During a competition to determine the
world's strongest human a competitor pulls a
tractor along a flat road. A force of 4000 N is
required and the tractor is moved through a
1m distance of 20m in 70s.
a What is the work done in moving the
tractor?
b What is the effective power of the
d competitor?

Compression distance; x/em 2 .0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Travel distance, dlcm 26.2 38.8 51 .0 63.4 76.2
Travel distance, dlcm 26.6 38.8 51.0 63.4 75.8
Travel distance, dlcm 26.6 39.0 51.2 63.4 76.0

a Calculate the average travel distance for

the ball bearing for each compression 5 State the law of conservation of energy.
distance. Describe how this law is applied when find ing
the efficiency of an electric motor.
b Plot a graph comparing the compression
distance (x-axis) to the travel distance 6 A new business wished to generate its own
(y-axis) . electricity. They are considering the use of
c Draw a straight line of best fit. a wind turbine or photovoltaic cells. Write
a paragraph for each system describing the
d Calculate the gradient of this line.
advantages and disadvantages.
e To what extent does the data support
the hypothesis that the travel distance is
proportional to the compression of the
spring?
7 A pulley system consisting of three pulleys is 10 A ship is made of 4000 m3 steel of density
used to lift a pallet of bricks weighing 600 N 7900kgm - 3 .
through a height of 40m. The force required to a What volume of fresh water 0.",,, =
lift the pallet at a steady speed is 210 N and the 1000 kg m- 3) would the ship need to
rope is pulled through a distance of 120 m. displace in order for it to float?
a Neglecting the mass of the pulleys and b Explain how the design of the ship enables
rope, calculate the useful work done in it to displace this much water.
lifting the pallet.
11 A rectangular block of polystyrene foam with
b What is the efficiency of the pulley system! dimensions 2.0m x 1.0m x O.3m is used to
c In what form is energy wasted in the lifting make a raft. The density of the polystyrene foam
process? is 50 kg m- 3 and that of water is 1000 kg m-'.
a What is the mass of the polystyrene block?
b What volume of water will be displaced
when the block floats?
c How much additional weight could the
raft support before beginning to sink?
Pull
12 Explain why a helium-filled balloon rises in
the atmosphere.
13 The following table shows the power output
from hydroelectric plants on Jamaica.

l ocatio n Installed Power

output/MW
Upper White River 1945 3.8
Lower White River 1952 4.9

600N Roaring River 1949 3.8

Rio Bueno A 1949 2.5
8 A tourist submarine has a glass dome to Maggotty Falls 1966 6.3
allow clear views of aquatic life. The dome
Constant Spring 1989 0.8
can withstand a maximum absolute external
pressure of 12000 kPa. The density of Rams Horn 1989 0.6
seawater is 1.02 x 103 kgm - 3 (g = 10Nkg-'). Rio Bueno River 1989 1.1
What is the maximum safe diving depth of the
submarine? a Find the total power output of the
9 The density of water is 1000 kg m- 3
(1 gcm- 3) . hydroelectric system.
Which of the following cubes of material will b Assuming that the turbines operate all
float in water? year around (365 days), estimate the total
energy production of the system over a year.
Material Length of side Mass c The total electrical energy production
a 4 .0cm 60g in Jamaica was 2.0 x 10" J. What
b 10cm 1.2 kg percentage of Jamaica's electricity is
produced by hydroelectricity?
c 3.1 m 2.3x10' kg
d Suggest why no new hydroelectric power
stations have been built since 1989.
 Heat, energy
temperature

A good understanding of thermal energy is required to explain the

LEARNING OUTCOMES
behaviours of different materials and the energy transfers between
At the end of this topic you them. It took many years for scientists to explain why some objects
should be able to: were hot and why objects cooled.

• outline the development of

the kinetic theory of thermal The end of the caloric theory
energy During the 18th century the most commonly held idea about heat
• describe the flow of heat was caloric theory. This theory used the idea that there was a fluid
energy from one object to called caloric that was transferred between objects when heat moves.
another. The caloric would flow from a hot object to a colder one, meaning
that the hot object would lose some caloric and the cold object gain
some. Objects could only have a limited supply of caloric.
Count Rumford noted the heating effect of mechanical work involved in
boring holes into cannons. Although there was clearly a large amount of
heat released, the filings from the cannon had identical properties to the
original cannon material. This meant that there was no physical substance
(the caloric) being transferred. If the cannons were placed under water
the mechanical work would always heat the water to boiling point. There
seemed to be an unlimited supply of heat being released.
Over the next few years other scientists, including James Joule,
developed the idea that heat was a form of internal energy that could
be generated by mechanical energy. Joule measured the mechanical
energy provided to water and measured the temperature increase
(Figure 2.1.2). He found that the increase in temperature was
proporti onal to the energy suppl ied . This research eventually led to
in boring out this cannon
the ideas behind the principle of conservation of energy.
was converted to heat.

Paddle-wheels
EXAM TIP

menu.tlL e;ceY91j tlLwtl1js

"","oves fyo"","tI"" object
tit tI ~.9~ey te""'"l'eYtlh<Ye
to tI"" oftiect tit tI Lowey
te""'"l'eYtltL<Ye.

Insulated container (no heat in)

Figure 2.1 .2 Jou le's apparatus for transfe rring mechan ica l energy in to heat
Th e kin etic theory an d thermal energy
The thermal energy (heat energy) of an object is mainly the result of
the motion of the particles within the object. As the theory describes
ACTIVITY
moti on it is called the kinetic theory. Some potential energy is • Use three bowls, one of iced
associated with the bonding between, and the arrangement of, the water, one of lukewarm water
at oms in materials. and one contai ning hot water
Thermal energy transfers from a hotter object to a cooler one. Th is (Figure 2.1.3).
mea ns that thermal energy flows from an object at high temperature • Place one hand in the hot
to an object at a lower temperature. This process always occurs in water and one in the iced
this direction. water.
• After thirty seconds place
Tem perature scales both hands into the lukewarm
A tem perature scale is simply a way of expressing the relative hotness water.
and coldness of objects. Hotter objects have a higher temperature. The hand which has been in the
There are several temperature scales includ ing: hot water will feel cold and the
The Celsius scale: This is a scale based on the properties of water. hand which has been in the cold
The freez ing point of pure water is set at O' C and the boiling point water will feel hot. However,
at 1OO ' C producing a centigrade (100 step) scale. Celsius is the most both hands are experiencing the
com monly used temperature scale in school science and in industry. same temperature.

lce~- rg~r
The Kelvin scale: The Kelvin scale is based on the properties of
ideal gases and the energy of particles. The low point of the scale is
absol ute zero . At this temperature the particles have zero thermal
energy and so they cannot become any colder. An increase of one Room temperature
kelvin is defined to be the sa me as an increase of one degree Celsius. , iii

This makes conversion between the scales fairly easy: Figure 2. 1.3 Hot or cold?

• Tem perate in kelvin = temperature in degrees Celsius + 273

• Temperature in degrees Celsius = temperature in kelvin - 273

~UMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What wou ld have happened in Count Rumford's experiments

if the caloric theory had been correct?
2 Copy and complete Table 2.1.1 which shows some important
temperatures .
KEY POINTS
Table 2.1.1

Temperature in Temperature 1 The thermal energy of an

degrees Celsius in kelvin
object is a measure of the
kinetic energy and potential
Absolute zero 0 energy of all of the particles
Boiling point of liquid nitrogen 77 that make up the object.
Freezing point of ethanol -11 7 2 Temperature is a measure of
Freezing point of w at er 0 the 'hotness' of an object.
Bo dy tem perature 310 3 Thermal energy is transferred
Boiling point of ethanol 79 from an object at higher
temperature to an object at
Boiling point of water 100
lower temperature.

3
 A thermometer is a device to measure the temperature of an object
LEARNING OUTCOMES
or substance, Thermometers rely on properties that vary with
At the end of this topic you temperature.
should be able to:
• describe the characteristics Li qu id-in-g lass thermomet ers
and operation of different Liquid-in-glass thermometers are based on the principle that the
types of thermometer liquid wi ll expand as its tempera ture increases and that this expansion
• select an appropriate is proportional to the increase in temperature (Figure 2.2. 1),
thermometer for use in a
A reservoir of liquid, mercury or coloured alcohol, is contained at the
range of situations.
bottom of the thermometer in a 'bulb'. This is requi red so that there
will be enough liquid to give a measurable expansion. The reservoir
is connected to a narrow capillary tube through which the liquid will
expand and rise upwards . The higher the temperature of the liquid
the further up the capillary tube the liquid will rise.
The thermometer can be calibrated by placing the bulb of liquid in
.... . . , ' . c
melting ice and then marking the level of the liquid in the capillary
tube, This point represents O°c. The bulb of liquid is then placed in
boiling water and the level of liquid in the capillary tube is marked to
Figure 2.2.1 I Most thermometers used in give the 100 ' C point. The distance between these two points is then
schools are liquid-in-glass. divided into 100 equal divisions giving a centigrade scale,

Cli nical thermometers

As human body temperature is approximately 37'C and will generally
vary between 35 'C and 42 °C, a clinical thermometer is designed
to cover on ly this narrow range (Figure 2.2.2) . The small range
allows the thermometer to be designed to be very precise, with
temperature divisions of 0.1 0c. The shape of the thermometer is
designed to magnify the capil lary tube and make it easier to read the
temperature,
Clinical thermometers need to be removed from the patient before
they can be read . To prevent an inaccurate reading as the liquid
contracts, a small constriction is built into the thermometer that
breaks the liquid thread. The liquid ·can be returned to the bulb after
the reading by flicking the thermometer.
Clinical thermometers take a few minutes to reach thermal
equilibrium and display an accurate temperature. Because of this,
most are now being replaced by electronic thermometers,

principles as a liquid-in-
Th ermocouples
glass thermometer.
A thermocouple is an electrical thermometer which relies on the
potential difference (p .d.) produced when two different metals are
connected . The p.d, produced varies with temperature,
Thermocou ples can measure very high tempera tures (beyond the
melting poi nt of glass) and they respond very quickly to changes . The
p.d. they produce can also be recorded quite simply by data loggers
or computers. This can then be converted and a temperature shown
on a dig ital display making them very easy to read. These properties
mean that thermocouples are used extensively in industry.

More thermometers I'ACTIVITY 'I

There are several other types of thermometers: Make your own t hermomet er
• Gas thermometers use the fact that a gas expands when its using a conical flask con taining
temperature increases. This expansion is proportional to the dyed water and capi llary tube.
temperatu re change . Pla ce t he fl ask in iced water and
• Infra-red thermometers measure the rate of emission of infra- mark the level of th e dyed water
red rad iation from objects. The intensity of this ra diat ion depends f or O°C point. Then place it in
on the t emperature of the object: hotter objects emit more boiling water to fi nd the level
radiat ion . This measurement can be used to find the temperature for lOO T Divide t he range into
of something without needing to touch it. sui table divisions.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What are the ranges, precisions and temperature readings on

t he three liquid-in-glass thermometers shown in Figure 2.2.37
abc

KEY POINTS

1 All thermometers rely

on physical changes in
substances caused by
changes in temperature.
Fig ure 2.2.3
2 Thermometers have a range
2 What are the advantages of using a thermocouple compared of scales, precisions and
to a liquid-in-g lass thermometer) response times.
 Most materials can be placed into three categories based on their
LEARNING OUTCOMES
properties and behaviour: solids, liquids and gases.
At the end of this topic you
should be able to: The particle model of matter
• describe the arrangement and All materials are composed of tiny particles in different arrangements.
behaviour of the particles in These particles are atoms or molecules. The behaviour and physical
solids, liquids and gases properties of materials can be explained by describing the behaviour
• use the particle model to of these particles and the forces between them.
describe the properties and
behaviour of solids, liquids Properties of solids
and gases.
In solid materials the particles are closely packed together and
are held in place with relatively strong inter-molecular forces
(Figure 2.3.1 a). The particles are not free to move around but instead
a
vibrate about their fixed positions. This means that solid materials
maintain their own shape.
It is not easy to compress solids. This is because the particles are
already tightly packed together. If a compressive force is applied then
the particles move slightly closer together. However, this produces a
strongly repulsive force between them and 50 further compression

o6o c
b
50Y
110 0 ~'O\'Q
becomes much more difficult. Because of this solids have a fixed
volume (although this can change when the solid is heated or cooled).
",,,,Qo' O J)
--'0."'0'
=::;
"t
OIl?
"'1/ Properties of liquids
liqu id The particles in liquids are also closely packed together but the inter-
c molecular forces are weaker than those for solids. These weaker,
short-range forces allow the particles to flow past each other
(Figure 2.3.1 b). When a liqu id is placed into a container the particles
will flow and the liquid will fill the bottom of the container.

Gas Liquids are very difficult to compress for the same reasons as solids.
When they are squashed strong repulsive forces occur between the
Figure 2.3.1 The arrangement of
particles. This means that liquids also have a fixed volume as long as
particles in a a solid, b a
liquid and c a gas. their temperature is unchanged.

Properties of gases
The particles in gases have very weak inter-molecular forces and
EXAM TIP they move around very quickly (Figure 2.3.1 c). The gas particles
do not attract each other and so spread out to fill up all of the
Wi1el'\. ~escYLbL ~ ..... Cltter, available space. The spaces between gas particles are very large when
compared to the size of the particles themselves. The space between
KSe ti1e tey..... '1'ClytLcLes' to
the particles means that it is possible to compress a gas by applying a
yefey t o LI'\.~ LVL~KClL Clt O.....S
pressure to it.
Oy .....OLecKLes.
Thermal expansion
When a material is heated the particles gain thermal energy. In a
solid this increase in energy causes the pa rticles to vibrate more while
staying in the same position. This increase in vibration will force the
particles slightly further apart and as a result the material expands
(Figures 2.3.2 and 2.3.3).
The forces which produce the expansion are very la rg e and can cause
Figure 2.3 .2 I A metal ball can pass
even very strong objects to distort. Long metal bridges may expand through a nng . Heating
by several centimetres on a hot day. To allow for this expansion the the ball will cause it to
bridges have expansion gaps at each end . As th e bridge warms up it expand and it wi ll no
lengthens and the gaps close. Similar gaps are used in railway lines to longer fit through the ring.
prevent th em buckling in hot weather.
As you have already seen, both liquids and gases will expand when
heated. The volume of a liquid will increase with temperature.
Gases in con ta iners wil l not be able to expand and so their pressure
increases instead.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Summarise the properties of solids, liquids and gases using a

table like Table 2.3.1. Add additional categories if you can.

Table 2.3.1

Shape Does Vo lume Density Separation Forces

it of particles between
flow? particles
Solid
Liq uid
Gas Overhead power cables
~=~=.:...J or telephone lines expand
on hot days. causing them
2 Draw a diagram shOwing what happens to the particles in a to sag.
gas as it is compressed inside a syringe.
3 Use ideas about expansion to explain why:
a running the lid of a jar under hot water makes it easier to
open You can test the compressibility
b a house roof sometimes creaks during the night. of solids, liquids and gases.
• Seal the end of a plastic
syringe. Place a solid such
as modelling clay inside the
syringe and push on the
~EY POINTS plunger.
1 In solids the particles vibrate about fixed positions. • Repeat wi th a liquid, such as
water, and a gas (air).
2 Liquids and gases are both fluids. Their particles are free to
The solid and liquid w ill be
move.
incompressible but it should be
3 Gases can be compressed as there is a large amount of space possible to compress the gas to
between the particles. about half of its original volume.
 The gas laws describe the behaviour of gases when their temperature,
LEARNING OUTCOMES
pressure or volume is altered. A change in one of these quantities
At the end of this topic you will result in a change in one, or both, of the others. For example,
shou ld be able to: increasing the temperature of a gas will cause an increase in the
pressure or volume of the gas .
• stat e the gas laws and
describe how they can be The gas laws apply to a fixed mass of gas. This means that the
demonstrated number of particles in the gas sample does not change.
• use the gas laws to describe
changes in the properties of Charles' law
gases.
Charles' law describes the relationship between the volume Vand
temperature T of a gas and is usually stated as:
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature (in kelvin) if the pressure is kept constant.
V
V ~ Tor = - = constant
T

Volume
(length of air
co lumn/em)

Experimental
The graph can be extrapolated
~
------- ---
back to zero volume
Zero

-- --- ---
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 volume
\
A sample of gas occupies -273 o + 100 Temperaturer c
600 cm' while its temperature
o +273 + 373 Temperature/K

is 300 K. The gas is heated to Figure 2 .4 .1 J Charles' law

400 K and allowed to expand so One key consequence of this law is the idea of absolute zero. As a
that the pressure remains the gas is cooled, the kinetic energy of the particles decreases until they
same. What volume would the stop moving altogether. At this point the gas will have zero volume
gas occupy? and cannot be cooled any further (Figure 2.4.1). This is the lowest
possible temperature: absolute zero, 0 K.
Before expansion:

V 600 cm' = 2 cm' K-l Boyle's law

T 300K
Boyle's law deals with the relationship between the volume V of a
After expansion: gas and its pressure p while the temperature is kept constant.

-V = 2cm' K- 1 The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its

T pressure if the temperature is kept constant.
So V = T x 2cm'K-l 1
V ~ - or = pV = constant
= 400K x 2cm'K-l p
= 800cm' An increase in pressure will cause the volume to decrease in proportion
so applying pressure squashes the gas into a smaller space.
The pressure law
The pressure law connects temperature T and pressure p.
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas IS directly proportional to the
temperature (in kelvin) when the volume IS kept constant.

p oc Tor = e.T = constant

This means t hat heating a gas in a closed container will cause the
pressure to increase . As the temperature decreases to absolute zero
the pressure decreases to zero (Figure 2.4 .2) .

Pressure, p

Zero pressure
pred icted at
absolute zero (0 K) SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1_---------- 1 What happens w hen :

o + 73 + 173 + 273 + 373 Temperature/K a th e volume of a gas is
Figure 2.4 .2 f The pressure law decreased wh ile the
temp erature rema ins
constant'
The gas equation
b the temperature of a gas
All three of the gas laws can be combined together to form a single is increased whi le the
gas equation that describes the relationship between the pressure, volume rema ins constant?
volume and temperature of a gas. As before, the mass of the gas
c the pressure of a gas
mu st be constant.
is increased w hile the
pV = constant temperature is kept
T
constant'
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 2 A 500 cm' sample of gas is
compressed unti l it occupies
A weather ba lloon contain ing hydrogen gas is released from
only 100 cm' while the
the ground into the atmosphere. The volume of the gas in
temperature is kept constant.
the balloon at launch is 40 m' w hile the pressure of t he gas is The fi nal pressure of the gas is
1.0 x 10 5 Pa (N m- ') and th e temperature is 35 O( (308 K).
fo und to be 600 Pa . What w as
The balloon rises into the upper at mosphere w here th e th e initial pressure of the gas?
temperatu re is - 50 0 ( (223 K) and the pressure is onl y
1.0 x 1O' Pa . What is the new volume of the balloon?
Let the conditions on the ground be represented by V" p, and T,
KEY POINTS
and the conditions in the upper atmosphere by V" P, and T, .
Fi nd the va lue of the constant at grou nd level : 1 The behaviour of gases can
p V 1.0 x 105 N m-' x 40 m' be described by the gas laws
- '-' = constant = = 1.3 x 10' N m K-' which link the pressure,
T, 308K
temperature and volume of
Use the value of the constant to find the new volum e: a gas.
pV
CL..I = con sta nt 2 The gas laws lead to the idea
T, of a minimum temperature
50 V = T, x constant = 223 K x 1.3 x 10' N m K-' = 290 m' called absolute zero (0 K,
' P, 1.0 x 10'N m-' -273 °().
. 2.5 Heat capacity

LEARNING OUTCOMES Heat capacity

The heat capacity. C. of an object is the amount of energy required
At the end of this topic you
to increase the temperature of the object by 1 O( (1 K).
shou ld be able to:
. =
Heat capaCity heat energy or C (J K- ' ) =EH-(J) -
• perform calculations using
temperature rise /!,.() (K)
the heat capacity and specific
heat capacity equations Specific heat capacity
• describe how the heat
The heat capacity of an object is directly proportional to the mass.
capacity of an object and the
For example. a 2 kg block of aluminium takes twice as much energy
specific heat capacity of a to increase its temperatu re by 1 K as a 1 kg block. This leads to the
material can be measured .
concept of specific heat capacity. c. This is a measure of the amount
of energy required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of a material by
1 K. Specific heat capacity allows us to directly compare materials and
the amount of energy required to increase their temperatures. Some
typical specific heat capacities are shown in Table 2.5.1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Specific heat capacity is defined by the relationship:
A bat h ful l of w ater has been
.. . heat energy
provided wi th 5.0 x 10' J of specific heat capaCity = .
energ y and t he t emperature mass x change In temperature
of the w ater has risen by E (J)
o r e (J kg- 1K-1) = _.,-----'H'--'-''---,-,
8.0 0 ( (8.0 K). What is the heat m (kg) x M (K)
capacity of th e water7
Investigating heat capacity and specific
( = EH heat capacity
/!,.()
The heat capacity of a metal block can be found using an electrical
.0~X~1.::.0--.:
5:.:: 'J
c= .::.
8.0K
heating element (Figure 2.5.1). The energy provided is measured w it h
a joulemeter or calculated from the electrical power equation:
C = 6.3 x 10' J K- 1
energy provi ded = heater cu rrent x heater p.d. x heating time
The temperature rise in the block is measu red wit h a thermometer. It is
important to insulate the block to reduce heat loss to the surroundings .
A similar method can be used to fi nd the heat capacity of water. The
Table 2.5.1 Some examples of specific
heat capacity heating element is placed in a sa mple of water inside an insulated
container such as a plastic beaker or a polystyrene cup .
Material Specific heat capacity
IJ kg - 1 K -1
air 1003 Thermometer
alum inium 897 Tocircuit ..... ~

copper 385
~~;~I __]..'~,.~:1··~~·'~,~
gold 129 ;"
Heater ---+.):j'';~
water 4181 ,;.
Insulation ," p ~., ", ..'!:'{
dia mond 509
glass , 840 Figure 2.5.1 I Measuring the heat capacity of a metal block
To find the specific heat capacity the mass of the metal block or water
must also be measu red.

Method of m ixtures
We can use the known value of specific heat capacity of water to
measure the heat capacity (or specific heat capacity) of a solid object
(Figure 25.2)
• The mass of the object is measured and recorded .
• The object is heated and its temperature is recorded .
• The object is placed in water and the water is stirred thoroughly.
• Energy is transferred from the object into the water until they both
reach the same temperature .
• Energy gained by wa ter is calculated using the rise in temperature,
the mass of water and the specific heat capacity of water.
• The energy gained by the water equals the energy lost by the
object. The heat capacity of the object can be calculated using its
tem perature change. The specific heat capacity can be calculated
using the temperature change and the mass .

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Figure 2.5.2 Measuring heat capacity

A metal block of mass 3 kg is heated unt il its tempera t ure rises

to 140 °C. The meta l is then placed into a con tainer of water and
stirred unt il t he t empera t ure of the w ater stops rising . The mass KEY POINTS
of wa ter is 10 kg and its temperatu re increases from 15 °C to
20 °C. If the specific heat capacity of w ater is 4200J kg - I K- l w hat 1 The heat capacity, C, of an
is the specific heat capacity of t he meta l? object is the amount of heat
Energ y ga in by water: EH ~ melle energy required to raise its
temperature by 1 0C.
~ 10kg x 4200 Jkg- ' K- ' x 5K ~ 210kJ
2 The specific heat capacity, e,
Energy loss from metal ~ 210 kJ
of a material is the amount
e ~
E
_H_ ~
21 0kJ
_ _ _ __ of energy required to raise
Specific heat capacity of metal:
m,'" mile 3 kg x 120 K the temperature of 1 kg of
~ 583 J kg-I K-I that material by 1 0C.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Describe t he difference between heat capacity and specif ic heat capacity.

2 Copy and complet e Table 2.5.2.

Ta ble 2.5.2

Object Mass Temperature change Energy provided Heat capacity Specific heat capacity
/kg /K /J /J K-l /J kg - ' K- l
w ater in a 2.0 15 4200
beaker
gold block 0.3 500 129
copper pan 1.5 120 585
 Changes of
eva poratiU.lrl$~

When a solid gains thermal energy it may change into a liquid . With
LEARNING OUTCOMES
further heating the liquid may also change into a gas. When energy is
At the end of this topic you lost by a gas it can change into a liquid and, if further cooling occurs,
should be able to: into a solid. These processes are called changes of state (or changes
of phase) . The names of the changes are shown in Figure 2.6 .1. All of
• describe changes of state the changes involve a change in the thermal energy of the substance,
• compare evaporation and although during the change there is no change in temperature.
boiling. Subl imation is the process in which a solid changes directly to a gas.
During changes of state the particles form or break inter-molecular
bonds and this causes changes in the properties of the materials.

Evaporation

8 Evaporation is a process which occurs at the surface of a liq uid.

The particles in the liquid have a range of kinetic energies and the

";·tt
temperature of the liquid is related to the average kinetic energy of

~"~.
the particles. The higher the temperature is, the greater the average
or boilmg kinetic energy.
Condensation
The particles near the surface are held in place by forces within the
liquid. However, the more energetic particles may escape fro m t he

8 8
Melting
liquid and form a gas . This process is called evaporation. During

• •
Solidifying
evaporation the particles with the greatest amount of energy are
more likely to escape from the surface. When these fast-moving
or freezing particles escape, the average energy of particles in the liquid
decreases. This decrease in the average energy of the liquid means
KEY
that the temperature of the liquid decreases (Figu re 2.6.2 ).
Increase in internal energy .......
Decrease in internal energy .....
Examples
Figure 2.6. f ] Changes of state
• When you perspire, the moisture on your skin spreads over its
surface and evaporates quickly. The evaporation takes energy from
the surface of your skin and cools you down.
• In a similar way, coating earthenware jars in water will help keep
the conten t s cold. The wa t er will evaporate and remove some of
the thermal energy from the containers.
• Refrigerators and air-conditioning units are also cooled by
evaporation processes.

Water Factor s affecting the rate of evaporation

freezesi~~~~s:s=:iJ There are several facto rs that affect the rate of evaporation:
Sheet of wood or plastic
(any insulator) • The temperature of t he liquid. The higher t he temperature is, the
Figure 2.6.2 The cooling effect higher the average kinetic energy of the particles and so the mo re
produced by the chance they have of escaping the surface.
evaporation of ether is
• The surface area of the liquid. A large surface area will allow
large enough to freeze
tl1 e water. particles to escape at a great er rate and so evaporation will be faster.
• The hum idity and air flow. If the air above t he liqu id is al ready
saturated with vapou r from t he liqu id some of the vapou r w ill
condense and reduce the overall rate of evaporation.
• The type of liqu id. Some liquids evaporate much more rapid ly t han
others as the forces hold ing the particles together in t he liqu id state
are wea ker. Ether evaporates more readily than water.

Com paring evaporation and boiling

Evaporation and boiling are often confused but they are different
processes :
• Evaporation is a process which ca n on ly happen at t he surface of
a liquid and it happens whatever the tem perature of the liquid. A air will help
speed up evaporation.
puddle of water wi ll evaporate away even t houg h t he temperatu re
0
of the water never reaches anywhere nea r 100 (.

• When a liquid is heated it wil l eventually reach a maxim um

tempera ture. This is t he boil ing point. Boiling occu rs th roughout
t he liq uid and hap pens at a speci fic tem perature for t hat liqu id. ( ACTIVITY I
During boiling the liquid turn s into a gas t hroughou t the whole
Pour a little etha nol on the back
volume and bubbles of gas can be seen forming withi n the liquid.
of your hand and blow over
it. You should feel the coolin g
effect of evaporation on your
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
skin.
1 A flask of ethanol will take many hours to evaporate if the lid is
left off but it will evaporate in a few minutes if it is spi lt on the
floor. Explain how this happens.
2 Explain why, after getting out of the sea on a sunny but breezy
day, you feel cooler.
3 Draw a table stating the differences between boiling and
evaporation .

KEY POINTS

1 During a change of state a sol id can change into a liquid, a

liquid to a gas, a gas to a liquid or a liquid to a solid.
2 It is possible for a solid to change to a gas directly in a change
called sublimation .
3 Changes of state involve the gain or loss of thermal energy in
a substance.
 When water is heated and its temperature rises the particles are
LEARNING OUTCOMES
gaining energy. However, when the temperature reaches 100 °C and
At the end of this topic you water begins to boil, the temperature stops increasing even though
should be able to: more energy is being provided. This additional energy is being used
to change the state of the water. This is because the bonds between
• explain how to measure the the molecules are being altered. A similar thing happens when ice
melting point of a substance is heated to convert it to water The temperature stops increasing
• describe the cooling curve when the ice reaches O°C and the energy taken in breaks the inter-
of a substance and hOw this molecular forces and causes the ice to melt.
demonstrates the concept of
latent heat
Latent heat
The energy used to change the state of a substance is referred to
as latent heat. As there are two changes of state, there are two
separate latent heats:
EXAM TIP
• for the change between solid and liquid, latent heat of fusion
Rt~....bt~ t nt te....pertltt<re • for the change between liquid and gas, latent heat of vaporisation.
re»UI"1'\6 COI'l.StQI'I.!: otKri"0
Q en""0 t of $tQte. During cooling, the latent heat is released when a gas changes into
a liquid or a liquid changes into a solid. During the change of state,
the temperature will stay constant. Also, exactly the same amount of
energy will be released as the amount of energy taken for changes of
state that take place during heating.

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time/min
a:.7.2 A cooling curve for paraffin wax

Between A and B the cooling curve graph shows that the temperature
of the liquid wax decreases until it reaches the freezing point
water has tu rned to gas. (Figure 2.7.2). Once it reaches its freezing point (B to C) the wax
continues to lose energy to the surroundings. Note that the temperature
does not change until all of the wax has solidified. During this phase,
latent heat is being lost by the wax. In the final phase (C to D) the
temperature of the solid wax decreases as the wax continues to lose
energy.
• Place some granulated wax
a Thermometer b Temperature
(or stearic acid) into a boiling
tube and suspend the tube in a Stirrer
liquid
beaker of water (Figure 2.7 .3a). Melting
'' ' ' 'C'"-::-:--::-~.
point Solid- liquid
• Place a thermometer into the
wax and heat the water while Wax -HHEl IRI
Solid
stirring it to make sure the
temperature is even throughout. Time
• Watch the thermometer to see
how the temperature changes Water 1iiii~;"IiilIii~'
as the wax is heated past its
melting point. t
Heat
At first the temperature of the wax
will increase as it approaches its
melting point (Figure 273b) As Figure 2.7.3 Heating wax and finding the melting point
the wax reaches its melting point
the temperature stops increasing
0-100°C thermometer
and the wax begins to melt instead. This allows the melting point
to be measured accurately. After all of the wax has melted, the
temperature of the liquid wax will begin to increase again.
• Remove the boiling tube from the water and monitor the
cooling of the wax as it solidifies (Figure 2.7.4). - Boiling tube
• Record the temperature of the wax every minute.
If you plot a graph showing the temperature of the wax against
time it will show a cooling curve (Figure 2.7.2). Wax

Figure 2.7.4 Monitoring the cooling

of the wax

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Use the graph in Figure 2.7.2 to find the freezing point for the
sample of wax.
2 A small sample of beeswax is heated until it melts and then KEY PO INTS
allowed to cool, providing the data in the table.
1 During a change of state the
Table 2.7.1
temperature of a material
Time/min 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 does not change.
Temp.re 85 80 74 69 65 62 62 58 55 52 50 2 Additional energy (latent heat)
is required when a substance
a Plot a cooling curve for the beeswax. changes state during heatlll9
b Find the melting point for the beeswax. 3 latent heat is released when
c Would using a larger sample of beeswax give a more a substance changes state
accurate result7 dunng cooling.
 To compare latent heats of different materials, we need to find the
LEARNING OUTCOMES
amount of energy required to change the state of a unit mass of the
At th e end of this top ic you materials. This gives a quantity known as the specific latent heat.
should be able to: As there are two changes of state, each material has two specific
latent heats:
• describe the energy tran sf ers
that t ake place during • The specific latent heat of fusion (/,) is the energy required to
ch anges of state change 1 kg of a solid into liquid without a change in temperature.
• cal culate t he energy requi red • The specific latent heat of vaporisation (/) is the energy required
or produced during a cha nge to change 1 kg of a liquid into gas without a change in temperature.
of state. Both of these terms can be represented by the same equation:
.. energy provided (J) E
speCific latent heat (J kg-I ) ~ or I ~ --'i
mass (kg) m
/'WORKED EXAMPLE I
Measuring the specific latent heat of water
A small block of lead of mass
300 g is heated until it reaches Specific latent heat of vaporisation
its melting point of 32JOC To measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water, an electrical
How much additional energy is heating element can be used to heat a sample of boiling water so
required to melt the lead? that some of it is converted into steam (Figure 2.8.1). A well-insulated
(I, ~ 2.3 x 10'Jkg- ' ) container needs to be used to prevent energy loss through the container.
I ~ EH
I m ACTIVITY

• Record the mass of the boiling water and its container.

• Allow the water to boil for several minutes while being heated
~ 2.3 x 10'J kg-I x 0.3 kg by the heating element.
• Find the energy supplied using a joulemeter or the electrical
~6.9x103J
power equation :
energy supplied ~ current x p.d. x time
• After heating, record the new mass of the water and container.
• Calculate the change in mass of the water and container to
find the mass of water that has boiled off.
• Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporisation using the
equation:
specific latent heat of vaporisation
~ energy supplied or I ~ ~
cha nge in mass ' !illJ

Specific latent heat of fusion

As a sample of ice melts naturally at room temperature, it is more
difficult to find out how much melts as a result of heating by an
electrical element. The following technique takes the natural melting
into account (Figure 2.8.2).
 Joulemeter
Beaker in
insulating
'* I:I: IYIBI
ON
jacket

OFF ON
IN
/"l
on

~=:..:..:=-'-' Measuring the speci fic latent heat of steam

• Allow the ice to melt for a fixed period of time (such as five
minutes) without any heating . Record the mass of water
collected, m ,.
• Use an electrical heater to melt a similar sample of ice for the same
period of time and record the mass of water collected, m, .
• Find the difference in these two mass measurements (m, - m,).
This gives the mass of ice that has melted as a result of the energy
provi ded by the heater.
The energy provided and the mass of melted ice as a result are
used in the calculation for the latent heat.
• Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion using the equation :

speCi'f'IC Iatent h eat 0 f f uSlon

' = --:_----"
en-'.:e::crg"-'y-'.:s~u"'pp'_I~
i e.::..d_ _:
change in mass (m, - m ,)
E
or I, = H
mz- m,

; SUMMARY QUESTIONS

, a Calculate the energy required to change 250 g of liquid

oxygen into oxygen gas at the same temperature.
(/, = 2.1 x 10' Jkg-')
b Calculate the energy released when 4.5 kg of lead sol idifies,
without change in temperature. (/f = 2.3 x 10'Jkg-') Melted ice

2 In an experiment to find the latent heat of ice as described in

Figure 2.8.2 Measuring the specific
the activity above, the following measurements were recorded
latent heat of ice
when the ice was allowed to melt for five minutes.
• Mass of ice melted without heater = 5.3 g
• Mass of ice melted when heater is on = 15.7 g KEY POINT
• Energy provided to heater = 3500J , The amount of energy
a Ca lculate the specific latent heat of fusion for ice (I,) using released or absorbed during
this data. a change of state for 1 kg
b The agreed value for I", is 334 kJ kg '. Explain why the value of a material is the specific
obtained by the experiment is higher than this value. latent heat.

3
 The particles in a solid are in fixed positions. When they gain heat
LEARNING OUTCOMES
energy they vibrate more rapidly about these positions. When one
At the end of this topIC you part of a solid object is heated, the energy passes through the object
shOuld be able to: by a process called conduction .

., -deScrrbe conduction processes When a sample rod is heated using a Bunsen burner, the part of the
Ih metals and non-metals rod in the flame will become hot. The particles will start to vibrate
rapidly. The vibrations of the particles will cause nearby particles to
• perform an expenment to
gain energy and beg in to vibrate more. This process will continue
measure the rates of thermal
along the rod until, eventually, all of the particles are vibrating more
conduction In different
rapidly and the w hole rod has increased in tem perature. The process
materials,
of passing energy along is called lattice vibration .
The rate of thermal conduction va ries from material to material.
Tabl e 2.9.1 Some examples of thermal The better a material is at transferring thermal energy, the higher its
conductivity thermal conductivity (Table 2.9.1).
Material Thermal conductivity The rate of thermal energy transfer by conduction also depends on
/Wm -' K- 1 the temperature difference between the parts of the object. A large
air 0.024 temperature difference wil l increase the rate of thermal conduction.
wood - 0.06
brick 0.2 Conduction in metals
glass 0.8 Metals have significantly higher thermal conductivities than non-
metals. This is because there is a second process transferring the
cast iron 55
energy in metals (Figure 2.9.1). This is energy transfer by free
aluminium 204 electrons. Metals contain a lattice of metal ions surrounded by a
copper 385 'sea' of free electrons. The same electrons allow electrical conduction.
diamond 2200 When a metal is heated, the electrons rapidly gain energy and can
pass along the metal carrying the thermal energy. This process is far
quicker than the lattice vibration method described above and so
metals are good thermal conductors .

Diamond has a surpri sing ly hig h

therma l cond uctivity, especially
• ' .JJ _. 'o e;'l
i ($" q{; o'
as it is a non-metal. Find '" $ i' e .JJ , Q :0;0 , ($
out w hy t his is and how th is eo lon

pro perty is used t o detect fake _I' <:f" t ,'0 i t Q,i' 9 6 Electron
Atom
diamonds.
a b
Conduction in a a metal and b a non-metal

Insulators
Poor thermal conductors are called insulators. Air is a very poor
thermal conductor. It is very difficult for energy to be passed from
pa rt icle to particle. For this reason materials, such as sponges or
foams, containing lots of trapped air are used to insulate objects.
Measuring rates of thermal conduction
To demonstrate different rates of thermal conduction, samples of th e
materials can be heated with a Bunsen burner. There are several ways Three rods
A
to monitor or compa re the rates of conduction:
• The rod can be completely coated in a thin wax layer that melts
~'BC
as the rods heats up. Observing the rate at which the wax melts /
Drawing pin
gives an indication of how quickly the thermal energy is being stuck to
transferred . underside of
• The far end of each rod can be coated in petroleum jelly and a rod with
petroleum
drawi ng pin attached (Figure 2.9.2) . When the far end of the rod jelly
heats up the pin will falloff. Measuring the time it takes from
starting heating until each pin falls off can be used to compare the
thermal conductivity of the material of each rod.

Comparing insulators Ie Z 9 2 The time taken for a pin

to fall off indicates how
The insulating properties of materials can be investigated by placing
quickly heat energy is
hot liquids inside identical containers lagged with these materials and transferred along the rod.
monitoring the temperature fall for each (Figure 2.9.3). Alternatively
the materials can be used to lag identical containers of cold wa ter
and the temperature rise can be monitored over a period of time.

Carry out an experiment to test

the properties of insulating
materials using cups or beakers

M
t ~
lined with the material. You will
need to make sure there are lids
to prevent evaporation.

Figure 2.9.3 Compa ring insulators

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Explain why hot drinks are sometimes sold in polystyrene cups.

2 Why do some frying pans have a copper base?

KEY POINTS

1 Thermal conduction involves the transfer of energy from

particle to particle.
2 Metals have free electrons which transfer energy by
conduction much more quickly than is possible in non-metals .
3 Materials which conduct poorly are classed as Insulators.
 Convection currents

Liquids and gases are both fluids . The particles they are composed of
LEARNING OUTCOMES
are able to move around within them. Because the particles can move
At the end of this topic you they can carry thermal energy from place to place as they travel.
should be able to:
• describe convection processes Convection currents
in fluids and explain how When a substance increases in temperature it expands. When it cools
thermal energy can be it contract s. Du ring expansion the particles in the substance move
transferred by them further apart and so the density of the substance decreases. During
• explain how convection contraction the particles move closer together so the density of the
currents produce breezes in substance increases. This behaviour can transfer heat energy by
coastal areas. producing convection currents. These are flows of particles within
th e subst ance. For example, a convection current in air is produced by
these processes:
• When air is heated the particles move further apart from each other
and the air expa nds.
• The air becomes less dense.
• Because the warm air is less dense that the cooler, surrounding air,
it floats upwa rds carrying heat energy with it.
• The hot air sp reads out as it rises, loses energy and cools.
• As the air cools the particles become closer together and so the air
becomes denser.
• The dense air sinks back downwa rds and the cycle continues.
This process produces a continual flow of air.

Demonstrating convection currents

Observing convection currents in air and water can be quite difficult
as they are both transparent. These two simple demonstrations can
be used to show convection currents.

' ACTIVITY: USING A LIQUID I

• Place a small cryst al of potassiu m ma nganat e(vlI) (also known as
pota ssi um permanganate) at the bottom and towa rds one side
crystal",
n }
of a large beaker of water (Fig ure 2.10.1).
• Heat the wa t er directly beneath the crystal and a convection
current w ill form.
The wa ter near th e crystal expands as it is heated and as the wa ter
rises upwards the purple colouration from the dissolving crystal will
rise with it. As th e water reaches the surface it will spread out, cool,

-
....I
..........

Figure 2.10.1 Demonstrating a

and at the ot her sid e of th e bea ker beg in to si nk.

\ convection current In water

./

l'
 ACTIVITY: USING A CHIMNEY

• Start w ith a glass- fronted ch amber with two chi mneys Hot air Cold air
(Figure 2. 102).
t •
tU .
• Light a can dle positioned under one chim ney.
• Close the front glass pa nel.
• Hold a smoking piece of cardboard above the ot her chim ney.

•
The smoke from the card board moves downwards. This is because
co ol ai r is being draw n down th roug h the chim ney t o replace the
hot air rising ou t of the chi mney above the candle.

Figure 2. 10.2 Demonstrating a

convection current
in air

Air cond it ioning

Air-conditioning units cool air using a system of expanding gases.
The cool air will be denser than the surrounding air and so sink
downwards. Air-conditioning units are positioned towards the top of
the roo m to produce a cold flow of air downwards.
Sea breeze due to cooler
air from the sea flowing
Thermal convection in the atmosphere in to replace warm air
Convection currents produce breezes near the coast (Figu re 2.10.3).
During the day the land heats up more rap idly than the sea and
this causes air above the land to warm up . The warm air rises and is
replaced by cooler air flowing in from above the sea. At night the sea Figure 2.10 .3 A cool breeze flows in
from the sea during
remains warm and the land cools. This causes air above the sea to
the day.
rise and cooler air flows from the land to the sea .
Convection currents within the oceans have a significant effect on the
temperatures across the globe. ACTIVITY

Convection curren ts are

responsible for th e movement
SUMMARY QUESTIONS of the continents across t he
su rface of th e Earth. Fin d out
1 Explain why, during a fire in a room, you should crawl across how this process works.
the floor t o make you r escape.
2 How can a hot-air balloon control its height'

KEY POINTS
EXAM TIP
1 Convection can only occur in flu ids as it involves the
movement of particles from place to place. f-tot fL"'-ic<s ~i$e Clbove cold
fL"'-id$, e.g. ~ot Cli~ ~i$es .
2 Changes in density caused by expansion result in convection Neve~ $Cl1::1 t~Clt ~eClt ~i$e$.
currents .
 Thermal energy can be transferred by infra-red radiation (IR
LEARNING OUTCOMES
radiation). This is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum with a
At the end of this topic you wavelength longer than visible light. IR radiation shares many of the
should be able to: properties of visible light including the ability to travel through empty
space (a vacuum) .
• describe the factors that
affect the rate of cooling of All objects are constantly emitting and absorbing IR radiation from
object s as they radiate infra- their surfaces. This gives three possible conditions for an object:
red radiation • Warming up ~ an object will warm up if it is absorbing IR radiation
• describe the factors that at a greater rate than it is emitting it. A cold drink placed in direct
affect the rate of heating of sunlight will warm up rapidly.
objects as they absorb infra- • Cooling down ~ an object cools down when it is emitting more IR
red radiation. radiation than it is absorbing from its surroundings. Freshly cooked
food will gradually cool to room temperature.
• Constant temperature ~ if the rate of absorption and the rate of
emission are the same then the object will not gain or lose energy
EXAM TIP and so will stay at a steady temperature. Most objects in a room
will be at 'room temperature'. They are at the same temperature as
See 3.3 to fi.~ ot.<.t ""-Ore each other.
IIbot.<.t the eLectyoV>\.Qg~tic
spectYt.<.m II~ the i~ells of Factors affecting the rate of heating or cooling
II bso'1'tio"" II ~ emissio"". Temperature
A hot object will emit far more IR radiation then a cool one. This
means that very hot objects lose energy at a greater rate than cooler
objects. If you monitor the temperature of a cooling drink then
you will see that the temperature drops more rapidly at the start of
Incident
rad iation the experiment than later on. Eventually the drink will reach room
temperature and stop cooling.

Properties of the surface

The absorption or emission of IR radiation happens at the surface of
an object and so the properties of the surface are very important:
Smooth surlace
• The surface area of the object. A larger surface area will allow
energy to escape or be absorbed more rapidly.
Incident • The colour of the surface. Dark surfaces are much better absorbers
rad iation Scattering and
absorption here and emitters of IR radiation than white surfaces. If you step out
into bright sunlight wearing dark clothes you will notice this effect
immediately. Your clothes start to feel hot.
• The roughness of the surface. A rougher surface will effectively
have a larger surface area when compared to a smooth surface
Rough surface
(Figure 2.111).
Figure 2.11.1 A rough surface has a
larger overall surface area
so is able to absorb more
~nfra -red radiation.
 A Leslie's cube is a metal conta iner w ith the surfaces painted
different colours or with different textures. Boi li ng water is
pou red into the contai ner and all of the sides rapidly reach th e
same t emperature .
• Place a temperature sensor (or the back of your hand) close to
th e different surfaces to measure (or fee l) th e thermal energy EXAM TIP
bei ng radiated.
You should find that the dark or rough surfaces emit more
Tit1 to ~ ....berthllt
dQrker eo~w.rs Qw;I
thermal rad iation than the w hite and shiny surfaces.
row.gher sw.r(a= ehQ""0 e
Si milar experiments can be carried out w ith metal plates with te ....perlltw.rt "'-Ort qw.ie~l:1'
one sid e painted matt black and th e other left shiny.

Investigating cooling and heating

To investigate the facto rs affect ing t he cooling of mat erials you can
place hot water into beakers t hat have been painted with different
colours, fo r example si lver and black (Figu re 2.11.2) . The tem perature
of each beaker is recorded every mi nute over a period of t wenty
IIBS
Stopdock
minut es and a graph is plotted to compare the patterns in cooling. o •

A si milar experiment, usi ng very cold wat er, ca n be used t o

investigat e how different surfaces absorb IR radiat ion. The different
coloured beakers are placed in direct sun lig ht or near to a radi ant
heater and the temperature rises are moni t ored.
Both experi ments confi rm t hat the bea kers with t he black surfaces
cool down or heat up more ra pidly than th e si lvered surface . The rate
of cooli ng also slows as the difference in temperature between th e
water and the room decreases . fJ9'.'re ~.1:1: . Investigating the effect of
the colour of a surface on
the rate of cooling

KEY POINTS SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 All objects are constantly absorbing or emitting infra-red (IR) 1 In many tropical countries
radiation. buildings are painted in
2 The hotter an object is the more IR radiation it emits. light colours . How do these
colours help to keep the
3 The temperature of dark coloured objects changes rapidly as building cool during the day
they are good emitters and absorbers of IR radiation. and warm during the night?
4 The temperature of silver coloured objects changes slowly as 2 In the Arctic, polar bears are
they are poor emitters and absorbers of IR radiation . white. How does this help
S Rough surfaces are better emitters and absorbers of IR them keep warm?
radiation than smooth surfaces. 3 In Antarctica, penguins
huddle together in large
numbers. How does this help
them keep warm?
'~;' .:1: :'.' :>~S;t\~~·'<~~~~ .-.: :'.'~.'.

··~ 2~1i 2·;~'· Applying

en

Understanding the processes which cause thermal energy transfer

LEARNING OUTCOMES
allows us to design devices to increase or decrease the rates of
At the end of this topic you heating and cooling of objects . Sometimes we need to dispose of
should be able to: large amounts of thermal energy into the surroundings quickly and
sometimes we need to prevent the loss or gain of thermal energy.
• describe how an
understanding of the
methods of thermal energy Vacuum flasks
transfer can be used to A vacuum flask is designed to prevent as much thermal energy
reduce or increase the flow of transfer as possible. To do this it has features that reduce conduction,
heat energy in a wide range convection, radiation and euaporation processes (Figure 2.12.1).
of circumstances.
• The main chamber is constructed of glass (a very poor conductor)
wi th a vacuum between the two layers. As the vacuum contains
no particles there can be no condu ction or convection to transfer
___ "",,'" cap thermal energy between the layers. Thermal energy can be
Double·walled glass transferred around the glass layer by conduction but this is a very
(or plastic) container slow process.
Plastic protective • The inside surfaces of the glass layers are coated in silver to reduce
cover radiation. The surfaces are very poor emitters and absorbers of
or cold liquid radiation so there is very little transfer of energy between them.
Sponge pad
(protection) • A hollow plastic cap is used to prevent evaporation.
Inside surfaces
silvered to Solar water heaters
stop rad iation
IIJI- ' Va<:UUIT prevents Many houses heat water using solar energy. Cool water is either
conductionand pumped or driven by convection currents through pipes in panels
convection
on the roof (Figu re 2.12.2). The pipes are painted black so that they
~--Hr-- Plastic spring
for support absorb energy from the sunlight and th is energy is tra nsferred to the
water passing through them.
Figure 2.12.1 A vacuum flask

Designs for cooling

Car radiators
The engine in a car produces a large amount of thermal energy when
the fuel is burnt. If this energy were allowed to build up then the
temperature of the engine would increase rapidly. Expansion of the
engine parts would soon cause the engine to seize up.
To preuent this, water is pumped through pipes which pass through
the engine. The water absorbs some of the thermal energy by
conduction and is then pumped through a radiator mounted on the
Solar heaters can heat large front of the car (Figure 2.12.3). As the car moves, air travels between
' - - " - - - - - ' amounts of water. They the rad iator pipes and therma l energy is transferred from the water to
are used for washing or to the air.
keep the house warm at
night.

,1
cooling panels on refrigerators
The back panels on refrigerators are painted black to allow heat
energy ta ken from t he inside to be radiated away qu ickly.

Heat sinks
Microprocessors can produce very large amounts of heat energy
during their operation. This energy wil l reduce the efficiency or even
damage the processor if it is not transferred away rapidly. To make
sure that this happens, a heat sink is mounted on the top of the
microprocessor (Figure 2.12.4). A high ly conductive 'thermal paste' is
used as the glue between the processor and heat sink. The heat sink
'-'-=:..:..:== In a car radiator, fins
increase the surface area
and both pipes and fins
is designed to have many fins so that the heat energy can be carried may be painted black
away by convection currents (sometimes assisted with fans) and also to increase the rate of
radiated away. em ission.

Th e greenhouse effect and global warming

The Earth absorbs energy ra diat ed by t he Sun and t his energy
warms th e planet. The Sun's energy arrives as visible light and short
wavelength infra-red radiation which passes through the atmosphere.
The surface of the Earth re-emi t s this energy as longer wavelength
infra-red ra d iati on. Some of this is reflected back to the surface of
the Earth by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane.
The process, known as the greenhouse effect, tends to maintain
a balance (Figure 2.12.5) . The Earth has remained at constant
temperatu re fo r several thousand yea rs.
However, human activity such as burning fossil fuels, increased
crop production, deforestation and keeping livestock is increasing microprocessor
the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Th is causes
more heat energy to be trapped and results in an overall increase in
atmospheric and ocean temperatures.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Sun 1 Describe how a vacu um flask

can keep it s contents cold.
2 How can th e effects of globa l
Heat from Sun warming be slowed?
passes through .
. : '. :Heat IS reflected
the atmosphe~e . . " " ),ik'U; Earth. by
... '9reenflOu~e
.... gases'
. ... ..
KEY POINT

1 Careful selection of materials

can be used to control heat
'-'-=:..:..:== The increase in greenhouse gases may lead to catastrophic climate
change.
flow.

z
 iii.li',··'" .
~",1-',_' ~.--

Section 2 era~tlc:e exam questions

SECTION 2 : Practice exam questions

, During an investigation into cooling by 5 Compare the behaviour and spacing of the
evaporation, 20 cm' of ethanol was placed particles in solids, liquids and gases. Use these
into each of five circular beakers that had concepts to explain the compressibility and
different diameters. The mass of the beakers fluidity of the three states of matter.
and ethanol was measured with a top-pan
6 Describe the changes in particle behaviour and
balance. The ethanol samples were allowed to
the changes in energy during the following
evaporate for 30 minutes and then the mass
changes of state:
of the beakers was recorded again.
a f rom solid to liquid
Diameter/em 4 S.5 6 7 10 b from liquid to gas.
Area/cm 2
7 A metal block of mass 0,8 kg is heated
Start masS/g 75.5 95.5 121 .0 141 .0 180.5 strongly until its temperature reaches 200 °C.
End mass/g 67 .9 81 .2 104.0 117 .9 133.3 The block is then placed into a bucket
Change in cont aining 4.0 kg of cold water and the water
mass/g is stirred until the temperature of the water
stops rising . The temperature of the water
a Calculate the surface area of each of the rises from 10 °C to 19 °C. (The specific heat
beakers. capacity of water is 4200J kg ' K- ' .)
b Calculate the mass loss for each of the a Calculate the temperature rise of the water.
beakers. b Calculate the energy gained by the water.
c Plot a graph comparing the mass loss and c State the heat energy loss of the metal
the surface area of the beakers. block.
d Describe the mathematical relationship d Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
between the surface area and the rate of metal.
evaporation for ethanol.
8 Two metal plates are placed an equal distance
e Use the graph to find the rate of
from an electrical heater. One plate is shiny,
evaporation per centimetre squared per
silver-coloured and the other matt black. The
minute for ethanol during the experiment.
temperature of each plate is recorded over
2 Describe how a liquid-in-glass thermometer a period of five minutes as shown in the
can be calibrated. following results table,
3 Describe and explain the key features of a Time/min 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
clinical thermometer as shown in the diagram. Temperature
of shiny 30 40 48 55 61 66 70 74 77 80 82
Cross.o;ectlOn 0 platerC
@iii! ~ Temperature
35 36 37 38 39 40 4 1 42 of black 30 45 58 65 70 75 78 79 81 82 82
platerC
4 Copy and complete this table converting
temperatures between degrees Celsius and a Plot a graph comparing the rise in
kelvin. temperature of the plates.

CelsiusfC I 1 - 501 - 1271

b Describe and explain the pattern in the rise
10 1 100
in temperatures.
Kelvin/K I0 I I 234 I I I c Why do the plates stop rising in
temperature?
, ./
 9 Liquid nitrogen is used in rapid cooling 13 Some students are investigating the rate of
systems, absorbing energy when it changes evaporation of different liquids: water, ethanol
state from a liquid to a gas. How much liquid and ether. The experiment is carried out in a
nitrogen is required to absorb 500 kJ of fume cupboard. The students pour the liquids
heat energy as it changes state? (The latent into identical rectangular trays measuring
heat of vaporisation for liquid nitrogen is 4cm by Scm.
2.0 x 10' Jkg ') a What is the surface area of the liquids in
10 How much energy is required to convert 3.0 kg the trays?
of ice with a starting temperature of -5 °C The students measure the mass of the liquids
into 3.0 kg of steam with a final temperature and trays at the start of the experiment and
of 105 °C? after 10 minutes. Their results are shown in
• Specific heat capacity of ice: 21 OOJ kg - ' K ' the table.
• Specific heat capacity of water: Change Rate of
4181Jkg 'K ' Starting End
liquid in evaporation
mass/g masslg
• Specific heat capacity of steam: mass/g /gmin - 1
2080Jkg 'K' water 14.4 14.2
• Specific latent heat of fusion for ice: ethanol 13.4 12.4
3.3 x 10' J kg ,
• Specific latent heat of vaporisation for
water: 2.3 x 10'Jkg - ' ether 17.8 12.6

11 Describe how a group of students could

determine the specific latent heat of b Which liquid has evaporated at the fastest
rate?
vaporisation of ethanol. You must incl ude:
• the equipment required
c What is the rate of evaporation per cm'
for each of the liquids?
• an assessment of the risks involved
At the end of the experiment the students
• an explanation of the measurements and
notice that they did not turn on the fume
calculations required.
cupboard extractor fan as they were supposed
12 Explain the following in terms of infra-red to.
radiation: d In what way would the results have been
a Some firefighters wear silvered clothing different if the fan had been turned on?
when entering burning buildings.
b Solar water heaters on roofs are painted
black.
C Dark-coloured clothing dries faster on a
washing line than light-coloured clothing.

./
 Wave motion transfers energy from place to place without the
LEARNING OUTCOMES
transfer of material (matter). There may be a single wave pulse
At the end of this topic you caused by a single oscillation or a series of oscillations producing a
should be able to : progressive wave train.

• describe how waves

propagate in a med ium Waves in springs
• describe t he diffe rences Wave motion can be demonstrated with springs . Vibrations in one part
betw een transverse and of the spring will produce vibrations in the rest of the spring. Observing
longitudi nal w aves the behaviour of the coils will allow us to describe wave motion.
• give examples of tran sverse
and longitud ina l w aves . Wave pulses
When the end of a long spring is moved sideways and back once, a
wave pulse is generat ed. The coils move in turn along the length
of the spring until the pulse reaches the end (Figure 3.1.1 a). If the
spring is stretched slightly with one end pushed in and out rapidly
another type of wave motion is produced. The spring has regions
EXAM TIP where the coils are compressed closer together and these regions
move along the length of the spring (Figure 3.1.1 b) .
The 1'a rt,cLes 'VI- a wave
osc~L:ate YOUVI-" {t-xe" Single hand movement:
1'0s.hoVl-s. That's wl-11:::1 left, then right
waves "OVl-'t ca"1::1 """atte~
oVl-L1:::1 e~Yg1:::1.
-
Pulse movement Fixed end

a A transverse pulse

Single hand movement

push then pull Pulse movement Fixed end

6M~000~~rtIiJj~(jfJ~~06000®06IJ0001I1
+-
I-" OO(jfJ6IJMrtIiJjrtIiJj~~~
Rarefaction Compression
b A longitudinal pulse
Figu re 3 .1.1 Wave motion in a spring

Continuous waves
Con tinuous waves are produced if the sou rce of the vibration
ACTIVITY continues to osci llate. A continuous series of pulses form a wave
train moving along t he spring . The particles osci llate in a regula r
• Draw a tabl e compari ng t he motion over a period of time, re peating the same pattern.
properties of transverse w aves
and long itud inal w aves.
Classes of waves
• Earthquakes produce a range
of different types of w aves. There are two cl asses of waves: transverse and longitudinal.
Research these types and
place them int o t he correct Transverse waves
cat egory by describing t he
Transverse waves form when the oscillations of the particles are
motio n of t he pa rti cles .
perpendicular to the direction of propagation (direction of the energy
transfer). The movement of one particle causes the neighbouring particle
to oscillate and this oscillation is passed along the wave (Figure 3.1.2).
 Wave movement
Left
t
Right j
Hand movement Trough
repeated regularly
.
-
,
Fi ure 3.1.2 A transverse wave

Ripples on the surface of water are transverse waves . A disturbance

causes the water molecules to oscillate vertically while the water
waves spread out horizontally from the source.
Light is another example of a transverse wave. Light waves consist of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields w hich vibrate at right angles to
each other and to the di rection in which the wave propagates.

Long itu di nal waves

In longitudinal waves the particles oscillat e parallel to t he directi on
of propagation. The particles move back and forth about their rest
positions forcing their neighbours to follow the same pattern of
oscillations (Figure 3.1.3).

Wave movement
KEY POINTS
Push Rarefactions Compressions
~®1000_000IDIDlll0CijOOOOMOO~OOOOOOOOOO_OCijOOOOO 1 A single oscillation will
Pull Hand movement To fixed end ---+ produce a wave pulse whi ch
repeated regularly
propagates through a
fi~re 3.1.3-·fj A longitudinal wave medium .
2 Progressive waves consist of
Sound waves are long itudinal.
a wave train produced by
regular oscillations.
Observing wave motion with ripple tanks
3 Transverse waves are
Ripple tanks are used to investigate transverse wave motion in water produced when particles
(Figure 3.1 .4) . A motor causes a horizontal beam to dip in and out of oscillate perpendicularly
the water, produci ng parallel plane waves. Circular waves are generated to the direction of wave
when a round 'dipper' is used in place of the horizontal beam . propagation .
The crests of the wave form wavefronts and these travel in the direction 4 Longitudinal waves are
of propagation of the wave. Observation of the wavefronts allows us to produced when particles
see when the waves reflect, change speed or change direction. oscillate parallel to the
direction of propagation .
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Figu re 3.1.5 shows a wave pulse in a rope. a Which type of wave is shown?
The pulse is traveling at 40 cm s- ' . b Redraw the diagram showing the position
of the pu lse 0.5 second later.
2 Sketch the pattern of wavefronts that you
would see if a pebble were dropped into the
centre of a calm pond.
Figure 3.1.5
 Progressive waves can be represented by two different kinds of graph:
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• A displacement-position graph
At the end of this topic you
• A displacement-time graph
should be able to:
• describe waves in terms
Understanding displacement-position graphs
of frequency, wavelength,
speed, period and amplitude A displacement-position graph represents the position of all of the
• use the wave speed equation particles in a wave at a fixed time during its movement. The positions
in a range of contexts of a large number of particles are shown at a single instant, like a
snapshot photograph (Figure 3.2.1).
• interpret displacement-
position and displacement-
time graphs for waves

Position along
wavetrain

A displacement- position graph at a fixed time

The wavelength, A, of a wave is the distance between one wave

crest and the next. As it is a distance, the wavelength is measured
in metres. In fact, the wavelength is the distance between a particle
and another particle that is exactly at the same point in its motion
(having the same displacement and moving in the same direction).
This means that al l of the troughs on a transverse wave are also one
EXAM TIP wavelength apart.
For longitudinal waves the wavelength is a measure of the distance
~»<e ..... ber HII'It i1ertz between adjacent compressions or rarefactions.
(~) .s t i1e s a »<e as t i1e
Uv\'l.t s -1., The amplitude, a, of a wave is the maximum displacement a particle
can have from its rest (undisturbed) position. It is the height of a
The a ~p L.tu"e of a crest or the depth of a trough. In high amplitude waves the particles
wave LS t i1e ""'ax ......u ..... oscillate a greater distance from their rest position.
".spLace»<el'l-t f ro ..... t i1e
rest pos.t .Ol'l- of a part. cLe Understanding displacement-time graphs
""Dt ti1e " .sta "'-Ce f ro..... a '
A displacement-time graph shows the behaviour of a single particle
pea l<? t o a t roug i1 .
over a period of time. It shows how the displacement of the particle
changes as a wave passes. Figure 3.2.2 represents the motion of a
particle at point C from the displacement-position graph.
 WORKED EXAMPLES
1 - - - Period T - - - i a What is th e wavelength of a
water wave w it h a frequen cy
of 5.0 Hz and a speed of
----rl-- -- f-- - --\--,.--+ - -'-- ---\:- Time -7 25cms- '?
Mean
or rest Ori gina l eq uation :
position
v = fA
Transpose the equation :
_ Fi ure 3.2.2 A disp lacement- time graph
v
A=-
f
The period , T, of a wave is the length of time taken for a particle to
complete one full oscillation . The particle moves from the rest position Substitute in values:
to maximum positive displacement back through the rest position to the A = 25cm ,'
maximu m negative displacement and then back to the rest position. 5.0Hz
The freq uency, f, of a wave is the number of oscillations per second. Answer:
Frequency has the unit hertz (Hz) which is identical to the unit s '
A = 5.0 cm
Period and frequency are related by the equation:
b What is th e frequency
. 1 1 of a light w ave w hich
perrod = . , - - - - - or T = -
frequency f travels at 3.00 x 10' ms- '
and has a wavelength of
Therefore the greater the frequency of the wave the shorter the
4.00 x 10- ' m?
period will be.
v = fA
Wave speed (v) f = ~
Different waves travel at different speeds. For example, a water wave
A
may travel at 5.00 m s ' whereas a light wave may be travelling at f = 3.00 x 10' m s- '
3.00 x 10' m s-'. The speed of a wave is related to the frequency and 4.00 x lO- ' m
wavelength by the equation:
f = 7.50 x 10 14 Hz
wave speed = frequency x waveleng t h or v = fA

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

1 A sound wave has a period of 0.04s. What is the frequency of 1 The speed of a wave is given
this wave? by the equation
wave speed = frequency x
2 Sketch a displacement- time graph for a pa rticle at point B in
wavelength (v = fA)
Figure 3.2.1 if th e frequency of the wave is 2 Hz .
2 A displacement-position
3 Copy Table 3.2.1. Then calculate the missi ng values and fill
graph can be used to
th em in. You must include the appropriate units.
represent the positions of
Table 3.2.1 the particles in a wave at a
fixed time.
v f A
l A displacement- time graph
a 500Hz 0.2m
can be used to represent the
b 340ms- ' 3.5 kHz motion of a single particle
c 3.00 x 10' m s ' 5.00 x 1O- 3 m (or poin t) in a wave over a
period of time.
 Visi ble light is a form of electromagnetic radiation but it only forms
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a very small part of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. Waves in
At the end of this topic you the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped into six major regions
should be able to: based on thei r wavelengths or how they are produced (Figure 3.3 .1).

• state the properties which all

electromagnetic waves share Common properties of electromagnetic radiation
• differentiate electromagnetic All electromagnetic (EM) rad iations share some common properties
waves by their wavelength or and behavi ours:
frequency
• EM radiation t ravels as a transverse wave.
• specify sources and uses for
• EM radia tion travels at 3.00 x 108 ms- 1 in a vacuum . Different
each of the regions of the
parts of t he spectrum travel at different speeds in ot her materials.
electromagnetic spectrum.
• The wave does not require a medium (ma t erial) to pass through .
The wave motion consists of oscil lati ng electri c and magnetic fields
and no particles are required.
The sources, detect ors and uses of electromagnetic waves are shown
• Produce a summary poster in Table 3.3.1.
about the properties and
uses of el ectromagnetic Ionisation
w aves. Make sure that you Some fo rms of EM radiation carry enough energy to ionise atoms.
include some examples of t he This means that electrons are removed from the atoms wh ich become
wavelengths and frequencies charged part icles ca lled ions. These ions are highly reactive and can
involved. damage livi ng ti ssue, causing mutations or cancers .
• Find out how different parts
of the EM spect rum can be
used for communication
systems incl udi ng the SUMMARY QUESTIONS
subcategories of radio waves .
./ 1 What is the relationship between the frequency of a part of
the EM spectrum and the damage it can cause to living cells?
2 Copy Table 3.3.2 . Then, for each of the electromagnetic waves
given, calcu late the missing frequency or wavelength and then
identify which region of the EM spectrum the wave belongs in.
Table 3.3.2

f/Hz AIm Region

a 8.8 x 10 15

b 1.4 x 107
C 2.2 X 10-8
d 1.3 X 10- 2

, J
Table 3.3.1 Sources, detectors and uses of electromagnetic waves

Sources Uses
Radio waves Electron movements Communications
in transmitter circuits such as radio or
of TV and radio television.
systems. Microwaves are used
to cook food as their
energy is absorbed
easily by water and
fat molecules.
Infra-red Any warm or hot Infra-red cameras
radiation object (often used for
The higher the seeing during night-
temperature of the time).
object the shorter IR thermometers to
the wavelength. measure temperature
without contact
Visible light Very hot objects. Photography.
Some chemi cal Lasers.
reactions. Sight
Ultraviolet Very hot objects Forensic science.
light such as the Sun. Chemical analysis.
Fluorescent lamps Sterilisation of
containing mercu ry. equipment
X-rays X-ray tubes which Form ing images of
propel fast electrons bones in the body.
into metal blocks. High-energy X-rays
can be used to find
damage in other
materials.
Gamma rays Decay of radioactive Cancer treatment
materials. (radiotherapy).
Nuclear ·explosions. Gamma emitters are
Gamma ray bursts used as radioactive
from cosmic events tracers in medicine
such as formation of or other applications.
black holes. Sterilisation of
equipment or some
foods.

KEY POINTS

1 All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a

vacuum (empty space).
2 Electromagnetic waves have a wide range of wavelengths
(and frequencies).
3 There is a wide range of uses and dangers associated with
electromagnetic waves.
 A light source such as a lamp radiates light energy in all directions.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
We say that the light energy is being em itted . This light energy can
At the end of this tOP'C you be absorbed (taken in) when it reaches surfaces. For example, light
should be able to: energy is absorbed by the retina at the back of the eye.

o describe the path of light rays

Ray boxes and rays
o explain how shadows
are formed in a range of A ray box uses a lamp to produce light. Narrow beams of light can be
situations including eclipses produced by placing a 'stop' with a single slit (or series of slits) next
o describe the operation of a to the lamp. We can see these light rays because some of the light is
pinhole camera . scattered off surfaces into our eyes.
A laser can also produce very narrow light rays. It is harmful to the
eye to look directly at a laser beam. These rays are not usually visible
but spraying some aerosol or sprinkling talcum powder into the path
of the laser beam causes scattering and allows us to see the straight
path of the laser beam.

The formation of shadows

Ught travels in a straight line from the source. If an opaque object
is in the path of the light then there will be a region where the light
cannot reach. This region will be in shadow.
A point source of light will produce a very sharp shadow behind an
opaque object.
An extended light source wi ll produce a less sharp shadow. The
regions where all of the possible ray paths are blocked will be
completely dark. The regions where some of the ray paths are
"'::~~;:;;:;;.!.J light cannot pass through blocked will be partially shaded.
the boy and so a shadow is
formed.
Eclipses
Eclipses demonstrate that light travels in straight lines. The Sun is the
only source of visible light in the solar system. The planets and moons
are visible only because they reflect some of this sunlight.
o Construct your own pinh ole
ca mera using a box, some Solar eclipse
foi l and some t racing paper. The Sun is very much larger than the Moon but it is much further
Use it to view brightly lit away. This means that they appear to be almost exactly the same size
objects (or light sources) in a
when viewed from the Earth. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon
darkened room. passes directly between the Sun and the Earth (Figure 3.4.2). Because
o Produce a guide about the Sun is not a point source of light there are regions on the Earth
how lunar or solar ecli pses for which only some of the sunlight is blocked by the Moon. These
happen and how they can be regions lie within the penumbra and experience a partial eclipse. A
observed sa fely. Include the small region on the Earth's surface lies within the umbra and so is
dates of the next eclipses. in total darkness during an eclipse. This dark region moves across the
surface of the Earth as the Earth rotates.

1:
 Eanh

Sun

u = Umbra
P = Penumbra

Fi ure 3.4.2 An eclipse of the Sun

Lu nar eclipse SUMMARY QUESTIONS

We can see the Moon w hen sunlight reflects off its surface. A lu nar
1 The International Space
ecli pse occurs when the Earth blocks sunlight travelling to the Moon
Station is approximately 100
and so the Moon appears dark (Figure 3.4.3). During a lunar eclipse
metres long and orbits at a
the Moon sometimes appears to be dark red, this is because some red
height of 200 km from the
light passes through the Earth's atmosphere and reaches the Moon .
surface of the Earth. Use a
diagram to explain why it
causes no obvious shadow as
it passes between the Ea rth
Eclipsed Moon and the Sun.
2 Explain how the equipment
shown in Figure 3.4.5 can be
Sun used to show that light rays
travel in straight lines.

Eanh's umbra

Fi ure 3.4.3 An eclipse of the Moon

The pinho le camera Figure 3.4.5

A pinhole camera is a simple optical instrument used to produce an

image on a screen (Figure 3.4.4). A pin is used to make a very small
hole in an opaque sheet such as aluminium foil. The foil is placed
KEY POINTS
in front of a brightly lit object. Rays of light from the object travel
through the pinhole. An image of the object can be formed on a 1 Light rays travel In straight
sheet of translucent paper. lines and are detected when
the ray reaches our eyes.
Screen, film or 2 Shadows are formed when
photographic an opaque object blocks the
plate
_ _ _ _ _~_Pin_
hOle~ path of light rays.
3 Solar eclipses occur when
Distant object L-----'...--~=~
:::===I<::::;:i ~~:~~nverted the Moon passes between
the Earth and the Sun .

Fi ure 3.4.4 The pinhole camera 4 Lunar eclipses occur when

the Earth prevents sunlight
from reaching the Moon .
 When light rays st rike a surface they may be absorbed, transmitted or
LEARNING OUTCOMES
reflected. Reflections al l follow specific laws.
At the end of this topic you
should be able to: Describing reflection
• state and apply the laws of Reflection occu rs when a ray of light reaches a surface or boundary
reflection between materials. For example, a reflection occurs when the light ray
• describe how images are strikes a mirror. The ray that strikes the mirror is called an incident ray .
formed in a mirror and the This ray reflects off the silvered surface and is called a reflected ray.
properties of those images.
At the point where the incident ray touches the mirror we can draw
a normal . The normal is a line perpendicular (at right angles) to a
surface. When measuring angles during reflection all angles must be
measured relative to the norma l, not to the surface it self.
Ray box
EEl
The laws of reflection
Incident For any reflection at a surface two laws apply:
ray
• the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence
i=r ; • the incident ray, reflected ray and normal are all in the same plane.
Normal ·- --------- -- ---- -
\: Figure 3.5.1 shows a simple reflection in a plane (flat) mirror.
Reflected Experiments show that the angle of incidence, i, and the angle of
ray reflection, r, are a/ways equal, proving the first law.
Mirror The second law of reflection sta tes that the two rays and the normal all
lie on a plane (a flat surface like a piece of paper) . This means that the
Investigating the laws of
reflection using a ray box
reflected ray does not twist upwards or downwards during reflection.

Regular and diffuse reflection

Reflections from a mirror produce an image (a picture we can see).
This is because the reflective surface of the mirror is very smooth.
Parallel rays of light wil l be reflected and will remain parallel and
so the observed size and shape of the image will match that of the
original object. This is regular reflection (Figure 3.52a).

a b
Parallel rays from
a light source

Mirror or polished surface Rough surface, like paper

Figure 3 .5 .2 Reflection from a mirror is a regular but reflection from a sheet of
paper is b diffuse.
Most surfaces are not smooth. When para llel rays of light hit these
surfaces the rays wi ll be reflected according to the laws of reflection
but the roughness of the surface causes these reflected rays to travel
in different directions. This means that no clear image will be formed.
This is d iffuse reflection (Figure 3S.2b).

Images in plane mirrors

X=Y
The image we see when we look into a mirror is a virtual image. A Point object Image
virtual image cannot be projected onto a screen or surface because o "_---"-_.I_----'--.~ I
no rays of light actually pass through the image. The image is
the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front. In
Figure 3.5.3 the distances x and yare the same.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What are the sizes of ang les Q, P, Rand 5 as shown in

Mirror
Figure 3.5.4 7
Figure 3.5.3 The image formed in a
Mi rro r
plane mirror
Normal 5
-- --- - Norma l

Design a method to prove t hat

30"
the image in a mi rror is t he
Mirror same distance behind the mirror
Normal as the object is in front of it.
Mirror

Figure 3.5.4

2 A student looks di rectly into a plane mirror. She positions her

face exactly 30cm from the mirror using a ruler. EXAM TIP
a Is the image real or virtual 7
b What is the total distance from her face to the image? I"", <:Xll"'- ql.<estLOV\.S,
"'-.~~i'S "'-a 1:1 ""Dt be
l'0s.ho,""fci ~OYLzo""taLl1:1
Oy v eyt.caLL1:1, bl.<t at a""
KEY POINTS a "'0 Le, as L"" sl.<",-",-a'1:j
q l.<esho"" 1... If 1:101.< ",-aR.e
1 Angles are always measured from the normal.
Sl.<ye 1:101.< "'-fllSl.<ye a"'0 Les
2 The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence for t o t~e ""oy",-aL t~e1:1
all reflections. s~oI.< Lci""'t g Lve 1:101.< a""1:1
l'yobLe",-s .
3 The image in a plane mirror is virtual and the same distance
behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
 Light travels at approximately 3.00 x 1oams - ' in air but slows to
LEARNING OUTCOMES
2.00 x 108 ms • in glass. This change of speed causes the ray of light
At the end of this topic you to change direction at the boundary between the two materials. This
should be able to: change in direction is always measured relative to the normal at the
point of refraction .
• describe how light is refracted
at a boundary between
transparent materials Ref raction in a rectangular block
• describe how white light can When the light ray enters the glass block it slows down and this
be dispersed Into a spectrum causes the ray to refract, to change its path towards the normal
by a prism or raindrops. (Figure 3.6.1). When the light ray leaves the glass block it speeds up
and refracts away from the norma l. Because the two boundaries are
paraliel, the ray ends up travell ing in the same direction as it was
originally but it is laterally displaced .

Refraction in a semi-circular block

If the incident ray enters a new material along the normal then
the ray cannot 'turn towards the normal' and it continues along
the same path. The ray stil l slows down or speeds up. This can be
demonstrated with a semi-circu lar glass block w here the ray can be
directed along the normal to the curved surface (Figure 3.6.2).

Refract ion in a prism

Triangular prisms are also used to refract light. As the ray enters the
r < i
Nar'mal prism it refracts towards the normal and as it leaves it refracts away
from the normal. As the two refracting surfaces are not paraliel the
emergent ray is not paraliel to the incident ray.
........;.;:.;="'-' Refraction through a
rectangular glass block
Dispersion
All electromagnetic radiation travels at the same speed in a vacuum
but will travel at different speeds in other mediums. In particular
Incident ray different colours of light travel at different speeds in glass or other
p transparent materials. The size of the change in direction during
/ Normal at P refraction depends on the change in the speed of light at the
---- ------ - - --
r boundary (see 3.7) and so d ifferent colours of light will refract by
different amounts. For examp le, violet light refracts to a greater
degree than red light as it has a greater change in speed. This effect
Refraded ray is called dispersion (Figure 3.64).
The ray refracts at both Rainbows are caused when light from the Sun passes through
boundaries but does not raindrops. The light is dispersed and a coloured spectral pattern is
change direction when produced.
it enters the block as it
is travelling normal to
the surface.
 Normal

Use a prism to disperse whi te light. Investigate what happens

when you try to disperse blue light with a prism. (Use a coloured
filter to prod uce blue light.)

Refracti on in w ater Apparent positio

... Q- ................. . ..
When rays of light travel from water into air the rays refract away Real
from the normal. If a ray travels from the bottom of a pool then the
path of the ray will change such that the ray appears to come from
Fi ure 3 .6.3 The pool IS deeper than it
closer to the surface. This causes the pool to look shallower that it appears due to refract ion.
actually is (Figure 3.6.3).

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Copy Figures 3.6.5 and 3.6.6 and t hen complete the ray path
fo r the incident rays .
Normal

Figure 3.6.5 Figure 3.6.6

2 Which colour of visible light slows by the least amount when it

enters glass from air?
3 Which of these statements is/are correct? EXAM TIP
o The higher the frequency of light the greater the change in
speed as it enters glass from air. ALwatjs ~yaW t fl e ""ornlaL
o The longer the wavelength of light the smaller the change in ?"" a""1;1 ~"agya"",-s
speed as it lea ves glass and enters air. """voLv""'-g yefyact "o"".
7""S w"LL fleLl' tj0u to
Ju~ge t fle cfla"'-ge """
a"'-g Le ""'-ucfl "",-oye
, KEY POINTS cLeayLtj.
1 When a ray of light travels from one medium to another it you sflouL~ see tflat tfle
changes speed. cfla"'-ge of ~"yect"o "" at
2 If the ray slows down, its path will turn towards the normal at tflese bou""~ay"es a "S
the point of refraction. s flaYp, su~~e"" tUY"".
Avo"~ "'-S""'-g t fle wol'Vl
3 If the ray speeds up, Its path will turn away from the normal 'be",,~ '.
at the point of refraction.
4 White light will disperse during refraction and separate into
its constituent colours.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Snell's law
Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence
At t he end of this topic you
and angle of refraction at a boundary is a constant (Figure 3.7.1).
should be able to:
This constant is the refractive index of the boundary. Table 3.7.1
• apply Snell's law to shows the refractive index of different materials.
refractions to calculate
Slnl
change in angle or speeds -.- = re f ractlve
. . d
In ex, n
Slnr
• find the critical angle for a
boundary The same form of relationship also applies to the ratio of the speed
of light in the two materials. For a boundary between air and another
• describe total internal
transparent material :
reflection
_---'sp'-e_e-,d,-o_f_l-=ig'-h_t_in_a
_i-'.
r,_v,,-
,_
• explain how total internal = re f ract .lve In
. d
ex, n
reflection is used in optical speed of light in material , v,
fibres. The two equations can be combined to give:
Sin I
-.- = -
v, f .
= re ractlve In ex
. d
Sin r v2
Normal

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
i '
Medium 1 A ray of light is refracted at the boundary from air int o glass
Medium 2
(refractive index 1.50). The angle of incidence is 30°. What is the
:r angle of refraction?

-si ni = re f ractlve
. . d
In ex
sinr
Figure 3.7.1
boundary is the ratio of
Slnr = si ni = sin 30° = 0.33
sin; to sinr. This is also the refractive index 1.50
ratio of the speeds of light
in the materials.
r = sin-I 0.33 = 19S

Table 3 .7 .1 Examples of refractive Total internal reflection

indices for a ray of light
enteri ng the material from When light reaches a boundary between a material of high refractive
a vacuum (or air) index and one w ith lower refractive index (e.g. glass to air) then th e
light can be reflected by the surface instead of being refracted. This
Material Refractive index, n
occurs if the angle of incidence is greater than an angle called the
glass 1.50 cri tica l angle (Figure 3.7.2). The critical angle, C, for a boundary is
water 1.33 given by the relationship:

Perspex 1.50
si n C = --;-,-,--,--,----;-c,---.,--
diamond 2.42 refractive index of boundary
During th is process all of the light is reflected back into the first
material and so the process is called total internal reflection . During
this process there is no loss of light energy.
 At the critical angle Total internal reflection

Incident ray • Next time you are swimm ing

in a pool go to the bottom
and look towards the surface.
/p
•... .... ... . .. Normal at P Try to expla in the effects that
you see. Note: only do this if
you are being supervised .
• Flash a light into one end of
a long fibre optic cable. You
Refracted ray Reflected ray
should see the flashing at
Figure 3.7.2 Total in ternal reflection occu rs if the angle of incidence is greater the other end even when the
than th e critical ang le C. The reflected ray follows the laws of cable is coiled up .
reflection (r = I).

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

The refractive index of an air to Perspex boundary is 1.50. What

is the critical angle for this boundary?
Ray
. 1 1
sme = = - - = 0.66
refractive index of boundary 1.50
e= sin- 1 0.66 = 41 .8 0

Optical fibres use the process of total internal reflection to transmit

signals (Figure 3.7.3) . A ray of light (more usually infra-red radiation)
enters the fibres and travels along it by being reflected at th e surface
of the glass. The ray can t ravel for several kilometres through th e
glass even w hen the fibre is coiled in loops.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Figure 3.7.3 Rays in an opt ical fi bre
1 Copy Table 3.7.2 and then complete it using Snell's law fo r
rays entering a material from air.
KEY POINTS
Table 3.7.2
1 The ratio of the sines of
Angle of Angle of Refractive index Speed of light in
angles of incidence and
incidence/ refraction! of boundary materiallm 5 - 1
refraction is a constant
degrees degrees
called the refractive index.
30 1.33
2 The refractive index is also
20 1.45 the ratio of the speed of
50 30 light in the two materials.
45 1.5 x 10' 3 When a ray of light passes
along an optical fibre it
2 Draw a diagram showing a ray of light travelling from the totally internally reflects
bottom of a pond so that it just escapes from the surface of many times but little energy
the water. Calculate the critical angle for this boundary. is lost at these reflections.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Types of lens
Lenses are curved blocks of glass or plastic which cause refraction of
At the end of this topic you
light (Figure 3.8 .1). Lenses usually have two curved surfaces and each
should be able to:
surface causes refraction. In order to simplify diagrams, we assume
• describe the path of rays that a single refraction takes place for each ray and this happens in
through a converging the centre of the lens.
(convex) lens
There are many shapes of lens but there are only two main effects:
• describe the images formed
by converging lenses . • A converging lens brings rays of light, parallel to the principal axis,
together.
• A diverging lens spreads rays of light, parallel to the principal axis,
apart. See 3.9.
The principal axis is an imaginary line which passes through the
Converging lenses centre of the lens and is perpendicular to it.

~
The principal focus lies on the principal axis and the distance between

V
Bi-convex Plano-convex
D
Converging
it and the centre of the lens is the focal length, f, of the lens. Strong
lenses cause more refraction than weak lenses and so have shorter
focal lengths.
meniscus

Diverging lenses Converging lenses

[ [
Figure 3.8.2 shows a set of rays passing through a converging lens.
These rays are parallel to the principal axis and they are refracted by

X
Bi-concave Plano-concave Diverging
the lens so that they all meet at a point called the principal focus
(marked F). Each lens has two principal foci.

meniscus

Fio"ure 3.B. l ' A range of lens shapes

Parallel rays

F = principal focus (real)

f ~ focal length
L = optical centre

Figure 3.B.2 Parallel rays passing through a converging len s

The focal plane is a plane perpendicular to the principal axis that

passes through the principal focus. Parallel rays from a distant object
would be brought to a focus on a screen placed in the focal plane.
Images from converging lenses
We can find the properties of the image by analysing the ray paths
from an object. In Figure 3.8.3 three rays are drawn from the top of
the object.
• Ray 1 travels to the lens parallel to the principal axis. The ray is
refracted so that it passes through the principal focus.
• Ray 2 passes through the optical centre of the lens and as no
refraction takes place there is no change of direction.
• Ray 3 passes t hrough t he principal focus on the left of the lens.
When it reaches the lens it is ref racted so that it becomes parallel to
the principa l axis.

Converging lens
o EXAM TIP

Object /:>Y&I":',""0 Y&lt/ cl'&lgY&I"M.

Principal F 2F Principal yeq«LYes gYf&lt C&lYt.
• --- - 1- --- . - -- --- - ----~-
axis I Real image aXIs
Mf&lS«Yt tnt clist&l"'-Ces
1-_ _ _--"'''''' (diminlShedl f«LL1:J &I""cl &lLw&l1:Js
C&l Yf
n
«St &I S &I '1' l't"'-C, L &l1"-cl
rn Lfy
An image formed by a converging lens

The three rays meet and form an image on t he right of the lens. You
shou ld be able to see tha t, in this case, the image is sma ller than the
original object (diminished), it is upside down (inverted) and that
rays of light really pass t hrough the image and so it is a real image .

Place a converg ing lens in front of a ra y box producing paral lel

rays of light and describe w hat happens to the rays. Find the
principal focu s and measure the focal lengt h of the lens.
Draw t wo more versions of Figure 3.8.3 but place the object:
a between F and 2F
b between F and the lens.
For each ca se, draw the three rays and descri be the image. KEY POINTS

1 A converging lens refracts

rays, parallel to the principal
SUMMARY QUESTIONS axis, so that they are
brought together at the
1 Define the key terms: focal length, focal plane, principal focu s focal point.
and principal axis. 2 A diverging lens refracts
2 Draw a scale diagram showing five rays parallel to the principal rays, parallel to the principal
axis each O.Scm apart as they pass through a converging lens axis, so that they appear to
of focal length Scm. come from the focal point.
 Figure 3.9.1 shows a set of rays passing through a diverging lens.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
The rays spread out (diverge) in such a way that they appear to all
At the end of this topic you come from one point. As for a converging lens, this point is called the
shou ld be able to: principal focus and the distance between the lens and the principal
focus is the focal length .
• describe the path of rays
through a diverging (concave)
lens 1---1--
• describe the images formed Parallel rays
by diverging lenses.

_--
F .... ---:----- L

-------- --
....
-- --
F = principal focus (virtual)
1 = focal length
Figure 3.9. ' Rays passing through a diverging lens

Images in diverging lenses

To find the properties of an image produced by a diverging lens draw
three rays as for a converging lens (Figure 3.9.3):
• Ray 1 is parallel to the principal axis and is refracted so that it
appears to come from the principal focus (the dotted line shows
this).
• Ray 2 passes straight through the optical centre wi th out a cha nge
in direction.
• Ray 3 is the ray which would pass through the principal focus
beyond the lens. This ray is brought parallel to the principal axis
when it passes through the lens.

~I~
/'
I~

I'ACTIVITY j
Pr~91l!'1 _ __ ____________ F ~.~ ____ _ F Principal
Place a diverging lens in front --axis
aXIs Virtual
of a ray box producing parallel im~ge
rays of light and describe what
ha ppens to the rays. Find the
pri nci pa l focus and measure the
focal length of the lens.
L -_ _ _ _ _ _- ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ../
~
Figure 3.9.3 An image formed by a diverging lens

r
As before, the three rays appear to come from a point. The image is
formed between this point and the principal axis. You should see that
th e image is diminished and uprig ht. The image is also virtual. This
means that the rays do not actually pass through that point and so
you cou ld not place a screen there and see the image.

Human vision
Our eyes contain two surfaces which act as lenses . The eye's lens is
a converging lens with a variable fo cal length (Figure 3.9.4). Small
ciliary muscles are used to stretch th e lens t o allow us to focus on
objects at different distances. The outer layer of the eye, the cornea,
also acts as a lens with a fixed focal length. Cornea

Correcting vision
Both converging and diverging lenses are used to correct defects of
vision (Table 3.9.1) .
• A short-sighted (near-sighted) person suffers from myopia. The
lens in their eye cannot become thin enoug h to focus on distant
objects. The rays of light from a distant object would be brought to
a focus in front of the eye's retina instead of clearly on its surface. Fi ure 3.9.4 The human eye
This poor focusing leads to blurred vision of distant objects. A
diverging lens can be used to correct myopia by diverging the rays
of light before they reach the cornea .
• A long-sighted (far-sight ed) person suffers from hyperopia. They
cannot focus objects (such as th e words on a page) that are close
to the eye. Rays of light f rom t he object would be focused behind
the retina so a blurred image is formed. A converging lens can be
used to correct this problem by increasing the overall converging
power of the eye.
Table 3.9.1 Defects of vision and their correction (refraction by the cornea is
not shown)
Myo pia Hyperopia

~e
Before

~S
~ 1S
After
correction
~ ~@
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Draw a scale diagram showing five rays parallel to the principal

axis each O.5cm apart as they pass t hrough a diverging lens of KEY POINT
focal length 10cm.
1 A diverging lens refracts rays
2 'The image formed by a diverging lens is always virtual, upright parallel to the principal axis
and smaller than the object.' Is this statement true or false> so that they appear to come
Construct some ray diagrams to test your answer. from the focal point.
 As you have seen, the images of an object are not always the same
LEARNING OUTCOMES
size as the object. The image may be magnified (larger than the
At the end of this topic you object) or diminished (smaller than the object).
should be able to:
• calculate the magnification Magnification and image height
produced by a magnifying Magnification of the images is defined by an equation comparing the
glass or other lens image height to the object height:
• determine the focal length
· ·f· · height of image
of a converging lens Imear magnl Icatlon, m, = --"----,---'"--
experimentally. height of object

Magnification and object distance

Converging
The linear magnification of a converging lens can also be found
x lens
using the object distance and image distance. Figure 3.10.1 shows
the formation of an image by a·converging lens. The triangles LlY and
LOX are similar triangles and so the ratios of OX (object height) to IY
(i mage height) is the same as the ratio of u to v.
:- - - u- - -+I--- . .f.. image distance, v
Lmear magnl Icatlon, m, = _C.-."--'--'--'.-'----'---
object dist ance, U

A magnifying glass
A magnifying glass uses a single converging lens to produce a
Figure 3.10.1 Linear magnification magn ified image of an object (Figure 3.10.2). For the magnifying glass
to work effectively the object needs to be closer to the lens than the
foca l length. This arrangement will produce a magnified, virtual image.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Image: Uses:
A lens form s an image of i virtual i magnifying glass
ii erect ii instrument eyepieces
a candle w ith a height of iii magnified iii spectacles, as correction
1O.Ocm . If the magnification ivan the same side for long-sightedness
of the lens is 1.60 what is the of lens as 0 and
further away
actual size of the candle? F

Linear magnification =
Eye
height of image
height of object
Figure 3. 10.2 A magnifying glass

Height of object =
height of image The lens formula
linear magnification The relationship between the focal length of a lens, the image
distance, vand the object dista nce, U is given by:
= 10.0cm = 6.25cm
1.60 1 1 1
-=-+-
f U v
When using the lens formu la the distances are positive fo r real images
but are negative for vi rtu al images. For example, a diverging lens may
/ WORKED EXAMPLE 2 I
produce a virtual image 0.1 m from the lens and so v would be -0.1 m. A lens used in a simple camera
The lens formu la can be used to determine the focal length of a lens has a focal length of 0.10 m.
by illuminating an object and positioning the lens to fo rm a clear To produce a clear image on a
image on a screen (Figure 3.10 .3) . The dista nce bet ween t he lens and CCD the image must be formed
the object is measu red as is the dist ance between t he lens and the 0.20 m behind the lens. How far
screen. These two distances can be substitu ted into the formu la to from the lens should the object
find the focal length of the lens. be posi tioned to produce this
clear image?
1 1 1
~-------u--------~--v -= -+-
f u v

~~===:===ut
1 1 1
- --= - + - - -
O.10m u O.20m

I CD IPearl lamp Converging

lens CD u 0.10m 0.20m
Real image 1
Front of light box: illuminated on screen - = 10 - 5 = 5
objea or cross-wires u
Figure 3.10.3 Finding the focal length using the lens formula
1
u = - = 0.20m
5

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 In which of these three situations is the magnification the largest?

• An object of height 5.0cm producing an image of 20cm .
• An object of 13 cm producing an image of 1.0cm . • Perform an investigation to
• An object of 3cm producing an image of 7cm. find the foca l length of a
range of lenses. Compare
2 Copy Table 3.1 0.1 . Then use the lens formula and magnification
your results to the curvature
equation to complete the table for a range of converging lenses.
of the lens. Describe the
Table 3.10.1 relationship between the
cunvature of the lens and the
Object Image Focal length Magnification focal length.
distance distance • Use a magnifying glass to
2.00m 0.25m see what happens when the
15cm 6cm object is positioned beyond
the focal length of the lens.
14cm 0.2
Describe the image produced.

KEY POINTS
EXAM TIP
1 The magnification of an image is the ratio of the height of an
image to the height of the original object.
2 The magnification is also the ratio of the image distance to
the object distance.
3 The focal length of a lens can be found from the object
distance and image distance using the lens formula.
 Scientists have studied the behaviour of light for centuries and have
LEARNING OUTCOMES
debated whether it is behaving as a stream of particles or as waves.
At the end of this topic you
should be able to: A very brief history, ..
• outline the particle and wave Christiaan Huygens formulated a theory that light travelled as a wave
theories of light and used this concept to describe reflection and refraction in terms of
• describe Young's sli t wavefronts.
experiment and the evidence
Isaac Newton believed that light consisted of a stream of particles he
demonstrating the wave
called corpuscles. He used this model to describe the behaviour of
behaviour of light
light and his ideas were generally accepted.
• describe the interference of
waves. Thomas Young devised experiments which demonstrated the wave
behaviour of light. The results of these experiments cou ld not be
explained if light were a stream of particles and so the particle
theory was abandoned and replaced with the wave theory. These
experiments are described in more detail below
Albert Einstein used a particle model of light to explain the
experimental result called the 'photoelectric effect'. This could not be
Produce a detailed timeline
explained using wave theo ry.
about the history of ou r
understanding of light. Today it is accept ed that lig ht has both wavelike properties and
particle behaviours in different situa tions.

Diffraction of waves
When a water wave passes through a gap we can see that the wave
spreads out. This process is diffraction and occurs for all types of waves.
The amount of diffraction that takes place depends on the size of the gap
(Figure 3. 11.1). Maximum diffraction takes place when the wave passes
through a gap roug hly the same size as the wavelength of the wave.

a b
, Vibrating - ,
beam

• Use a ripple tank to observe '---"

~
f - - Diffracted - f-
the interference patterns --------
'-------'" wavefronts
formed by waves passing
through two narrow gaps .
• Use a laser to observe th e Figure 3 .11.1 1 Diffraction of water waves a at a wide gap b at a narrow gap
interference patterns formed
when light passes through Ligh t diffracts when it passes throu gh a ga p. As the waveleng t h
two very narrow slits. of lig ht is very small (arou nd 0.5 x 10-6 m), this process is only
/ noticeable when the ga ps are very narrow. This diffraction gives
evidence that light is behaving like a w ave.
Interference and the two-slit experiment
When two waves meet and pass through each other, the waves
superimpose (Figure 3.11.2) . The two displacements caused by the
separate waves are simply added together.
At some points where the waves overlap the superposition of the
waves cancel each other out (for example, when a crest meets a
trough). This is destructive interference .
At other points a crest will meet a crest and the displacements will
increase. This is constructive interference .
Two water waves produce
'-'-=:..:...:"-'-= an interference pattern as
a Destructive interference
the waves superimpose.

Rest position
0+-- -'---

b Constructive interference

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
O+--f--'-+--
1 Sketch a diagram show ing
what happens to water
waves as they pass through a
harbour entrance.
Figure 3.11.2 Superposition of waves 2 Why do we not norma lly see
diffraction of light w aves?
The resu lting pattern formed by the waves is an interference 3 Summari se the evidence
pattern (Fi gure 3. 113). found in thi s topic th at
ind ica tes that light beha ves as
Thomas You ng investigated wha t happened when light passed
a wave.
through two very narrow gaps. He fo und that the lig ht produces
clear interference patterns in the same way as water waves passing
through two gaps (Figure 3.11.4). A stream of particles would not KEY POINTS
produce this effect. The pa tterns cou ld only be explained if light was
t ravelling as a wave. 1 There have been several
theories about the particle or
wave behaviour of light.
The particle nature of light
2 Diffraction and interference
Some effects, however, cannot be explained by the wave model of experiments provide
light. Digital cameras and photovoltaic cells behave as if they are evidence for the wave
collecting light energy in small packets, similar to particles. These behaviour of light.
small packet s of light energy are ca lled photons .
 Sound is prod uced by vibra ti ng objects. Typical sources include:
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• the vibrati ng strings on a gu itar
At the end of this topic you
• the skin on a drum
should be able to:
• moving colum ns of air in a woodwind instrument
• describe how sound waves
• vibrating vocal chords when you speak
are prod uced
• a drill being used to dig up a road.
• compare sounds in terms of
frequency and amplitude
• relate amplitude to loudness Propagation of sound waves
and frequency to pitch. Sound waves propagate (travel) as longitudinal waves through a
medium . A medium is necessary because the vibrations must be
passed on from particle to parti cle. This can be demonstrat ed by
placing an electric bell inside a glass bell jar and using a vacuum pump
to remove the air (Figure 3.12 .1). As the air is removed, the sound of
Wires to the bell becomes quieter until it cannot be heard at all. This is because
power supply there is no longer a medium for the sound waves to pass through.
Sound waves are composed of a series of compressions and
Air removed rarefactions which spread out from the source (Figure 3.12 .2).
using a vacuum
pump The co mpressions are reg ions of air (or another medium) where the
particles have been compressed more closely together while the
Bell jar - - - I rarefactions are regions where the particles are further apart.

Fi ure 3 . 12. 1 When the air is removed

from the jar the bell can no
longer be heard.
Figure 3.12 .21 The compressions and rarefactions in a sound wave

Describing and displaying sounds

Table 3 .12 .1 Sound travel s at different Just like all other waves, sound waves have amplitude and frequency.
speeds in different media
• The greater the amplitude of a sound the louder it is.
Medium Approximate speed
• The higher the frequency of the sound the higher the pitch .
of sound/ms- 1
air 340 Representing sound waves on an oscilloscope
water 1500 Sou nd waves can be represented on t he screen of an oscilloscope
steel 6100 connected to a microphone. The microphone converts the sound
energy into an electrical signal and this signal controls the display
on the oscilloscope. The oscilloscope then displays the 'shape' of the
sound wave as a trace on the screen.
On th e oscill osco pe display:
• The height of this waveform is related to the amplitude of the
wave. Taller waves show louder sounds.
• The distance between the peaks on the wave represents the period
~fJtmf1tf1l~
a Loud and high-pitched

ffi9tUtfNUI
of t he sound wave. The closer th e peaks are together t he shorter
the period of t he sound wave.
This period is inversely pro portio nal to the freq uency (frequency =
b Loud and low·pitched
";,od) and so the closer together th e peaks, t he hig her t he freq uency
of the sound . Figure 3 .1 2.3 shows oscilloscope t races of sim ple
sound waves.
Most sounds are much more com plex than these sing le frequencies.
They are com posed of waves of d ifferent frequencies superi m posed
on each other. This produces more complicated waveforms as shown
in Figu re 3 .12 .4 .
-
c Quiet and high-pitched (higher pitch than a)

Figure 3.12.31 Sound waves represented

on an oscilloscope screen

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Why do you hear distorted sounds when you are swimming

underwater?
Figure 3.12 .41 An oscilloscope trace for a
2 Sketch a diagram showi ng how t hese two sounds would be note played on a flute
represented on an oscil loscope screen :
a A high frequency sound with low ampl itude.
b A sound wi t h half the f requency and t wice the am plitud e
of sound in part a. I'ACTIVITY:1
3 Use the wave speed equation to find the frequency of a sound Use an oscilloscope to compare
wave of wavelength 1.0 cm: the waveforms produced by
a in air different musical instruments or
b in water tuning forks .
c in steel.
(The speed of sound in the different media is shown in
Table3.121)

WORKED EXAMPLE
KEY POINTS The period of a sound w ave is
4.0 x lO-' s.
1 Sound waves are produced by vibrating objects includi ng
Wh at is the frequency of the
loudspeakers.
wave?
2 Sound waves travel as longitudinal waves through a medium 1
composed of a series of compressions and rarefactions. f=-
T
3 The higher the frequency of a sound the higher the pitch of
the sound. 4.0 X lO-'s
4 The greater the amplitude of a sound the louder the sound . = 250Hz

.1. I
LEARNING OUTCOMES The behaviour of sound waves

At the end of this topic you Reflection

should be able to:
Sound waves can be reflected just like any other wave. Smooth and
• describe how sound can rigid surfaces cause the strongest reflections. The reflected sound
be reflected. refracted and waves are called echoes (Figure 3.13.1).
diffracted
Refraction
• describe interference of
sound waves Sound waves will change direction when they move from one material
• describe how sound can be to another because they change speed. The speed of sound in air
used in pre-natal scans and also increases as the temperature of the air increases. This means that
materials testing. sound waves can bend as they travel through layers of air at different
temperatures (Figure 3.13.2). This effect is most noticeable at night
when the air near the ground is cooler than the air above it.

Sound waves can follow a curved path through a temperature gradient.

Diffraction
Sound waves have a much greater wavelength than light waves and
so they are diffracted easily by larger gaps. Sound waves will spread
a smooth and
as they pass through doorways or around corners as their wavelength
is similar to the size of these gaps.

Interference
When two sound waves meet they interfere. The waves are
superimposed on top of each other. If two sources producing an
• Investigate whether sound identical signal are used then this effect can be detected. Two
waves fo llow t he laws loudspeakers connected to the same source will form an interference
of reflection using some pattern in front of them. This pattern will have regions where the
cardboa rd tubes t o direct the waves destructively interfere and no sound will be heard. There will
sound waves. also be reg ions where the two waves constructively interfere and the
• Find out about th e hea ring sound will be louder than normal.
frequ ency ra nge of bats and
dolphins. Produce a report Using sound waves
about how th ey sense prey and
predators. If the speed of sound is known then we can measure distances by
recording the time taken for sound to reach us. For example. during a
storm, light from a lightning strike reaches us almost instantly but the
sound ta kes a measureable amount of time allowing us to calculate
how far away the lighting struck.

W ORKED EXAMPLE 1

A lightning strike hits a tree and the thunder is heard 4 seconds

later. How far away did the lightning strike?
') _
d_is_ta_n_c-,-
e -,-
(m---,)
Spee d (ms- =
time (s)
distance = speed x time = 340ms- 1 x 4s = 1360m

Ultrasound
High freq uency sou nds (above 20 kHz) are not detectable by humans
and so are classed as ultrasound. Animals such as bats or dolphins
produce ultrasound pulses to det ect obstacles .
Because ultrasound pu lses can be directed in narrow beams more
easily t han audi ble sound, they can be used to make measurements
or produce images .
In pre-natal ca re, ultrasound pulses are used to form an image of the
foetus (Figure 3.1 3.4). The pulses reflect off the different tissues and
the echoes of these pulses are processed by a computer to fo rm an
image. Unlike X-rays, ult rasound does not cause ionisation and so is
much sa fer to use.
An ultrasound pulse can also be used to 'see' into solid materials
such as pipework, to measure the depth of the sea-bed or to detect
shoa ls of fish near a boat (Figure 3.13.5) .
'---7
Receiver/ '"
""
f 'Transmitter

/ WORKED EXAMPLE 2 I

An ultrasound pulse is used to detect a crack in a metal pipe. The Sea-bed j

pulse travels at 6000 m S- 1 in the metal and the echo is received Figure 3.13. 51 Using sound pu lses to
4.0 fls after the pulse is sent. How deep w ithin the pipe is the crack? measure depth
Dist ance = speed x time = 6000 m S- 1 x 4.0 X 1O-' s = 0.024 m
The pulse has travelled to the crack and back and so the crack is
0.012 m w ithin the pipe.
KEY POINTS

SUMMARY QUESTIONS 1 Sound waves share the same

behaviours as other waves.
1 While walking along a road you hear an ambulance siren from They can be reflected,
around the corner but you cannot see the ambulance. Draw a refracted, diffracted and
diagram and explain how this can happen. interfere with each other.

2 A dolphin produces a sound pulse which reflects off a fish it 2 Ultrasound can be used
is hunting . The echo of the pu lse is detected by the dolphin to detect objects by echo
0.4 second after the pulse was sent. The speed of sound in location and to measure
water is 1500 m S-1 . How far apart are the dolphin and the fish? distances.
----., Section 3

SECTION 3: Practice exam questions

1 The relationship between the refractive index B

and the angles of incidence and refraction for
a ray crossing the boundary between air and DisplacemenVcm
glass is given by:
3
re f ractlve
. . d Sin I
In ex = - . -
2
slnr
/ ~ / ~ / ~
1
During an experiment to measure the \
refractive index of a glass block the following 0
-1
01 0 03 94 0 5 0~ 07 8 0 9 10
results were obtained.
-2
'- V '- V
Angle of 10 15 20 25 30 35 -3
incidence. Time/s
i/degrees
3 On a calm day you can see your reflection
Angle of 7.0 10.8 14.3 17.6 21.2 24.2
when looking into a pond. When the pond's
refraction,
surface is disturbed you can no longer see a
r/degrees
reflection. Why is this?
sin;
4 The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum consists of
sinr
a series of waves.

a Copy and complete the table by a State two properties which all
calculating the values for sini and sinr. electromagnetic waves have in common.

b Plot a suitable graph using the values for sin i b Copy and complete this table showing
and sinrwhich allows you to obtain a value the EM spectrum in order of increasing
for the refractive index for the glass block. wavelength.

2 Diagram A shows a distance-displacement Gamma Visible Radio

graph for a water wave and diagram S shows rays light waves
a displacement- time graph for a particle in
the same wave. c Which of the regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum:
a State:
i has the lowest frequency)
i the wavelength of the wave
ii is a major cause of skin cancers?
ii the amplitude of the wave
iii is used in radiotherapy to treat
iii the period of the wave.
cancers?
b Calculate the speed of the wave.
5 An oscilloscope is used to display signals
A received from a microphone when two
Displacement/em different tuning forks, A and S, are struck
nearby. These signals are shown in the
3
diagrams opposite. The oscilloscope has been
2
1
+-. t-- adjusted so that each horizontal division
0 represents a time period of 2 ms.
-1 1
-2
a Which of the tuning forks produced the
-3 louder sound)
Distance/em b Which of the tuning forks produced the
higher pitch?
,
 c Find the frequency of tuning fork A. 7 During a medical exam ination an ultrasound
d Without further calculation, state the pulse is used to measure the thickness of a
frequency of tuning fork B. fat layer in a patient's skin. Sound travels at
630 m s-' in this tissue. The echo from the
pulse is received 0.311S after the pulse is sent.
a How thick is the fat layer?
b Why are ultrasound frequencies used
instead of lower frequencies?
c Why are ultrasound scans used instead of
X-rays in pre-natal care?
8 A student investigated the law of reflection
using a ray box and a curved mirror as shown.
a State the two laws of reflection .
b Copy and complete the diagram showing
the reflected ray.
c Mark on the angle of reflection and state
its value.
Normal

Mirror

6 During an experiment to measure the speed of

9 A group of scientists investigating optical
sound in metal, two microphones are attached
properties have constructed a triangular prism
to a long, thin steel bar. The first microphone
from diamond. Diamond has a refractive index
starts the stopclock when it detects sound
of 2.40.
in the bar. The second microphone is 50cm
further along the bar and stops the stopclock a The speed of light in air is 3 x 10' ms- '.
when it detects sound. The measurement on What is the speed of light in diamond?
the stopclock is 0.2 ms. b Explain why the diamond disperses white
a What type of wave is sound? light to a much greater extent than a glass
prism would.
b What is the speed of sound in the steel bar?
c The sound source produces a sound wave 10 Borosilicate glass and a type of baby oil are
with a frequency of 1000 Hz. The speed of both transparent and have exactly the same
sound in air is 340ms ' . refractive index. When a block of the glass is
placed into a beaker of the baby oil the block
What is the wavelength of the sound
becomes invisible. Why is this?
in air?
ii What is the wavelength of the sound
in the metal bar?

I
11 A ray of light passes into the side of a thick- 13 An optical fibre is constructed from a glass
walled glass beaker containing water as with a refractive index of 1.60. The fibre is
shown in the diagram. curved as shown in the diagram.
a Calculate the angle of refraction at the air a Copy the diagram and draw the path of
to glass boundary. the ray from entry into the fibre until it
b State the angle of incidence at the glass to leaves at the far end.
water boundary. b What is the critical angle for the glass to
c Calculate the angle of refraction at the air boundary'
glass to water boundary. c When bending the fibre a small crack
d Complete the ray diagram showing the ray forms at the surface. Explain why this may
reaching the centre of the beaker. prevent light from reaching the end of the
fibre.
Normal

Air Water,
n ~ 1.33

Glass, 14 A slide projector produces a magnified image

n ~ 1.50
of slides when light is shone through them.
The slides are placed 14cm from a converging
12 Rays of light are shone into two prisms, A lens which has a focal length of 8.0 cm.
and B, as shown in the diagram. Prism A is
constructed of a standard glass with refractive a Draw a ray diagram showing how the
index 1.50. Prism B is constructed from a image is produced.
plastic with a significantly lower refractive b Describe the properties of this image.
index of 1.2. c Calculate the distance to this image.
a Calculate the critical angles for both of the d Calculate the magnification of this image.
prisms.
b Use the results of the calculations to
complete the ray paths until the rays leave
the blocks.

A B
15 The lens in a human eye is converging and can a Draw three rays on a copy of this diagram
form a focussed image on the retina at the showing how the image would be fo rmed
back of the eye. The retina lies 5 cm beh ind on the retina.
the lens and the eye can form a clear image b Describe the properties of the image
when an object is placed a minimum distance formed .
of 20 cm from the eye.
c Calculate the magnification of the image.
An object of height 4.0cm is placed at this
d Calculate the vertical size of the image on
minimum distance from the lens as shown in
the retina .
the simplified ray diagram.

, . 20cm r'. Scm I

t
Object
 Ato ms are co mposed of t hree types of particles: protons, neutrons
LEARNING OUTCOMES
and electrons (Fig ure 4.1.1). Protons and electrons have a property
At the end of this topic you cal led electric charge.
should be able to : • Protons are said to be positively charged and are bound into the
• name the ch arged particles in nucleus of the atom. They cannot be removed easily.
an atom • Neutrons are also found bound in the nucleus but have no
• describe the forces between electrical charge .
charged particles • Electrons are negatively charged . They are found outside the
• explain charging by induction. nucleus and can be removed if they are provided w ith some energy.
Atoms are neutral particles because they have the same amount of
positive charge and negative charge, giving a total charge of zero.
Very small nucleus
Separating charges
Proton Most materials are uncharged because they are composed of neutral
atoms. When some matenals are rubbed together the frictional forces
Neutron can cause electrons to be transferred from one material to another.
Because the protons are t ightly bound in the nucleus they cannot
move from place to place .
• '\
Eledron This transfer of electrons results in both of the materials becoming
electrically cha rged :
• When extra electrons enter an object the object becomes negatively
cha rged.
Figure 4.1.1 The structure of an atom • When electrons leave an object the object becomes positively charged.
Ru bbing a polythene rod w ith a dry cloth will cause electrons to move
from the cloth to the polythene rod . The rod will become negatively
charged because it has extra electrons and the cloth wi ll become posi tively
charged because it has fewer electrons than protons (Figure 4.1.2) .

EXAM TIP Rubbing a Perspex rod will cause electrons to move f rom the rod to t he
clot h leaving the rod positively charged and the cloth negatively charged .
It is aLwaijs the
Atoms
""",ve>l<e...t of eLeetyoVl.S become
{Yo ...... plllee to plllee that positive as Atoms
a result of become
eawse olijeets to beco>l<e losing electrons positive as
eha""9 eQ . Malee Sl.<yt that Electrons gained a result of
ij0l.< Qtseribe the eLeetyoVl.S by rod" losing electrons

.("'-Ot PyotoVl.S) ....."v."'9

• ...to OY Ol.<t of olijeets.

Dry cloth
Dry cloth
Figure 4.1.2 Charging a plastic rod
Forces between charged objects
Charged parti cles produce a force on each other in a sim ila r way to
magnets : --+
+l + +
• Opposite charges attract each other. (Positive and negative charges
attract each other.)
++
-+
++ +
• Similar charges repel each other. (For example, positive charges
repel positive charges.)
a The charged rod is held near the sphere

Suspend rods of different materials from a piece of cotton

so that they can rotate freely. Charge up t he rod s and then
investigate the effects of placing other cha rged rods very close t o
th e suspended ones.
--+l +
-+
-+
+
+
++

Induced charge
A neutral object can become charged when a charged object is
placed nea rby (Figure 4.1.3). The electrons in the object will be b The sphere is earthed briefly
attracted by a positively charged rod and move towards it causing
one part of t he object t o become negatively cha rged and leaving the
other part of the object positively charged. If we touch the positively
charged area then electrons can move into the object from the
Earth. Removing the origi nal charged rod wil l then cause the excess
electrons to distribute themselves on the object leaving it charged.
This process is referred to as charging by induction.
The same effect ca n be seen when a charged rod is placed near to
some uncharged chalk dust. The electrons in the dust are able to
c The rod is removed. The sphere is leh
move sl ightly and cause the dust particles to become charged on with an opposite charge to the rod.
one side. This means that the dust particles become attracted to the
Figure 4 .1.3 Charging by induction
charged rod.

{ ACTIVITY I
To investigate the effect of ind uced ch arge cut paper into very KEY POINTS
smal l pieces and place them on a desk. Charge up a plastic rod
1 Atoms have no overall
using a cloth and place t he cloth near the pieces.
charge because they contain
• Describe w hat happens to the pieces of paper. an equal number of protons
• Explain why the charged rod affects t he uncharged pieces of and electrons .
paper.
2 Electrons can be transferred
between objects by frictiona l
forces.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
3 Oppositely charged objects
1 A student walks along a nylon ca rpet and then reac hes out to attract each other whi le
a door hand le. A tiny spark is produced and the st udent feels similarly charged objects
an electric shock. Expla in why this happens. repel.
2 Dust pa rticles are uncharged but they often stick to electrica l 4 Charges can be induced in
equipment such as television screens . Why does this happen 7 neutral objects.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Electric fields
An electric field is a region of space in which a charged object will
At the end of this topic you
experience a force.
should be able to:
The field shows the direction of force acting on a positively charged
• describe an electric field and
particle placed in the field (Figures 4.2 .1 and 4.2.2). A negatively
its effect on charged particles
charged particle experiences a force in the opposite direction.
• explai n how a Van de Graaff
generator separates charges
To Van de Graaff generator
• explain how buildi ngs are +
Glass dish
protected from damage by
lightning.

Castor oil sprinkled

with semolina powder
a
Figure 4.2.2 Demonstrating an electric field. The particles line up in the direction
of the field.
lines
of force
The Van de Graaff generator
Rubbing a rod with a cloth can only separate a small amount of
charge. To produce a larger bUild-up of charge a Van de Graaff
(VdG) generator can be used (Figure 4.2.3).
• A large, hollow, metal dome is insulated from the ground by a
plastic tower.
• Inside the tower a rubber belt is moved by an electric motor and
passes over two rollers made of different plastic materials.
• As the belt passes over the lower roller electrons are transferred
from the inner part of the belt to the roller, making the roller
negatively charged.
• Positively charged ions are attracted to the roller from the metal
comb but are trapped on the belt as it moves upwards. This leaves
Figure 4.2 .1 Electric fields near a a the outer surface of the belt positively charged .
charged sphere, b a
positive point charge and • At the top of the generator the positively charged belt draws
c a negative point charge electrons from the dome through the second metal comb . The
dome becomes positively charged by induction.
• As the rubber belt rotates, more electrons are removed from the
dome and positive charge can build up on the surface of the dome.

Some effects of the VdG generator

The effectiveness of the VdG generator depends a great deal on the
weather cond itions. In humid conditions the charges can be ca rried
away on water molecules in the air.
 Eledrons move from + + +
dome to the rubber +
+ Perspex roller Metal dome receives
belt through a and stores positive Your teacher may demonstrate
metal comb + + charge a VdG generator.
- +- +++
+
- + +S?+ + • Place your hand on the dome.
+
+ + Electrons will be stripped
+ + + from your body, leaving you
+ Insulating column
+ positively cha rged. The hairs
+ on your head will repel each
+
+ Rotating rubber belt other and try to move as far
+ apart as possible. This means
+ that they w ill stand on end.
+
+ • Once you have been charged
-
+ i 'riHk"":::,<- Motor
up, touch another student.
They (and you) may fee l
Positive ions are drawn towards an electric shock. Electrons
the roller and trapped on the rubber belt Polythene roller
from the Earth pass through
Fi ure 4.2.3 A Van de Graaff generator their body and into you . Th is
movement of electrons is
ca lled a current.
lightning
• Observe th e effect of
Lig htn ing is a very large spark. Clouds ca n become highly charged by attaching a point to the
frictional forces acting inside them . Droplets of water and ice cryst als dome of the VdG generator
brush against each other and charges are separat ed. Eventually the and bringing a conducting
charge separat ion is so la rge that a lightni ng bolt is produced. object close to it. You may
A lig ht ning bolt is often a flow of electrons to earth. A very large see a visible spark. This is
electri c current is produced and this heats the air around it rapidly because charges are evenly
causing a bright wh ite glow. The air is heated so quickly t hat a sound spread across a curved
shockwave, thunder, is produced. surface but build up in high
concentration s at a point.
./
Protection from lightning
Lightn ing cond uctors are placed on tops of tall buildi ngs, to protect
the build ing in two ways:
• The pointed end of the conduct or allows induced charge, which
builds up in the bu ilding, to leak away into the air ma king it less
likely that the building will be struck .
• Somet imes t he lig htning will strike the building anyway. The large
current could cau se fi re or even an explosion. Light ning condu ct ors
have thick metal cables or bars that al low th e electric current f rom Very large amounts of
lightning to pass through t o earth safely wi th out generati ng to o = z:::.::.c=:=d charge can be created by
much heat. forces in the at mosphere.

KEY POINTS SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Charges have electrical fields around them which affect other 1 Why does lightning
charged objects. sometimes strike church
2 A Van de Graaff generator can be used to investigate the towers?
effects of electric charge. 2 Why shouldn't you stand
3 When large charges build up they may eventually discharge as under a tree in a lightning
an electnc current. storm?
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Dangers of stat ic electricity
You have already seen that the build-up of large charges can be
At the end of this topic you
dangerous, resulting in lightning, for example. Even smal l sparks or
should be able to:
currents can sometimes be dangerous or damag ing .
• describe a range of dangers
associated with static Refuelling explosions
electricity
Large electrical charges can build up on vehicles when they move .
• describe a range of uses for Air resistance or ot her frictional forces cause the transfer of electrons
static electricity. (Figure 4.3.1).
Car tyres can transfer charge to the car's metal body. If enough
cha rge bui lds up on the car a spark can be produced. When
ref uelling a car, a sma ll spark can ignite petrol vapour and ca use an
explosion. Modern car tyres have been desig ned to help reduce this
dangerous build-up of charge.
When aircraft are refuelled, the moving fuel could cause a bui ld-
up of charge in the aircraft's fuel tanks and a spark could cause
an explosion. To prevent this build-up of charge the ai rcraft and
refuelling tan ker are con nected together by a conducting cable to
allow the charge to dissipate safely.
Sparks can even cause explosions when there is dry powder in the air
such as in flour mi lls.
'-=-===:.:....1 Aircraft can build up static
charge as they fly. These
Damage to electronics
thin spikes on the wing are
designed to help reduce Microprocessors and other integrated circuits are ext remely sensitive
the build-up of static
to static elect ricity and can be ruined if there is a build-up of charge.
electricity.

Uses of static electricity

Static electri city can also be useful in phot ocopiers, in reducing air
pollution and in spray pa inting surfaces.

Photocopiers
Photocopiers use careful control of static charge to produce images
on paper (Figure 4.3.3).
• A rotating drum is negatively cha rged by a brush.
• A bri ght light is shone onto an image on a sheet of paper.
• The bright light is ref lect ed onto the charged drum.
• The negative charge can escape from the drum in areas t hat receive
through a wristband as he the reflected light. The areas that do not receive light remain
repai rs a computer. Any
negatively cha rged. Th is means that the charges on t he drum are
static build-up in his body
will discharge throu gh the arranged in the same pattern as the image on the ori ginal sheet of
lead instead of damaging pa per.
the delicate circu itry.

2L
• A positively charged 'toner' powder is applied to the drum . This
powder is attracted to the negatively charg ed areas but not to the
uncharged areas.
• A negatively charged piece of paper is pressed against the rotating
drum. The toner remaining on the drum is attracted to the paper.
• The paper is heated and the toner melts onto it creating a
permanent copy of th e original image.

i i face down Glass plate

II~T~~;~~~~~~~~~~ High intensity

light source
Figure 4.3 .4 Electrostatic precipitator

Powder

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What cha rge should be given

to a car body to ensure that
""-= ::':"=:.::..J A photocopier
negatively charged paint
droplets wil l st ick t o it even ly?
2 Why shouldn't you use a cell
Laser printers operate in a similar way. Instead of using reflected light phone in a petrol station 7
to create the image on the drum, a laser beam draws a pattern so
3 What type of materials
that any image can be created.
should be used to make the
wristband for the electronic
Reducing air pollution
engineer in Figure 4.3 .27
Power sta t ions produce soot that would normally escape through the
ch imney. To prevent this pollution a charged metal grid can be used
to collect the soot particles. As the soot particles rise up the chimney
and past the metal grid they gain positive charge and are attracted to KEY POINTS
earthed metal plates on the side of the chimney. The soot can then
be collected. This process is called elect rost atic preci pitation. 1 Static electricity can damage
electronic components and
Improving painting cause explosions.

To improve the quality of painted surfaces the paint can be charged 2 Static electricity is used in
as it is sprayed. The surface is oppositely charged and so the paint is photocopying, painting and
attracted to the whole surface. This gives a very even coating of pa int. reducing pollution.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Current and charge
The flow of electric charge is a current . This flow of charge is caused
At t he end of this topic you
by a potential difference between two points.
should be able to:
• describ e an electric cu rrent in Defining current
terms of charge transfer
The size of a current is the rate of flow of charge and this is measured
• describe the current in a in a unit called the ampere (A) . The relationship is normally written as:
metal wire
charge transferred = current x time or Q = It
• describe the current in an
ionic solution. Quantities of charge are measured using a unit called the coulomb
(C) and 1 coulomb = 1 ampere second (As) .

WORKED EXAMPLE

What is the current in a w ire if a charge of 360C is transferred in

one minute?
Q = It
1= 9. = 360C = 6.0A
t 60s

Current in circuits
Electrical charges move around circuits in a current. In an electrical
circuit a current is used to transfer energy to electrical devices.
In a simple circuit the current is a flow of electrons through metal
wires and components . The current is not used up as it tra vels around
the circuit. All of the electrons complete the whole journey releasing
energy in the components as they pass through them.
EXAM TIP
Conventional current
Itis ilM.l'orttlv\'t t o tlLwtlt1s
Conventional current is described in terms of a flow of positive
sttlte tl1t1t coV\,veV\,tLoML
charge. In circu its the energy is actually carried by a flow of negative
c"-';~V\,t t~tlveLs f~o lM. charges. This means that the particles carrying charge are actual ly
l'0s.hve t o v\'egtltLve moving in the opposite direction to the conventional current.
e~ev\' ;vl1eV\, aLsc"-Ssivcg
C t.r'CL<.LtS. Conductors and insulators
Metals are composed of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a
'sea' of free electrons which can move about. This means that it is
easy for charges to move freely through metals so they are good
conductors of electricity.
Most other solid materials do not have free electrons or other charge
carriers and so it is difficu lt for a current to flow. These materials are
called insulators.
Semiconductors
Some materials lie between the two extremes of conductivi ty. They
can conduct under the right circumstances. These are classed as
semiconductors . Silicon is a semiconductor and its ability to
conduct can be altered by adding atoms of other semiconductors
such as germanium . Some sem icon ductors are made to co nduct in
one direction and only if the potential difference across it is high
enoug h. This effect is used in diodes and transist ors.

Current in ionic solutions

When sodium chloride is dissolved in water an ionic solution is
Test a range of materi als to
formed . This contains two different types of ions: Na + and CI - .
see if they are conductors
If electrodes are placed in the solution and connected to a battery, or insulators. You can use a
bot h of these cha rged particles can flow because of t he pot ent ial simple lamp or an ammeter
difference between the two electrod es. (Figure 4.4.1) .
• The sodium ions are positively charged and so are attracted to the
negative electrode. When they reach t he electrode t hey obtain
elect rons and form sodium. This rapidly reacts w ith the water to
fo rm sodi um hydroxide and hydrogen gas and so bub bles can be
seen on the elect rode .
• The chlorine ions are negatively charged and are attracted to the
positive electrode. When they reach the electrode they lose an
electron and form chlorine gas.
Place the material in the ci rcuit
This process is ca lled elect rol ysis and ca n be ca rried out on an to find out if it can cond uct electricity
industrial scale to produce useful chlorine gas and sodium hydroxide
soluti on. Electrolysis of other ionic solutions can produce oth er useful Figure 4.4.1 A simple conduction test
chemicals.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Copy and complete Table 4.4.1 relating current, charge and

time.

Table 4 .4.1

Current/A 2.5 0.05

Charge/C 100 0.2 KEY POINTS

Time/s 40 300 1 The current in a metal wire is

caused by a flow of electrons
2 A curren t of 150 mA flows through a circuit for 4 minutes. from a negative terminal to
How much charge has been transferred? a positive terminal.
3 Molten electrolytes can also conduct electricity. Molten lead 2 Conventional current is a
bromide con ta ins Pb" and Br- ions. Explain what happens flow of positive cha rge from
when electrodes are placed in molten lead brom ide and a positive terminal to a
connected to a battery. negative terminal.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Potential difference
Potential d iffe rence is the cause of the movement of charge.
At the end of this topic you
A charged particle will move to a position where it will have less
should be able to:
potential energy and so will move to a 'lower' point in an electric field .
• calculate the potential
This is a little like a mass in a gravitational field. As the mass falls
difference between two
through the gravitational field it loses potential energy. The energy
points
loss depends on the distance moved th rough the field, the strength
• calculate the energy of the field and the size of the mass. In electricity the energy change
transferred by an electrical depends on the size of the charge and the potential difference it
device. moves through.
Potential difference is therefore defined by the equation:
energy transferred E
potential difference = or V = -
charge Q

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

How much energy is transferred when a charge of 3.2 C passes

t hrough a potential difference of 5.0V?

V=~
Q
E = VQ = 5.0V x 3.2C = 16J

In circuits the positive terminal of a battery or power supply is at

higher potential than the negative terminal.

Voltage, potential difference and electromotive force

The voltage produced by an electrical power source is called the
electromotive force (e.m .f .) and the voltage across an electrical
component is usua lly called the potential difference (p.d .). Both are
measured in volts and are often referred to simply as voltages.

EXAM TIP
Electrical power
6Lect r.c'llpower .5 Just as in mechanical energy transfer, the power of an electrical
~'l5K recj .'" tne K",.t device is the rate at which it transfers energy. This can be linked to
W'ltt (W) .'" tne 5'lV\.te the definitions of potentia l difference and current as fol lows:
:VCl 1:j Cis ~cnCl"'.c'llpower E E
L5. O"-t W'ltt .5 O"-t jOKle V = - and Q = It, therefore V = -
per 5ec o ~ . Q n
E E
IV = - and, as power IS defined by P = -, P = IV
t
Electrical power is measured in watts (W).
 WORKED EXAMPLE 2

How much energy is transferred by a bulb in 20 s if it operates

with a potential difference of 6.0 V and a current of O.SA?
P = IV = O.5A x 6.0V = 3.0W
E = Pt = 3.0W x 20s = 60J

Electrical transformations

I I '"
Electrical energy can be transformed in many useful ways. Here are
some examples:
• Electrical motors transform electrical energy into kinetic energy.
allowing a wide range of objects to move.
• Electricity can be converted into light using filament bulbs. LEDs or . . " ~
.... . . ." , . i
'

fluorescent tubes.
• Loudspeakers convert electrical energy to sound . ~ .

Conservation of energy
Electrical energy is very useful as it can be transferred and transformed
.
amID • ' ; ..
. ...'"."
much more efficient than
easily but most of the production of electricity relies on bu rning
filament bulbs.
fossil fuels. These fuels are only available in limited quantities and
so reducing their use is important. We can conserve some of these
resources by using more efficient electrical devices (Figure 4.5.1) or by
using alternative sources of energy where possible (Figu re 4.5.2) .

/ ACTIVITY I
Use a voltmeter and an ammeter to measure the current in and
potential difference across a lamp. Use your readings to find its
power rating.
'-'-'=c.:....=~ Electricity can be generated
using photovo\taic solar
cells,
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What is the power of an electrical device which operates with

a current of 12 AA and potential difference of 12 V?
2 How much cha rge is t ransferred when a torch with a power
rating of 4.0W and operating voltage of 6.0V operates for
one minute?
3 What potential difference is required to provide a charge of
40 me with 1OJ of energy?

KEY POINTS

1 The potential difference across a com ponent is defined by

V=~
Q
2 The power of an electrical device is given by P = IV
 A simple circuit consists of a source of electromotive force (a cell,
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a battery or a power supply), connecting leads and some electrical
At the end of this topic you components.
should be able to:
• draw simple circuit diagrams Circuit diagrams
containing a range of Drawing realistic diagrams of the components is not necessary and
components can be confusing, so a standard set of symbols is used.
• interpret CIrcuit diagrams and
• The same symbols are used around the world allowing all engineers
use them to construct real
to understand them.
circuits
• A circuit diagram shows the important connections between
• explain why a standard set of
components very clearly.
symbols is used for circuits.
The key circuit symbols are shown in Table 4.6.1.

Table 4.6.1 Standard electrical symbols

Component Symbol Use Component Symbol Use

earth point of lowest wires passing indicates that
--L
-
potential
+0'+ wires are not
connected
together
cel l provides an lamp or bulb transforms
-----il- electromotive
force in the circuit
-6- or-6- electrical energy
into light
battery provides an voltmeter measures
electromotive the potential
--111111111f- force in the circuit -----@- difference
between two
points
d.c. power provides an ammeter measures the
supply electromotive current at that
~
+ -
0-- force in the circuit -----0- point in the
circuit
a.c. power provides a galvanometer measu res very
supply ----<> J' 0 - -
changing
electromotive
force in the ci rcuit
0'
--®--0- small currents

switch connects or sem icond uctor allows current

~o-- disconnects diode ~I only in direction
components of the arrow
junction indicates tha t electrolytic cel l produces

+ wires are
connected
together
----@- a precISe
electromotive
force
Component Symbol Use Component Symbol Use
fuse melt s and cuts loudspea ker tran sforms
E3 OXO off t he ci rcuit if electrical energy
or the current is too
=Q] into sound
large
fixed resisto r reduces t he transform er changes th e p. d.
-----c=::::J-- current in a ~ of an alternating
or ~

-----'VVVVV-- branch of a JYYYYL current

circuit
variabl e resi stor a resistor whose gen erator tran sform s kinetic
-¢- valu e can be
manually altered
----e- energy into
electri cal energy
electric motor t ransforms
electri cal energy
-L()::J---- into kinetic
energy

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Draw a circuit diagram for the two circuits in Figure 4.6.1. 1 Draw the correct circuit
diagram for the two circuits
shown in Figure 4.6.2.

Figure 4.6.1

To draw a circuit clearly follow these simple rules: Figure 4.6.2

• Start by drawing the cell, battery or power supply. 2 A student has drawn a circuit
• Use a ru ler to draw all of the connecting leads and wires and diagram poorly (Figure 4 .6.3).
any other straight lines. Describe and correct the
mistakes the student has
• Work around the circuit in a logical order. Start from the
made.
positive terminal.
• Draw one component at a time working towards the negative
terminal of the battery.
"
• If the circuit has any branches then complete one branch
before moving on to the next.
• If necessary mark the direction of the conventional current on
the circuit using small arrows. Figure 4.6.3
• There should be no gaps in the circuit.

KEY POINTS

1 Circuit diagrams show the connections between components

dearly.
2 Standard symbols must be used for circuit diagrams.
 There are two categories of circuits: series and parallel
LEARNING OUTCOMES
(Figure 4.7.1). To analyse these circuits we need to understand the
At the end of th is topic you behaviour of the current in the circuit and the changes in energy
should be able t o: provided to the components.

• describe t he behaviour of
current in series and pa rallel Series circuits
ci rcu its Series circuits are the simplest type of circuit. There is only one
• descri be the potential pathway connecting the positive and negative terminals.
difference in series and
parallel circuits. Understanding current in series circuits
./
In the circuit the current is composed of a flow of charge, in the form
of electrons, moving through the wires . The electrons pass through
a
i~~:
each component in turn but they cannot be created or destroyed.
They can only release some of the energy they carry. The electrons
also cannot stay in a component. The same number has to leave as
enter and at the same rate.

-6 -6- This means that the current must be exactly the same in all of the
components in series with each other.
b
I~, Understanding potential difference in series circuits
1'1'
The source of electromotive force in the circuit can be a cell, a battery
~
or a power supply. In this description we will assume a cell is being
~
used but the principle is the same for all sources.

~
Electrons passing through the cell gain potential energy as they pass
-L.\. jj- through . When the electrons move through a component in the
Figure 4.7 .1 1 Circuit a shows two circuit they transfer some of the energy they gained when passing
bulbs In series and Circuit through the cell. After moving through all of the components the
b shows a resistor in electrons will have the same amount of potential energy as they first
parallel with an electric started with, before they passed through the cell.
motor.
As energy must always be conserved the electrons have to lose exactly
the same amount of energy when they pass through the components
as they gained from the cell. This means that the sum of the potential
difference drops around the circuit must match the electromotive
EXAM TIP force of the cell.

Appli::j ti1e eules of cimt.<.it

Cl Mli::jsis cClyeft.<.lli::j, O""f Parallel circuits
s t Clge CIt CI time, CI",,01 Parallel circuits have branches where the current can divide and re-join.
i::j0"; will be Clble to solve
CI w,ole YCl""ge of cimt.<.it Understanding current in parallel circuits
pYoble""-S. The current into any junction must exactly match the current out
of that junction. This is because the rate of electrons entering the
junction must be the same as the rate of electrons leaving the
junction. They can't stay at the junction.
If current divides to fo llow different branches then the current wi ll
recombi ne when the branches re-join. The current entering the cell,
or other power supply, has to match the current leaving it.

Understanding potential difference in parallel circuits

The potential difference across each branch must be the same.
Electrons following one path have to lose the same amount of energy
as electrons following a different path before they re-join.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

What is the current and potential difference across the bulbs in

the ci rcuit shown in Figure 4.7.27
The potential difference across the 12.0V
branches must be the same as the ~-I f ----/ ~-'
electromotive fo rce of the battery.
4.0A E
This means there is a p.d. of 12 .0V
across bulbs D and E.
The current from the battery is 4.0A.
The current into bul b D is 3.0A and
D
so the current into bulb E must be SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Figure 4. 7.2
1.0A.
1 Sketch all of the possible
circuits that can involve five
bulbs. Include series, parallel
More complex circuits and com bined circuits.
A circuit does not have to be purely series or parallel. Many are 2 Find the current in and the
combinations of both. The rules for parallel and series circuits apply p.d. across the resistors Y and
to the appropriate parts of the circuit. Z in Figure 4.7.4. X and Yare
equal resistances.
8.0V
WORKED EXAMPLE 2

The circuit shown in Figure 4.7.3 conta ins both para llel and
,------+------1 f--- -/1------.
series elements. Find the current and potentia l difference across 2.0A
each of the bulbs. O.SA X Y
The current from the battery is 12.0V w
2.0A. This means that the current
,---0-----1 f----/ f - -----, 1.SV z
through bulb P must be 2.0A and 2.0A
so must the current through bulb Figure 4 .7.4
Q
S. The total current through bulb
Q and bulb R must be 2.0A and
so the current through R must be
KEY POINTS
2.0A - l.5A = O.5A.
The p.d. across bulb Q must be the 4.0V 1 The current into any junction
same as the p.d. across bulb R so it Figur.4.7.3 is equal to the current out
is 4.0 V. of it.
The total p.d. around t he circu it must be 12.0V. 2 The potential difference
This mea ns that the p.d. across bulb S must be around any closed loop in a
12.0V - S.OV - 4.0V = 3.0V. circuit is zero.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Chem ica l reactions in ce lls
The electromotive force (e .m.f.) required to drive a current can be
At the end of this topic you
produced by chemical reactions between acids and metals. Each cell
should be able to:
has two terminals or electrodes: the positive and the negative.
• describe how cells and
Cells are restricted in the size of the current they can provide by their
batteries produce an
internal resistances which are due to their physical and chemical
electromotive force
composition.
• distinguish between primary
and secondary cells A battery is simply a collection of cells placed in series with each
other. The e.m.f. of the battery will be the sum of the e.m .f .s of the
• draw a diagram to show
cells, assuming all of the cel)s are placed the same way around.
how a secondary cell can be
recharged .
Primary cells
In a primary cell the chemical reaction which produces the e.m.f.
cannot be reversed . This means that, once the reaction has taken
Metal cap place, the cell cannot be recharged and reused. There are several
(positive contact) types of primary cells. One common example is the zinc- carbon dry
cell (Figure 4.8 .1)
Insulator and seal
Ca rbon rod (+ )
Positive Zinc (-) case In a zinc-carbon cell a metal case of zinc acts as the negative
electrode (outer card or electrode and a carbon rod acts as the positive electrode. A reaction
and current metal jacket
collector -1+1'4.
occurs between the zinc and carbon and an ammonium chloride
removed)
paste and this reaction produces an e.m .f. of 1.5 V initially.
Paste of
ammonium Zinc-carbon cells have a relatively high internal resistance and so they
chloride cannot provide large currents, the maximum being around 1 A. This
solution
(electrolyte)
means that they are not suitable for providing energy to high power
Negative devices.
contact - - - - - ' Paper
separator Chemical reactions take place inside zinc-carbon cells even when
Manganes€{lv) dioxide they are not in use. This means that the cells discharge over time
(reduces the internal resistance)
and become useless. They can also corrode inside equipment if not
Figure 4.8.1 A zinc-carbon cell replaced regularly.

Secondary cells
A secondary cell also relies on a chemical reaction to produce an
e.m.f. but this time the reaction can be forced to reverse by applying
a potential difference in the opposite direction to t he cell. This means
that a secondary cell can be recharged repeatedly.
The most common type of secondary cell is the lead- acid cell used in
car batteries. In this cell the reaction between lead plates (negative
electrode) and lead oxide plates (positive electrode) and dilute sulfuric
acid produces an e.m.f. of 2 V. Inside a car battery six cel ls are placed
in series and so a total e.m.f. of 12 V is produced .
Lead- acid cells have very low internal resistance and can provide the
'-"'='-""==-'-' A car battery is a secondary large currents required to power a starter motor. They also contai n
cell\ It can be recharged.
significant quantities of lead and so are very heavy and have co rrosive
sulfuric acid inside.

WORKED EXAMPLE
A car battery produces an e.m.f. of 12V What size cu rrent is
requ ired to t urn a starter motor w it h a power rating of 4 .8 kW?
P = IV
I = ~ = 4.8 x 103W = 400A
V 12V

Recharging secondary cells

A single lead- acid cell can be recharged using a power supply or a
battery w ith an e.m.f . greater than 4.0V This appl ied e.m .f. is greater 2. 0V ( ,lIb' ing

J"
tha n the e.m.f. of the cell to be recharged and wi ll force the chemica l
reaction to happen in the reverse direction (Figu re 4 .8.3) .
A car battery is recharged by an alternator driven by th e car engine.
This provides a reverse e.m.f. to t he battery w hile the car is in motion
and so the battery rema ins fully charged . L-----1~ Recharging
4. 0 V power supply

tfACTIVITY I Figure 4.8.3 Recharg ing a lead- acid

cell. Note how the negative
Use a lead-acid cel l to power a low voltage bulb. Monit or the electrode of th e cell is
cond ition of the plates over several hours and use data logging con nected to the negative
equipment to measure the current and e.m.f. provided by the cell. electrode of th e power
supply forcing t he current
Recha rge t he cell using a power supply and repeat the test. Does to travel in the opposite
the cell behave in the same way? di rection to that when the
cell is discharging .

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Draw a table summarising t he ch aracteristics of prima ry and

seconda ry cel ls.
2 A zi nc- carbon battery provides a maximum curren t of 1.2A
wi th an e.m .f. of 1. 5 V What is th e maxim um pow er t hat can
be provided by this cel l?

KEY POINTS

1 Cells produce an electromotive force through a chemical

reaction.
2 Primary cells use irreversible reactions and cannot be
recharged.
3 Secondary cells use reversib le reactions and can be recharged.

,
LEARNING OUTCOMES Using electrical meters
Electrical meters are used to measure both current and pot ential
At the end of this topic you
difference but the meters must be placed carefully in order to operate
should be able to:
correctly (Figure 4.9.1).
• use an ammeter and
• An a mmeter is used to measure the current at a point in a circuit.
voltmeter correctly
The current has to pass through the ammeter for its magnitude
• calculate the resistance of a to be measured and so the ammeter needs to be placed in series
component with the other components. Placing the ammeter in this way
• state Ohm's law and the could reduce the current and so ammeters need to have very low
conditions under which it resistances.
applies. • A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points
in the circuit. It has to be placed in parallel with the components
it is measuring the potential difference across. Voltmeters need
to have very high res istance so that almost no current wi ll pass
through them.

Resist ance
In 4.8 it was mentioned that cells have an internal resistance which
restricts the current in them. All components have a resistance to a
current. Metals wires have low resistance while glass rods have very
high resistance.
The res istance of a component is defined as the ratio of the p.d. to
the current through it:
. p.d. V
reSistance = - - - or R = -
current I
Figure 4.9.1 Using an ammeter and Resistances are measured in a unit called the ohm (11).
voltmeter to measure the
current through, and p.d.
across, a bulb. WORKED EXAMPLE 1

W hat is t he resistance of a length of metal w ire if there is a

current of 2.5 A w hen a p.d. of 3.0 V is across iF
V 3.0 V
R = - = - - = 1.2Q
I 2.SA

Ohmic conductors
A simple metal wire will have a constant resistance as long as its
physical properties and conditions do not change. This relationship
was discovered by Georg Ohm and so is called Ohm's law:
The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it
I =V
The constant of proportionality is the resistance of the wire. Materials
which obey Ohm's law (have constant resistance) are called ohmic
conductors. For some other components the resistance does not
remain constant (as you will see in 4.10) and their behaviour is
classed as 'non-ohmic'.

Resistor components
In circuits a resistor is sometimes used to limit the maximum size of
the current. This prevents other components from being damaged by
large currents. The resistors are usually small devices placed in series
w ith the other components.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 f ACTIVITY .J

The maximum current through a diode needs to be restricted Build a simple circuit using a
to 0.2 A, when it is operated by a battery supplying a potential vari able resistor so that the
difference of 6.0V. What resistor shou ld be placed in series with brightness of a bulb can be
the diode to ensure that the current can never be greater than adjusted.
0.2A?
R = ~ = 6.0V = 30Q
I 0.2A

Variable resistors
Variable resistors can also be used to adjust the current in a branch of
the circuit (Figure 4.9.2). The resistance of the variable resistor can be
altered by turning a dial or moving a sliding contact. In laboratories
Fixed resistor Va riable resistor
variable resistors are often called rheostats.

Other resistors
A light dependent resistor (LOR) has a resistance which varies light-dependent resistor Therm istor
with the light level it is exposed to. LDRs have low resistance in
Figure 4.9.2 I
bright light and very high resistance in low lig ht. They can be used
to build light sensors and switch on lighting systems automatically
when it gets dark.
Temperature sensitive resistors are called thermistors and their
resistance changes depending on the temperature. They can be used
KEY POINTS
to control heating or cooling systems.
1 The resistance of a
component is defined by the
. V
equation R = -
SUMMARY QUESTIONS I
2 Ohmic conductors have a
1 What current will there be in a 12 V bulb with a resistance of
fixed resistance while the
1.SQ?
resistance of non-ohmic
2 Explain how a variable resistor can be used to adjust the conductors changes due
brightness of a bulb using the ideas of potential difference, to factors like light or
resistance and current. temperature.

J
LEARNING OUTCOMES Investigati ng the resistance of components
To investigate the behaviour of different componen t s we measure the
At the end of this topic you
current in the component when different voltages are applied to it.
should be able to:
For this investigation the ci rcuit shown in Figure 4 .10.1 is used . The
• describe how to measure variable resistor is used to control the current in the wire .
the current and voltage
Once the data is collected a current- voltage (or I- I/) graph can be
characteristics of a range of
drawn and this reveals the characteristic of the resistance. The shape
components
of the graph is referred to as the I- V characteristic of the component.
• describe the characteristics of
metallic conductors, filament Meta l wires
lamps, semiconductor diodes
and ionic solutions. As shown in 4.9 a metal wire is an ohmic conductor. We can see
evidence for this in the graph (Figure 4.10.2). A straight line is
produced demonstrating that I oc V. We can find the resistance of the
wire by finding the gradient of this graph:
Cell
gradient = "'y
- = -I :. R = --:c--
ill< V gradient
The graph also shows that the direction of the current is not relevant
to the resistance. This is as we would expect because the electrons
can travel just as freely in either direction.

Fi lament lamps
Filament lamps are simply very thin metal wires kept inside an inert

v gas. When there is a small current in the filament its temperatu re

does not increase significantly and so the resistance of the filament is
constant just as for an ohmic conductor.
Figure 4.10.1 Finding the current-
voltage characteristics of When the current increases sufficiently it will cause the wire to heat
a component
up, increasing the resistance of the wire as it is more difficult for the
electrons to travel through a hot w ire. This causes the characteristic
line to curve below that for an ohmic conductor (Figure 4.10.3). The
relationship I oc V no longer holds, as a progressively larger increase in
+/ V is required to increase the current.

The characteristic for a filament lamp is symmetrical.

Semiconductor d iodes
-v +v
The conduction mechanism in semiconductor diodes is very different
from that in metals and is beyond the scope of this course. The I-V
characteristic graph, as shown in Figure 4.1OA, has an unusual shape
and the currents involved are usua lly very small so a microammeter is
-/
recommended for the investigation.
When a negative voltage is applied the diode has a very large
Figure 4 .10.2 Current- voltage
characteristic of an ohmic resistance and therefore there is a very small current, a few
conductor microamps. The diode is said to be 'reverse biased' .
In the forward bias direction the diode has an even higher resistance
with almost no current at all fo r vol tages up to 0.7 V. Beyond this Current value
+1 forohmic_ .
voltage the diode becomes a much better conductor allowing la rger
currents through. ondudor "1-
Ionic solutions
To investigate the I- V characteristics of ionic solutions two electrodes
-v VI' !+v

/
Lower current
need to be placed into the solution a fixed distance apart. value caused
by increasing R
The resulting graph shows that the ionic solution behaves as an /

ohm ic conductor. However, the resistance is large when compared -I

to metal wires and it depends on the concentra t ion of the solution.
Instead of electrons there are two differen t charge carriers, for
Figure 4. 10 . ~1 Current- voltage
example, copper ions (Cu 2+) moving to the cathode and sulfate ions characteristic of a filament
(50,'- ) moving to the anode. lamp

I"ACTIVITY I +llmA
Use the method described to investi gate t he characteri stics of Near
an ionic solution over an extend ed period of time. How does the
resistance of the solution change 7
-v ft
1
0.7 V
-ohm ic
Forward
bias

+v

KEY POINTS

1 Ohmic conductors (wires and ionic solutions) have constant

resistances.
2 The resistance of fi lament lamps increases at high currents as Figure 4.10.41 Current- voltage
the temperature of the wire increases. characteristic of a
semiconductor diode
3 Semiconductor diodes have very high resistance below a
threshold voltage and low resistance beyond it.

SUMMARY QUESTION

1 A cla ss of students investigated a range of components col lecting the data shown in Table 4 .10.1. Plot
graphs of the current and voltage characteristics and identify the component.
Table 4.10.1

Component Voltage -5 - 4 -3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
A IV
Current - 0.8 - 0.76 - 0.69 - 048 - 0.24 0 0.24 048 0.69 0.76 0.8
fA
Component Vol tage - 1 -0 .8 - 0.6 - 04 - 0.2 0 0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1
B IV
Cu rrent - 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.D1 0 0 0 0.2 2.1 4.2
f mA

L
 Most circuits contain a range of components usually including groups
LEARNING OUTCOMES
of resistive components in series and parallel. We can combine the
At the end of this topic you resistances to fully analyse the circuit.
should be able to:
• find the resistance of resistors Resistor combinations
in series and parallel There is often more than one source of resistance in a circuit and we
• find the power out put of need to find the total resistance of combinations.
resistor combinations.
Resistors in seri es
The total resistance of components in series is simply the sum of
R, R, R, their respective resistances. Th is is exactly as you would expect. If you
"L_--1H HL_--1f--. connect a wire with 5 Q resistance to a wire with 6 Q resistance you
would expect the complete wire to have a resistance of 11 Q.
More forma lly this is written as:
Figure 4.11.1 1 Resistors in series
R, = R, + R, + R3 + .

Resistors in para llel

R, Find ing the total resistance of resistors in parallel is a little more

complicated. Using the fact that the resistors all have the same
voltage acting across them, this equation can be derived:
• • 1 1 1 1
-=-+-+-+ .
Rp R, R, R3
Power and resistance
Figure 4.11 .2 1 Resistors In parallel To find the power output of a combination of resistors we could
find the power output of the individua l resistors and t hen use the
electrica l power equation . However, it is usual ly much easier to find
the equivalent resistance and the current and use these two values to
find the power output.

/ WORKED EXAMPLE 1 I
The heating element of a car rear win dow contains eight metallic
strips each w ith a resistan ce of 120 Q. The heater operates using
the car's 12 V battery. The strips are connected in paral lel.
a What is the total resistance of the rear window heater?
1111 1111 1
- = - - +-- + - - +--+--+ - - +-- + - -
Rp 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

R = 120 = 15Q
p 8
 b What is the power of the heater?
Find the current through the heating element using the total
resistance:
V 12V
f ~ - ~ -- ~ 0.8A SUMMARY QUESTIONS
R 15Q
Finally find the power of the heater: 1 Find the resistance of t he
three resistor arrangements
P~fV ~ 0.8A x 12V~9 . 6W
shown in Figu re 4.11.4 .
a

~ L
20n
Analysing circuits --1 20 n 20n
Usi ng the resistance equations w e can analyse complex circuits. Thi s
worked example wi ll lead you through one of t hese anal yses. b

H :r-
40 n 60n

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
-{ 40n 60n

Ana lyse this circuit, shown

c
6.0V
in Figure 4.11.3, to find the
currents f, and the potential ,-----~ ,.. ,~-----, lOo n

200 n
r. 100nJ-j
differences V, and V, .
Fi rst find the total resistance L--i lOon f -
L- 400n-J
of the circuit. This means I,
finding the resistance of the Figure 4.11 .4
parallel section (R~ . 40 n
2 Find the current in each of
1 1 1 3
-~- + -~- 20 n t he two parallel res istors in
Rp 40 20 40 Worked example 2.
L----iv, ./
R ~ 40 ~ 13 3Q
p 3 .
Figure 4 .1 1.3
The total resistance (R T) of the KEY POINTS
circuit is given by:
1 The resistance of
RT ~ Rp + 5 Q ~ 18.3 Q
components in series is
Now find f" the total current from the battery, using the battery the sum of the individual
voltage and the total resistance: resistances
V 6V R, ~ R, + R, + ...
f, ~ - ~ - - ~ 0.3 3A
RT 18.3Q 2 The resistance of
We can find V, because we know the current through the resistor components in parallel is
and its resistance: given by the equation
V, ~ f,R ~ 0.33A X 5Q ~ 1.65V 1 1 1
- ~ - + - + .. .
Finally we know that the total voltage drop around the circuit Rp R, R,
must be 6.0V and so the voltage V, can be found:
3 The power output of a
V, ~ 60 V - 1.65 V ~ 4.35 V combination of resistors is the
We could continue to find the current through each of the parallel sum of the power ou tputs of
resistors using their resistances and the voltage across them. the individual resistors.

22
-.. -Section 4 .

SECTION 4: Practice exam questions 1

1 A plastic rod is rubbed with a dry cloth until 7 What are the differences between a primary
they both become charged. The rod is found cell and a secondary celIO
to have a positive charge.
8 Why must a voltmeter have very high
a What is the charge on the cloth? resistance while an ammeter must have very
b Describe, in terms of particle movement, low resistance?
how the rod and cloth have become
9 A filament lamp operates with a potential
charged.
difference of 12.0V across its terminals. The
2 Sometimes, when clothing is taken out of a lamp transforms 4000 J of electrical energy
tumble drier, a crackling sound can be heard into heat and light energy in one minute.
and tiny sparks can be seen. Why does this a What is the power rating of the lamp?
happen?
b What is the current in the lamp?
3 Describe how a photocopier uses the c What is the resistance of the lamp?
principles of static electricity to reproduce
accurate copies of an image.
4 Copy and complete this table showing
electrical circuit symbols.

Co mponent Sy mbol Component Symbol

lamp semiconductor
diode

battery

5 The dome of a Van de Graaff generator is

charged until it holds a total charge of 0.01 C.
The dome is then discharged by connecting it
to earth with a grounding wire.
a What type of particles travel in the wire
during the discharge?
b What is the average current in the wire
during the discharge if the process takes
0.02 second?
6 A 6.0V battery is connected to a resistor of
resistance 5 Q.
a How much charge passes though the
resistor in one minute?
b What is the power output of the resistor?
10 A student investigates the current- voltage
characteristics of a semiconductor diode. The
data gathered are shown in the table.

VoltageN - 0.3 - 0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Current/rnA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.3

a Draw a diagram of a circuit suitable for 13 Three resistors each of resistance 66 Q can be
this investigation. connected to a 2.0V cell in a variety of ways.
b Plot a graph of the results. a Draw a circuit diagram showing the
c Describe the results shown in the graph. arrangement of the resistors when they
form a circuit with the highest resistance.
11 Magnesium chloride dissolves in water to form
a solution containing magnesium (Mg2 +) and b Calculate the current through one of the
chloride (CI - ) ions. resistors.

a Describe the process which allows this c Calculate the total power of the resistor
solution to conduct. combination.

b What is meant by an ohmic cond uctor? d Repeat a, b and c for the configuration
with the lowest resistance.
c Is the solution an ohmic cond uctor?
14 Determine the readings on the four ammeters
12 Calculate the resistance of these three resistor
and two vol tmeters in this circuit.
combinations:
a
---1 so n H 20 n H 40 n l-
~
b ii-----I :

c
t J 40 n

40n
A,

'----<
-; 66n r-
~ .-
A4

-UQill--@

r
>---i 66 n
33 n

-£ 33 n
33 n f-- -®- ~
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Direct current
Cells and batteries produce direct current (d.c.). This is a current that
At the end of this topic you
travels only in one direction (from positive to negative) and has a
should be able to:
fixed magnitude.
• compa re direct current and
alternating cu rrent
Alternating current
• identify the peak voltage and
frequency of an alternating Alternating current (a.c) is used in mains supplies. The direction of the
current using an oscilloscope current reverses rapid ly, many times each second, and the magnitude
trace vanes.

• describe the operation of a Alternating current is caused by an alternating voltage source such
cathode-ray oscilloscope. as a generator. These wil l be discussed in 4.23. The magnitude of the
voltage varies sin usoidally from a positive peak value to a negative
peak value.

10
> 8
Direct ~urrent
"'
~
ro
'6
6
4
>
In th e 19th century, Nikola 2
Tesl a and Thomas Edison 0
disag reed about whether to 2 4 6 8
-2 Time/10 2S
use direct or alternating current -4
for ma ins supplies. Resea rch -6 Alternating
t he background to thi s 'war current
-8
of the currents' and find out
-1 0
w hy alternating current wa s
eventual ly selected .
~re4.12.1 1 Comparing alternating current to direct current

The alternating voltage shown in Figure 4.12.1 is for a low voltage

WORKED EXAMPLE a.c power supply. From the diagram you can measure the maximum
voltage and the period of one complete oscillation.
What is the frequency of th e a.c.
supply shown in Figure 4.12.17 • The peak vol tag e is the highest volta ge reached over the cycle. In
the example th is is ±8.0V.
1 1
f = - = - - = 25 Hz • The period (T) of the alternating current is the time taken for one
T 0.04 s
complete cycle. In the example this is 0.04 s.

Finding the frequency

The frequency of the a.c source is the number of complete cycles per
second. This is related to the period by:
1 1
frequency = - - or f = -
period T
The unit of frequency is S- 1 or hertz (Hz)

2.
Exploring waveforms
In 3.12 you saw t hat an oscilloscope could be used to investigate
sou nd waves and their frequency. The sound energy was converted to
an electrical signal which could then be displayed on the oscilloscope
screen. The oscilloscope can also be used to measure the properties
of alternating currents.
The two most importa nt controls used on the oscilloscope are the
volts per division and the time base:
• The volts per division (voltS/div) control allows you to measure the
peak-to-peak voltage of an alternating source. If th e wave occupies
six vertical boxes when the volts per division is set to 0.5 V/div then
the peak-to-peak voltage is 3.0V.
• The time base determines the time represented by a horizo nta l
division. For example, if one complete wave occupies four divisions
when the time base is set to 0.2 sldiv, the period is 0.8s.
To analyse an alternating source follow this procedure:
• Connect the source to the a.c. input terminals of t he oscilloscope.
'-'-=:..:...== An oscilloscope

• Adjust the vertical volts per division until the pea k and trough of
the waveform can clearly be seen on the screen .
• Adjust the time base so that at least one full wa ve can be seen and
the period ca n be measured.
• Measure and note the peak or peak-to-peak voltage. KEY POINTS
• Measure the period of the sou rce and calculate the frequency.
1 Direct cu rrent travels in only
The oscilloscope can also be used to measure the voltage of a direct one direction.
current source, w hich wou ld be displayed as a horizontal line.
2 Alternating current switches
direction and magnitude.
Digital oscilloscopes
3 Oscilloscopes can be used to
Cathode-ray oscilloscopes are expensive and can be difficult to
investigate the properties of
operate. Most waveform analysis is now carried out using digital
a.c. signals.
oscil loscopes w hich can be connected directly to a computer.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Find the peak voltage, period and frequency of the a.c. source 2 Sketch appropriate graphs
shown in Figure 4.12.3. of the followi ng a.c.
waveforms:
20 a an a.c. source with a
> 15
v V ......., peak voltage of 110 v
~
~
~

i5
>
10
5 /
"" 1\ / 1\
and a frequency of 50 Hz

\ b an a.c. source with a

0 peak voltage of 20 mV
-5
0.25 9.50 0.75 1.!tJ 1.25 1 0 1. 5 2. 0
and a frequency of 2 kHz.
- 10 1\ / 1\ / Timel10- I

- 15 I'..
- 20

Figure 4.12.3
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Mains supply voltage and frequency
Mains electricity is supplied as alternating current. The mains supply
At the end of this topic you
voltage and frequency vary from island to island in the Caribbean for
should be able to:
historical reasons (Figure 4 .13.1) .
• describe the mains supply
As the voltage is varying continuously over a cycle the effective
used in the Caribbean
average voltage is used to describe the mains supply. This is called the
• describe what would happen root mean square (r.m.s.) voltag e as show n in Table 4.13.1 .
if a device were connected
to the wrong type of mains Higher voltage supplies can provide the same power using smaller
supply. currents allowing thinner wires to be used. However, higher voltages
are more dangerous.
Ma ins supplies are often slightly 'noisy'. The smooth cu rves have
Table 4.13 .1 Mai ns supply in some
slight spikes as the supply picks up interference from other electrical
Caribbean island s
devices. 50me equipment can be sensitive to thi s noise.
Island Voltage Frequency
N 1Hz 350
> I I St Kitts & Nevis,
Barbados 11 5
110
50 "
~

~
a
300
250 I I I I \ 220V r.m.s.
Cuba 60 > Barbados,
200
115 V r. m.s.
Jama ica 110 or 50 150
220 100
5t Kitts 110 or 60 50
/ 1- / : \
II
and Nevis 230 0
" 4',
2
- 50
5t Mart in 120 o r 50 1/ \ / ~
230 - 100 Ti mei lO~2 s
Trinidad
and
115 50
-I SO
- 200
- 250
, \
Tobago - 300 /
'- ~
- 350
- 400

Figure 4.13.11 Mains su pply varies between islands in the Ca ribbean

Ring mains
An electrical configuration called a ring main is used as the basis for
the connection of domestic pow er sockets (Figure 4.13.2). Two or
three wires are used in the ring main and they are thick enough to
provide a current to several devices at once without overheating.
• The live wire (coloured brown) provides th e power and operates at
a high voltage.
• The neutral wi re (coloured blue) completes the circuit, allow ing the
current to flow in a closed circuit.
• Many devices are also connected to an earth wire (coloured green
and yellow).
 L IOAorl5A
E- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I socket with
N I ~~
N I
E- - - - - - - - - t; -- - -0
L 2.5 mm 2 wires I
In a ring main circuit
I -{] 0
I each wire forms a loop, I
I or 'ring', which begins I Switched socket
I and ends at the fuse in I with earth

i thecansumer unit ~l+I~-=~-::::::- -0

0
I ~-------'------' I
L
------- ~ -----

o0
2-pin lOA Double 2-pin
socket socket

\. Figure 4 . 13.21 A ri ng main with ea rthed sockets M ake sure that you match
you r plugs and sockets
correctly_

Plugs and sockets

Some electrical devices, such as ovens, are wired directly into the
mains supply, but most are connect ed by a plug so that they can be
disconnected easily and moved. In the Caribbean there are two main
plugs and sockets used and these are referred to as type A and type B
(Figure 4.13.3).
• Type A plugs have only two pins which connect to the live and
neutral wires.
• Type B plugs have three pins_ The additional pin is connected to the SUMMARY QUESTIONS
earth wi re_
1 Why shouldn't you change
The different plugs are matched by different sockets and a type A
the plug on an electrical
plug should not be inserted into a type B socket
device from a type B to a
type A7
Connecting to the wrong supply
2 What advantages does a ring
As there are several different mains voltages in use it is possible to mai n provide?
accidently connect a device to the wrong supply_
• Connecting a 110V device to a 220V supply wi ll cause the device
to take a large current This wil l most likely melt the wires in the
device causing severe damage_ KEY POINTS
• Connecting a 220V device to a 110V supply will result in the device 1 Mains electricity can be
recei ving too Iowa current The device wi ll not operate correctly or supplied at different voltages
won't w ork at aiL and at 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
• Connecting a devi ce designed to operate w ith a 50 Hz supply to a 2 Always connect a device to
60 Hz supply, or the reverse, is also likely to damage the device as the correct type of supply
its electrical components w ill not funct ion correctly_ using the correct kind of
plug _
 Mains electricity is dangerous because the voltages are large enough
LEARNING OUTCOMES
to force a current through your body. The currents can also be large
At the end of this tOP'C you enough to start electrical fires if there is a fault in the device. Because
should be able to: of th is, safety features need to be incorporated to protect the device
and the user.
• describe how fuses operate
and be able to identify the
correct fuse for a device Fuses
• state the advantages of If there is a fault in an electrical device where the live wire short
a circuit breaker when circuits and connects to the neutral w ire then the resistance of the
compared to a fuse device will be small and a large current wi ll f low. This large current
• explain the function of an would heat the wires in the device and could cause a fire. A fuse
earth wire. prevents this by being the 'weakest' point in the ci rcuit and melting
before any other part. The fuse consists of a thin piece of wire, often
held inside a glass or ceramic tu be.
Fuses need to be selected so that they will not melt in normal
operation but only if there is an excess cu rrent.

WORKED EXAMPLE

An air-cond itioning unit is designed to operate at 220V with a

power rating of 1.0 kW. What size fuse should be used with this
unit?
First find the normal operating current of the unit:
P 1000W
"':":lI::~::":;~ Fuses have specific current P = fVso/= - = =4.55A
ratings. such as 1 A, 3 A. V 220V
SA,13A. Then select a fuse that is slightly larger than the normal
operating current. In this case, a 5 A fuse is appropria te.

It should be noted that fuses alone do not protect the operator of a

device. A current of only a few milliam ps is enough to kill a human
and this small increase in current would not cause a fuse to melt.

Switch
(held closed by spring) Circuit breakers
-------- Circuit breakers operate in a similar manner to fuses but they rely on
I the excess current opening a magnetic switch and cutting off the
circuit. This process is faster and more sensi tive than a fuse. Circuit
breakers also have the advantage of being able to be reset without
Electromagnet having to replace the part (Figure 4 .14.2).
~b~ A residua l current circu it breaker (RCCB) is an even more sensitive
device. It compares the curren t in the live wire and the neutral w ire
Figure 4.14.:! A ci rcu it breaker uses an
which should be exactly the same. If there is even a very small current
electromagnet to break the
circuit when the current is leak (through the user of a device) then the circuit breaker opens and
tOQ\large. the current is cut off.
The earth wire
An electrical device becomes very dangerous to the user if its case
becomes live (is connected to the live wire). This can happen if the
live wire breaks inside the device.
Some devices automatically protect the user because they are
made from insulating materials such as plastic. Even if the live wire Figure 4.14.3 This symbol indicates that
becomes loose it cannot electrocute the user. Devices with this safety an appliance is double
feature are double insulated and should carry the symbol shown in insulated.
Figure 4.14.3.
If the case is metal and is in contact with the live wire, a user can
receive a fatal electric shock on touching it. A fuse alone would a Safe
not prevent t his, as no additional current would flow until the user
touches the device .
Fuse
- -
Heating element

To prevent these accidents the case can be connected to an additional

wire: the earth wire . This wi re provides a low resistance route for
the current to pass to earth and so the current will not pass through
the user. Also, the large current will cause the fuse to melt or circuit Switch
Metal case
breaker to trip, breaking the circuit (Figure 4.14.4).
---
Current path

Inspect the plugs and electrical informatio n on a range of b Protected Heating element touches
the metal case,
electrical devices to f ind out t hei r power rati ng, operat ing voltage
and the type of mains supply t hey requi re. Work ou t w hich type
of fu ses the devices need . Don't try to ca rry out any rewiring
you rsel f w it hout expert supervi sion '
-
~~~I--' I
-
making it live

/
N --+--a:=:::!t:=:o-"~ I
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
E- -;:::J
1 Why should you use the correct fuse in an electrica l device) - r _.,-------:,---:-
, --,
Current path
2 What should you do if the circuit breaker in your house keeps
tripping? Figure 4.1 The earth wire protects the
user from electrocution.
3 What fuses do the devi ces in Table 4.14.1 requ ire?

Table 4.14.1

Device Power ratingJW Mains voltageN

washing machine 800 110
tumble drier 1200 230
electric lamp 80 120

KEY POINTS

1 Fuses and circuit breakers break circuits if the current in the

live wire becomes too large due to a fault.
2 The earth wire protects the user from electrocution in caseof
an electrical fault.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES The need for direct current
It is much easier to increase the voltage of alternating current
At the end of this topic you
so that electrical energy can be transmitted efficiently over long
shou ld be able t o:
distances. Alternating current is also much easier to produce from the
• explain why a.c. sou rces generators in power stations.
someti mes need to be
For many devices an alternating current will provide the energy they
converted to d.c.
need to work properly. However, some devices, including computers,
• draw a circuit diagram require direct current at very steady voltage levels to operate correctly.
showing how a.c. can be
converted to d.c.
Rectification
The process of converting an alternating current to a direct current is
called rectification . Rectification relies on the properties of diodes as
show n in 4.10. A diode will only allow current in one direction and
so if one is connected to an alternating supply there will only be a
current half of the time.

Half-wave rectification
Figure 4.15.1 shows a circuit which can be used to produce direct
current from an alternating supply. The diode only allows a current
f, Diode in one direction and so the output current is direct. The load resistor
a.c. represents the resistance of the device the power supply is connected
power V\ to.
supply To
Resistor oscilloscope If we use an oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the load, we
can see what happens in the circuit.
The current provided by half-wave rectification is direct in the sense
Figure 4 .15.tf Simple half-wave that it is only in one direction. However the vol tage is stil l varying
rectifICation from maximum to a zero value and for periods of time there is no
current at all. This is very inefficient and does not provide the type of
current required by electronic devices .

Improving rectification
+ One way to improve the profile of the current is to use a capacitor
(Figure 4.15.2). A capacitor is a simple device which stores charge for
a short period of time. Adding it on to the simple half-wave rectifier
produces a smoothed d.c. output as shown by the blue line.
When the voltage is ri si ng and there is a current in the load some
.'.'' charge will be stored on the capacitor.
When the voltage is decreasing there would normally be a decreasing
Figure 4 . 15.2 Smoothed half-wave current in the load. However the capacitor will release charge from its
rectification plates and provide a current. This current will decrease more slowly
than the current provided by the a.c. source.
Du ri ng the sections where t here is no voltage the capacitor will
continue to discharge and provi de a current.
If the frequency of the source were low, the capacitor would
+
discharge al most com pletely. At high freq uency, the capacitor only
has to discharge slightly and the current provided is therefore fairly
consta nt. ~
~

g'" 0
Time
Full-wave rectification
In half-wave rectifi ca t ion you can see that only ha lf of the alternating
current is actually produ cing a useful direct current. A more
co mplicated circuit invol ving four diodes ca n be used to produce Figure 4 .15.3 Smoothed full -wave
a positive potential difference even w hen t he altern at ing supply is rect ification
produci ng a negative vol tage. This gives full-wave rectification which
supplies a much steadier d.c. supply (Figure 4.15.3).

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Sketch the oscilloscope trace you would expect to see when

the a.c. source in Figure 4.15.4 is: EXAM TIP
a half-wave rectified
ALt~oL<g~ lj0L< do ""Dt
b full -wave rectified . ~tlve to I«,,,,,ow ~ow
Ctll'tlc.tOYS WOYI«, OY
fL<LL-wtlve yect.fi,Ctlt.o""
0l'eYtltes, Ye"""-e""-bey t~tlt
~_c. ctl"" be tYtI"'-SfoY"""-ed
'''''to ,tI stetldlj tI""d
o 0 CO~h""L<o~ d.c. SL<1'1'Llj
Time/s
ftl,YLlj etls,Llj.

-1 10 ----

Figure 4 .15.4

2 Redraw the traces as they would appear if the output had

been smoothed by a ca pacitor.

KEY POINTS

1 Alternating current can provide electrical energy for most, but

not all, electrical devices.
2 Rectification is used to convert a.c. into d.c.
3 Rectification relies on the properties of diodes.

22
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Binary
Computer systems operate using digital information represented as a
At the end of this topic you
binary system. The binary system only contains two digits represented
should be able to:
by 0 and 1 unlike our decimal system which contain ten digits.
• describe how binary numbers Numbers are represented as a string of digits just as in any other
are represented in computer number system but only 1s and Os are used. Table 4.16.1 shows
systems some example decimal numbers represented as four binary digits.
• find the output from a simple Binary numbers can be represented physically in a number of ways. In
logic gate system. electronics they are represented as two voltage levels:
• high which represents the digit 1 and is called logic 1
• low which represents the digit a and is called logic O.
Table 4.16.1 Examples of decimal The exact voltage levels vary from system to system depending on
numbers represented as what type of semiconductor is being used.
four binary digits

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Logic gates

a 0000 6 0110
A logic gate is an electronic component which processes a binary
1 0001 7 0111 input and produces a binary output based on a set of rules.
2 0010 8 1000 Examples:
3 0011 9 1001
• A NOT gate produces an output which is not the same as the
4 0100 10 1010 input. This means that when there is a logic 0 input there is a logic
5 0101 11 1011 1 output but when there is a logic 1 input there is a logic 0 output.
As the output is always the opposite of the input these gates are
sometimes called inverters.
• An OR gate produces a logic 1 output if one or other of its inputs
is logic 1.
• An AND gate produces a logic 1 output if its first input and its
second input are both logic 1.

EXAM TiP The complete list of the five logic gates you are required to know is
shown in Figure 4.16.1 .
YOK &I'e e.Kpected to be
&lbLe to ft.""d tl-le OKt-pKt Truth tables
of &I L~g~c g&lte Stl ste "" Truth tables show the output states of a logic gate for all of the
co""t&l,,,,,,""0 &I ""&lXi""K"" possible inputs to the gate. These allow us to easily determine what
of tl-l,ee g&ltes. This C&l"" the output would be when the gates are connected to input sources.
be &I ""tI co""bi",-"tio"l. of When in doubt about what a logic gates does, you should always
tl-le tl-l,ee tl0K see 0"1. tl-lese consult the truth table. For example the truth table shows that an OR
p&lges. gate will still produce a logic 1 output even if both of the inputs are
logic 1.
 Gate Symbol Function Truth table / WORKED EXAMPLE l
(high voltage = 1. INPUTS OUTPUT
low voltage = 0) A B What are the input conditions
OUTPUT = 1 0 0 0 required for the logic gate
: D TPUT 0 1 1 system shown in Figure 4.16.2
OR il
1 0 1
A OR B =1 to produce an output of 07
1 1 1

A~
0 0 0
OUTPUT =1
: D UTPUT 0 1 0
AND il
1 0 0
A AND B = 1
1 1 1 Output
B
0 0 1 C
OUTPUT =0
NOR :~PUT il 0 1 0
1 0 0
A OR B =1 1
Figure 4.16.2
1 0

OUTPUT =0 0 0 1 Draw up the truth table for the

NAND :~PUT il 0 1 1 logic gate system workin g in
A AND B = 1 1 0 1
a sensible order and making
1 1 0
sure all of the possible input

V TPUT OUTPUT - 1
II INPUT = 0 0 1 combinations are covered
NOT
OUTPUT = 0 1 0 (Table 4.16.1).
INPUT II INPUT = 1
Table 4.16.1
Figure 4.16.11 Logic gates and their truth tables
Input Input Input Output
A B C
Combining logic gates
0 0 0 1
Logic gates have limited use indivi dua lly but w hen they are combined 1 0 0 0
together they can be used to process info rmati on and cause actions
0 1 0 1
to be taken.
1 1 0 1
To work out the ou tpu t fo r any collection of gates draw up a truth
table representing al l of the possible input combinations. For each set 0 0 1 1
of input s in tu rn work your w ay through the logic combinations and 1 0 1 1
fi nd t he output. Keep on going until you have fo und the outputs fo r 0 1 1 1
all of the possible in put combinations. 1 1 1 1

From the truth table we can

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
see that the output of the logic
gate system is logic 0 only
1 Draw up a truth table for the logic gate systems shown in
when A is 1. B is 0 and C is O.
Figures 4.16.3 and 4.16.4.
a b
A KEY POINTS

1 Binary digits can be

B represented by high and low
C -1 ,
voltage levels.
Figure 4.16.3 Figure 4.16.4 2 Logic gates process binary
inputs and produce binary
2 Design a log ic gate system to match the following:
outputs.
a Three inputs A. Band C which produce an output of 1
when anyone of the inputs is 1. 3 Simple logic gates can
be combined to provide
b Three inputs D. E and F which produce an output of 1
additional processing.
when all of the inputs are O.

rl

2i. •
 Logic gates are often combined with digital sensors which detect
LEARNING OUTCOMES
environmental conditions and produce logical signals. These signals
At the end of this topic you are then processed through a sequence of logic gates and output
should be able to: devices are triggered . The logic gates are designed so that the
output device activates only when the required environmental input
• find the output from a conditions are met.
combination of logic gates
attached to sensors Output devices are
Sen sors produce Logic gates process ~
• design simple circuits triggered by results
logic level outputs signals
of p'focessing
involving logic gates which
produce the desired output
when sensors are activated . Sensors
The sensors connected to the logic system can be represented by
symbols as shown in Table 4.17.1. The table also shows the outputs
produced by these sensors in different environmental conditions.

Table4.17. 1

Sen sor Symbol Prod uces logic 0 Produces logic 1

when w hen
switch open closed

~
temperature temperature is low temperature is high
[m-
light in darkness in light
[m-
pressure not under pressure under pressure

~
In reality these sensors are devices such as mechan ical switches,
thermistors or light dependent resistors (LDRs) connected to voltage
supplies. The point at which the sensor switches from a logical
output of 0 to a logical output of 1 can be finely tuned .
• A temperature sensor could be designed to switch from 0 to 1
when the temperature rises above 40"C.
• A pressu re sensor can switch output from 0 to 1 when a large force
is applied to it such as somebody stepping on a mat.
Many other sensors are possible such as tilt switches, pH sensors,
infra-red sensors, sound level sensors and even radioactivity sensors.
 WORKED EXAMPLE

An ala rm signal may need to be triggered only w hen it is dark

and a door is opened. How could this system be implemented?
The ala rm must be triggered when it is dark and a door is
opened. This indicates that an AND gate will be required and this
will trigger the alarm when both of its inputs are logic 1.
To check if the door is open, a mechanical swit ch is needed. This
would produce a logic 0 if the door and thus the switch were
open so t his input needs to be inverted using a NOT gate before
the input goes into the AND gate.
To check if it is dark, a light sensor is needed. This prod uces a
logic zero in the dark so this input needs to be inverted with a
NOT gate too .

Complete a su rvey of t he
Figure 4.17.2 devices you use every day that
This gives the logic circuit shown in Figure 4.17 .2. The output re ly on electro nics and w rit e
would be logic 1 only when the door is opened and it is dark. a short report about how life
This could be connected to an alarm system or be used to switch wou ld be diffe rent wi th out th is
on a light. tech nology.

Computers
Digital computers conta in mil lions of logic gates in integrated circ uits.
They process binary operations at very high speeds, control led by a
'clock' which stops the signals getting mixed up. The developments in
electronics and microelectronics have had a massive im pact on soci ety
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
over the past f ifty years. For example, compu t er systems and mobile
phones around the world are linked toget her th rough the intern et
1 A bank vault needs to have
provid ing almost instant access to information for bill ions of people.
an alarm system which
activates when a sound is
heard or somebody steps on
KEY POINTS the floor of the vault. This
should only happen when the
1 Digital sensors can be designed to produce logic level signals alarm has been primed by a
depending on environmental conditions. switch . Design a log ic system
2 Logic circuits can process signals from sensors and produce to accomplish this task.
the required outputs. 2 Design a logic circu it which
3 Computer systems contain millions of logic gates to could activate an alarm if it is
undertake very complex processing. raining at night.
SECTION 4: Practice exam questions 2

1 Describe the differences between alternating 7 What is the fu nction of a fuse and how does
current and direct current. it operate?
2 An oscilloscope is used to analyse an a.c. 8 What are the advantages of a circuit breaker
power supply producing the trace shown. The when compared to a fuse?
time base has been set to 0.05s per division
9 Draw a circuit diagram showing how an
and the volts/div has been set to 2 V/div.
alternating current can be half-wave rectified
to produce a direct current. How can this
rectification system be improved?
10 Sketch voltage-time graphs showing:
a a d .c. source of voltage 10V
b an a.c. source with a period of 0.2
seconds and peak voltage of 8 V
c a half-wave rectified a.c source with a
period of 0.2 seconds and peak voltage of
8V
d a ha lf-wave rectified a.c source with a
a What is the peak voltage of the power
period of 0.2 seconds and peak voltage
supply?
of 8 V with the output smoothed using a
b What is the period of the power su pply? large capacitor.
c What is the frequency of the a.c. source?
11 Copy and complete this table of logic gates
3 Explain why a ring main circuit is used for wall describing their functions.
sockets in houses.
Logic Symbol Description
4 Select the appropriate fuse for each of the
gate
following devices from the range 1 A, 3A, SA
and 12A. Inverts the input
symbol (changes a
Device Operating Power logic 0 to logic 1 and
voltage/V vice versa)
filament lamp 110 80W AND Produces an output of
logic 1 when input A
portable air- 110 SOOW
and input B are both
conditioning unit
logic 1
kettle 220 2kW
electric drill 220 300W
electric grill 110 l.SkW
NAND
5 How does an earth w ire protect the user of a
faulty electrical device?
6 Explain why the core of an electrical cable is NOR Produces a logic 1
made from copper but the outer sheathing is output when both
made from flexible plastic. inputs are logic 0
12 Copy and complete this truth table for al l of 13 How can an AND gate be constructed from a
the possible inputs for this arrangement of NOR gate and two NOT gates?
logic gates.
14 Design the logic circuit for an alarm which
only sounds du ring daylight and when it is
raining.

Input A Input B Input C Input 0 Output Y

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
 Magnetic materials experience forces when placed near a magnet.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Magnets themselves are made from these same magnetic materials.
At the end of this topic you Only a few materials are magnetic. These include iron, nickel, cobalt
should be able to: and magnadur. Alloys, such as steel, that contain these metals may
also be magnetic. Magnets will not attract non-magnetic materials,
• describe the effect magnets
even metals (unless there is a current in them as we will see later) .
have on other magnets and
magnetic materials All magnets have two poles which are referred to as the north (or
• describe how a permanent north seeking) and south (or south seeking) poles. In a simple bar
magnet can be made. magnet these poles are at either end but magnets can be made in
several shapes and so the poles may be found in other locations.

Magnetic interactions
The interactions between magnets can be summarised by th ese ru les:
• Opposite poles attract each other: south poles attract north poles.
• Like poles repel each other: south poles repel south poles, and
north poles repel north poles.
• The closer the magnets are to each other, the stronger the force
between the magnets.
Magnetic materials placed near either pole of a magnet will be
Figure 4.18.1 The poles of magnets are attracted towards it.
often colou red : red for
north and blue for south.
Magnetic induction
When an iron nai l is placed on the end of a bar magnet it can be
used to attract other iron nails. We say that magnetism has been
Suspend a magnet as shown in induced in the iron nail. The nail is temporarily acting as a magnet
Figure 4.18.2 and use a second but will stop acting this way w hen it is removed from the permanent
magnet with known polarity to magnet.
identify its poles. Can you also If we try the same process with a steel nail the nail will act as a
prove that the size of the force magnet but may also retain some of its magnetic properties after it
between the magnets increases has been removed from the permanent magnet.
the closer they are together?
• Iron and mumetal are classed as soft magnetic materials and are

l Bar magnet
used to make temporary magnets. They are easy to magnetise but
do not retain magnetism well.
U3Iron bar
S
Force of L-~",,"_ _ ...J
• Steel is classed as a hard magnetic material. It is more difficult to
magnetise but it wil l retain its magnetism for longer. It is used to
attradion
make permanent magnets. Magnadur magnets are also permanent.
Figure 4 .18.2 Test ing the forces
between magnets
Making magnets
A new permanent magnet can be made from a steel bar by rubbing
a permanent magnet along its length as shown in Figure 4.18.3. The
permanent magnet must only be moved in one direction.

_ . - ... and repeat many times

Make your own magnet

using the technique shown in
Figure 4.18.3. Can the magnet
be made stronger if it is ru bbed
for a longer time?

Breaking magnets
A magnet will lose some of its streng th if it is struck. Repeatedly
dropping a permanent magnet onto the floor will weaken its EXAM TIP
magnetism.
O"'L1::J I'! few IM.l'!t eril'!Ls I'!re
IM.l'!g"-ttie. Do",'t IM.I'!Iu
SUMMARY QUESTIONS tl1e lM.ist l'!R.e of t~i"'R.i"'9
I'! LL lM.etl'! Ls I'! reo
1 Copy and complete Table 4.18.1 showing the interactions
between the poles of two magnets.
Table 4.18.1

North to North to South to South to

north south south north

2 Why is steel rather than iron used to make small permanent

bar magnets?

KEY POINTS

1 Magnets produce forces which act on other magnets or

magnetic materials.
2 Permanent magnets are made from magnetic materials such
as steel.
3 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
4 The size of the force between magnets decreases with their
distance apart.
 Magnetic fields

LEARNING OUTCOMES Magnetic fields

You have already seen that the forces acting between charged objects
At the end of this topic you
are produced by electric fields. Similarly, the forces acting between
should be able to:
magnets are caused by magnet ic fields.
• draw and plot the magnetic
A magnetic field is a region of space in which a magnetic material will
field around a bar magnet
experience a force.
• describe the magnetic field
produced by the Earth The shape of a magnetic field is not as simple as that of an electric
field as there are always two poles involved.
• explain how a compass
works. The field is represented as a series of lines which show the direction
an imaginary north pole would be pushed by the field. This means
that the field lines point away from the north pole of the magnet and
towards the south pole (Figure 4.19.1).
Lines of force
Finding the shape of a magnetic field
There are two common ways of finding the shape of a magnetic field
around magnets.

Iron filings
Iron filings can be sprinkled around the magnet. These filings will
align w it h the field lines and the shape of the field will be seen clearly
(Figure 4.19.2). This technique is particularly useful for looking at the
shape of the field when more than one magnet is involved.
To prevent the filings sticking to the magnet the magnet can be
placed under a piece of paper or wrapped in plastic film.

A plotting compass
A plotting compass can be placed against the north pole of a bar
magnet. The needle of the compass will point along the direction of
the field line and a dot can be placed where the compass is pointing.
The compass is moved repeated ly until a trail of dots is formed. This
will curve back to the south pole of the magnet. The dots can be
joined with a curve to form a field line. The whole process is repeated
starting at several different points near the poles until the shape of
the field is revealed.

The Earth's magnetic field

The Earth produces a magnetic field around itself (Figure 4.19.4) . This
is due to the rotation of its metallic core. The magnetic field envelops
the whole planet as if there were a bar magnet within the Earth. The
south pole of this imaginary bar magnet lies near, but not at, the
geog raphic north pole.
The Earth's magnetic field has been used for navigation for
t housa nds of years. Lodestone is a naturally magnetic material and a
thin slice of lodestone can be made to float on water. The lodeston e Use the techniques described
w ill align itself to the Earth's magnetic field. on page 146 to find the
Magnetised steel pins are used in compasses and follow the same shapes of the magnetic fields
principle but these are suspended inside a case so that they may surrounding two permanent
rotate freely. The 'north seeking' pole will point towards the north magnets arranged as shown in
pole of the Earth because it is attra cted to the magnetic south pole. Figure 4.19 .3.

The Ea rth's magnetic field is also useful as it deflects cha rged particles a
from the Sun and protects the Earth's surface from potentially
harmful effects.
b
Magnetic
axis
Axis of rotation
1. 5 L. NI IN I 51
c
l5 I NI
15,- I NI
d
15 NI
IN I 5!1
Figure 4.19.3
\
\
\

Figure 4.19.4 The Earth's magnetic field EXAM TIP

SUMMARY QUESTIONS Wf1~"" c:jYClW""'0 I>\<Clg""~t"C

fi.elc:j l"~ CllwCltJs
1 How can iron fil ings be' used to reveal t he shape of mag netic yel>\<el>\<bey tf1C1t tf1etJ COI>\<e
fields? out,of tf1e ""Ortf1pole CI ~
go .""to tf1e soutf1pole.
2 An iron nail is seen to attract a paper cl ip. Comment on
whether this proves that the ba r is a magnet. The teYI>\<"""OlogtJ Clbout
tf1e, t;Clrtf1's poles ""''''' b~
CI b.t CO""fus""'0 . MClk;t
KEY POINTS SuYe tJ0u u~~ystCl""c:j "t
C leCi rl. tJ .
1 Magnets have magnetic fields around them which affect
magnetic materials.
2 The sha pe of the fields can be found with a compass or iron
filings.
3 Field lines come out of t he north pole and enter the south
Fi nd out about the aurora
pole.
borealis and aurora australis
4 The Ea rth has a magnetic field which assists with navi gation and what causes these
and protect s us from some cosmic rays. phenomena .
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Currents and magnetic fields
The charges moving in a wire produce a magnetic field around the
At the end of this topic you
wire. This was fi rst demonstrated by Hans Christian 0rsted when he
should be able to:
placed a compass near a wire . The compass would point northwards
• sket ch the shape of t he until there was a current in the wire. This caused the compass to
magneti c field fo rm ed arou nd point in a different direction.
a current-carrying wire and a
solenoid Demonstrating the shape of the field
• apply the right-hand grip rule To demonstrate the shape of the magnetic field we can use iron
to determine the direction of filings or plotting compasses in a similar way to the techniques used
the field with bar magnets.
• state some uses of electro-
The current-carrying w ire is made to pass perpendicularly through a
magnets.
sheet of horizontal card (Figure 4.20.1). A set of plotting compasses
is placed on the card and the current is turned on. The compasses wil l
show that there is a circular field around the wire. Iron filings can also
be sprinkled onto the card and these will form a pattern of circles
confirming the shape of the field.

Card

Field

Figure 4.20.1 An updated version of 0rsted's experiment

To determine which way the field lines loop you can use the 'right-
hand grip rule' as shown in Figure 4.20.2.
Figure 4 .20.2 Using your right hand,
imagine curling your Solenoids
fingers around the wire
while sticking your thumb The magnetic field around a single wire is not strong and so coils
out in the direction of of wire called solenoids are used. The magnetic field outside the
the conventional current. solenoid is similar in shape to that of a bar magnet but there is a field
The curved direction of
inside the coil too. This interna l field is almost uniform. The field lines
your fi ngers shows you
which way the magnetic are all parallel to each other. One end of the coil acts as a north pole
field ~oops . and the other acts as a south pole (Figure 4.20.3).
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
The strength of the field produced by a solenoid is increased by:
• using more loops (turns) of w ire
• increasing the current in the wire
• placing an iron core inside the solenoid (this has the effect of
concentrating the field lines creating a strong field at the end of the
core).
Powerful electromagnets can be produced by using all of these Figure 4 .20 .3 To find the direction of the
measures. field from the direction
of the current, we can
use our right hand again .
This time your fingers
follow the direction of the
Bui ld your own electromagnet using a large iron na il, a low- current curving around
voltage power supply and a length of insulated wire. Wrap the the coil. Your thumb will
point in the direction
wire around the nail in a tight coil and test the power of your of the magnet ic field
electromagnet. Be careful not to use large currents. You can add (northwards),
a variable resistor to control the current.

Using electromagnets
Electromagnets can be very useful. They can be turned on and off
and their strength can be controlled by adjusting the current in them.
They are used for a wide range of applications from heavy indu stry to
medical diagnosi s.
• Scrap yards use powerful electromagnets to lift up cars and other
objects. Turning off the electromagnet allows them to be put down
again.
• An electromagnetic relay can be used to operate a switch •
remotely. A small, and safe, current enters the electromagnet and
the electromagnet pulls a switch. The switch is actually part of a
high current circuit. Examples of these relays can be found in cars
where a small current from the ign ition circuit is used to turn on a
large current to the starter motor.
Electromagnetic fields are also vital in electric motors as you wil l see
in 4.23. SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What advantages do
electromag nets have when
KEY POINTS
compared to permanent
1 A current in a wire produces a circular magnetic field in a magnets?
plane at right angles to the wire. 2 Imagine there was a
2 A solenoid is a coil of wire which produces a magnetic field current-carrying wire
similar to that of a bar magnet. coming vertically out of this
book. Sketch the magnetic
3 The strength of the magnetic field of a solenoid is increased field pattern around this
by using more loops of wire, increasing the current and imaginary wire. The current is
adding an iron core. flowing upwards.

7
 When a wire carries a current there will be a magnetic field
LEARNING OUTCOMES
surrounding the wire. If the wire is placed inside the magnetic field
At the end of this topic you from a permanent magnet then the two magnetic fields will interact
should be able to: with each other. A force will act on the wire and the permanent
magnet. This is the motor effect.
• describe the effect a magnetic
field has on a current-carrying
wire Demonstrating the motor effect
• sketch the resultant field The motor effect can be demonstrated simply using the apparatus
surrounding a current- shown in Figure 4.21 .1.
carrying wire placed between
• The magnets produce an almost uniform magnetic field between them.
two permanent magnets
• Two thick wires hold another loose wire, so that a complete circuit
• use Flem ing 's left-hand rule
is made.
to find the direction of the
force acting on a current- • When the circuit is switched on the current in the loose wi re wi ll
carrying wire. produce a magnetic field which will interact with the field from the
permanent magnets.
• The loose wire will experience a force making it jump to the right.
If the direction of the current or the direction of the magnetic field is
reversed then the loose wire will move to the left.

S-pole
Plastic or wooden
support held in
If you have the apparatus, a stand
shown in Figure 4.2 1.1, test the
motor effect using t he method
descri bed.

Magnadur magnets
(unlike poles facing) Low V, high I, d.c supply

Figure 4 .21.1 Demonstrating the motor effect

The size of the force

The size of the force acting on the wire will depend on the following:
• The current in the wire. The larger the current the stronger the
magnetic field around the wire and the greater the interaction with
the magnetic field from the permanent magnets.
• The strength of the magnetic field from the permanent magnets. A
stronger field will produce a greater force.
• The length of w ire inside the permanent magnetic field. There wil l
be a greater force if the wire is longer.
Fleming's left-hand rule
EXAM TIP
It can be difficult to work out the direction of the force acting on a
wire in a magnetic fi eld. Fleming's left-hand rule (also known as the :-",,"evc )j0K a~e s,tt,""0
motor rule) lets us find the direction of the force acting on the wire
'vc tl1e ex:a""" l1all, clovc't
when we know the direction of the current and the magnetic field.
feel s ' ll)j abOKt KS'''''0
Usi ng your left ha nd: Fle""",""0's left-l1avccl
• Separate you r thumb, first and second fingers so that they all point n:<le t~ I1elp )j0K ft.vccl tl1e
at right angles to each other (see Figure 4.21.2). cI"echovc of """ove"""evct. It
~eall)j cIoes wo~~.
• Poi nt your First f inger in the direction of the magnetic Field (north
pole to south pole).
• Point your seCond finger in the direction of the Current (from the
positive termin al to the negative terminal). You may have to twist
you r hand about to do this but always keep the three fingers at
First finger = Field ......
ri ght angles to each other.
• Your thu M b w ill show the direction of the force acting on the wire
(or M ovement).
I
+ SeCond finger
= Current
Understanding the field
The fo rce on the wi re arises because of the interaction of the two
mag netic f ields so it is important to know the sha pe of t he resultant
field (Fig ure 4.21.3). Figure 4 .21 .2 Fleming's left-hand rule

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 How can the force acting on

The field
a current-carrying w ire in a
between the magnetic field be increased ?
two permanent
magnets !s 2 Figure 4.21.4 shows a current-
almost uniform carrying wire. A magnetic
field is acting into the paper.
In which direction is the force
acting on the wire?
Magnetic field into the paper
Current
•
Figure 4.21.4
Flat magnets alone
The fields
combine
Direction KEY POINTS
like this
of force
1 A current-carrying wire
placed in a magnetic field
Combined magnetic field
will experience a force.
2 The direction of the force
CUrrent in wire alone acting on the wire can be
Figure 4 .21 .3 Interaction of the magnetic fields found using Fleming's left-
hand rule.

7
 When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field so that it cuts
LEARNING OUTCOMES
through the field lines, the electrons in the conductor experience a
At the end of this topic you force which attempts to make them move. This is the electromotive
should be able to : force (e.m.f.). If the conductor is connected to a circuit then the
e.m.f. will prod uce an induced current in t he ci rcuit.
• describe how to induce a
current in a coil of wire
Demonstrating induction
• expla in the factors affecting
the induced current. To demonstrate the effect you can sim ple move a wire rapidly
through a field as shown in Figure 4.22.1. The current induced in the
circui t will be very small and so a sensitive ammeter or galvanometer
must be used. Note that the current only exists when the wire is
moving through the magnetic field. There is no current when the
wire is stationary.
of wire
Cutting field lines
To understand the reason for the induced current you need to
imagine the magnetic field lines around the magnet being cut by
the conductor as it moves. It is t he cutting of these lines of force
which places a force on t he electrons. Electromagnetic induction
UN 4'21.1 Demonstrating occurs when there is a relative movement between a magnet and a
electromagnetic induction conductor so that the magnetic field lines are being cut.

Investigating induction
It is usually easier to move the magnet than to move the wire and so
to investigate the properties of induction you can use a bar magnet
and a solenoid (coi l of wire) connected to a sensitive ammeter. A
solenoid is used so that the field lines cut through the conductors
several times and therefore increase the induced current.
• Pushing the magnet (north pole first) into the solenoid so that
the magnetic field lines pass through the loops of wire induces a
current in the wire.
• Pulling out the magnet induces a current in the opposite direction.
• Reversing the direction of the magnet (pushing in the south pole)
wil l also reverse the direction of the current.
• The faster the magnet is moving relative to the coil the greater the
current. This shows that it is the rate that the wire moves through
the field lines that is the cause of the increased current.
• The more loops of wire in the solenoid the greater the induced
current.
• The stronger the magnet the la rger the induced current is.
• Leaving the magnet inside the coil does not produce a cu rrent.
There is no relative movement between the magnet and the
conductor so no field lines are being cut.
The direction of the current
The current induced in the coil will change direction as the magnet is
moved in and out of the coil (an alternating current). We need to be
able to determine the direction of the current as the magnet moves. Use a magnet, solenoid and coil
To do this we use the following solenoid rule: of wire to investigate induction.
The current induced in a solenoid always acts in such a direction as to
oppose the change that causes it.
This means that when we push the north end of the magnet into the
coil that end of the coil acts as a north pole but when the magnet
is withdrawn the magnetic field of the coil reverses. We can use
the solenoid rule to work out the direction of the current in the coil
(Figure 4.22.2).
This means that a force will be required to push the magnet into
the coil and mechanical work must be done in doing so. This
mechanical work is transformed into electrical energy and so the law
of conservation of energy is observed.

!fj)
Motion LI:_________...>~
o like poles repel
/ J------'
+

,--I: _---"'~
o Unlike poles attract
'-E----,+-{ "

~ure 4.22.2 The solenoid rule allows us determine the direction of the induced
current.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 How can you increase the induced current in a solenoid?

2 How does rotating a magnet at the end of a solenoid induce
a current?

KEY POINT

1 Electromagnetic induction occurs when there is relative

movement between a magnet and a conductor. The induced
current depends on the strength and direction of the
magnetic field and the speed of the relative movement.
LEARNING OUTCOMES The d.c. motor
A direct current motor uses the motor effect as seen in 4.21 to exert
At the end of this topic you
a force on a current-carrying wire. Making a wire move in a straight
shou ld be able to :
line is not very useful in most circumstances and so the motor is
o describe the operation of a designed to cause a coil of ,wire to rotate.
d.c. motor
o explain the operation of an Understanding the d .c. motor
a.c. generator o A coil of wire is mounted on an axle between a pair of magnets.
o sketch the waveform The magnets are arranged so that the opposite poles face each
produced by an a.c. generator. other and produce a strong, uniform, magnetic field between
them .
o The coil is connected to a circuit by a pair of connectors called a split-
ring commutator. This allows the coil to rotate freely but also allows
the direction of the current in the coil to switch every half-turn.
o A current is passed through the coil. The side of the coil near the
north pole will experience an upwards force (use Fleming's left-
hand rule to check this) while the side of the coil near the south
pole will experience a downwards force.
o The two forces will cause the coil to rotate on the axle.
o When the coil has rotated a half-turn the commutator will reverse
the current in the coil. This means that the direction of the force on
the coil will still cause the left side to be pushed upwards while the
right side is pushed downwards.
o As the force remains in the same direction the coil continues to
spin, producing a turning moment which can be used to do work.

Applications of motors
Electrical motors are used in a wide range of devices from a smal l
battery-powered fan to a motor which can drive cars.
Use an electrical motor kit to
make your own model of a The a,c. generator
motor.
Alternating current generators rely on electromagnetic induction
as seen in 4 .22 . Physically they are similar to the d.c. motor but the
energy transformation is the reverse. Kinetic energy is transformed
into electrical energy.

Operation of the a.c. generator

The construction of a simple a.c. generator is shown in Figure 4.23.2.
o A coil of wire is mounted on an axle inside a strong magnetic field.
o The coil is rotated.
 Commutator
rings Brushes

Figure 4 .23.2 An a.c. generator

• As the coi l rotates it cuts through the magnetic field lines and a
current is induced .
As the coil rotates through the field lines the rate at which it cuts Use a hand pow ered generator
them changes as its alignment changes. This means t hat the e.m.f. to produce an alternating
ind uced in the coil changes with the posit ion of the coil. curren t. Describe what happens
when the generator is spun
• When t he coil is horizonta l it cuts field lines at a high rate. and a faster.
large e.m.f. is produced.
• When the coil is verti cal it does not cut field lines and so no e.m.f.
is ind uced.
During a full rotation the coil will produce an alternating e.m.f. as
shown in Fig ure 4.23.3. SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Describe the operation of the

+ motor in Figure 4.23 .1 if the
e.mJ battery is reversed.
2 Comparing the a.c. generator
to the d.c. motor, what other
factors beside the rotational
speed will increase the peak
e.m.f. produced?

KEY POINTS

1 A d.c. motor transfers

electrical energy into kinetic
energy using the motor
effect.
Figure 4.23. The e.m .f. produced by an a.c. generator
2 The d.c. motor uses a
current-carrying coil of wire
which is made to rotate
Changing the rotation speed
inside a magnetic field .
Increasin g the speed of rotation of the coil will cause it to produce a
3 An a.c. generator uses
larger peak e.m .f. It w ill also increase th e freq uency of the a.c. supply.
induction to produce a
Some power station generato rs are spun 50 times each second
current in a w ire by rotating
providing a frequency of 50 Hz while others are spun 60 times each
a coil inside a magnetic field .
second (60 Hz).

!3
 The voltage of an alternating curren t can be changed with a device
LEARNING OUTCOMES
called a transformer. The transformer also changes the size of the
At the end of this topic you current. When electrical energy is transm itted over long distances it is
should be able to: best to do so at high voltage and low current. A lower current in the
cable will cause less heating effect and so less energy will be wasted.
• describe the operation of a In power lines the voltages may be several thousand volts.
transformer
• state the difference between
a step-up and a step-down
Tra nsformer operation
transformer A transformer consists of two coils of wire wrapped around opposite
• use the transformer equation. arms of a laminated iron core as shown in Figure 4 .24 .1. These coils
are the primary (input) coil and the secondary (output) coil.
• The alt ernating current in the input coil generates a varying
magnetic field in the iron core.
Laminated
Iron (ore • The magnetic field is focused in the iron core.
Pri mary coil Secondary coi l
• The varying magnetic field induces an alternating current in the
Ip
"--+----/ output coil.
• The iron core is laminated to reduce currents which would be
induced in it. These 'eddy' currents would heat the core and waste
energy.
• There is no direct electrical connection between the two coils in the
transformer and so no current can pass between them. The coi ls
Figure 4.24.1 The construction of a are said to be decoupled .
transformer
Note that, because the transformer operates by using changes in
magnetic fields, it cannot work with direct current.

The transformer equation

There is a relationship between the voltage on the primary coil (V)
p
and the voltage on the secondary coil (V) and the number of turns of
wire on the respective coils (N p and N), given by:

Vs Ns ~
Vp Np I,

You can also see t hat there is relationship between the number of
turns and the currents in the coils (lp and I') .
If the number of turns on the input coil matches the number of turns
on the output coil then there will be no change in voltage or current.
If there is a difference in the number of turns then the current and
voltage will both change.

&2
Step-up transformers
Step-up transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than on
the primary coil. This has two effects: EXAM TIP

• The voltage is increased. TllR.e CQ re wi1e"" l.<Si"'0 t i1e

• The current is decreased (compa red wi t h primary curren t) by same trQ"'-Sformer eq ....Qtio""
factor as voltage is stepped up. Q""~ ci1ecR. ti1Qt tjo .... r
Q"'-Swers ""'-QR.e se"'-Se.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 I
A step-up transformer has 50 turns on the input coil and 400 on
the output coi l. The input voltage is 5.0V w ith a current of 2.0A.
What are the output characteristics?
Find the output voltage first:
V, = N, . V = N, x V, = 400 x 5.0V = 40V Construct a simple transformer
V, N," N, 50 from iron cores and investigate
Now find the output current: the efficiency of the device.
Measure the input and output
!r. = N"
I = I, x N, = 2Ax 50 = 0.25A cu rrents and voltages and see if
IN' , N 400
" , the power ratings (P = Iii) are
the same.
Step-down t ransformers
A step-down transformer has more tu rn s on the primary coil than on
the secondary coi l. Th is also has two effects:
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
• The voltage is decreased .
• The current is increased by the same factor as the voltage is 1 Why are step-up and step-
stepped down . down t ransformers used in
electricity distribution?
Step-down transformers are needed to red uce transmission vo ltages
to the 11 OV used in homes or even lower fo r some electri cal devices . 2 What is the output voltage
of a transformer if the input
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 voltage is 40V and there are
400 turns on the primary coil
How many turns of wire are required on the secondary coil of a and 2500 on the secondary
transformer in order to lower the voltage from 200V to 6.0V if coi l? Is this a step-up or step-
the primary coil has 500 t urns? down transformer?
V, = N, . N = V, x N, = 6.0V x 500 = 15 turns
V, N," V, 200V
KEY POINTS
Transf o rmer power
1 A transformer is used to
The relationship between the primary volta ge and current and the increase or decrease the
secondary voltage and current can be used to find the input and voltage of an a.c. supply.
output power of a transformer as fo llows:
2 The transformer equation is:
V, _ I,. VIss-Vpp
---,
_ I V N I
V, I, .....1. = ---1 = .R.
V, N, I,
As power is defined as IV we have the rel ationsh ip:
3 Transformers are very
Pout = P in
efficient and so POOl = p.
The above equation is used for an 'ideal ' transformer. However, a provides results close to true
transformer is actually a highly efficient device with low power loss values.
and so the equation can be used to find resu lts close to true val ues.

!2 I
SECTION 4 : Practice exam questions 3

1 The resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is 4 A student tested the relationship between the
given by the relationship: strength of an electromagnet and the current
1 1 1 1 in it by using the magnet to lift a chain of
-=-+-+-+ . steel paper clips from a desk. The results are
Rp R, R, RJ
shown in the table.
A group of students were asked to verify this
Current/A 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
relationship by placing a number of 60n
resistors in parallel with each other. They then Paper clips 1 3 4 5 7 8 11 13 15
lifted
measured the current through the set and the
potential difference across them.
a Plot a graph comparing the number of
Number Theoretical Current Potential Measured paper clips lifted to the current in the
of resistance IA difference resistance electromagnet.
resistors 10 N {Q
b Describe the pattern shown .
1 0.19 12.0
5 A group of students was investigating which
2 0.38 12 .0 factor would have the greatest effect on
3 0.57 12 .0 increasing the strength of their electromagnet.
4 0.76 12 .0 The strength of the electromagnet was
measured by testing how large a mass it could
5 0.95 12.0
lift. The students investigated two different
factors: increasing the current and increasing
a Sketch the five arrangements of resistors.
the number of loops of wire. They recorded
b Calculate the theoretical resistance for their results in the three tables shown.
each set of resistors.
c Calculate the measured resistance of each Current O.5A
set of resistors. Number of loops of wire 10 15 20 25
d Plot a graph comparing the measured Mass lifted/g 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
resistance to the theoretical resistance of
the combinations. Current 1.0A
e Describe the possible causes of the Number of loops of wire 10 15 20 25
difference between the measured Mass lifted/g 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4
resistance and the theoretical resistance.
2 Describe the effect of placing two bar Current 1.SA
magnets next to each other in all six possible Number of loops of wire 10 15 20 25
orientations. Mass lifted/g 3.3 3.9 4.5 5.1
3 Which of these will increase the strength of an
electromagnet? a Why should the students use an iron core
during all of the experiments 7
a Increasing the current in the coil.
b Reversing the direction of the current. b What conclusions can be made about the
effect of increasing the current?
c Replacing the iron core with an aluminium
core. c What conclusions can be made about the
effect of increasing the number of loops of
d Increasing the number of turns of wire in wire?
the coil.
e Switching the electromagnet on and off
rapidly. ,
6 A bar magnet is inserted into a solenoid as a Which way will the motor rotate?
shown in the diagram. An ammeter shows b What is the function of the split-ring
there to be a current in the wire as the commutator?
magnet moves . c How can the power of the motor be

~
r. Hollow cardboard tube
increased'
,. X 8 What are the factors that can be used to
6'''''~",",,'''' increase the e.m.f. of an a.c. generator'
5 "'". , _ N
9 An a.c. generator revolves with a frequency
Magnet
of 20 Hz and produces an ·e.m.f. with a peak
voltage of 50 V.
a Sketch a voltage--time graph showing the
a What is the name of the process which supp ly provided by this generator.
causes a current in the wire'
The frequency of the generator is increased to
b What will happen to the read ing on the
40Hz.
meter when the magnet is pulled out of
the solenoid' b Sketch a new voltage--time graph showing
how the supply would change.
c What will happen to the reading if the
magnet is inserted more quickly? 10 An ideal t ransformer is used to convert a
11 Ov. a.c. mains voltage to power a 12 V. lamp
The current in the solenoid causes it to
with resistance 5 Q.
produce a magnetic field when the magnet is
being inserted. a What is the current in the lamp'

d What w ill be the magnetic polarity of end b What is the power of the lamp?
X of the solenoid? C What is the current in the primary coil?
e What will be the direction of the current in 11 A transformer has 500 turns on the primary coil
the solenoid (clockwise or anticlockwise)? and 6000 on the output coil. What is the output
7 A d.c. motor is constructed as shown in the current when the primary current is 0.2A.
diagram . 12 The diagram shows an electrical distribution grid
using step-up and step-down transformers. The
current in the 132 kV. cable is 0.2 A. Assuming all
of the transformers are ideal:
a calculate the current from the power
station
b calcu late the current that can be provided
to light industry.

Factories light industry

 LEARNING OUTCOMES Initial ideas
Ancient civilisations, such as the Greeks, used the idea of cutting
At the end of this topic you
up substances until the simplest components were reached. These
should be able to:
simplest substances were 'elemental' and were built from the
o summa rise t he development smallest parts possible: atoms.
of models of the atom
o describe the Geiger- Marsden The 'plum pudding ' model
experiment At the end of the 19th centu ry the British physicist J. J. Thomson
o describe the modern view of discovered that heating metals could release small particles
the atom . (electrons). Thomson proposed that the electrons were released
from inside the atoms and therefore the atom was not the smallest
possible particle.
As a beam of electrons could be deflected by magnetic and electric
Sphere of fields, Thomson realised that the electrons were charged. As the
positive original atom was uncharged, he proposed a model where the
charge
electrons in an atom were trapped inside a positively charged
'sponge'. This was the 'plum pudding' model of the atom
(Figure 5.1.1).

Rutherford and the nuclear model

Figure 5. 1.1 The 'plum pudding' model
A few years later Ernest Rutherford asked two of his research
students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to investigate the
structure of an atom, using a beam of alpha particles (positively
charged particles) (Figure 5.1.2). When fired at a thin gold foil:
o most passed straight through the foil with a very small deflection
Incident o some were deflected through large angles
a-particles
some bounced straight back.

0<
o

: "
"
~ Nucleus
These results could not be explained by the plum pudding model and
so Rutherford proposed a new model 'the nuclear model'.
o As most of the alpha particles pass straight through, most of the

; ~: " a-particle tracks

atom must be composed of empty space.
o As some alpha pa rticles are deflected they must be repelled by
a dense positively charged part of the atom (later named the
nucleus) which contained protons and most of the mass of the
Figure 5.1.2 I The deflection paths of atom .
alpha particles fired at
gold foil o The apparent radius of atoms was much greater than the measured
size of the nucleus. As the electrons were known to be very small, it
was suggested t hat they occupied the space around the nucleus in
a way similar to the planets orbiting the Sun.

2l
The Bohr model of the atom
The previous models of the atom could not expla in the behaviour
of the electrons and why they did not fall into the nucleus due to
electromagnetic forces.
Bohr suggested that the electrons could only occupy certain regions
(shells or energy levels). Only certain transitions between these shells
were possible and this prevented the electrons from falling into the
nucleus.

Discovery of neutrons
In 1932 James Chadwick discovered that an uncharged particle (the
neutron), of similar mass to the proton, existed within the nucleus
(Figure 5.1.3).
Our understanding of the structure of the atom continues to develop
through the standard model, where the forces binding the nucleus Electrons in orbit
around the nucleus
together are explained, and quantum mechanics, where the positions
of subatomic particles are described as com plex mathematical Figure 5.1.3 The nuclear model of the
probabilities. atom

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 In the 'pl um pudding' model:

a what charge do electrons have"
b what is the remainder of an atom composed of?
c wha t force holds the electrons in place?
2 During the Geiger-Marsden experiment:
a why did most of the al pha particles pass through the gold
Use an on line simulator to
fo il without deflection?
reproduce the Rutherford
b w hy were some of the alpha particles directed straight back? scattering experiment.

KEY POINTS

1 The concept that matter is composed of atoms was initially

developed in ancient Greece.
2 Scientists developed models of the atom through
experimentation and analysis of evidence.
3 The modern view of the atom has a central nucleus
containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in
'shells' or energy levels.
 Electrons, the nucleus
and the periodic tabl

LEARNING OUTCOMES The components of atoms

Experiments have now shown that there are three different types of
At the end of this topic you
particle that make up all atoms (Table 5.2 .1).
should be able to:
• compare the properties Table 5.2.1 Properties of subatomic particles
of electrons, protons and Particle location Mass Electric charge
neutrons
proton in the nucleus 1 unit + le
• identify the constituents of
(1 .67 x 10- 27 kg) (1.60 x 10 19 C)
isotopes
neutron in th e nucleus 1 unit 0
• describe the relationship
(1.67 x 10- 27 kg) OC
between atomic structure and
the periodic table. electron outside the 1 - le
nucleus in energy - 2000 unit ( - 1.60 x 10 19 C)
levels or 'shells'
9 .11 x 10- kg31

Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons. As

protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus they are referred to as
nucleons.

Nuclear notation
A nucleus can be described using the number of protons and
EXAM TIP neutrons in the nucleus.

:,eYlj specifi-c Ltl"'-gutlge • The number of protons, the proton number (also called the
LS used iVl- Vl-ucLetly atomic number) is represented by the letter Z.
pl1ljsics. Mtl~ suYe lj ou • The total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) is called the
uVl-deYSttlVl-d tlLL of tl1e nucleon number (or sometimes mass number) and is represented
leelj woYds, especitlLLlj by the letter A.
~ucLeus, Vl-ucLide tlVl-d • The number of neutrons, the neutron number, is represented by
Lsotope. the letter N.
;x
The neutron number is not normally recorded because it can be
found simply by rememberi ng:
number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number (N =A - Z)

I'ACTIVITY ··1 Examples

• A nucleus of magnesium wi t h an atomic number of 12 and a mass
Use a periodic table to study
number of 24 is represen ted by:: Mg.
the patterns in electron
arrangement and the patterns • A nucleus of boron containing 5 protons and 5 neutrons is
10
of chemical behaviour of represen ted by 5 B.
element s in th e same group. • A nucleus of iron containing 26 protons and 30 neutrons is
56
represented by 26 Fe.
Isotopes WORKED EXAMPLE
Nuclei of a single element always have the same number of protons
Sketch t he atomic structure for
and so have the same atomic number. However, the nuclei may have
the two isotopes of boron ':B
a different number of neutrons. For example, most carbon nuclei
an d ",B.
contain six protons and six neutrons but some carbon nuclei contai n
seven neutrons or even eight. ,
Nucleu, with:

@
Atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon numbers
are called isotopes .
Three isotopes of carbon are: ': C
,
,o B
. 5 protons
5 neutrons

As the proton number identifies the name of the element it is often Both isoto pes have
more convenient to write isotopes in a simpler format: carbon-12, 5 electrons:
carbon-13 or carbon-14. 2 in the first shell
3 in the second shell
Nuclei that share the same num ber of protons and neutrons are
referred to as nuclides.
~~~~t~~~ith:
Patterns in electron shells and the periodic ta ble
The periodic table is arranged in order of proton num ber from left
to right and working down through the periods. Electrons are found
in shells (or energy levels) and the periodic table shows a pattern in
"B
,
@ • 6 neutrons

Figure 5.2.1
the behaviour of elements with the same num ber of electrons in t he
outermost shell.
KEY POINTS
Each complete period in the periodic table represents the filling up
for an energy level. 1 Atoms are neutral particles
• The first shell can con tain a maximum of 2 electrons and so there because there are an equal
are 2 elements in the first period. number of positive charged
protons to negatively
• The second shell can contain up to 8 electrons. charged electrons.
• The third shell can contain up to 8 electrons and the fourth up to
18 electrons. 2 Mass number (A) = atomic
number (Z) + neutron
• For exam ple, a silicon atom has 14 electrons and the electron number (N)
arrangement is 2,8,4.
3 Isotopes of elements have
the same number of protons
in the nucleus but different
numbers of neutrons.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Fluorine has a proton 2 Copy Table 5.2.2. Then ca lculate and fill in the missing val ues.
number of 9.
Table 5.2. 2
a How many electrons
does a neutral fluorine Number of Nucleon Number of Number of
Atom
atom have? protons, Z number, A neutrons, N electrons
b Sketch the arra ngement a carbon 6 12
of th ese electrons. b sodium 11 12
c In what group of the
c gold 197 79
period ic table is fluorine
placed? d osmium 76 114
 LEARNING OUTCOMES A short history
In 1896 Henri Becquerel noticed that, after leaving a sample containing
At the end of this topic you
uranium in a drawer near some photographic film, the film became
should be able to:
exposed. He theorised that the uranium was producing 'invisible rays'
• describe t he properties of the which ca used a chem ical reaction in the film. Over the next few years
three nuclear radiations Marie and Pierre Curie investigated other minerals and isolated radium
• know the sources of some in sufficient amou nts to allow the study of its properties .
background radiation.
Background radiation
There is always a smal l amount of background radiation around
us from natural and artificial sources (Figure 5.3.1). The level of this
radiation varies from place to place. Some locations have more than
Nuclear weapons twenty times the level of radia tion as others.
~-r__ 0.4%
Food and Air travel
drmk 0.3% Investigating nuclear radiation
15.6% Nuclear
reactors Three different types of nuclear radiation have been discovered:
0.1%
alpha (ex), beta ( ~) and gamma (y).
Medical As the nucl ear radiation interacts with the atoms or molecules of a
21 .0% material it can cause ionisation, where some of the electrons are
stripped away from t heir atoms.
Alpha particles are st rongly cha rged and this makes them interact
Figure 5.3.1 Typical origins of
strongly. They are absorbed easily by materials. Beta particles are
background radiation
more penetrating and absorbed less easily and gamma rays are the
most penetrating of all, as they interact least with the matter they
pass th rough.
A Geiger counter can be used to detect ionising radiation. A
radioactive particle passing through a Geiger-MOiler tube produces
an electrical pulse which is logged by a counter attached to the tube.
By placing different materials between the source and the Geiger
counter, the penetrating power can be investigated (Figure 5.3.2).

Absorbing material
Source G-r tube Ratemeter
.FJIl
{ ACTIVITY ! :y r I "'X"' ~
r1 ~ I ""'E>
Investigate th e safety rules
J!'i! ~~-
required when ha ndling
radioactive sources. Explain wh y
these rul es are needed when
hand ling t he different types of
Support or
Plasticine
Set range to give a large
/
Fixed distance enough deflection
sources.
./ Figure 5.3.2 Measuring the penetrating powers of nuclear radiations
~----------~------/
Effect of magnetic and electric fields
a
Charged particles experience a force when they move through Beam of radiation enters
a magnetic field
magnetic or electric fields (Fi gure 5.3.3). The size and direction of the
A magnetic
force depends upon the charge of the particle. Alpha particles have field at right
more mass t han beta particles so do not deflect as easily. Also alpha angles to
particles wil l curve in the opposite direction to beta particles because the plane

,' \...
of the
t hey have opposite charge. Gamma rays are not affected by t he fields paper
as they are not charged.
~-",-~' .....
Table 5.3.1 Properties of alpha, beta and gamma rad iation / ~-radiat i on is
a-radiation is II- deflected in the
Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays deflected by opposite diredion
the magnetic to a-radiation
field
y-radiation is undeflected
Symbol a ~ y
by the magnetic field
Nature A particle A fast movi ng Elect romagnetic
consisting of electron ejected ra diation b
two protons and from the emitted by the Eledric field between _
two neutrons nucleus nucleus. A high
positive and negative I
metal plate _ _ - -.....- -
ejected from the energy photon.
nucleus Beam of radiation
==-- .......
~y
---"1--" ,~
Electric + 2 e (charge of -1 e (cha rge of None +
charge two protons) one electron) Note that cr- and J}-partides passing through an
Penetrating Can travel Can travel a few Can travel long elearj( field are defleaed in opposite directions
power only a few metres in air. distance in air. Radioactive emissions
centimetres in Blocked by Intensity '-"=;.;:..;=c::...t passing through a a
aIr. met al foil. reduced by thick magnetic field and b an
electric field
Blocked by metal plating
paper or skin. such as lead.
Ionising Stro ngly Ionising Some ionisation
power ionising as it
is massive and
highly charged
SUMMARY QU ESTIONS
Effect of Defl ect s th e Defl ect s t he No effect
magnetic al pha particle beta particle in 1 Why would these careers
and electric the opposite possibly lead to you having a
fields direction to an higher t han average annual
alpha particle dose of rad iation?
• Radiographer in a hospita l
The cloud chamber • Airline pilot
Althoug h w e can not see a or ~ particles or y-rays, we can see the • Miner
tracks th ey make when water droplets condense on ions formed in a
2 What type(s) of nuclear
clou d chamber.
radiation:
a can penetrate your skin?
KEY POINTS
b causes the most
1 There are three types of nuclear radiation: alpha, bet a and ionisation?
gamma. c are deflected by a
magnetic field?
2 There is always some background radiation from both natural
and artificial sources. d can travel farthest in air?
LEARNING OUTCOMES Unstable isotopes
Many nuclides are stable. This means tha t the nucleus has the correct
At the end of this topic you
balance of protons and neutrons and does not break apart. However,
should be able to:
some nuclides have too many neutrons or too many protons and this
• describe the changes in makes them unstable causing the nucleus to decay (break apa rt) over
a nucleus undergoing a time. For example, carbon-12 is a stable nucl ide but carbon-14 is
radioactive decay or nuclear not. Carbon-14 nuclei will decay over time changing into nitrogen-14
reaction nuclei.
• construct nuclear equations When a decay occurs it can be described in t hese simple terms:
describing nuclear changes.
parent nucleus ~ daughter nucleus + ex, ~, or y

Alpha decay
During alpha decay an unstable parent nucleus releases two protons
The nucleus emitsan a-particle
and forms a new nucleus and two neutrons bound toget her forming an alpha pa rticle (Figure
5.4.1). The alpha particle is ejected from the parent nucleus leaving
a daughter nucleus with less mass . As two protons have left the
nucleus the resulting daughter is a different element than the parent.
a-particle
The general form of an alpha decay equation is:
A 4 A- 4
ZX~2U+Z _ 2Y

Beta decay
Figure 5.4.1 A beta particle is a fast moving electron produced when a neutron
convert s t o a proton inside the nucleus (Fig ure 5.4.2) . The electron
was not originally present. After the decay there is an ad ditional
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 proton in the nucleus and so the daughter nuclide is a different
element from the parent.
What is the decay equation for
The general form of a beta decay equation is:
alpha decay of polon iu m-210
A 0 A
into an isot ope of lead? zX ~ _, ~ + z+,Y
21 0 4 206
84 PO ~ , ex + 82 Pb
Gamma decay
An alpha or beta decay may leave the daughter nucleus with some
excess energy. The nucleus is said to be in an excited state. Th is
energy may be released by a gamma decay. Gamma decay does
not cause any change in the number of protons or neutrons in t he
A ~-particle is nucleus and so the product of the decay is the same element as the
created in the
nucleus and parent nuclide.
instantly emitted
The general form of a gamma decay equation is:

A neutron in the
nucleus changes
~ 0
A a A
zX ~ oY + zX

into a proton

Figure 5.4 .2 Beta particle emission

Other nuclear reactions WORKED EXAMPLE 2 I
Nuclear fission
Write a decay equation for
Large nuclei can split into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy. This caesium-137 w hich undergoes
process is usually caused by hitting the nucleus with a neutron in beta decay to form an isotope
induced fission . The neutron is absorbed and then the nucleus of barium.
becomes so unstable that it splits up. During fission several neutron s 137 0 137
55 Cs ----;> _I ~ + 56 Ba
are released alongside the two new nuclei (Figure 5.4.3) . In nuclear
reactors these neutrons are used to cause further fissions and form a
chain reaction .
235 1 141 92 1
" U + on ----;> 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 30 n

~
Fission
Target product
nucleus
~H
, :H
Neutron • Q

V Fission
product y/1
,
'He

Figure 5.4.3 Nuclear fission Figure 5.4.4 Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion
Stars produce their energy using the process of nuclear fusion . In
this process small nuclei are merged together to form larger ones Most nuclear fission takes
(Figure 5.4.4). The Sun produces all of its energy by nuclea r fusion place in nuclear reactors but
processes, mostly fusing isotopes of hydrogen to form helium there have been some naturally
isotopes. An example of a fusion reaction is shown below. formed reactors. Find out about
"H +
1 1
,
H ----;> , He + y these and how they worked.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

1 Write complete decay equations for the following. 1 Alpha decay involves the
release of an alpha particle
a The alpha decay of americium -241 (':: Am) into an isotope
(helium nucleus) from a
of neptunium (Np).
parent nucleus.
b The beta decay of caesium-137 C:; Cs) into an isotope of 2 Beta decay invo lves the
barium.
release of a beta particle
2 Copy and complete these nuclear fission and fusion equations (electron) when a neutron
by adding the missing values for proton number and nucleon converts to a proton in a
number: nucleus.
235 1 ? 90 1
a 92U + on -----7 54Xe + ?Sr + 2 0 n 3 Gamma decay involves energy
2? 4 ? changes in the nucleus.
b , H +, H----;> , He +, n
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a random process but, because a very large
At the end of this topic you
number of identical nuclei are involved, the decay process can be
should be able to:
modelled fairly simply.
• describe a simple experiment
For an effective model of the decay process all of the particles
to simulate the random decay
involved need to be identical so that they each have exactly the
of a large number of objects
same chance of decaying. In the model all of the particles (dice) are
• discuss the limitations of the identical (Figure 5.5.1). They all have the same chance of decay as
model. each other when they are rolled.
Follow the procedure described in the Activity to gather data about
decay and the patterns produced.

1 Put 60 dice in a tray or box so that you don't lose them.

2 Make sure each dice is marked clearly on one face.
• if you have simple cubes then colour in a spot on one face.
• If you are using normal numbered dice then the number six
cou nts as the spot.
3 Roll all the dice, a handful at a time.
4 Remove any dice that end up spot upwards (or showing a
radioactive decay. six). These dice have 'decayed'. Put the decayed dice to the
side but do not lose them.
5 Record the number of dice left (not the number of dice that
decayed) in a results table, like Table 5.5.1 .
Table 5.5.1 Results table 6 Roll all of the remaining dice.
Roll Dice Dice Dice Dice 7 Repeat rolling and recording the number of dice left until you
number left left left left have no dice left or you have rolled 20 times.
Try 1 Try 2 Try 3 Total

0 60 60 60 180 8 Repeat the whole process from stage 3 two times to fill in the
results table.
1
2 • The more sets of rolls you complete the better the final
graph will be. if you do not have time for three sets then
3
you may share results or just use one or two sets.
9 Work out the total number of dice left for each roll number
19
by adding the three sets of results across the table.
20
Analysing the data Table 5.5.2 Example results

You should see that the three sets of data are not identical although Roll Dice remaining
the pattern of decay is simila r. This shows that, when using large number
Six- Eight- Ten-
enough numbers, the decay process fo llows predictable patterns. sided sided sided
dice dice dice
Producing a graph 0 6000 6000 6000
Plot a scatter graph w ith the roll number on the x-axis and total 1 5000 5250 5400
number of dice remaining on the y-axis. Add a line of best fi t to the 2 4167 4594 4860
graph. This should be a smooth curve following the pattern of the 3 3472 4020 4374
points. A curve like this is called an exponential decay curve. You can
4 2894 3517 3937
use a spreadsheet to plot the graph but you must make sure that you
label the axes clearly. 5 2411 3077 3543
6 2009 2693 3189
Analysing the graph 7 1674 2356 2870
The graph can be used to determine what fraction of the original dice 8 1395 2062 2583
remain after a certain number of rolls. Use the graph to answer th ese
9 1163 1804 2325
questions. You may use fractions of a roll.
10 969 1578 2092
• How many ro lls did it take to get down to ~ the orig inal number of
11 808 1381 1883
dice)
12 673 1209 1695
• How many more rolls to get down to ±of the original?
13 561 1057 1525
• How many more rolls to get down to ij of the original?
14 467 925 1373
You should see a pattern . The number of rolls requ ired for the
15 389 810 1235
remaining dice to halve is always 3.8.
16 325 708 1112
Limitations of the model 17 270 620 1001
Because a limited number of dice were used you may find that you r 18 225 542 901
results do not follow this pattern exactly. The decay curve may not be 19 188 475 811
entirely smooth and you may find that it did not take exactly 3.8 rolls 20 157 415 729
for the dice to halve each time.
If you use thousands or millions of dice the curve would be much
smoother and the relationship w ould be more precise. When SUMMARY QUESTIONS
monitoring the decay of rad ioactive nuclei there are generally
billions of nuclei. Even though the decay of an individual nucleus is 1 a Plot a graph showing
the dice remaining for all
unpredictable there is a consistent pattern to the number of nuclei
three types of dice shown
rem aining after a certai n time.
in the table.
Example results b Do all of the types of dice
follow the same pattern
Table 5.5.2 shows the example (idealised) results produced by
of decay?
completing the experiment with 6000 dice. You may use this data to
plot graph s if you don't have enough dice. The table also shows the c How may rolls does it take
results that woul d be obtained w hen using eight- and ten-sided dice. for the number of eight-
sided dice to halve?
KEY POINTS d How many rolls for the
number of ten -sided dice
1 The random 'decay' of large numbers of dice can be used to to halve?
model the decay of nuclei.
2 Why are there more dice left
2 Although the decay of a single dice cannot be predicted the after twenty rolls for the ten-
pattern in the decay of large numbers can. sided dice when compared to
the six-sided dice?
 LEARNING OUTCOMES Rate of decay
Although the time when a specific nucleus decays is random, a large
At the end of this topic you
sample of a nuclide will decay exponentially in the same way as the
should be able to:
dice model descri bed in 5.5. This regular decay pattern can be used
• define the half-life of a to predict the behaviour of a sample of radioactive mat erial. The rate
radioisotope in terms of of decay is not affected by external conditions such as temperature or
activity or amount of the pressure.
isotope remaining
• find the half-life of a Decay constant
radio isotope from a graph . The decay constant of a nuclide is the likelihood a nucleus will
decay in one second. This is similar to the chance of a dice 'decaying'
in the model. Some nuclei are very unstable and have a high
likelihood of decaying and so have a large decay constant whi le other
nuclei have a very small chance. Al l nuclei of the same nuclide have
exactly the same decay constant. For example, al l carbon-14 nuclei
have exactly the same chance of decaying each second.

Activity
The activity of a radioactive sample is the rate of decay of the nuclei.
This is the number of nuclei that decay each second. As the number
of nuclei decaying is proportional to the number of nuclei that are
left, the activity of a sample falls over a period of time.

Decay curves
A graph showing the number of radioactive nuclei remaining in a
sample over a period of time is called a decay curve. The number of
nuclei remaining approaches zero but the rate of decay slows as the
number of nuclei remaining decreases. This leads to a curve which
approaches but never reaches zero.
A graph showing the activity of the sample will have exactly the same
shape because the activity is proportional to the number of nuclei
remaining (Figure 5.6.1).

Half-life
Figure 5.6.' A decay curve showing
The half-life of a nuclide is the time it takes for one half of the active
the number of nuclei
remaining over a perod
nuclei to decay. The half-life of a particular nuclide is a constant.
of time. As the activity is proportional to the number of nuclei remaining,
the half-life can also be defined as the length of time taken for the
activity of a sample to fa ll to half of its original value.

LL
 r
Table 5.6.'
Number of half-lives Fraction of sample remaining
0 1
1 I
2 EXAM TIP
2 I
;;
I yol.< c~"- fi."-d t~e ~&lLf-Life
3 8 of &1,,- ,soto-pe L<Si""9 eit~ey
&1,,-&lctivitij dec&lij CI.<YVe
Fig ure 5.6. 2 shows the decay curve fo r a sample with a half- life of OY &I "-l.<lM.bey of "-l.<cLei
45 min utes. It is import ant to note th at the half-life can be found by
yelM.&li"-i""9 dec&I ij Cl.<yve.
measu ri ng the time for half of the remaining sample to decay. This
means that the time taken for the activity fall from 600 to 300 is the
same as the time taken for it to fall from 300 to 150.

Activity
1_ _4",S.cm",in",u",te,-s_,,+'-,!4~ ut",es,-+, +,-,!4",5",m",m""ut",es, -+
5 ",m",in",
600

300 .••• ••• -•....

,
ISO ... . . .. -... -., .... . ... ----- . ,
••".">
• •••• •.•. _. _J _.. . .. .. ______ .'_. _•••••• "C" . -:-_ __
75 , ,
0L-------~~SO~------~1~070------~~I~S~O--+
Time/min
Figure 5.6.2 The decrease in activity for a radioactive sample with a half-life of
45 minutes. The activity (and number of nuclei remaining) halves
every 45 minutes.

Some nuclides have very short half-lives, fractions of a second. This

indicates that th e nuclei afe very unstable and decay very qu ickly. For
exam ple, dubni um-261 has a half-life of 27 seconds
Some nuclides have very long half-lives, millions or billions of years.
For example, uranium-238 has a ha lf-life of 4.5 billion years.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

KEY POINTS 1 The isotope fermium -253

has a half-life of three days.
1 The half-life of a sample of a radioisotope is the time taken What fraction of the orig inal
for the activity of that sample to fall to half of the original sample will remain after
activity. fifteen days?
2 Half-lives can vary from milliseconds to billions of years. 2 If the activity of an isotope
falls from 2000 counts per
3 The longer the half-life the lower the activity (rate of decay) of
second to 500 counts per
the radioisotope.
second in one day w hat is the
4 The decay process is independent of external conditions. half-life of the sample?
 Although radioactive materials are potentially very dangerous they are
LEARNING OUTCOMES
also very useful in fields from medicine to archaeology.
At the end of this topic you
should be able to: Medical uses of radioisotopes
• explain how radioactive Medical tracers
materials can be used in
medicine and industry Compounds containing radioisotopes can be used as tracers inside
patients. They are injected into the body and move through the
• describe how the age of
bloodstream, gathering in target organs. The tracers emit gamma
organic materials can be
radiation which is detected outside the body with a gamma camera . A
fou nd using carbon dating .
computer produces images from the information and problems such
as blockages in blood vessels can be identified. Figure 5.7.1 shows a
gamma trace being used to detect a blocked kidney (Chart B).
Technecium-99m (Tc-99m) is the most common tracer used in
diagnostic medicine. This isotope decays by releasing gamma
radiation which is easily detectable by gamma cameras. Tc-99m also
has a short half-life and therefore does not stay in the patient for a
long time.

Radiotherapy
Radioactive emissions can be highly ionising and can cause cancers.
However, cancer cells are more susceptible to damage from gamma
rays than normal cells and so can be destroyed by the gamma
radiation. During radiotherapy a high intensity beam of gamma
radiation is directed at a tumour. The cancer cells receive a high dose
of the radiation and, hopefully, die off. The gamma rays may be
produced by cobalt-60.

I~, "~
- - - .LI~
10 20 10 20
Industrial and civilian applications
Min When gas leaks from a pipeline it can be difficult to find out the exact
Min
location of the leak. A radioactive tracer can be added to the gas and
Chart recorder A Chart recorder B a Geiger counter can be used to detect the radiation leak even if the
Figure 5.7.1 A gamma trace can be pipe is underground.
detected from outside
the body during medical The thickness of aluminium foil can be measured with a beam of beta
diagnosis. radiation. If the foil is too thick then the count rate drops. If the foil is
too thin the count rate increases (Figure 5.7.2).
Smoke detectors rely on the ionising effect of radiation. An alpha
source produces radiation which passes through a small air gap,
ionises the air in the gap and the resulting current is detected. Smoke
from a fire absorbs the ions created by the alpha particles and the fall
in current is detected . This sets off an alarm.

22£
Radiocarbon dating
Rollers Rad ioactive
Any organism contains carbon atoms absorbed from the atmosphere
during its lifetime. Most of the carbon is carbon-12, a stable isotope,
but a small proportion is carbon-14, a beta emitter. When carbon-14
decays it forms a stable isotope, nit rogen-14.
14 14 N °A
6 C ------31>- 7 + - 1P

The proportions of carbon-12 and carbon-14 in the atmosphere are

constant, as new carbon-14 is produced by interaction with cosmic
rays at the same rate that carbon-14 decays. This means that all living
Machinery to
organisms maintain a constant ratio of carbon -14 to carbon-12. Once control rollers
the organism dies it no longer takes in new carbon. The carbon-12
A beta source can be used
nuclei are stable but the carbon-14 nuclei continue to decay and so
to contro l the thickness of
the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 decreases over time. paper or aluminium foil.
Scientists can measure the ratio of the two isotopes by measuring
the activity of a sample of carbon taken from biological remains. This
ratio can then be used to find out how long ago the organism died .
Fi nd out some of t he diagnostic
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years and so the remains of an
proced ures t hat are carried
organism which died 5700 years ago would have half as much out usi ng Tc-99m. Wh at safety
carbon - 14 as an organism that died today. For example, the Turin
precautions need t o be in place?
Shroud is an important religious artefact originally thought to be
2000 years old. However, radiocarbon dating on the Shroud showed
that the plants used to make it died only 700- 800 years ago . Simi lar
techniques can be used with uranium to find the ages of rocks /'WORKED EXAMPLE I
formed billions of years ago.
An ancient piece of cotton cloth
is found to have an activity, due
SUMMARY QUESTIONS to carbon - 14 decay, '/4 of that
of a modern cotton sample.
1 Why woul d an alpha pa rti cl e emitter not be suitable for use as Estimate the age of the ancient
a medica l tracer? piece of cl oth .
2 A sample of wood taken from an arrow is found by rad iocarbon The cloth has decayed over
i
dating to have an activity of that for a modern piece of the 2 half-lives and so is 2 x 5700
same type of w ood . Estimate the age of the arrow ~ 11400 years old .

KEY POINTS

1 In medicine radioactive materials are used as tracers and to

treat cancers (radiotherapy).
2 Radioactive materials can be used to measure the thickness of
a material or detect flaws in it.
3 Radioactive dating techniques can be used to find the age of
organic materials.

2Z 7
 The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
LEARNING OUTCOMES
created or destroyed. Energy must be conserved. Albert Einstein
At the end of this topic you real ised that mass was equivalent to energy and this relationship was
should be able to: given by:
energy = mass x speed of light'
• calculate the energy released
when mass changes in a or E = me'
nuclear rea ction
• describe the advantages and
Converting mass to energy
disadvanta ges associated with Whenever there is a change in energy there is an associated change
nuclear power. in mass. This also means that mass can be transformed into energy.
In nuclear fission (splitting) a large nucleus is split into two small
nuclei . The mass of these smaller nuclei is less than the orig inal
nucleus and this mass change leads to a large release of energy.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
EXAM TIP
How much energy is released during t he nuclear fission show n in
~ ClR.e SKre t l1Clt ij OK CClV\, thi s equation?
g we ClolvCl V\,t Clges Cls weLL 235 1 144 90 1

ClS oI£SClol V&!>I,tClges of

" U + on ~ 56 Sa + 36 Kr + 2 0 n
V\,KcLeCl r powe ~ • mass of ura nium-235 = 3.902996 x 10- 25 kg
• mass of bariu m-144 = 2.389897 x lO- 25 kg
• mass of krypton-90 = 1.493157 x lO - 25 kg
• mass of a neutron = 1.674927 x 10- 27 kg
Calculat e the difference between t he sta rt ing mass and the end
mass.
t.m = mass before fission ~ mass after fission
t.m = (3.902996 X 10- 25 + 1.674927 x 10- 27 ) kg
~ (2.389897 X 10- 25 + 1.493157 X 10- 25
+ 2 x 1.674927 x 10- 27 ) kg
t.m = 3.1927 x lO- " kg
Now con vert this loss of mass to energy.
E = mc' = 3.1927 x lO - " kg x (3 .00 x 10' ms-' )'
= 2.8734 x 10- 11 J

Although the energy released by one nuclear decay is very small,

there are a vast number of nuclei in every gram of matter and so a
very large amount of energy could potentially be released.
Once t his was understood scient ist s began to develop ideas about
how to convert mass into energy. The first application of the idea was
the nuclear bomb. The conversion of a small amount of matter would
release enough energy to provide an explosion thousands of times
greater than any seen before.

22
Nuclear f ission power stations WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Nuclear fission power stations use the thermal energy released to
How much energy w ould be
heat water into steam which drives turbines. These are then used to
released if 1 gram of matter
drive generators which produce electricity.
were completely converted into
Induced fission is caused by a neutron colliding with a large nucleus. energy?
During this process several other neutrons are released and these can E ~ me'
be used to split other nuclei, releasing more energy and yet more
~ 0.001 kg x (3.00 x
neutrons. This process is called a chain reaction (Figure 5.8.2).
108 ms- ')'
Key components of a f ission reactor ~ 9.00 x 10" J
o Fuel: Uranium or plutonium is used inside canisters called fuel rods. Th is is more energy than that
released by 20000 tonnes of
o Moderators: These slow down the neutrons so that they can be
chemical explosives.
absorbed by the fuel and cause fission.
o Coolant: This removes the thermal energy from the reactor core
and carries it to a heat exchanger.
~ ~

There are arguments for and against the use of nuclear power, which -~~ .. .
national governments must consider (Table 5.8.1).
./
~/' -.... . . .
~ ~

Table 5. 8.1 Arguments for and against the use of nuclear power ~-

-..... .. .. ..
~ ~
'-. ...... -~~
For Against
~ ~
o Running costs are low. o Commissioning (building)
o Only a small amount of wast e and decommissioning
produced. (dismantling) costs are high. Flgu,. 5•••2 A chain reaction
o Large supplies of nuclear fuel o Nuclear waste contains
available. radioactive isotopes.
o No carbon dioxide is produced o Waste products can be used in
so no contribution to global nuclear weapons. o Resea rch the advantages and
warming. o Accidents such as occurred in
disadvantages of nuclear
Chernobyl and Fukushima ca n
energy. Write a report arguing
contami nate large areas.
for or against construction of
a power station on your island .
Nuclear fusion in stars o Find out what w ent wrong in
Nuclear energy is also released when very small nuclei combine to Chernobyl and Fukush ima and
form larger ones . This process occurs in the cores of stars and is only how long it w ill take to cl ear
possible at very high temperatures and pressures, which have not yet up the contaminated land.
been reproduced sustainably.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
KEY POINTS
1 Wh at is a nuclear cha in reaction?
2 How much energy is released in this fusion process? 1 Mass can be converted into
2 3 4 1 energy in nuclear reactions
,H + ,H ----3> ,He + 0n
according to the relationship
(mass of hydrogen-2 ~ 3.344494 x 10 ZS kg, mass of E~ me'.
hydrogen -3 ~ 5.008267 x lO- ZS kg, mass of helium-4 ~ 2 Nuclear power can provide
6.646476 x 1O- zs kg)
large amounts of useful
3 A sugar cube has a mass of 12 g. How much energy is energy but there are risks
equ ivalent to this mass? and disadvantages.
 .. ~(;'-:···:,v~ -,',',:-: :
<, . -
Section 5 el'iactice exchil'~ g u ~,~l!Pt~"~.,>....
.~ .~<: '~'~):':.'~-~ " f
Section 5: Practice exam quest ions

1 The activity of a sample of radon-220 is 3 During the Geiger-Marsden experiment

measured over a period of time as shown in to explore the structure of the atom, the
the table. following results were noted.
a Plot a gra ph of activity aga inst time for the • Most of the alpha particles passed directly
sample. th rough the gold foil.
b Identify the anomalous result • A small percentage of the alpha particles
c Use the graph to find the half-life of were deflected by angles between 0 and
radon-220. 90 degrees.
d Predict the time it would take for the • A few alpha particles were deflected by
activity to fall to 10 counts per second_ angles greater than 90 degrees.
a For each describe the conclusions about
Time/ s Activity/ s- '
the structu re of the atom that can be
0 500 made based on this evidence.
20 389 b Why was gold used as the material for the
40 302 foil?
60 235 c Why was the experiment carried out in an
evacuated chamber?
80 182
4 Electrons in atoms are found in energy levels
100 150
or shells_
120 110
a What is the electron configuration of the
140 86 atoms of the following elements?
160 67 Magnesium
180 52 ii Sodium
200 40 iii Calcium
iv Neon
b W hich two of the elements will have the
most similar chemical properties?
2 Copy and complete this table showing the
components of the different nuclides.

Nuclide Number of Nucleon Number of Number of Electron

protons, Z number, A neutrons, N electrons configuration
a hydrogen-2 1
(deuteriu m)
b hydrogen-3 3
(tritium)
c nitrogen-14 7
d chlorine-35 2,8,7

SZI
5 Which of the isotopes listed in the table: 8 This graph shows the activity of a sample of
a are isotopes of the same element7 argon-39 and a sample of silver-l 08.
b contain the same number of nucleons? a Determine the half-life of argon-39 .
c contain the same number of neutrons? b Determine the half-life of silver-l 08.
d contain the same number of protons? c Which sample has the higher initial
activity?
35C1
17
40
Is Ar "ls Ar Adivity/Bq
38
"s "17 CI
sOOOE~~=====fs~===~=
E
Is Ar 16
4500 , Silver
35 40 ' 000
16 S :: CI 18 Ar 3500 +-:=='~"S:S::::==:j~A~rg~On
~-~-~-:".,1:==
25001----"..",.-". """"-------
3000 t-
.
' ..........

6 The nuclide thorium-223 ('::Th) undergoes

nuclear decay by alpha emission to form an 2000t===~'~~"
1500
1000
~;;~::~~:::
... ........ _ 0;;;;;;;;;::::

isotope of radium (Ra). soo 1-----------c:-c--c--~~~

o
a Which nucleons are present in an alpha o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
particle? Time/year
b Write a decay equation representing the
alpha decay. 9 Write decay equations for the following:
a The alpha decay of tellurium-l 07 (' ~; Te)
7 This graph shows the relationship between
into an isotope of t in (Sn).
the proton number (atomic number) and the
neutron number for all of the stable nuclides. b The beta decay of potassium-40 (~:K) into
an isotope of calcium (Ca).
a Describe the relationship for nucl ides of a
low proton number (Z < 20). c The gamma decay of strontium-90 (~ Sr).
b Describe the relationship for nuclides of a lO A single nuclear fission reactor cou ld provide
higher proton number (Z > 20). all of the electricity requirements for Trinidad.
N (Number of neutrons) a Write a few paragraphs supporting the
idea of building a nuclear power station
on Trinidad.
b Write a few parag raphs opposing the idea
................
of bui lding the power station.
126- ',".

11 Nuclear radiation can be used to measure

the thickness of materials during their
82j ·· ·············,,""···:·· / manufacture. Describe how the thickness
.:/ Protons ~ neutrons of a metal foil can be measured using beta
501 . ·. . .·,: ·,/ radiation so that a constant thickness can be
maintained during the manufacturing process.
2S '?!
14f;
6·<.•.'t
.. .
6 1428 50 82
l (Number of protons)

22
Glossary

Absolute zero The lowest possible Celsius scale A centigrade scale for Decay co n st a nt The chance of a nucleus
temperature (OK or -273 °C). At this temperature with O°C at the freezing point decaying per second.
temperature all of the thermal energy has of water and 100°C at the boiling point
Decoupled Two circuits that do not share
been removed from a material. of water.
a connection through a current but which
Absorb To take in radiation. This results in Centre of gravity The point at which all transfer energy between them.
an increase in temperature. of the weight of an object seems to act.
Density The mass per unit volume of a
Acceleration The rate of change of Chain reaction During nuclear fission material. Density = mass + volume.
velocity. The unit of acceleration is metres neutrons are released. These neutrons can
per second squared (ms- l). a = tlv/t Dep endent variab le A variable that
cause further fissions of nuclei and release
changes in response to an independent
even more neutrons causing an increasing
Accuracy An accurate measurement is rate of energy release. variable during an experiment or
one which is dose to the true value. A investigation.
set of measurements of a quantity can be Charles' law For a fixed mass of gas the
Destructive interference When
accurate if their mean is close to the true volume is proportional to the absolute
two waves meet out of phase (e.g. a
value. temperature if the pressure is kept
crest meeting a trough), the waves
constant.
Activity The activity of a radioactive superimpose and partly cancel each other's
sampJe is the rate of decay of the nuclei Compression An area of higher air displacement out at that point.
(the number of nuclei which decay each pressure in a sound wave.
second). Diffraction The spreading of a wave
Conduction The transfer of thermal when it passes through a gap or past
Alpha particle A radioactive emission energy through a material when atoms an edge. The amount of diffraction
consisting of two protons and two pass energy though vibrations. Metals depends on the relationship between the
neutrons (a helium nucleus). also conduct via free electrons which can wavelength and the size of the gap; the
transfer energy more quickly. greatest diffraction occurs when these are
Alpha radiation The emission of two
the same size.
protons and two neutrons from a nucleus. Conductor A material that allows
The emitted particles fo rm a helium electricity (or thermal energy) to flow Diffuse reflection Reflection from a
nucleus. through it. surface which is not smooth. The reflected
rays travel in different directions and so no
Ammeter A meter used to measure the Constructive interference When two
image can be seen.
electric current (in ampere, A) in a circuit. waves meet in phase (e.g . a crest meeting
a crest), the waves superimpose and Diminished An image reduced in size
Amplitude The maximum distance of a
increase the amplitude at that point. when compared to the original object.
particle from its rest position in a vibration.
Contact force A force which acts when Dispers ion The spreading of different
Angle of incidence The angle between
two objects are in direct contact with each frequencies of light caused by the
an incident ray and the normal. other. difference in their speeds in a medium.
Angle of reflection The angle between White light can be dispersed by a prism.
Control variable A variable that must
the reflected ray and the normal.
be kept constant during an experiment Displacement The distance from an
Average speed The rate of change of or investigation in order to allow the origin (starting point) in a particular
distance measured over a period of time. relationship between the dependent and direction. Displacement is measured in
Average speed = distance travelled + time independent variable to be determined. metres.
taken. Convection current The movement Displacement- p osit ion graph A graph
of particles within a fluid caused by the representing the positions of the part icles
t ransfer of thermal energy throughout the in a wave at a particular instant.
fluid . A convection current is caused by the
Background radiation The radioactivity Displacement- t im e graph A graph
changes in dens ity of a fluid as it heats up
in the surroundings. This includes radiation showing the changes in displacement
or contracts.
from rocks, radon gas and cosmic rays. of an object over a period of time. The
Cooling curve The line on a temperature- gradient of a section of the graph is the
Beta radiation A radioactive emission
time graph that shows how a substance speed of the object at that time.
consisting of a fast-moving electron
cools down.
ejected from the nucleus. Dissipate To spread out into the
Critical angle The angle of incidence at surroundings. Thermal energy dissipates
Boiling A change of state from a liquid
which an inciden t ray will be refracted into the surroundings where it cannot be
into a gas which happens throughout
parallel to the boundary. used to do any additional work.
the whole body of a liquid at a specific
temperature (the boiling point). Current The rate of flow of charge Distance How far an object moves from a
through an object. The current is measured point. The 51 unit of distance is the metre.
Boyle's law For a fixed mass of gas the
in amperes where 1 A is the transfer of 1 C
pressure is inversely proportional to the
of charge per second.
volume if the temperaturE\is kept constant.
 Glossary

d
Echo The reflection of a sound wave.
Focal length The distance from a lens to
where parallel rays parallel to the optical
axis will be brought together (converging Impulse The change in momentum
lens) or seem to come from (diverging caused by a force acting on an object.
Efficiency A measure of how effective a
lens). Impulse = Ft.
device is at transferring or t ransforming
energy usefully. Efficiency = useful energy Incident ray The ray which strikes a
Focal plane The plane, perpendicular to a
out -i- total energy in. Efficiency can be lens axis, were the principal focus lies. surface such as a mirror.
expressed as a decimal or as a percentage
(e.g. 0.4 or 40% efficient). Free electrons Metals form a structure in Independent variable A variable which is
which the ou ter electrons are free t o move changed in an experiment to see how that
Elastic limit The point beyond which a between atoms . These free electrons are change affects t he dependent variab le.
spring will no longer return to its original
responsible for electrical conduction and Induce To transfer magnetic or electrical
length when the force on the spring is
most thermal conduction in metals. properties without physical contact.
removed.
Frequency How many complete waves Induction The production of an
Electromagnetic Related to electric and
pass a point each second. The unit of electromotive force (a voltage) in a wire by
magnetic fields. frequency is s 1 which is also called hertz a magnetic field moving relative to it.
Electromagnetic relay Switch operated (Hz).
by an electromagnet. Inertia The reluctance of an object to
Friction The contact force acting between change its motion. Large objects, such as
Electromagnetic spectrum A set of two surfaces which opposes movement. planets, have large amounts of inertia and
waves with similar properties. so are difficult to speed up or slow down.
Fusion The joining of small nuclei
Electromotive force (e .m.f.) The releasing energy. Fusion is the process Infra-red thermometer A thermometer
amount of energy provided to each which releases energy in the Sun. t hat measures the intensity and frequency
coulomb of charge as it passes through a of t he infra-red radiation em itted by an
battery. e.m.f. = f/Q object 10 determine the temperature.

Electron A negatively charged particle. Gamma radiation High frequency Instantaneous speed The speed of an
Electrons are found in energy levels or electromagnetic radia t ion released from a object at a particular moment. Measured
shells around the nucleus of an atom or nucleus. in metres per second (m 5 '1 ).
can be ejected from the nucleus during
Gas equation A relationship between Insulator A poor conductor of heat or
beta decay.
the pressure, volume and temperature electricity.
Electrostatic precipitation Using a of a fixed amount of an ideal gas.
charged metal grid to induce charge onto Interference pattern The pattern
pV/T = constant.
smoke particles so that they can be removed formed by t he constructive and destructive
from the air. Used in power station chimneys. Gas thermometer A thermometer which interference of waves. Clear interference
uses the pressure of a gas to indicate patterns are formed in Young's two-slit
Emit To give out radiation, e.g. infra-red temperature. experiment as the overlapping waves have
radiation or light. the same frequency.
Gravitational potential energy The
Energy The capacity to do work. energy associated with an object when it is Inverted An image is said to be inverted if
inside a gravitational field. The change in it is upside down.
Evaporation A process where particles
gravitational potential energy can be found
escape from the surface of a liquid. The Ionisation The removal of an electron
from t he relationshi p tJ.E = mgtJ.h.
most energetic particles escape first and so from an atom creat ing an ion.
reduce the average energy of the particles Gravity The force of attraction between
in the liquid. This reduces the temperature Isotopes Atoms of the same element
two objects due to their mass.
(having the same number of protons) that
of the liquid.
Greenhouse effect The capture of have different numbers of neutrons.
Exten sion The increase in le ngth of a therma l energy by the atmosphere due
spring (or other object) when a force is
applied to it. For a spring the extension is
proportional to the size of the force unless
to greenhouse gases reflecting infra-red
rad iat ion emitted by the Earth. d
Kelvin scale A temperature scale based
the spring is extended beyond the limit of on the properties of ideal gases and the
proportionality. energy of particles.
Half-life The time taken for the activity of
Kinetic energy The energy associated
a radioactive sample to fall to half of its
with the movement of an object.
Fission The splitting of a nucleus
initial value.

Hard magnetic A materia l which retains

, ,
E = !mv 2.
accompanied by a release of energy. Kinetic theory The particle model of the
Fission can be induced using neutrons. its magnetic properties well.
behaviour of solids, liquids and gases.
Fluid A liquid or gas. The particles are able Heat capacity The amount of energy The kinetic theory is used to explain the
to move past each other allowing the fluid which can be stored in a body per degree changes of state and pressures within
to flow. kelvin (or Celsius). ga ses and liquids .
 Glossary

dLaser A device which produces a narrow

Momentum The movement property of
an object as defined by the relationship
Parallel Circuits that have junctions at
momentum = mass x velocity.
and intense beam of monochromatic tight which the current can diverge or merge
(tight with a single wavelength). Motor effect A current-carrying wire are parallel Circuits.
placed inside a magnetic field will
latent heat The energy required to Pascal (Pa) A unit of pressure. The pascal
experience a force. This is the motor effect.
change the state of an object (from a solid is equivalent to N m 2 .
to a liquid or liquid to a solid).

Latent heat of fusion The energy

required to melt a substance. The same
d
Negatively charged Electrons carry
Penumbra The partial shadow during an
eclipse.

quantity of energy is released when the negative electric charge. This charge causes Period The time it takes for one complete
substance solidifies. an electric field which will affect other oscillation of a system. It is measured in
charged objects. seconds.
latent heat of vaporisation The energy
required to vaporise a liquid (change it Neutron An uncharged particle found in Photon A packet of energy carried by
from a liquid to a gas), The same amount the nucleus of an atom. light. The higher the frequency of light the
of energy is released when the vapou r more energy each photon carries.
Neutron number The number of
condenses back into a liquid.
neutrons Within a particular nucleus. Pitch A high frequency sound has high
Laterally displaced When a ray passes pitch.
Newton (N) The uM of force. Forces
through a rectangular block of transparent POSitively charged A proton carries
are vector quantities. This means that the
material it is refracted on entry and positive charge.
direction in which they act is significant.
when it leaves the block. This results in
the ray travelling in the original direction Non-renewable An energy source which Potential difference (p .d .) The energy
but shifted (displaced) sideways from its will eventually run out or become very transferred by a unit charge, measured in
original path . scarce. volts. A potential difference of 1 volt will
cause 1 coulomb of charge to transfer
Lattice vibration The vibrations of the Normal A line at right angles to the 1 joule of energy.
particles in a solid which cause thermal surface. Angles of incidence, reflection and
conduction. refraction are all measured relative to this Power The rate of transfer of energy
normal measured in watts (W). P = Elt.
Light dependent resisto r (LOR)
A resistor which changes resistance Nuclear Related to the nucleus of an Precision The degree to which repeated
depending on the light level it is exposed atom. Nuclear energy is released when measurements agree. A set of precise
to. In bright light, LORs have low resistance nuclei are split (fission) or merged (fusion). measurements will all be very similar.
but in dark conditions they have very high
resistances. Nucleon A particle found in the nucleus. Pressure law For a fixed mass of gas the
The two possible nucleons are protons and pressure is directly proportional to the
Limit of proportionality The limit to neutrons. absolute temperature if the volume is kept
which a spring can be stretched with the constant.
Nucleon number The total number of
extension remaining proportional to the
protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Primary cell A cell which cannot be
force acting on the spring (still obeying
Hooke's law). recharged. Zinc--carbon cells are primary
Nucleus The central part of an atom. The cells.
nucleus occupies only a very small amount
Linear magnification A comparison of
of the volume of the atom but contains Principal axis A line which runs through
the size of the image to the size of the
neady all of the mass. the centre of a lens and perpendicular to
object. Linear magnification = height of
the lens.
image -:- height of object. Nuclide A particular type of nucleus. For
example, carbon-14 is a different nuclide Principal focus (pI. foci) The point at which
Longitudinal A wave motion where the
to nitrogen-14. rays that enter a converging lens parallel to
oscillations of the particles are paral lel to
the principal axis are brought together by the
the direction of wave motion. Sound is a
lens. For a diverging lens the principal focus
longitudinal wave.
is the point from which the original parallel
Optical centre The central point of a lens. rays seem to pass through .
A ray which passes through the optical
centre does not change path. Principle of moments For an object to
Magnet A magnet exerts a force on be in equilibrium, the clockwise moment is
nearby magnetic materials by producing a Origin The starting point of a movement equal to the anticlockwise moment.
magnetic field. or the central point in an oscillation .
Propagation The spreading of energy by
Moment The turn ing effect of a force Oscillation A regular movement around a wave. The wave is said to travel in the
measured in Nm. The moment of a force a point. Most oscillations studied are direction of propagation . For example, the
is defined as the force multiplied by the sinusoidaL The object or particle moves in ripples on a pond propagate in a circle and
perpendicular distance to the pivot. the pattern of a sine wave. light rays propagate in all directions from
a lamp.
 Glossary

Proton A posit ively charged particle found Specific heat capacity The amount of Umbra The reg ion in complete darkness
in the nucleus of an atom. energy required to raise the temperature during an eclipse.
of one kilogram of a spec ific material by
Proton number The number of protons Unit A system of measurements of
one kelvin.
in the nucleus of an atom. quantities. For example, the unit for length
Specific latent heat The energy required is the metre. Scientists use the Systeme
to change the state of 1 kg of a material. International (51) of Units.
The specific latent heat of fusion is the
Rarefaction An area of lower pressure in Unstable equilibrium An object is
energy required to change the state of 1 kg
a sound wave. in unstable equilibrium if, when it is
of the material from a solid into a li quid .
The speci fic latent heat of vaporisation is disturbed, it falls over.
Real image An image which can be
the energy required to change the state Upthrust The force acting on an object
projected onto a screen. Rays of light pass
from liquid to a gas. Unit is J Kg I (or submerged or floating on the surface of
through a real image.
Jg 0C- ' ). a liquid. If the upthrust is less than the
Rectification The conversion of an weight of the object it will sink .
Spring constant The force required to
alternating current into direct current.
extend a spring by 1 metre. Unit is N m .1.
Reflected ray The ray which leaves a
Stable equilibrium An object is in stable
mirror or other reflecting surface .
equilibrium if it returns to the original Van de Graaff (VdG) generator A
Refractive index The ratio of the speed position after being disturbed (pushed). device used to generate charges by
of light in a vacuum (or air) to the speed friction. A VdG generator can generate
Standard form A numbering format used potential differences large enough to
of light in a material. The larger the
for large or small numbers by scientists produce large sparks.
refractive index the slower light travels in
and engineers. In standard form numbers
the material.
are represented in the form a x 1Db, Vector A quantity w ith magnitude and
Regular reflection The reflection from a where a is a number between 1 and 10 direction. For example, vectors include
smooth, flat surface such as a mirror which and b is an integer. For example, 3.4 x 104 force, displacement and velocity.
produces a clear image. is used to represent 34 000.
Velocity-time graph A graph disp laying

d
Renewable An energy source which the velocity (on the y-axis) of an object
has an inexha ustible (or effectively over a period of time (on the x-axis). The
inexhaustible) supply. graph can be used to find the acceleration
Thermal conductivity The ra te at which
(shown by the gradient) or the distance
Resistance The opposition to an electric a material transfers thermal energy by
travelled (shown by the area below the line
current. R = VI/. conduction. A material with high thermal
conductivity will transfer energy quickly. of the graph).
Resolution The smallest increment a Virtual image The image of an object
measuring instrument can detect. For Thermal energy (sometimes referred to
from which the rays of light appear to
example, the resolution of a ruler may be as heat energy or internal energy) is the
come. A virtual image cannot be projected
1 mm. The resolution of a thermometer energy associated with the movement and
onto a screen as the rays of light never
may be 0.5 0c. arrangement of the particles with in an
object or material. actually pass through the image.
Resultant force The sum of the forces -Voltmeter A meter used to measure the
acting on an object. As forces are vectors Thermistor Temperature-sensitive resistor.
potential difference (in volts, V) between
the direction of the forces must be taken The resistance of a thermistor changes
two points in a circuit. The voltmeter must
into account (e.g. forces acting in opposite with the temperature.
be placed in parallel in the circuit and must
directions must be subtracted from each Transformation A change from one have very high resistance.
other). form of energy into another. For example,
energy can be transformed from electrical
energy into light energy by a lamp.
Wave pulse A single oscillat ion.
Scalar A quantity which only has Transformer A device wh ich is used
magnitude. For example, scalar quantities to change the voltage of an alternating Wave train A continuous series of wave
include mass and energy. supply. A step-up transformer increases pu lses.
the voltage while a step-down transformer
Secondary cell A cell which can be Wavefront The points on a wave as it
reduces the voltage.
recharged. A lead- acid cell is a secondary propagates. For example, aU of the points
cell. Transverse A wave motion where the on the crest of a ripple on a pond .
oscillations are perpendicular to the
Semiconductor A material wh ich will Wavelength The distance between
direction of propagation .
conduct in certain conditions. successive peaks (or troughs) in a wave.
Wavelength is measured in metres and has
Series Components placed one after each the symbol A (lambda).
other in an electrical circuit.
Ultrasound High-frequency sound above Work The transfer of energy. Work is
Soft magnetic A material that loses its the range of human hearing. Ultrasound is measured in joules 0).
magnetic properties easily. used in depth measurement and pre-natal
scanning.
Index

Key terms are in bold and are also causal relationships 6 critical angle 88- 9
listed in the glossary cells 120- 1,130 current 112- 13
photovoltaic 37,97, 115 in circuits 112- 13,118- 19
A Celsius scale 51 complex circuits 127
absolute zero 51 , 56 centre of gravity 16, 17, 41 I-V characteristics 124- 5
a.c. see alternating current chain reactions 167, 175 resistors limit 123
acceleration 23, 24-5 change of sta te 60- 5 induced current 152-3
in second law 26, 27 charge 106- 7, 110- 11 magnetic field from 148- 9
accuracy 5 In circuits 112,114,118 measuring 122
acid rain 36 in lightning 109 motor effect 150- 1
activity 170,171 on nuclear radiation 164, 165 current ratings of fuses 134
air 100,111 charge carriers 112, 125 current-carrying wires 148,149
currents in 68, 69 Charles' law 56 and the motor effect 150-1
see also atmosphere chemical potential energy 35, 41 current-voltage characteristics 124-5
air conditioning 69 circuit breakers 134
alpha particles 160, 164- 5, 166 circuit diagrams 116- 17 o
alternating current (a .c.) 130- 1 circuits 116- 19 dating, radiocarbon 173
converting to d.c. 136- 7 analysis of 126- 7 d.c. see direct current
generation of 153, 154- 5 current in 112- 13 decay constant 170
mains electricity 132 logic circuits 138-41 decay curves 169, 170
transformers change 156- 7 resistance in 122- 7 decay, radioactive 166, 168- 71
ammeters 122 symbols 116- 17, 123 and geothermal energy 37
ampere (A) 112 coal 36 density 3, 45, 46- 7
amplitude 78, 98, 99 collisions, momentum in 28-30 dependent variables 6, 9
AND gates 138, 139 colours derived units 2, 3
angle of incidence 84, 88 of light 86 destructive interference 97, 100
angle of reflection 84, 88 and radiation emission 70,71 diagrams, circuit 116- 17
anomalous results 8 components. circuit 116-17 diffraction 96, 100
Archimedes' principle 46,47 compression 54 diffuse reflection 84-5
atmosphere 45, 69 and waves 76, 98 diminished images 91, 92-3
see also air computers 138, 141 diodes 124-5, 136- 7
atomic number 162, 163 condensation 60 direct current (d.c.) 130, 136-7
atoms 54, 106, 160-2 conduction d.c. motors 154
average speed 22 electrical 112, 113 dispersion 86, 87
thermal 66-7,72 displacement 10, 22
B conductors 112 displacement-position graphs 78
background radiation 164 ohmic 122-3,124,125 displacement- time graphs 22- 3
balloons 47,57 conservation of energy 40- 1, 11 5 for waves 78-9
base units 2 dissipation of energy 35, 40
mass equivalence 174
batteries 120- 1, 130 conservation of momentum 28-9 distance 10, 22, 25
beta particles 164-5, 166 constructive interference 97, 100 diverging lenses 90, 92- 3
binary systems 138 contact forces 12 lens formula 95
biofuels 37 continuous waves 76
Bohr model 161 E
control variables 6
boiling 60,61 Earth 45,73, 146- 7
convection currents 68- 9, 72
Boyle's law 56 eclipses 82-3
conventional current 112
buoyancy 47 earth wires 132-3, 135
converging lenses 90-1, 94-5
echoes 100
in vision 93
C eclipses 82-3
callipers 4 cooling 70-3
eddy currents 156
convection currents in 68- 9
cameras 83, 95, 97 efficiency 43, 157
capacitors 136-7 and evaporation 60
elastic limit 19
carbon dioxide 36, 73 and latent heat 62-3
elastic potential energy 41
cooling curves 62- 3
cars 72,73,149 electric charge see charge
batteries for 120-1 , coulomb (C) 112
electric current see current
 Index

electricfields 108- 9, 165 transformation of see f riction 12, 40, 106

in waves 77, 80 transformation of energy fuels 36, 73, 115
electrical energy 34, 42 wasted/lost 35, 40-1,43 biofuels 37
transformations 115, 153 energy levels, electron 161, 163 nuclear fuels 36, 175
transmission 156 energy sources (fuels) 36- 7 full-wave rectification 137
electrical meters 122 energy transfer 34- 5, 39, 42 fuses 134, 135
electrical power 114- 15 and charge movement 114,118 fusion, latent heat of 62, 64
see a/50 power and efficiency 43 fu sion, nuclear 167, 175
electricity 155, 175 electrical 114-15
energy sou rces 3 &--7, 11 5 thermal 55, 66- 73 G
mains 132-5 by waves 34, 76 gamma rays 81, 164- 5, 166
static 106- 11 equilibrium 15, 16, 17 tracers emit 172
electrolysis 113 errors 4- 5 gas, natural 36
electromagnetic forces 12 evaporat ion 60-1, 72 gas equation 57
electromagnetic induction 152-3 excited states 166 gas laws 5&--7
in a.c. generators 154-5 expansion 55, 68 gas th ermometers 53
electromagnetic radiation 80-1 explosions 31, 110, 174 gases 54, 56- 7
gamma see gamma rays exponential decay curves 169 change of state 60- 1, 62, 64
infra-red 70-1,73,81 extension 18 currents in 68, 69
light see light eyes 93 pressure in 45, 55
speed of 80, 86 Geiger-Marsden experiment 160
electromagnetic relays 149 F geothermal energy 37
electromagnetic spectrum 80,81 field lines 146, 148, 152 global warming 36, 73
infra-red radiation in 70 first law of motion 26 gradient 9, 22- 3, 24
electromagnetic waves 34, 80- 1 fission 36, 167, 174, 175 graphs 6-9
electromagnetism 148-9 Fleming's left-hand rule 151 decay curves 169, 170
electromagnets 149 floating 46- 7 displacement-position 78
electromotive force (e.m ,f ,) 114 flu ids 46- 7, 68 displacement- time 22-3, 78- 9
cells produce 120 see also gases; liquids I-V characteristics 124- 5
in circuits 116, 118 focal length 90, 92, 94- 5 velocity-time 24-5
in induction 152, 155 focal plane 90 gravitational field strength 12, 38
electrons 106 forces 12-13 gravitational potential energy 38
in atoms 160-1,162,163 between charged objects 107 transfers of 35
as beta pa rticles 166 between magnets 144 transformations 39, 40, 41
and charged objects 106-7 in electric fields 108 gravity 12
in circuits 112, 118, 119 friction 12, 40, 106 greenhouse effect 73
free electrons 66, 112 in Hooke's law 18-19
in induction 152 and immersed objects 4&--7 H
and ionisation 80 and impulse 28 half-life 170-1
in Van de Graaff generators 108, inter-molecular 54 half-wave rectification 136
109 in laws of motion 26-7 hard magnetic materials 144
electrostatic precipitation 111 and magnetic fields 146, 150-1 heat capacity 58- 9
e.m.f. see electromotive force and moments 14-15 heat sinks 73
energy 34, 42 and pressure 44- 5 heat/heat energy 34
and change of state 62, 64 and thermal expansion 55 in electricity generation 36
conservation of 40-1, 11 5 turning effect of 14 as internal energy 50
mass equivalence 174 and work 34, 35, 38 transfers of 35, 43, 68
and gamma decay 166 fossil fuels 36, 73, 115 transformations 40, 41
and heat capacity 58 f ree electrons 66, 112 see also thermal energy
kinetic see kinetic energy freezing 60 heating 42, 55, 68
light energy 82, 97 freezing point 62 and change of state 62-3
nuclear 34, 174- 5 frequency 79, 98 rate of 70- 1
potential see potential energy of alternating current 130, 155 hertz (Hz) 130
transfer of see energy transfer of mains electricity 132, 133 homes, ring mains in 132-3
on oscilloscopes 99 Hooke's law 18- 19, 38
Index

human reaction times 4 l M

human vision 93 lamps, filament 124, 125 magnetic fields 146-7
humidity and evaporation 61 lasers 82 in electromagnetic radiation 80
hydroelectricity 37 latent heat 62- 5 forces from 1 50- 1
hyperopia 93 latent heat of fusion 62, 64 in induction 152-3, 154- 5
latent heat of vaporisation 62, 64 in light waves 77
lateral displacement 86 and nuclear radiation 165
I-V characteristics 124-5 lattice vibration 66 transformers use 156- 7
images 85 law of conservation of magnetic induction 144- 5
in lenses 91,92- 3 momentum 28- 9 magnets 144- 5
magnification of 94 laws of motion 26- 7 electromagnets 149
immersed objects 46-7 laws of reflection 84 magnification 94
impulse 28 LDRs (light dependent resistors) 123 magnifying glasses 94
incident rays 84 lead -acid cells 120- 1 mains electricity 132-5
independent variables 6, 9 left-hand rule, Fleming's 151 mass 4
induced charge 107 length, measuring 4 and energy conservation 174
induced current 152-3 lens formula 94-5 and kinetic energy 38- 9
induction, charging by 107 lenses 90- 5 and momentum 28
induction, electromagnetic 152- 3, light 82- 3, 96- 7 in second law of motion 26
154- 5 diffraction 96 mass number 162
induction, magnetic 144-5 dispersion 86 measurements 3, 4-5
inertia 26 as energy 34, 35, 82 mechanical work see work
infra-red radiation 70-1, 81 transformations 115 medical applications 101, 172
and the greenhouse effect 73 interference 97 melting 60
infra-red thermometers 53 in lenses see lenses melting point 62, 63
instantaneous speed 22 reflection 84- 5 metals 66, 112, 124
insulators 66, 67, 112 total internal 88- 9 meters, electrical 122
inter~molecular forces 54 refraction 86-7,90 method of mixtures 59
intercepts on graphs 9 speed of 86, 88 micrometers 4
interference 97, 100 asawave 77,81 microprocessors 73, 110
interference patterns 97 light dependent resistors microwaves 81
internal energy, heat as 50 (lDRs) 123 mirrors, reflection at 84, 85
see also thermal energy light rays 82 moderators 175
internal resistance 120 in lenses 9CH, 92- 3 molecules 54
inverted images 91 lens formula 94-5 moments 14- 1 5
ionic solutions 113, 125 in magnifying glasses 94 momentum 28-31
ionisation 80, 164, 165 reflection of 84-5 Moon 82- 3
ionising radiation 164, 165 refraction of 86, 87, 88 motion, Newton's laws of 26- 7
ions, conduction with 112, 113 total internal reflection of 89 motor effect 150-1, 1 54
isotopes 163 lightning 101, 109 motors, electrical 154
radioisotopes 166, 172-3 limit of proportionality 18 myopia 93
line of best fit 8
J N
linear magnification 94
joule (unit) 34, 114 NAND gates 139
linear relationships 8- 9
liquids 54, 55, 68 natural gas 36
K
change of state 60- 1, 62-3, 64 negatively charged 106, 107
Kelvin scale 51
pressure in 44- 5 neutron number 162
kinetic energy 34, 38-9
logic circuits 138-41 neutrons 106,161,162
in evaporation 60
logic gates 138, 139 in chain reactions 175
transfers of 35
long-sight 93 and isotopes 163, 166
transformations 39,40, 41
longitudinal waves 77, 98 in nuclear fission 167
from electrica I energy 11 5
loudness 98, 99 newton (N) 12, 26
kinetic theory 51
lunar eclipses 83 Newton's laws of motion 26-7
non-contact forces 12
 Index

non~ohmic conductors 123 permanent magnets 144-5 radio waves 81

non-renewable energy sources 36 photocopiers 110- 11 radioactive decay see decay
NOR gates 139 photons 97 radioactive emissions 164-75
normals 84, 86, 87 photovoltaic cells 37,97, 115 radioactive waste 36
NOT gates 138, 139 pinhole camera 83 radiocarbon dating 173
nuclear decay see decay pitch 98 radioisotopes 166, 172-3
nuclear energy 34, 174-5 plugs on electrical devices 133 radiotherapy 172
nuclear explosions 174 plum pudding model 160 random errors 4-5
nuclear fission see fission poles, magnetic 144,146,147 rarefactions 76, 98
nuclear forces 12 in solenoids 148 ray boxes 82
nuclear fuels 36, 175 pollution, reducing 111 rays see light rays
nuclearfusion 167, 175 positively charged 106, 107 real images 91,95
nuclear model 160 potential difference (p,d.) 114 recharging secondary cells 121
nuclear power 36, 175 alternating 130 recoil 31
see also power stations in circuits 118, 119 rectification 136-7
nuclear radiation 164-5 complex circuits 127 reflected rays 84
nuclear reactors 167 components 124- 5 reflection 84-5
nuclei/nucleus 106, 160- 3 measuring 122 of sound waves 100
in fi ssion 167 ,174 and thermocouples 52-3 total internal 88- 9
in fusion 167, 175 see also voltag e refraction 86-7,90
in radioactive decay 168- 70 potential energy 34, 38 of sound waves 100
nucleon number 162, 163 and bonding 51 refractive index 88-9
nucleons 162 and charge movement 114, 118 refrigerators 73
nuclides 163, 166, 170-1 transfers of 35 refuelling explosions 110
transformations 39, 40, 41 regular reflection 84
o power 42, 114-1 5 renewable energy sources 36-7
ohmic conductors 122- 3, 124, 125 and resistance 126-7 resistance 122-7
Ohm's law 122- 3 of transformers 157 internal resistance 120
oil 36 power stations 111, 155 resistors 123, 126
optical axis 92 nuclear power 36, 175 resolution 4
optical centre of lenses 91 pre-natal care 101 resultant force 12, 13, 15
optical fibres 89 precision 5 and first law of motion 26
OR gates 138, 139 prefixes 2, 3 resultant moment 14
origin 9,22 pressure 44-5, 55 resultant vectors 10-11
oscillations 39, 40 in gas laws 56-7 rheostats 123
waves from 76- 7,79 pressure law 57 right-hand grip rule 148, 149
oscilloscopes 98- 9, 131 primary cells 120 ring mains 132-3
principal axis 90, 91, 92 ripple tanks 77, 96
p
principal foci 90,91,92 r.m.S. voltage 132
parallel components 118-19
principle of moments 15 rockets 27
resistors 126
prisms, refraction in 86, 87 root mean square voltage 132
parallelogram rule 10- 11
propagation 76-7, 98 rough surfaces, emission from 70,71
particle nature of light 96, 97
proportionality, limit of 18
particles 54, 56 5
proton number 162
in atoms 106 safety and electricity 134-5
protons 106, 160, 162
and conduction 66, 68 scalars 10
and isotopes 163, 166
in evaporation 60 scale diagrams 10- 11
Pythagoras' theorem 11
in waves 78-9 second law of motion 26
pascal (Pa) 44 R secondary cells 120-1
peak voltage 130, 131 radiation semiconductor diodes 124- 5
pendulums 7, 39, 40 background radiation 164 see also diodes
penetrating power 164, 165 electromagnetic see semiconductors 113
penumbra 82- 3 electromagnetic radiation sensors 140-1
period 79, 99, 130 in heat transfer 70- 1, 72, 73 series components 118, 119
periodic table 163 radioactive emissions 164-75 resistors in 126
 Index

shadows 82 for logic gates 139 uranium 164, 171, 173

shells, electron 161, 163 for sensors 140 fission 36, 167, 174-5
short-sight 93 systematic errors 4, 5
SI units 2- 3 V
significant figures 5 T vacuum flasks 72
sinking 47 temperature 50- 3 Van de Graaff generators 108- 9
Snell's law 88 and change of state 62- 3 vaporisation 60
sockets 133 and evaporation 60 latent heat of 62, 64
soft magnetic materials 144 in the gas laws 56- 7 variable resistors 123
solar eclipses 82- 3 and heat capacity 58 variables 6, 8-9
solar power/energy 37, 72 and infra-red radiation 70 vectors 10-11,12
solenoids 148- 9, 152- 3 and speed of sound 100 velocity 22- 3, 24
solidifying 60 temperature scales 51 and momentum 28
solids 54 thermal conductivity 66 velocity- time graphs 24- 5
change of state 60, 62 - 3, 64 thermal energy 34, 50- 1 virtual images 85
conduction in 66, 112 in change of state 60 in lenses 92-3, 94, 95
sound and geothermal energy 37 vision 93
as energy 34, 35 and nuclear power 36, 175 voltage 114
transformations 40, 115 and particles 55, 68 of mains electricity 132, 133
speed of 98, 100- 1 and thermal conductivity 66 and rectification 136- 7
ultrasound 101 transfers 51, 66- 73 transformers change 156- 7
wave nature of 77,98-101 transformations 40 see also potential difference (p.d.)
specific heat capacity 58- 9 as wasted energy 35 voltmeters 122
specific latent heat 64- 5 see also heaVheat energy volume 3, 56-7
speed 22 thermistors 123
of electromagnetic radiation 80, thermocouples 52 - 3 W
86 thermometers 52- 3 wasted/lost energy 35, 40- 1, 43
light 86, 88 third law of motion 27 water, refraction in 87
and kinetic energy 38- 9 tidal power 37 water waves 77, 96, 97
of sound 98, 100- 1 time, measuring 4 watt (W) 42, 114
of waves 79 time base 131 wave nature of light 96- 7
split-ring commutators 154 total internal reflection 88- 9 wave pulses 76
spri ng constant 18, 19 tracers 81, 172 wavefronts 77, 96
springs 18-19, 76, 77 transformation of energy 34-5, wavelength 78, 79
stability 16-17 39 waves 76-81
stable equilibrium 17 electrical 115 a.c. waveforms 130- 2
standard form 2 in induction 153, 154 diffraction 96
stars, fusion in 167, 175 loss to surroundings 40- 1 energy transfer by 34, 76
states of matter 54- 5 transformers 156-7 interference 97
change of state 60-5 transverse waves 76- 7,80 sound waves 77,98-101
static electricity 106- 11 truth tables 138-9 see also light
stiffness 18 turning effect 14 weight 12, 16
sublimation 60 two-slit experiment 97 wind turbines 37
submarines 47 work 34, 35, 38
submerged objects 46,47 U heating effect of 50
Sun 37, 73, 167 ultrasound 101 in induction 153
ultraviolet light 81 and power 42
eclipses 82 - 3
umbra 82- 3
surface area 60, 70
uncertainty 4- 5 X
surfaces
units 2-3 X-rays 81
pressure on 44
and radiation emission 70-1 unstable equilibrium 17
upthrust 12,47 Z
symbols 116- 17,123 zinc-carbon dry cells 120
 Acknowledgements

The author and the publisher would also like to thank the following for
perm ission to reproduce material:
Alamy: A.T. Willett: 4.17.1, Alchemy: 4.19.2, Arcaid Images: 2.1.1,
Aurora Photos: 2.3.3, Blend Images: 1.18.2, Chris Rout: 4.2.4, Clive
Streeter: 4.8.2, David Lyons: 2.12 .2, David J. Green: 4.14.1, John Rendle
NZ: 1.21.2, Lesl ie Garland Picture Library: 4.5.1, Lyroky: 2.12.3, Metta
Stock: 4.18.1, Rachko: 1.2.1, sciencephotos: 2.7.1, 3.9.2, 4.12.2,
Simone Lunardi: 1.1 4.2; Corbis: Inspirestock: 1.2.2, Ocean: 4.13.3;
Getty Images: AFP: 5.8.1, Bert Hoferichter: 1.8.2; Fotolia : 2.6.4;
iStockphoto: 1.15.3, 1.20.1, 2.9.4, 3.4.1, 3.13.4, 4.5.2, 4.20.4,
4.24.2, 5.5.1; Martyn f . Chillmaid : 2.2.1; Ministry of Transport,
Works & Housing, Jamaica : 1.1.1; Reuters: Darren Staples: 1.8.4;
Rex Features : 1.12.1; Science Photo Library: Adrienne Hart Davis:
2.2.2, ESA-CNES-ARIANESPACE I Optique Video du CSG: 1.12.3,
GIPhotoStock/Photo Researchers, Inc: 1.9.1, NASA: 1.5.1; SuperStock :
Stockbroker: 2.6.3; Wikimedia Commons : 2.12.4.
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders but if any
have been inadvertently overlooked the publisher will be pleased to
make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
 for CSEC®

ISBN 978·1-4085·2245-5
Nelson Thornes
Part of Oxford University Press
II
9 781