Republic of the Philippines

BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY

City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

ATHLETICS

Learning objects:

1. Understand the history and background of the sport.

2. Identify the international organization of the sport.
3. Identify the different events played in athletics.

Introduction

Athletics, also called track-and-field sports or track and field, a variety of competitions
in running, walking, jumping, and throwing events.

Filipino Pole Vaulter Ernest Obiena

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world-rankings/
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Track-and-field athletics are the oldest forms of organized sport, having developed out of the
most basic human activities—running, walking, jumping, and throwing. Athletics have become the most
truly international of sports, with nearly every country in the world engaging in some form of
competition. Most nations send teams of men and women to the quadrennial Olympic Games and to
the official World Championships of track and field. There also are several continental and
intercontinental championship meets held, including the European, Commonwealth, African, Pan-
American, and Asian.

Within the broad title of athletics come as many as two dozen distinct events. These events,
generally held outdoors, make up a meet. The outdoor running events are held on a 400-metre or 440-
yard oval track, and field events (jumping and throwing) are held either inside the track’s perimeter or
in adjacent areas.

In many parts of the world, notably the United States, Canada, and Europe, the sport moves indoors
during the winter; because of limited space, some events are modified and several are eliminated
altogether.

Also within the general scope of track-and-field athletics come separate but related
competitions that are not contested on the track. Cross-country running competition is carried out on
various types of countryside and parkland. Marathons and races of other long distances are run on
roads, and the long-distance race walks are contested on measured road courses. The rules followed by
all organized competitions are established and enforced by the International Association of Athletics
Federations (IAAF) and its member body from each nation. The IAAF also ratifies all world records.

History

Origin and early development

There is little in the way of definitive records of athletics’ early days as organized sport. Egyptian
and Asian civilizations are known to have encouraged athletics many centuries before the Christian era.
Perhaps as early as 1829 BC, Ireland was the scene of the Lugnasad festival’s Tailteann Games, involving
various forms of track-and-field activity. The Olympic Games of Greece, traditionally dated from 776 BC,
continued through 11 centuries before ending about AD 393. These ancient Olympics were strictly male
affairs, as to both participants and spectators. Greek women were reputed to have formed their
own Heraea Games, which, like the Olympics, were held every four years.

Athletics as practiced today, was born and grew to maturity in England. The first mention of the
sport in England was recorded in 1154, when practice fields were first established in London. The sport
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

was banned by King Edward III in the 1300s but revived a century later by Henry VIII, reputed to be an
accomplished hammer thrower.

Modern development

The development of the modern sport, however, has come only since the early 19th century.
Organized amateur footraces were held in England as early as 1825, but it was from 1860 that athletics
enjoyed its biggest surge to that date. In 1861 the West London Rowing Club organized the first meet
open to all amateurs, and in 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club (AAC) was founded and conducted the first
English championships. The emphasis in all these meets was on competition for “gentlemen amateurs”
who received no financial compensation. In 1880 the AAC yielded governing power to the Amateur
Athletic Association (AAA).

The first meet in North America was held near Toronto in 1839, but it was the New York Athletic
Club, formed in the 1860s, that placed the sport on a solid footing in the United States. The club held the
world’s first indoor meet and helped promote the formation in 1879 of the National Association of
Amateur Athletes of America (NAAAA) to conduct national championships. Nine years later the Amateur
Athletic Union (AAU) took over as national governing body, amid reports that the NAAAA was lax in
enforcing amateurism.

Athletics was well established in many countries by the late 1800s, but not until the revival of
the Olympic Games in 1896 did the sport become truly international. Although begun modestly, the
Olympics provided the inspiration and standardizing influence that was to spread interest in athletics
worldwide. In 1912 the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was founded, and by the time
that organization celebrated its 75th anniversary in 1987 it had more than 170 national members. Its
rules applied only to men’s competition until 1936, when the IAAF also became the governing body of
women’s athletics.

Major international competitions before World War II included the Olympics, the British Empire
Games, and the European Championships, but after the war athletics experienced its greatest period of
growth, taking root especially in the developing countries. By the 1950s world-class athletes from
African, Asian, and Latin American nations were enjoying great success at international meets.

Organizations

Top-level competition in athletics is still restricted to the amateur athlete, although the
definition of “amateur” continues to evolve. The IAAF over time has reduced its definition of an amateur
athlete to the simplest possible terms: “An amateur is one who abides by the eligibility rules of the
IAAF” is the complete rule, allowing for change whenever the federation alters any of its other rules.

The primary functions of the IAAF are to maintain a set of rules that are uniform throughout the
world, to approve world records for outdoor and indoor competition, and to promote international
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

athletics. While continuing to administer athletics competition in the Olympic Games, the IAAF began its
own quadrennial World Championships in 1983, established World Cup competitions, and
established walking, cross-country, marathon and other road races, indoor track and field, and junior
competitions.

Each IAAF member nation has its own set of rules and maintains its own set of records in line
with international guidelines. The amateur athletic federations of individual countries conduct their own
national championships.

Events

As many as 25 events may make up a men’s meet; women compete in a few less. The men’s
track events at championship meets generally include the 100-, 200-, 400-, 800-, 1,500-, 5,000-, and
10,000-metre runs; the 3,000-metre steeplechase; the 110- and 400-metre hurdles; and the 400- and
1,500-metre relays. The field events usually include the high jump, pole vault, long jump, triple
jump, shot put, discus throw, hammer throw, and javelin throw. The decathlon, combining 10 track-and-
field events, is also featured. Women run much the same schedule, with a 100-metre hurdles event
instead of 110 metres. They compete in the heptathlon (seven events) rather than the decathlon.
Women walk up to 20,000 metres and men up to 50,000 metres.

Running

The sprints

The relatively short sprint distances, ranging up to 400 metres, require a sustained top speed.
Originally all sprinters started from a standing position, but in the 1880s the crouch start was invented,
and it became a rule that sprinters must start with both feet and both hands on the track. The
introduction of the adjustable starting block aided the quick start, critical in the sprints.

The 400 metres is run in lanes all the way; distance is equalized by a staggered start, the
sprinters being spaced progressively farther up the track based on the distance their lane is from the
inside edge.
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Usain Bolt of Jamaica crosses the finish line to win gold in the men’s 200-meter dash. (Leonhard Foeger/Reuters)

Middle-distance running

The longer the race, the more endurance is needed. The middle-distance events, in this
discussion, range from 800 to 2,000 metres. Some authorities regard the 3,000-metre race as middle-
distance.

Middle-distance runners usually are able to perform well at either the shorter or the longer
distances. Racing tactics, including pacing, are more important at these than at any other distances.
Even though it is no longer a championship event, the mile is still a glamour event.

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Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Long-distance running

There is some difference of opinion over the dividing line between middle-distance and long-
distance runs. The long-distance events considered here are those ranging from 3,000 metres upward;
they include the marathon, steeplechase, cross-country, and road runs. Speed becomes an even less
important factor in the longer runs, pace and endurance correspondingly more so. The longer the run,
the less likely the burst of speed known as the “finishing kick” at the end of the race.

The steeplechase combines long-distance running with hurdling, each runner being required to
clear seven water jumps and 28 hurdles in a 3,000-metre course. Although hurdling is an important
aspect of the event, by far the greatest need is the ability to run the distance. Steeplechase competitors
are often specialists, but there are examples of fine distance runners who have successfully overcome
more experienced hurdlers.

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The marathon was a key event at the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, and it has become a
major attraction of the Olympics and other international contests. The race
originally commemorated the feat of a Greek soldier who in 490 BC supposedly ran from Marathon to
Athens to bring news of the Greek victory over the Persians. At 26.22 miles (42,186 metres) the
marathon is the longest race of the track meet.
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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fifth

Hurdling

The hurdling events combine sprinting with negotiating a series of obstacles called hurdles. Men
run the 110-metre high hurdles over 10 barriers 106.7 cm (42 inches) high and 9.14 metres (10 yards)
apart. The 400-metre intermediate hurdles also covers 10 hurdles, but 91.4 cm (36 inches) in height and
35 metres (38.29 yards) apart. Women now run both the 100-metre high and 400-metre hurdles. A
hurdler may knock down any number of hurdles but is disqualified if he runs out of his lane or uses his
hands to knock over hurdles. The object is to make the hurdling action smooth and rhythmic so as not to
disrupt forward progress.

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Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Relays

The relays involve four runners per team, each member carrying a baton for 25 percent of the
total distance before passing it to the next team runner. Two events, the 4 × 100- and 4 × 400-metre
relays, are standard. They are included both in low-level dual meets and in the Olympic Games and
the IAAF World Championships. Speed is essential in both events, and the ability to pass the baton well
is especially crucial in the shorter event, where each runner covers 100 metres. Exchanging the baton
while running about 25 miles per hour brings to the event a quality of suspense. Many races have been
won or lost by the quality of baton passing. Other relay events—the 4 × 200-, 4 × 800-, and 4 × 1,500-
metres—are run much less frequently.

Competitors race to hand off their batons during the first round of the 4x400m mixed team relay on Friday. Ryan Pierse/Getty Images

Walking

This event, also called race walking, is relatively minor. Aside from the Olympic and other
multinational competitions, it is seldom a part of track meets. Olympic competition is over 20,000 and
50,000 metres, while other distances are used in individual competitions.
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Jumping

Men and women compete in four jumping events: the high jump, long jump, triple jump,
and pole vault.

The high jump

There is one basic rule for high jumping: the jumper must leave the ground from one foot, not
two. The object is to clear a thin bar perched atop two standards, and the jumper remains in the
competition as long as he does not have three consecutive misses. Jumpers may enter the competition
at any height above the minimum height and are allowed to pass any height as the bar is raised to new
levels. Inflated or foam-rubber landing pits have replaced dirt and sawdust pits. The modern pits are of
value because jumpers often land on the back of the shoulders and neck.

Jumping styles evolved in the 20th century with techniques called the scissors, eastern cut-off,
western roll, and straddle (or belly roll) preceding the Fosbury flop.

Gianmarco Tamberi. Andrew Nelles-USA TODAY Sports

The pole vault

Pole-vaulting is conducted along the lines of the high jump; i.e., vaulters attempt to vault over a
crossbar placed on uprights, they have three tries at each height, and they land in an inflated
or composition pit.
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BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
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The vaulter runs down a runway for about 45 metres (150 feet) carrying a pole. After planting
the end of the pole in a box that is sunk below ground level, the vaulter leaves the ground and pulls
himself upward until he is almost doing a handstand on the pole. He twists as he nears the crossbar and
arches over it feetfirst and facedown.

The first poles, of solid ash, cedar, or hickory, were heavy and cumbersome. Once
the bamboo pole was introduced in 1904, it was quickly adopted. Records set with bamboo lasted until
1957, when records were set with an aluminum pole and a steel pole; these were followed by the
fibreglass pole in the 1960s.

The long jump

Long jumping, formerly called broad jumping, is the least complicated of the field events. Speed
is the most essential ingredient for a successful jump. Jumpers make their approach down the runway at
nearly top speed, plant a foot on the takeoff board, and leap into the air. A legal jump requires that no
part of the forward foot extend beyond the board. The most popular long-jumping style is called the
“hitch-kick,” in which the runner seemingly walks in air.

Afghanistan's Hossain Rasouli competes in the men's T47 long jump

(AP)

The triple jump

Once known as the hop, step, and jump, the triple jump includes three distinct segments of
action. The jumper comes down the runway and bounds off a takeoff board, similar in style to but a little
slower than long jumpers. The first segment involves the jumper executing a hop by landing on the same
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________

foot from which he took off. Then he takes a step, landing on the other foot, and concludes with a jump
into the sand pit.

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Throwing

The four standard throwing events—shot, discus, hammer, and javelin—all involve the use
of implements of various weights and shapes that are hurled for distance.

The shot put

The putting action is best described as shoving the shot, because the rules require that the arm
may not extend behind the shoulders during the putting action. The spherical shot is made of metal. The
men’s shot weighs 7.26 kg (16 pounds) and is 110–130 mm (4.3–5.1 inches) in diameter. Women put a
4-kg (8.82-pound) shot that is 95–110 mm (3.7–4.3 inches) in diameter.

The putter must launch the shot from within a ring 2.135 metres (7 feet) in diameter and so
must gather momentum for the put by a rapid twisting movement.

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The discus throw

Discus throwing is considered by many the classic event of athletics, the Greek poet Homer
having made references to discus throwing in the 8th century BC. Modern male athletes throw a 2-kg
(4.4-pound) plate-like implement from a 2.5-metre (8.2-foot) circle. The discus is launched after the
thrower, starting at the back of the circle, has completed one and a half turns. The women’s discus
weighs 1 kg (2.2 pounds).

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The hammer throw

The implement used in the hammer throw is not a conventional hammer but a metal ball at
least 110 mm (4.3 inches) in diameter attached to a wire, the whole implement being a minimum of
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
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1,175 mm (46.3 inches) in length and weighing a minimum of 7.2 kg (16 pounds). The handle at the end
of the wire opposite from the ball is gripped by the thrower and released after three or four body turns
have developed maximum centrifugal force. The throwing circle is slightly smaller than that of the
discus. Women’s hammer throw was introduced into international competition in the 1990s. The
hammer used by women is slightly shorter and weighs a minimum of 4 kg (8.8 pounds).

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The javelin throw

Javelin throwing involves a spear-like implement that is hurled with an over-the-shoulder

motion at the end of an approach run. It is a direct descendant of spear-throwing contests, introduced
in the Olympics of 708 BC. The men’s javelin weighs about 800 grams (1.8 pounds) and must be at least
260 cm (8.5 feet) long. The women throw a javelin that must weigh at least 600 grams (1.3 pounds) and
be at least 220 cm (7.2 feet) long. It is the only throwing event not using a circle. The javelin is not
required to stick but must land point-first for a valid throw.

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Decathlon and heptathlon

Both men and women participate in multi-event competitions, the men in the 10-event
decathlon and the women in the 7-event heptathlon, which superseded the earlier pentathlon. The
competitions, which require a two-day schedule, are held basically at international meets and national
championships.

Each athlete is given points for performance in each event, with more points awarded for better
marks. The athlete with the most total points wins.

Men compete in five events each day, doing consecutively the 100 metres, long jump, shot
put, high jump, and 400 metres on the first day and the 110-metre hurdles, discus throw, pole vault,
javelin throw, and 1,500-metre run in that order on the second day. Women do, in order, the 100-metre
hurdles, high jump, shot put, and 200 metres on the first day, followed by the long jump, javelin throw,
and 800 metres on the second day.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/sports/athletics
Republic of the Philippines
BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY
City of Naga
Telephone No. (054) 4720416 Loc. 123
Fax No. (054) 4720415
_____________________________________________________________________________________