DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

(EIE418)

Prof. E. Adetiba (Ph.D, R.Engr.(COREN))

Department of Electrical & Information
Engineering, College of Engineering, Covenant
University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria.
 MODULE 4

Module 4: Digital Modulation Schemes

4.1 Digital Modulation
• In data communication, different types of media
need different types of electromagnetic signals to
carry information from the source to the
destination.

• Digital Modulation is therefore the process by

which the source digital information is impressed
upon a carrier-wave (essentially a sinusoid of a
certain frequency) by changing or modifying some
characteristics of the sinusoidal wave.
• The original source signal is called the baseband
signal and this signal is sent to the modulator after
both source and channel encoding at the transmitter,
while at the receiver, the modulated signal is
converted back to digital stream of bits by the
process of demodulation.

• Consider a general sinusoid of frequency fc

(referred to as the carrier frequency) given as:
s (t ) = A cos(2p f t + f ) (4.1)
c

• Where A is called the amplitude and φ the phase

of the carrier.
• Before this carrier is transmitted, data are used to
modulate or change its amplitude, frequency,
phase or some combination of these.

• Changing of these parameters is called “keying” in

digital modulation.

• If the data changes only the amplitude of the

carrier, the modulation is called Amplitude Shift
Keying(ASK).
• For changes in only the frequency of the carrier,
the modulation is called Frequency Shift
Keying(FSK).
• For changes in only the phase of the carrier, the
modulation is called Phase Shift Keying(PSK).

• A hybrid of amplitude and phase changes is called

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
4.1.1 Some Benefits of Digital Modulation
i) Medium characteristics: All media used for
transmission act as filters that attenuate different
frequencies by different values. So it is beneficial
to move the spectrum of a signal to a frequency
that is less susceptible to attenuation as well as
distortion over a given medium.
ii) Antenna size: The size of antenna depends on the
wavelength of the signal that is transmitted or
received. Higher frequencies (smaller wavelengths)
can reduce the size of the antenna and thus the
transceiver. This makes it necessary to move the
spectrum to a higher frequency range.
For instance, a quarter-wave antenna size is λ/4,
where λ is the signal wavelength, which is expressed
as: c
l= (4.2)
f
c = speed of light (3x108 m/s)
f = signal frequency (in Hz)
iii) Multiplexing: Transmissions of signals from
different sources can be achieved by using separate
frequency bands for each source. This implies that the
spectrum of a signal must be shifted to the range of
frequencies that it is allowed to occupy.
iv) Signal to Noise Performance: The signal to noise
performance of the system (energy per bit/spectral
noise density) increases linearly in dB with the
number of bits used per sample, giving a more
efficient noise/bandwidth trade-off. Digital error
control codes which detect and/or correct
transmission errors are also achievable.
v)Ease of Design with Software: New multipurpose
programmable DSPs have made it possible to
implement digital modulation and demodulation
completely in software. Instead of the traditional
approach to having a complete
modem(modulation/demodulation) designed in a
fixed hardware, embedded software implementation
now allows alterations and improvements without
having to redesign or replace the modem.
Example 4.1
Compute the half-wave antenna sizes
that are required for 3kHz and 3GHz
signals. Based on your results,
comment on the effect of modulation
on antenna size in wireless
communication.
4.2 Data Rate and Baud Rate
• Recall that a data element is the smallest piece of
information to be exchanged(i.e. the bit) while a
signal element is the smallest unit of a signal that is
constant. Data elements are what needs to be carried
while signal elements are the carriers.
• Data rate is the bit rate (in bits per second).
• Baud rate(also called signal rate) signifies the number
of modulation symbols transmitted per second( in
baud).
• The term symbol in modulation refers to one specific
state of a carrier signal. It can be an amplitude, a
frequency, a phase, or some combination of them.
• The relationship between data rate and baud rate
is:
N baud (4.3)
S =
r
where S = baud rate.
N = data rate in bps
r = the number of data elements carried in one
signal element.

r = log 2 L (4.4)
L = the number of different signal
elements(symbols).
Example 4.2
i) An analog signal carries 4bits per
signal element, if 1000 signal elements
are sent per second, find the data rate
of the transmission.
ii) A signal has a bit rate of 8000bps and
a signal rate of 1000 baud. How many
data elements are carried by each
signal? How many symbols are required
for this transmission?
4.3 Binary versus M-ary Modulation Schemes
• In binary modulation schemes, the symbol has
binary values “0” and “1”.
• In ASK for instance, a “0” is mapped to one
amplitude value and a “1” is mapped to another
amplitude value to produce Binary ASK (BASK).
• In FSK, a “0” is mapped to one frequency value
and a “1” is mapped to another frequency value
to produce Binary FSK (BFSK).
• In PSK, a “0” is mapped to one phase value and a
“1” is mapped to another phase value to produce
Binary PSK (BPSK).
• In M-ary modulation schemes, the source produces one of M
symbols:
mi for i = 1,2,3,··· , M.
• The symbol mi is mapped to a signal si(t) that lasts for Ts
seconds.

• For M-ASK, there are M different amplitude values of the

carrier.

• In the case of M-FSK, M different carrier frequencies are

used to represent the M alphabet symbols. In this case, the
Engineer must be cautious in choosing the frequencies such
that there is no interference between adjacent frequency
carriers.

• In M-PSK, there are M different carrier phases that represent

the M symbols.
4.4 Amplitude Shift Keying
4.4.1 Binary ASK (BASK)
• BASK is normally implemented using only two
levels and it is mathematically represented as:
si (t ) = Ai cos(2p f c t + f ) (4.5)
for i = 1,2

• The transmitter will transmit s1(t) when the bit is

zero and s2(t) when the bit is one.
Fig.4.1: Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK)
Fig.4.2: Implementation of BASK
• The bandwidth of BASK is given as:
B = (1+ d )S (4.6)
where
B = bandwidth
S = baud (signal rate)
d = is a factor which depends on the modulation and
filtering process, the value is between 0 and 1.

• Equation (4.6) shows that the required bandwidth

has a minimum value of S and a maximum value of
2S.
• The middle of the bandwidth is where fc (the
carrier frequency) is located.
• This means that if we have a bandpass channel
available, we can choose our fc so that the
modulated signal occupies that bandwidth.

Fig. 4.3: The bandwidth spectrum of BASK

• BASK is used in devices that need to be
extremely simple such as television
remotes, RF-ID tags and infra-red links.

Example 4.3
There is an available bandwidth of
100kHz which spans from 200kHz to
300kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if the data
is modulated with BASK of d = 1?
4.4.2 M-ary ASK (M-ASK)
• In M-ASK, there are M different amplitude values of
the carrier. The scheme is mathematically represented
as:

si (t ) = Ai cos(2p f c t + f ) (4.7)
for i = 1,2,3…M

• We can use 4, 8, 16, or more different amplitudes for

the signal and modulate the data using 2, 3, 4, or
more bits at a time.
• It is common to assume that:
Ai = (2i -1- M ) D (4.8)
Where D is some integer value.
Example 4.4
Assuming M = 4 and D = 1 for a M-
ASK scheme i) what are the values of
the amplitudes and the
corresponding carrier signals ii) How
many data elements will be
contained in each symbol and state
the data elements.
Solution
(i)
A1 = (2 -1- 4)1= -3V
\ s1 = -3cos(2p f c t + f )

A2 = (4 -1- 4)1= -1V

\ s 2 = -cos(2p f c t + f )

A3 = (6 -1- 4)1= 1V
\ s3 = cos(2p f c t + f )

A4 = (8 -1- 4)1= 3V
\ s 4 = 3cos(2p f c t + f )
ii)
L=4
\ r = log 2 4 = 2

• The data elements are: 00, 01, 10 and 11.

4.5 Frequency Shift Keying
• In FSK, both peak amplitude and phase remain
constant for all signal elements.
4.5.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying(BFSK)
• BFSK make use of two carrier frequencies (f1 and
f2). The first carrier is used if the data element is 0
while the second is used if the data element is 1.
• The generic mathematical representation of BFSK
signals is:
si (t ) = A cos(2p f i t )
(4.9)
• for i = 1,2
• In equation (4.9), we assume that the phase of the
carrier is zero for simplicity. The transmitter will
transmit s1(t) when the bit is zero and s2(t) when
the bit is one(see Fig. 4.4).

Fig.4.4: Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

• The two implementations of BFSK are:
i) noncoherent and ii) coherent.
• In noncoherent BFSK, there may be discontinuity in
the phase when one signal element ends and the
next begins.
• Noncoherent BFSK can be implemented by treating
BFSK as two ASK modulations and using two carrier
frequencies.
• In coherent BFSK, the phase continues through the
boundary of two signal elements.
• Coherent BFSK can be implemented by using one
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) that changes its
frequency according to the input voltage(see Fig.
4.5).
 Carrier signal

Modulated signal

Fig. 4.5: Implementation of BFSK

• FSK can be thought of as two ASK signals, each
with its own carrier frequency ( f1 or f2) as shown
in the spectrum plot in Fig. 4.6).

Fig. 4.6: The Bandwidth Spectrum of FSK

• If the difference between the two frequencies is
2Δf, then the required bandwidth for BFSK is given
as:
B = (1+ d )S + 2D f (4.10)

• The minimum value of 2Δf should be at least S for

the proper operation of modulation and
demodulation.
Example 4.5
Assuming the signal in Example 4.3
is modulated using BFSK, what is
the bit rate if 2Δf = 50kHz and d =1
4.5.2 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying(M-FSK)
• In M-FSK, we can use more than two frequencies
to carry out digital signal modulation. For,
instance, you can use four different frequencies f1,
f2, f3, and f4 to send 2 bits at a time. In order to
send 3 bits at a time, we can use eight frequencies
and so on.
• Meanwhile, you need to remember that the
frequencies need to be 2Δf apart. Thus, the
generic mathematical representation of M-FSK
signal is:
 é æ M ö ù
si (t ) = A cosê2p f c t + 2p çi - ÷D f t ú
ë è 2 ø û
(4.11)
for i = 1, 2, 3, · · · , M

• For proper operation of the modulator and

demodulator, the minimum value of 2Δf needs to
be S and the bandwidth (for M-FSK) is given as:
B = (1+ d ) S + ( L -1)2D f (4.12)
Example 4.6
To send a given data 3 bits at a time at
a bit rate of 3 Mbps, the carrier
frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different
frequencies), the baud rate, and the
bandwidth for this transmission. Draw
the bandwidth spectrum for the
transmission.
Solution
r = 3bits
N = 3Mbps
f c = 10 MHz
\L = 2 = 2 =8
r 3

i.e. there are 8 different frequencies.

N 3
S = = = 1Mbaud
r 3
For proper modulation and demodulation
2Δf = S = 1MHz (i.e. the carrier frequencies must be
at least 1MHz apart).
B = (1+ d ) S + ( L -1)2D f = S ´ L =1´8 = 8MHz
(for the minimum 2Δf)
The bandwidth spectrum is as shown below:

• M-FSK is used when noise is a serious issue. The 4-

FSK variant is used in Bluetooth.
4.6 Phase Shift Keying
• In PSK, both peak amplitude and frequency
remain constant as the phase changes.
4.6.1 Binary Phase Shift Keying(BPSK)
• The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we
have only two signal elements. The generic
mathematical representation is:
si (t ) = A cos(2p f c t + fi ) (4.13)
for i = 1,2.
• Since the phase can only be between 0 and 2π
radians, the maximum possible phase difference
between the two bits is π.
• It is common to assume that φ1 = 0 and φ2 = π, in
which case, the two signals will be:

s1 (t ) = A cos(2p f c t ) (4.14)

s 2 (t ) = A cos(2p f c t + p )
\ s 2 (t ) = - A cos(2p f c t ) (4.15)
• This shows that there is a reversal of phase when
the bit changes.
• BPSK is as simple as BASK with one big
advantage—it is less susceptible to noise. It is also
superior to BFSK because we do not need two
carrier signals.

Fig.4.7: Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

• BPSK bandwidth is the same as that for BASK
but less than BFSK(see Fig.4.8).
• Fig. 4.9 illustrates the implementation of
BPSK.

Fig. 4.8: Bandwidth Spectrum for BPSK

 Fig. 4.9: The implementation of BPSK

• BPSK is used as a robust modulation scheme in

many applications such as IEEE 802.11 and CDMA.
4.6.2 M-ary Phase Shift Keying(M-PSK)
• In M-PSK, there are M different carrier phases that
represent the M symbols.
• The generic mathematical representation for M-
PSK signal is:
s (t ) = A cos(2p f t + f )
i c i
(4.16)

for i = 1,2,3,…,M
where
2p (4.17)
fi =
M
( )
i -1 + const
Exercise 4.1
If M=4, calculate the phases for the
4-PSK for:
a) i) const = 0 (ii) const = π/4
b) What is the other name for 4-PSK?
4.6.2.1 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
• The scheme that results when M=4 in M-PSK
is known as Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK).
• In this scheme, two separate BPSK
modulations are used; one is in-phase and the
other is quadrature phase (out-of-phase).
• This implies that in QPSK, 2 bits are used at a
time in each signal element, thereby
decreasing the baud rate and eventually the
required bandwidth.
• Fig. 4.10 illustrates an
implementation of QPSK.
• The incoming bits are first passed
through a serial-to-parallel converter
that sends one bit to one modulator
and the next bit to the other
modulator.
Fig. 4.10: QPSK Implementation
• As shown in Fig. 4.10, the composite
signals created by each multiplier are sine
waves with the same frequency, but
different phases.
• When they are added, another sine wave
is obtained with one of four possible
phases: −135°, −45°, 45° and 135°.
Variations of QPSK are used in
wireless communication systems such
as 802.11 WLAN, CDMA and digital
TDMA.
Exercise 4.2
A QPSK signal is transmitting at
12Mbps, what is the bandwidth if d =
0.
4.7 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• The sine and cosine of a signal at the same
frequency are orthogonal.
• Thus, it is possible to transmit two carriers at
the same frequency with a phase shift of 90◦
and be able to differentiate between the
two of them easily (as earlier illustrated for
QPSK).
• The cosine is called the in-phase
component and the sine is called the
quadrature-phase component.
• If different (multiple positive and negative)
amplitudes are used with the two phase
shifted carriers, the modulation scheme is
called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM).
• It is a popular bandwidth efficient modulation
scheme used in many practical systems.
• The general M-QAM signal can be represented
as:
 si (t ) = Ai ,I cos (2p f c t ) + Ai ,Q sin (2p f c t ) (2.18)
for i = 1,2,3,…,M
where the subscripts I and Q refer to the in-phase
and quadrature-phase components respectively.
• We can also write the generic QAM signal as:
si (t ) = Ai cos (2p f c t + fi ) (2.19)
for i = 1,2,3,…,M
where
Ai = Ai ,I + Ai ,Q
2 2

and æA ö
fi = - tan -1 çç i ,Q ÷÷
è Ai ,I ø
• Thus, with the foregoing equations, QAM can
be seen as a mix of both ASK and PSK since
the message is mapped to a carrier with
amplitude Ai and phase φi .
• Note that the minimum bandwidth required
for QAM transmission is same as that required
for ASK and PSK transmission.
• It also has similar advantages as PSK over ASK.
• QAM is employed in all voice-band modems
and in digital subscriber lines. It is also being
currently used in wireless communication
systems such as IEEE 802.11
4.8 Constellation Diagram
• A constellation diagram can be used to define the
amplitude and phase of a signal element,
especially when using two carriers (one in-phase
and one quadrature).
• As shown in the diagram(Fig. 4.11), a signal
element type is represented as a dot while the bit
or combination of bits it can carry is often written
next to it.
Fig. 4.11: Generic Representation of a Constellation Diagram
• As shown in the diagram, the horizontal X-axis
represents the in-phase carrier while the vertical
Y- axis represents the quadrature carrier.
• Four vital information that can be deduced from
each point on the diagram are as follow:
i) The projection of the point on the X-axis
defines the peak amplitude of the in-phase
component.
ii) The projection of the point on the Y-axis
defines the peak amplitude of the
quadrature component.
 iii) The length of the line that connects the
point to the origin is the peak amplitude of
the signal element(which is a
combination of the in-phase and
quadrature components).
iv) The angle the line makes with the X-axis
is the phase of the signal element.

• Examples of constellation diagrams for

some modulation schemes are shown in Fig.
4.12
 a) BASK
b) BPSK

c) QPSK d) 16-QAM

Fig.4.12: Examples of Constellation Diagrams

Exercise 4.3
Calculate the bit rate of a 1000 baud rate
for i)FSK ii) ASK iii)BPSK iv)QPSK and v)
16-QAM