Mechanical Properties of Metals

Mechanical Properties refers to the behavior of

material when external forces are applied.

From engineering point of view:

• allows to predict the ability of a component or
a structure to withstand the forces applied to
it.

From science point of view:

• what makes materials strong → helps us to
design a better new one.

Chapter 6-
 Normal stress

A normal stress is a stress that occurs when a member is loaded by an

axial force. The value of the normal force for any prismatic section is
simply the force divided by the cross sectional area. A normal stress will
occur when a member is placed in tension or compression.

Chapter 6-
 Normal strain

It is the measure the deformation or extension of a body that is

subjected to a force or set of forces. The strain of a body is generally
defined as the change in length divided by the initial length.

Strain is always
dimensionless. Chapter 6-
• The initial dimensions of the sample is measured and recorded online.
• The sample shall then be fixed in the machine. The tensile test is
performed by gripping the ends of the sample and elongating the
sample.
• The force, acting on the sample, is measured by a load cell
continuously during the experiment and may be plotted versus the
elongation. i.e. we measure and record the force, necessary to obtain
the elongation of the sample during the experiment.
• The basic result is the so-called engineering stress – engineering strain
curve. The engineering stress is the force acting on the sample divided
Chapter 6-
by the minimal initial cross sectional area.
Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile Materials – Low Carbon Steel

Elastic region
slope=Young’s(elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
Chapter 6-
fracture
Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile Materials

Chapter 6-
 ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:

/2

Lo
wo
/2
L/2 L/2

Chapter 6- 8
 STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.

• Other types of tests: Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.

(Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden,
--compression: brittle W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
materials (e.g., concrete) Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
--torsion: cylindrical tubes, Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.)
shafts. Chapter 6- 9
Stress-Strain Curve

Elastic region
slope=Young’s(elastic
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile streng
strain hardening
Chapter 6-
fracture
 Stress-Strain Curve
• Elastic Region (Point O - A)
- The material will return to its original shape
after removal of the load ( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region – Hooke’s Law. σ  E ε

σ : Stress (Pa)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (Pa)
ε : Strain (dimensionless)
- Yield Strength (Point B)
- : a point at which permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
Chapter 6-
 Stress-Strain Diagram

Tensile Strength (Point D)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
Fracture (Point E)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point D, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point E.
Chapter 6-
 Stress-Strain Diagram

Plastic Region (Point B –D)

- If the material is loaded beyond the yield strength,
the material will not return to its original shape
after unloading.
- It will have some permanent deformation.
- If the material is unloaded at Point D, the curve will
proceed from Point D to Point E. The slope will be
the same as the slope between Point O and A.

Chapter 6-
 YIELD STRENGTH, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
Chapter 6- 15
 TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

Callister 6e.

• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6- 17
 3. Strain Hardening
-After yielding, the material becomes hard
supporting the load and this is due to hardening
of the material.
-Hardening is caused by dislocation
entanglement.

4. Necking
-Decrease in cross sectional area up to Ultimate
Tensile Strength is uniform
-The CSA decreases in localized areas after UTS
up to the breaking point.
-After UTS there is the sharp decrease Chapter
in area
6-
 Stress-Strain Diagram

Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus(slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.

Chapter 6-
Energy Terms
1. Resilience
• Resilience is the resistance of a material to permanent
deformation.

• It indicates the amount of energy necessary to deform

the material to the proportional limit.

• Resilience is therefore measured by the area under the

elastic portion of the stress strain curve.

Chapter 6-
2. Toughness
• Toughness, which is the resistance of a material to
fracture, is an indication of the amount of energy
necessary to cause fracture.

• It is represented by the area under the elastic and plastic

portions of a stress-strain curve.

Chapter 6-
 Working stress and factor of safety

The working stress σw, also called the allowable stress, is the
maximum safe axial stress used in design. In most design, the
working stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic
range.
However, because the proportional limit is difficult to
determine accurately, it is customary to base the working stress
on either the yield stress σyp or the ultimate stress σult, divided
by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety.

Chapter 6-
LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES

• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:

=Ee

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless

Chapter 6- 10
Chapter 6-
 DUCTILITY, %EL
L f  Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL  x100
Lo

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister 6e.

Ao  A f
• Another ductility measure: %AR  x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
Chapter 6- 19
RESILIENCE
Capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically and then upon
unloading, to have this energy recovered.

Modulus of Resilience
ey
U r   de
0

For a linear elastic region:

1
U r   ye y
2

Chapter 6-
 TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, e

Chapter 6- 20
Chapter 6-
 True stress & strain

Here we use the exact area rather than the

original area.

Cross sectional area decreases rapidly within

the neck region.

Chapter 6-
 Hardening

HARDENING: An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

Chapter 6- 22
Chapter 6-
 HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.

Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Chapter 6- 21
 SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of
material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6- 24