Sugar Corporation

Research and Training

Training and Extension Directorate

Training Material
On
Sugar Factory Insulation for
Insulation Workers
Prepared By

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team

May, 2014
Wonji/Shoa
 Chapter One

Insulation

1.1 Introduction
Insulation prevents loss of heat, freezing of hot- and cold-water pipes, and condensation on cold-
water pipes, and protects against fire. Insulation can reduce noise and vibration from heating or
air-conditioning equipment and noise made by water flowing inside the pipes. It also reduces
pipe expansion and contraction.

1.2 Types
Insulation may be either the unformed blanket-type that allows shaping or wrapping or rigid,
preformed sections that fit around pipe runs and other objects (See Figure below).

Figure 1.1: Insulation

1.2.1 Rigid, Preformed Insulation

Frost Proof
Frost proof insulation is used on cold-water service lines that pass through unheated areas and
those that are located outside. A common supply is 3 feet long and 1 1/2 inches thick, with a
canvas cover.
Fiberglass
Fiberglass insulation is shaped to fit pipes, tubing, small boilers, and heaters. It has a long life;
will not shrink, swell, rot, or burn; is easily applied; is lightweight; and saves space. It is made of
very fine glass fibers bound together by an inactive resinous mixture.

Antisweat
Anti sweat insulation is used on cold-water lines. It keeps water in the pipes colder and, if
properly installed, prevents the pipes from sweating. The outer layer has a nap about 3 inches
long, which extends beyond the joint to help make a perfect seal. A canvas jacket is placed
around each 3-foot length to protect the outer felt covering.

Cork Pipe Covering

This covering is a grainy material made by grinding the bark of cork trees. No other product can
match its advantages. This pure, clean cork is pressed and molded to the exact size and shape and
finished with a coating of plastic asphalt. It is ideal for covering brine, ammonia, ice water, and
all kinds of cold-water lines. It has excellent insulating qualities over a wide low temperature
range. Cork pipe covering will not rot or burn and is clean, sanitary, and odor free. It comes in a
variety of sizes and shapes that can be used on various sizes of pipes and fittings. A water proof
material should be used to coat it to keep moisture out of the insulation.

Wool Felt
Wool felt is made of matted wool fibers or wool and fur or hair, pressure-rolled into a compact
material. It is used on cold-water service and hot-water return lines. It is often used with alternate
layers of tar paper to provide waterproof insulation.

Flex Rubber
This insulation is a tough, flexible rubber material. It has good insulating qualities, good
cementing qualities, excellent weather-aging qualities, and prevents sweating of cold-water lines.

Magnesia
This insulation has maximum strength and is very suitable for steam and hot-water lines or other
pipes whose temperature does not exceed 600 degrees Fahrenheit. It has a canvas jacket and may
be used on pipes up to 30 inches in diameter.

1.2.2 Blanket Insulation

Blanket insulation insulates against heat loss and protects against fire. This insulation is used on
boilers, furnaces, tanks, drums, driers, ovens, flanges, and valves. The fiberglass type is used on
small boilers and water heaters. It is used to wrap around objects that are irregular in shape and
for large, flat areas. It is made in strips, sheets, rolls, and blocks. It comes in different widths and
thicknesses, depending on the equipment to be insulated.
It resists vermin (insects, rats, mice) and acid and is fireproof.

1.3 Installation
1.3.1 Aboveground Piping

Each section of installation is split in half and has a canvas cover with a flap for quick sealing.
Cheesecloth can be used in place of canvas, but it must be glued in place. Use joint collars to
cover joint seams on piping exposed to outside conditions. Use metal straps at least 3/4-inch
wide, placed 18 inches apart, to hold the insulation firmly (See it in Figure).

1.3.2 Underground Piping

Some underground piping must be insulated. The insulation is similar to above ground insulation
except that it needs more protection from the weather. In most cases, a concrete trench is made
for installation of the piping. Molded pipe covering or loose mineral wool or glass wool is used.
To protect the pipes from ground moisture, use coal tar as a sealer or wrap the pipes with tar
paper or aluminum foil.

1.3.3 Boiler and Tank Coverings

Insulate unjacketed boilers or storage tanks with approved insulation material. Some approved
types are magnesia, mineral wool, calcium silicate, and cellular glass that is at least 2 inches
thick. Keep the insulation away from the metal surface by applying it over 1 1/2-inch wire mesh,
lifted by metal spacers that provide an air space of at least 1 inch. Fill the joints with magnesia,
mineral wool, or other suitable cement. Cover the surface of the insulation with a thin layer of
hard-finished cement, reinforced with 1 1/2- inch wire mesh. Wire the insulation firmly in place.

1.3.4 Valve and Fitting Coverings

Cover valves and fittings with wool, felt, magnesia cement, or mineral wool cement the same
thickness as the pipe covering. These types of insulation are molded into shape. For magnesia or
mineral wool cement insulation, use cheesecloth to bind and hold it in place.

1.4 Maintenance
Properly installed insulation requires little maintenance. Insulation exposed to weather or
possible damage from sharp objects must be frequently inspected. Proper installation and
frequent inspections will minimize maintenance problems.

Pipe Covering
If the canvas cover gets torn or punctured, patch it with a piece of canvas. Use only waterproof
paste when installing or repairing outside insulation.

Leaky Pipes
When repairing a leak in an insulated pipe, remove the insulation back far enough to uncover the
damaged pipe. When reinstalling the pipe, use the same kind of insulation used for the rest of the
system.

Valves and Fittings

An inspection may reveal loose straps or loose insulation around valves and fittings. Retighten
the straps and replace or glue down the loose insulation.
Insulation and Refractories
Insulation-types and application, Economic thickness of insulation, Heat savings and
application criteria, Refractory-types, selection and application of refractories, Heat loss.

Purpose of Insulation
A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low thermal conductivity. Insulation is used
in buildings and in manufacturing processes to prevent heat loss or heat gain. Although its primary
purpose is an economic one, it also provides more accurate control of process temperatures and
protection of personnel. It prevents condensation on cold surfaces and the resulting corrosion. Such
materials are porous, containing large number of dormant air cells. Thermal insulation delivers the
following benefits:
 Reduces over-all energy consumption
 Offers better process control by maintaining process temperature.
 Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated system above dew point
 Provides fire protection to equipment
 Absorbs vibration

Types and Application

The Insulation can be classified into three groups according to the temperature ranges for which they
are used.

Low Temperature Insulations (up to 90oC)

This range covers insulating materials for refrigerators, cold and hot water systems, storage tanks,
etc. The commonly used materials are Cork, Wood, 85 % magnesia, Mineral Fibers, Polyurethane
and expanded Polystyrene, etc

Medium Temperature Insulations (90 – 325 oC)

Insulators in this range are used in low temperature, heating and steam raising equipment, steam
lines, flue ducts etc. The types of materials used in this temperatures range include 85 % Magnesia,
Asbestos, Calcium Silicate and Mineral Fibers etc.

High Temperature Insulations (325o C – above)

Typical uses of such materials are super heated steam system, oven dryer and furnaces etc. The most
extensively used materials in this range are Asbestos, Calcium Silicate, Mineral Fibre, Mica and
Vermiculite based insulation, Fireclay or Silica based insulation and Ceramic Fibre.

Insulation Material
Insulation materials can also be classified into organic and inorganic types. Organic insulations are
based on hydrocarbon polymers, which can be expanded to obtain high void structures
Example: Thermocol (Expanded Polystyrene) and Poly Urethane Form (PUF).
Inorganic insulation is based on Siliceous/Aluminous/Calcium materials in fibrous, granular or
powder forms. Example: Mineral wool, Calcium silicate etc.
Properties of common insulating materials are as under:

Calcium Silicate: Used in industrial process plant piping where high service temperature and
compressive strength are needed. Temperature ranges varies from 40 C to 950 C.
Glass Mineral Wool: These are available in flexible forms, rigid slabs and preformed pipe work
sections. Good for thermal and acoustic insulation for heating and chilling system pipelines.
Temperature range of application is –10 to 500 C

Thermocol: These are mainly used as cold insulation for piping and cold storage construction.
Expanded Nitrile Rubber: This is a flexible material that forms a closed cell integral vapour
barrier. Originally developed for condensation control in refrigeration pipe work and chilled
water lines; now-a-days also used for ducting insulation for air conditioning.

Rock Mineral Wool: This is available in a range of forms from light weight rolled products to
heavy rigid slabs including preformed pipe sections. In addition to good thermal insulation
properties, it can also provide acoustic insulation and is fire retardant.

Use of Moulded Insulation

Lagging materials can be obtained in bulk, in the form of moulded sections; semi - cylindrical
for pipes, slabs for vessels, flanges, valves etc. The main advantage of the moulded sections is
the ease of application and replacement when undertaking repairs for damaged lagging.

The thermal conductivity of a material is the heat loss per unit area per unit insulation thickness

per unit temperature difference. The unit of measurement is W-m2/m°C or W-m/°C. The thermal
conductivity of materials increases with temperature. So thermal conductivity is always specified
at the mean temperature (mean of hot and cold face temperatures) of the insulation material.

Refractories
Any material can be described as ‘refractory,’ if it can with stand the action of abrasive or
corrosive solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of operating
conditions, in which refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a range of refractory
materials with different properties. Refractory materials are made in varying combinations and
shapes and for different applications.

The general requirements of a refractory material can be summed up as:

 Ability to withstand high temperatures.
 Ability to withstand sudden changes of temperatures.
 Ability to withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot gases, etc.
 Ability to withstand load at service conditions.
 Ability to withstand load and abrasive forces.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Should be able to conserve heat.
 Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact.

Properties of Refractories
Some of the important properties of refractories are:
Melting Point: Pure substances melt sharply at a definite temperature. Most refractory materials
consist of high melting particles bonded together. At high temperature, glass fuses and as the
temperature rises, the resulting slag increases in quantity by partial solution of the refractory
particles. The temperature at which this action results in failure of a test pyramid (cone) to
support its own weight is called, for convenience, the melting point of the refractory. Table
shows the melting point of some pure compounds used as refractories.
Melting Points of Pure Compounds Formula Melting Temp. 0C

Alumina A2O3 2050

Lime CaO 2570

Chromite FeOCr2O3 2180

Chromium Oxide Cr2O2 2275

Megnesia MgO 2800

Silica SiO2 1715

Titania TiO2 1850

Size : The size and shape of the refractories is a part of the design feature. It is an important
feature in design since it affects the stability of any structure. Accuracy and size is extremely
important to enable proper fitting of the refractory shape and to minimize the thickness and joints
in construction.

Bulk Density: A useful property of refractories is bulk density, which defines the material
present in a given volume. An increase in bulk density of a given refractory increases its volume
stability, its heat capacity, as well as resistance to slag penetration.

Porosity: The apparent porosity is a measure of the volume of the open pores, into which a
liquid can penetrate, as a percentage of the total volume. This is an important property incases
where the refractory is in contact with molten charge and slags. A low apparent porosity is
desirable since it would prevent easy penetration of the refractory size and continuity of pores
will have important influences on refractory behaviour. A large number of small pores is
generally preferable to an equivalent number of large pores.

Cold Crushing Strength: The cold crushing strength, which is considered by some to be of
doubtful relevance as a useful property, other than that it reveals little more than the ability to
withstand the rigors of transport, can be used as a useful indicator to the adequacy of firing and
abrasion resistance in consonance with other properties such as bulk density and porosity.

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE): Temperature at which a refractory will deform under its
own weight is known as its softening temperature which is indicated by PCE. Refractories, due
to their chemical complexity, melt progressively over a range of temperature. Hence
refractoriness or fusion point is ideally assessed by the cone fusion method. The equivalent
standard cone which melts to the same extent as the test cone is known as the pyrometric cone
equivalent.
Thus in the Figure. refractoriness of Sample A is much higher than B and C. The pyrometric
cone equivalent indicates only the softening temperature. But, in service the refractory is
subjected to loads which would deform the refrectory at a much lower temperature than that
indicated by PCE. With change in the environmental conditions, such as reducing atmosphere,
the P.C.E. value changes drastically.

Refractoriness Under Load (RUL): The refractoriness under load test (RUL test) gives an
indication of the temperature at which the bricks will collapse, in service conditions with similar
load.

Creep at High Temperature: Creep is a time dependent property which determines the
deformation in a given time and at a given temperature by a material under stress.

Volume Stability, Expansion and Shrinkage at High Temperatures: The contraction or

expansion of the refractories can take place during service. Such permanent changes in
dimensions may be due to:
1) The changes in the allotropic forms which cause a change in specific gravity.
2) A chemical reaction which produces a new material of altered specific gravity.
3) The formation of liquid phase.
4) Sintering reactions.
5) It may also happen on account of fluxing with dust and stag or by the action of alkalies on
fireclay refractories, to form alkali-alumina silicates, causing expansion and disruption. This is
an example which is generally observed in blast furnaces.

Reversible Thermal Expansion: Any material when heated, expands, and contracts on cooling.
The reversible thermal expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that occur during
heating and cooling.

Thermal Conductivity: Thermal conductivity depends upon the chemical and mineralogical
compositions as well as the glassy phase contained in the refractory and the application
temperature. The conductivity usually changes with rise in temperature. In cases where heat
transfer is required though the brick work, for example in recuperators, regenerators, muffles,
etc. the refractory should have high conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is desirable for
conservation of heat by providing adequate insulation.

The provisions for back-up insulation, conserves heat but at the same time it increases the hot
face temperature and hence the demand on the refractory quality increases.
 Accordingly, insulation on the roof in open hearth furnaces is normally not provided, otherwise
it would cause failure due to severe dripping. Depending on the characteristic of the refractory
used in the hot face, such as the high temperature load bearing capacity, it may be required that
the quality of the brick be increased to match the rise temperature caused by over insulation.

Light weight refractories of low thermal conductivity find wider applications in the moderately
low temperature heat treatment furnaces, where its primary function is usually conservation of
energy. It is more so in case of batch type furnaces where the low heat capacity of the refractory
structure would minimize the heat storage during the intermittent heating and cooling cycles.

Classification of Refractories
Refractories can be classified on the basis of chemical
composition and use and methods of manufacture as shown Examples
below: Classification based on Chemical composition

ACID---which readily combines with bases. Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate.

BASIC---which consists mainly of metallic oxides which Magnesite, chromemagnesite,

resist the action of bases. Dolomite.

NEUTRAL---which doesn’t combine; neither with acids nor Chrome, Pure. Alumina
bases.

Special Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia.

Classification based on end use Blast furnace Casting Pit

Classification based on method of manufacture - Dry Press Process - Fused Cast -

Hand Moulded - Formed Normal,
fired or Chemically bonded.) -
Unformed (Monolithics- plastics,
Ramming Mass, Gunning Castable,
Spraying.)
Mineral-based refractories arc classified according to their chemical composition:

i. Acid bricks contain at least 92 %~ silicon oxide (SiO2);

ii. Semi-basic bricks contain at least 65% silicon oxide. but less than 30 % alumina (A12O3);

iii. Neutral bricks contain at least 30 % alumina;

iv. Basic bricks contain at least 60 % magnesium oxide (MgO).

v. Synthetic refractories e.g. silicon carbide are produced by melting and casting processes.

The structure of the furnace consists mainly of refractory bricks and cement, which must be able to
withstand the high furnace temperatures and must be carefully selected and constructed. The furnace
structure may contain monolithic refractories, which can be shaped in situ, e.g. those used for burner
quarls. There are three basic types of monolithic refractories
 Castables;
 Mouldables;
 Ramming mixtures

Different furnace zones normally operate at different temperatures. The correct selection of
refractory materials for the various parts of the furnace and for various components e.g. hearths,
walls, etc, is important. This process is governed not only by properties like thermal conductivity,
expansion, etc, but also by the experience of the furnace designer or builder.

The hearth is the most important and the most severely treated region of a furnace. It should be
able to bear the required load and withstand chemical attack and mechanical wear. The selection
of hearth refractories is less critical for top and bottom fired furnaces, than for top fired only
pusher types.

For optimum strength and thermal insulation, the walls, roof and hearth of most furnaces are
constructed using layers of refractory materials. Thermal insulation is determined by the thermal
properties of the refractory, and these properties are important in minimising transmission and
storage heat losses.

Table- Compares the Thermal Properties of Typical

High density and low density refractory materials. Structural heat losses can be reduced by
using low thermal mass refractory materials in the construction of the furnace. Table 5.5 Typical
refractory properties
Property High Thermal Mass Low Thermal Mass

(High Density Refractories) (Ceramic Fibre)

Thermal Conductivity, W/m K 1.2 0.3

Specific Heat, J/Kg K 1000 1000

Density, Kg/m3 2300 130

Economic Thickness of Insulation (ETI)

Insulation of any system means capital expenditure. Hence the most important factor in any
insulation system is to analyse the thermal insulation with respect to cost. The effectiveness of
insulation follows the law of decreasing returns. Hence, there is a definite economic limit to the
amount of insulation, which is justified. An increased thickness is uneconomical and cannot be
recovered through small heat savings. This limiting value is termed as economic thickness of
insulation. Each industry has different fuel cost and boiler efficiency. These values can be used
for calculating economic thickness of insulation. This shows that thickness for a given set of
circumstances results in the lowest overall cost of insulation and heat loss combined over a given
period of time. The following figure illustrates the principle of economic thickness of insulation.

The simplest method of analysing whether you should use 1” or 2” or 3” insulation is by

comparing the cost of energy losses with the cost of insulating the pipe. The insulation thickness
for which the total cost is minimum is termed as economic thickness. Refer fig 5.4 The curve
representing the total cost reduces initially and after reaching the economic thickness
corresponding to the minimum cost, it increases.
The determination of economic thickness requires the attention to the following factors.
I. Cost of fuel
II. Annual hours of operation
III. Heat content of fuel
 IV. Boiler efficiency
V. Operating surface temperature
VI. Pipe diameter/thickness of surface
VII. Estimated cost of insulation
VIII. Average exposure ambient still air temperature

Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation

Typical Refractories in Industrial Use

Depending on the area of application such as boilers, furnaces, kilns, ovens etc, temperatures and
atmospheres encountered different types of refractories are used. Typical installations of refractories
are shown.
Fireclay Refractories

Fireclay refractories, such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous clay refractories

consist of aluminium silicates with various amounts of silica ranging from SiO2 content of less
than 78% and containing less than 44 % of Al2O3

As the quantity of impurities increases and the amount of Al 2O3 decreases, the melting point of
fireclay brick decreases. Owing to its relative cheapness and widespread location of the raw
materials used to manufacture firebricks, this material finds use in most furnaces, kilns, stoves,
etc.

Firebrick is the most common form of refractory material. It is used extensively in the iron and steel
industry, nonferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry, and by many others.

Properties of Typical Percent Percent Al 2O3 Other PCE 0C

Fireclay Bricks Brick SiO2 Constituents
Super Duty 49-53 40-44 5-7 1745-1760
High Duty 50-80 35-40 5-9 1690-1745
Intermediate 60-70 26-36 5-9 1640-1680
High Duty (Siliceous) 65-80 18-30 3-8 1620-1680
Low Duty 60-70 23-33 6-10 1520-1595

High Alumina Refractories

Alumino silicate refractories containing more than 45% alumina are generally termed as high
alumina materials. The alumina concentration ranges from 45 to 100 %. The refractoriness of
high alumina refractories increases with increase in alumina percentage. The applications of high
alumina refractories includes the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement kilns,
glass tanks and crucibles for melting a wide range of metals.

Silica Brick
Silica brick (or Dinas) is a refractory material containing at least 93 % SiO 2. The raw material is

quality rocks. Various grades of silica brick have found extensive use in the iron and steel
melting furnaces. In addition to high fusion point multi-type refractories, the other important
properties are their high resistance to thermal shock (spalling) and their high refractoriness. It
finds typical use in glass making and steel industry.

The outstanding property of silica brick is that it does not begin to soften under high loads until
its fusion point is approached. This behaviour contrasts with that of many other refractories, for
example alumino silicate materials, which begin to fuse and creep at temperatures considerably
lower than their fusion points. Other advantages are flux and stag resistance, volume stability and
high spalling resistance.

Magnesite
Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials, containing at least 85 % magnesium oxide.
They are made from naturally occurring magnesite (MgCO 3). The properties of magnesite

refractories depend on the concentration of silicate bond at the operating temperatures. Good
quality magnesite usually results from a CaO - SiO 2 ratio of less than 2 with a minimum ferrite

concentration, particularly if the furnaces lined with the refractory operate in oxidizing and
reducing conditions. The slag resistance is very high particularly to lime and iron rich slags.

Chromite Refractories
Here, a distinction must be made between chrome-magnesite refractories and magnesite-
chromite-refractories. Chromemagnesite material usually contain 15 – 35 % Cr O and 42 – 50
2 3
% MgO whereas magnesite-chromite refractories contain at least 60% MgO and 8 – 18 %
Cr O . Chrome-magnesite refractories are made in a wide range of qualities and are used for
2 3
building the critical parts of high temperature furnaces. These materials can withstand corrosive
slags and gases and have high refractoriness. The magnesite-chromite products are suitable for
service at the highest temperatures and in contact with the most basic slags used in steel melting.
Magnesite-chromite usually ahs a better spalling resistance than chrome-magnesite.

Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a polymorphic, material. There are certain difficulties in its usage

and fabrication as a refractory material. It is essential to stabilize it before application as a

refractory. This is achieved by incorporating small quantities of calcium, magnesium and cerium
oxide, etc. Its properties depend mainly on the degree of stabilization and quantity of stabilizer as
well as the quality of the original raw material. Zirconia refractories have a very high strength at

room temperature which is maintained up to temperatures as high as 1500 0C. They are,
therefore, useful as high temperature constructional materials for furnaces and kilns. The thermal
conductivity, of zirconium dioxide is found to be much lower than that of most other refractories
and the material is therefore used as a high temperature insulating refractory.

Since Zirconia exhibits very low thermal losses and does not react readily with liquid metals, it is
particularly useful for making refractory crucibles and other vessels for metallurgical purposes.
Zirconia is a useful refractory material for glass furnaces primarily since it is not easily wetted by
molten glasses and because of its low reaction with them.

Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Alumina refractory materials which consist of aluminium oxide with little traces of impurities
are often known as pure alumina. Alumina is one of the most chemically stable oxides known. It
is mechanically very strong, insoluble in water and super heated steam, and in most inorganic
acids and alkalies. Its properties make it suitable for the shaping of crucibles for fusing sodium
carbonate, sodium hydroxide and sodium peroxide. It has a high resistance in oxidizing and
reducing atmosphere. Alumina is extensively used in heat processing industries. Highly porous

alumina is used for lining furnaces operating up to 1850 0C.

Monolithics

Monolithic refractories (single piece cast in the shape of equipment such as one for a replacing
the conventional type fired refractories at a much faster rate in many applications including those
of industrial furnaces. The main advantages being:
 It eliminates joints which is an inherent weakness
 Method of application is faster and skilled measures in large number are not required
 Transportation and handling are simple
 Offers better scope to reduce downtime for repairs
 Offers considerable scope to reduce inventory and eliminate special shapes
 It is a heat saver
 Has better spalling resistance
 Has greater volume stability

Various means are employed in the placement of monolithics like ramming, casting, gunniting,
spraying, sand slinging, etc. Ramming masses are used mostly in cold applications where proper
consolidation of the material is important. The same practice can be adopted with both air setting
and heat setting materials. Proper ramming tools need to be selected.
Castables by name implies a material of hydraulic setting in nature. Calcium aluminate cement
being the binder, it will have to be stored properly to prevent moisture absorption. Further its
strength starts deteriorating after a period of 6 to 12 months.
Insulating Materials
Insulating materials greatly reduce the heat losses through walls. Insulation is effected by
providing a layer of material having low heat conductivity between the internal hot surface of a
furnace and the external surface, thus causing the temperature of the external surface reduced.
The insulating materials may be classified into the following groups
 Insulating bricks
 Insulating Castables
 Ceramic fibre
 Calcium silicate
 Ceramic coating

Insulating materials owe their low conductivity to their pores while their heat capacity depends
on the bulk density and specific heat. Structure of air insulating material consists of
Monolithic lining for a ladle. Insulation and Refractories minute pores filled with air which
have in themselves very low thermal conductivity, excessive heat affects all insulation material
adversely, but the temperatures to which the various materials can be heated before this adverse
effect occurs differ widely. Clearly, therefore, the choice of an insulating material must depend
upon its effectiveness to resist heat conductivity and upon the temperature that it will withstand.
One of the most widely used insulating materials is diatomite, also known as kiesel guhr which is
made up of a mass of skeletons of minute aquatic plants deposited thousands of years ago on the
beds of seas and lakes. Chemically this consists of silica contaminated with clay and organic
matter. A wide range of insulating refractories with wide combinations of properties are now
available.
The important physical properties of some insulating refractories are shown in the table below:
physical Thermal Max. safe Cold Porosity % Bulk density
properties of conductivity Crushing
temperature0 Kg/m3
insulating Strength
at 4000C C
refractories
Kg/cm2
Type
Diatomite .025 1000 270 52 1090
Solid Grade
Diatomite .014 800 110 77 540
 Porous Grade
Clay .030 1500 260 68 560
High .028 1500-1600 300 66 910
Aluminia
Silica .040 1400 400 65 830

Castables and Concretes

Monolithic linings and furnace sections can be built up by casting refractory insulating concretes,
and by stamping into place certain light weight aggregates suitably bonded. Other applications
include the formation of the bases of tunnel kiln cars used in the ceramic industry. The
ingredients are similar to those used for making piece refractories, except that concretes contain
some kind of cement, either Portland or high-alumina cement.

Ceramic Fibre

Ceramic fibre is a low thermal mass insulation material, which has revolutionalised the furnace
design lining systems.
Ceramic fibre is an alumino silicate material manufactured by blending and melting alumina and

silica at temperature of 1800 – 2000 oC and breaking the molten stream by blowing compressed
air or dropping the melt on spinning disc to form loose or bulk ceramic fibre. The bulk fibre is
converted to various products including blanket, strips, veneering and anchored modules, paper,
vacuum formed boards and shapes, rope, wet felt, mastic cement etc. for insulation applications.

Ceramic Fibre Insulation

Insulation and Refractories

Fibres are usually produced in two temperature grades based on Al 2O3 content. A recent addition is

Zr O2 added alumino silicate fibre, which helps to reduce shrinkage levels thereby rating the fibre for

higher temperatures. Continuous recommended operating temperature for fibres are given in the
following
Continuous Recommended Operating Temperature for Fibres

A12O3 SiO2 ZrO2

1150oC 43 - 47 % 53 - 57 % -

1250oC 52 - 56 % 44 - 48 % -

1325oC 33 - 35 % 47 - 50 % 17 - 20 %
These fibres are generally produced in bulk wool form and needled into blanket mass of various
densities ranging from 64 to 190 kg/m 3. Converted products and over 40 different forms are
made from blankets to suit various requirements.

Important Properties of Ceramic Fibre

The characteristics of ceramic fibres are a remarkable combination of the properties of
refractories and traditional insulation material.
1. Lower Thermal Conductivity

The low thermal conductivity – 0.1 kCal/m hour deg C at 600 oC for 128 kg/m3 density
blanket – allows construction of thinner linings with the same thermal efficiency as that of
conventional refractories. Hence, for the same outer envelope dimension the furnace volume
is much higher. It is 40 % more effective than good quality insulation brick and 2.5 times
better than asbestos product. Insulating property of ceramic fibre is better than calcium
silicate product.

2. Light Weight
 Average density of ceramic fibre is 96 kg/m3. It is one tenth of the weight of insulating brick
and one third that of asbestos / calcium silicate boards. For new furnaces structural supports
can be reduced by 40 %.

3. Lower Heat Storage

Ceramic fibre linings absorb less heat because of lower density. Furnace can be heated and
cooled at faster rates. Typically the heat stored in a ceramic fibre lining system is in the range

of 2700 - 4050 kCal/m 2 (1000 – 1500 Btu/Ft2) as compared to 54200-493900 kCal/m 2

( 20000 – 250000 Btu/Ft2 ) for conventionally lined system.

4. Thermal Shock Resistant

Ceramic fibre lining resist thermal shock due to their resilient matrix. Also faster heat up and
cool down cycles are possible thereby improving furnace availability and productivity.

5. Chemical Resistance
Ceramic fibre resist most of the chemical attack and is unaffected by hydrocarbons, water
and steam present in flue gases.

6. Mechanical Resilience
This property permits fibre lined furnaces to be shop fabricated and shipped to site in
assembled form without fear of damage.

7. Low Installation Cost

No special skills are required as application practices are standardised. Fibre linings require
no dry out or curing times and can be heated to the capacity of the burners after installation is
completed without concern for cracking or spalling.

8. Simple Maintenance

In case of physical damage the defective section can be quickly removed and a replacement
piece added. Whole panel sections can be prefabricated for fast installation with minimal
down time.

9. Ease of Handling
 All product forms are easily handled and most can be quickly cut with a knife or scissors.
Vacuum formed products may require cutting with a band saw.

10. Thermal Efficiency

The low thermal conductivity of ceramic fibre can be advantageously made use of by the
lesser lining thickness and reduced furnace volume. The fast response of ceramic fibre lined
furnace also allows for more accurate control and uniform temperature distribution within the
furnace.

The other advantages offered by ceramic fibre are summarized below:

• Light weight furnace
• Simple steel fabrication work
• Low down time
• Increased productivity
• Additional capacity
• Low maintenance cost
• Longer service life
• Higher thermal efficiency
• Faster response

High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity, the measure of a material’s ability to both absorb and radiate heat, has been
considered by engineers as being an inherent physical property which like density, specific heat
and thermal conductivity, is not readily amenable to change. However, the development of high
emissivity coatings now allows the surface emissivity of materials to be increased, with resultant
benefits in heat transfer efficiency and in the service life of heat transfer components. High
emissivity coatings are applied in the interior surface of furnaces. The Figure 5.9 shows
emissivity of various insulating materials including high emissivity coatings. High emissivity
coating shows a constant value over varying process temperatures.

The application of high-emissivity coatings in furnace chambers promotes rapid and efficient
transfer of heat, uniform heating, and extended life of refractories and metallic components such
as radiant tubes and heating elements. For intermittent furnaces or where rapid heating is
required, use of such coatings was found to reduce fuel or power to tune of 25-45%. Other
benefits are temperature uniformity and increased refractory life
Furnaces,

Emissivity of Refractory Materials at Different temperatures

Furnaces, which operate at high temperature, have emissivities of 0.3. By using high emissivity
coatings this can go upto 0.8 thus effectively increasing the radiative heat transfer.

Selection of Refractories
The selection of refractories for any particular application is made with a view to achieve the
best performance of the equipment furnace, kiln or boiler and depends on their properties.
Further, the choice of a refractory material for a given application will be determined by the type
of furnace or heating unit and the prevailing conditions e.g. the gaseous atmosphere, the presence
of slags, the type of metal charge etc. It is, therefore, clear that temperature is by no means the
only criterion for selection of refractories.
Any furnace designer or industry should have a clear idea about the service conditions which the
refractory is required to face. The furnace manufacturers or users have to consider the following
points, before selecting a refractory.
i) Area of application. ii) Working temperatures. iii) Extent of abrasion and impact. iv)
Structural load of the furnace. v) Stress due to temperature gradient in the structures and
temperature fluctuations. vi) Chemical compatibility to the furnace environment. vii) Heat
transfer and fuel conservation viii) Cost considerations.
It is therefore, essential to have an objective evaluation of the above conditions. A proper
assessment of the desired properties would provide guidelines for selection of the proper
refractory materials.
It would be important to mention here that the furnace manufacturer or a user is also concerned
with the conservation of energy. Fuel can be saved in two ways: either by insulation or by faster
working. Both these methods give low energy cost per tonne of product.

Heat Losses from Furnace wWalls

In furnaces and kilns, heat losses from furnace walls, affect the fuel economy substantially. The
extent of wall losses depends on:

i) emissivity of walls; ii) conductivity of refractories; iii) wall thickness; iv) whether furnace or
kiln is operated continuously or intermittently.

Different materials have different radiation power (emissivity). The emissivity of walls coated
with aluminium paint is lower than that of bricks. Fig. 5.10(A) shows the coefficient of heat
dissipation for the following conditions:

a) Rough vertical plane surface.

 b) Vertical aluminium painted walls

Coefficient of Heat transfer for different conditions in still air at 40 0C

The variations of thermal conductivity for typical refractory materials (silica brick, fireclay brick
and insulation brick) with temperature is depicted in Figure (B). Thus at a mean temperature of

6000C, conductivity of the insulation brick is only 20 per cent of that for fireclay brick.

Heat losses can be reduced by increasing the wall thickness, or through the application of
insulating bricks. Outside wall temperature and heat losses for a composite wall of a certain
thickness of firebrick and insulation brick are much lower due to lesser conductivity of insulating
brick as compared to a refractory brick.

In the case of batch furnace operation, operating periods (“on”) alternate with idle periods
(“off”). During the off period, the heat stored in the refractories in the on-period is gradually
dissipated, mainly through radiation and convection from the cold face. In addition, some heat is
obstructed by air flowing through the furnace. Dissipation of stored heat is a loss, because the
lost heat is at least in part again imparted to the refractories during the next “on” period, thus
expending fuel to generate the heat. If a furnace is operated 24 hr. every third day, practically all
of the heat stored in the refractories is lost.

But if the furnace is operated 8 hrs. per day, not all the heat stored in the refractories is
dissipated. For a furnace with firebrick wall (350 mm) it is estimated that 55 per cent of the heat
stored in the refractories is dissipated from the cold surface during 166 hours idle period.
Furnace walls build of insulating refractories and encased in a shell reduce flow of heat to the
surroundings. Inserting a fibre block between the insulating refractory and the steel casing can
further reduce the loss. The general question one asks is how much heat loss can be reduced by
application of insulation. The answer is that it depends on the thickness of firebricks and of the
insulation and on continuity of furnace operation.

To sum up, the heat losses from the walls depend on

 Inside temperature.
 Outside air temperature.
 Outside air velocity.
 Configuration of walls.
 Emissivity of walls.
 Thickness of walls.
 Conductivity of walls.

The following conclusions can be drawn:

 Thickness of walls and Conductivity of walls can be easily controlled by the furnace
fabricator.
 As the wall thickness increases, the heat losses reduce.
 As thickness of insulation is increased, heat losses reduce.
 The effect of insulation in reducing heat losses is more pronounced than the increase
of wall thickness. Roughly 1 cm of insulation brick is equivalent to 5 to 8 cm of
refractory (firebrick).
 In intermittent furnaces, thin walls of insulating refractories are preferable to thick
walls of a normal refractory for intermittent operation since less heat is stored in
them.
 One approach to achieve less heat storage capacity would be to utilise insulating
material itself to form the inner refractory lining. Robust refractories with fairly good

strength and spalling resistance can be used for temperatures in the range of 1300 0C.
They are termed as hot face insulation.
 Hot face insulating bricks are lighter than normal refractories, weighing only one-
third to one-half as much. Therefore, heat storage in the hot face insulation is very
much reduced.