WRITING OF

RESEARCH PROJECT
REPORT

COMPILED BY:
CHARLES MENSAH
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 TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................ 2

HOW TO STRUCTURE A RESEARCH WORK...................................... 3

GENERAL FORMATTING ................................................................ 10

WRITING CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................... 11

WRITING CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................... 21

WRITING CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............. 53

WRITING CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................. 67

WRITING CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION .. 84

APA STYLE CITATION GUIDELINES (6TH EDITION) ........................ 93

APA MANUAL 7TH EDITION: THE MOST NOTABLE CHANGES ...... 99

GENERAL FRONT MATERIALS ...................................................... 103

WRITE-UP STRUCTURE ................................................................ 106

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 HOW TO STRUCTURE A RESEARCH WORK
A Research Work or thesis is a long piece of academic writing based
on original research, submitted as part of a doctoral, master’s, or
bachelor’s degree.

Your Research Work is probably the longest piece of writing you’ve

ever done, and it can be intimidating to know where to start. This
article helps you work out exactly what you should include and
where to include it.

Deciding on your Research Work’s structure

Not all Research Works are structured exactly the same – the form
your research takes will depend on your location, discipline, topic
and approach. For example, Research Works in the humanities are
often structured more like a long essay, building an overall
argument to support a central thesis, with chapters organized
around different themes or case studies. But if you’re doing
empirical research in the sciences or social sciences, your Research
Work should generally contain all of the following elements. In
many cases, each will be a separate chapter, but sometimes you
might combine them. For example, in certain kinds of qualitative
social science, the results and discussion will be woven together
rather than separated.

The order of sections can also vary between fields and countries.
For example, some universities advise that the conclusion should
always come before the discussion. If in doubt about how your
thesis or Research Work should be structured, always check your
department’s guidelines and consult with your supervisor.

Title page
The very first page of your document contains your Research
Work’s title, your name, department, institution, degree program,
and submission date. Sometimes it also includes your student

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number, your supervisor’s name, and the university’s logo. Many
programs have strict requirements for formatting the Research
Work title page.

Acknowledgements
The acknowledgements section is usually optional, and gives space
for you to thank everyone who helped you in writing your Research
Work. This might include your supervisors, participants in your
research, and friends or family who supported you.

Abstract
The abstract is a short summary of your Research Work, usually
about 150-300 words long. You should write it at the very end,
when you’ve completed the rest of the Research Work. In the
abstract, make sure to:

• State the main topic and aims of your research

• Describe the methods you used
• Summarize the main results
• State your conclusions

Although the abstract is very short, it’s the first part (and
sometimes the only part) of your Research Work that people will
read, so it’s important that you get it right. If you’re struggling to
write a strong abstract, read our guide on how to write an abstract.

Table of Contents
In the table of contents, list all of your chapters and subheadings
and their page numbers. The Research Work contents page gives
the reader an overview of your structure and helps easily navigate
the document. All parts of your Research Work should be included
in the table of contents, including the appendices. You can
generate a table of contents automatically in Word if you used
heading styles.

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List of Figures and Tables
If you have used a lot of tables and figures in your Research Work,
you should itemize them in a numbered list. You can automatically
generate this list using the Insert Caption feature in Word.

Glossary
If you have used a lot of highly specialized terms that will not be
familiar to your reader, it might be a good idea to include
a glossary. List the terms alphabetically and explain each term with
a brief description or definition.

Introduction
In the introduction, you set up your Research Work’s topic,
purpose, and relevance, and tell the reader what to expect in the
rest of the Research Work. The introduction should:

• Establish your research topic, giving necessary background

information to contextualize your work
• Narrow down the focus and define the scope of the
research
• Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing
your work’s relevance to a broader problem or debate
• Clearly state your research questions and objectives
• Give an overview of your Research Work’s structure

Everything in the introduction should be clear, engaging, and

relevant to your research. By the end, the reader should
understand the what, why and how of your research. If you need
more help, read our guide on how to write a Research Work
introduction.

Literature review / Theoretical framework

Before you start on your research, you should have conducted
a literature review to gain a thorough understanding of the
academic work that already exists on your topic. This means:
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 • Collecting sources (e.g. books and journal articles) and
selecting the most relevant ones
• Critically evaluating and analyzing each source
• Drawing connections between them (e.g. themes, patterns,
conflicts, gaps) to make an overall point

In the Research Work literature review chapter or section, you

shouldn’t just summarize existing studies, but develop a coherent
structure and argument that leads to a clear basis or justification
for your own research. For example, it might aim to show how your
research:

• Addresses a gap in the literature

• Takes a new theoretical or methodological approach to the
topic
• Proposes a solution to an unresolved problem
• Advances a theoretical debate
• Builds on and strengthens existing knowledge with new
data

The literature review often becomes the basis for a theoretical

framework, in which you define and analyze the key theories,
concepts and models that frame your research. In this section you
can answer descriptive research questions about the relationship
between concepts or variables.

Methodology
The methodology chapter or section describes how you conducted
your research, allowing your reader to assess its validity. You
should generally include:

• The overall approach and type of research (e.g. qualitative,

quantitative, experimental, ethnographic)
• Your methods of collecting data (e.g. interviews, surveys,
archives)
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 • Details of where, when, and with whom the research took
place
• Your methods of analyzing data (e.g. statistical analysis,
discourse analysis)
• Tools and materials you used (e.g. computer programs, lab
equipment)
• A discussion of any obstacles you faced in conducting the
research and how you overcame them
• An evaluation or justification of your methods

Your aim in the methodology is to accurately report what you did,

as well as convincing the reader that this was the best approach to
answering your research questions or objectives.

Results
Next, you report the results of your research. You can structure this
section around sub-questions, hypotheses, or topics. Only report
results that are relevant to your objectives and research questions.
In some disciplines, the results section is strictly separated from the
discussion, while in others the two are combined.

For example, for qualitative methods like in-depth interviews, the

presentation of the data will often be woven together with
discussion and analysis, while in quantitative and experimental
research, the results should be presented separately before you
discuss their meaning. If you’re unsure, consult with your
supervisor and look at sample Research Works to find out the best
structure for your research.

In the results section it can often be helpful to include tables,

graphs and charts. Think carefully about how best to present your
data, and don’t include tables or figures that just repeat what you
have written – they should provide extra information or usefully
visualize the results in a way that adds value to your text. Full

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versions of your data (such as interview transcripts) can be included
as an appendix.

Discussion
The discussion is where you explore the meaning and implications
of your results in relation to your research questions. Here you
should interpret the results in detail, discussing whether they met
your expectations and how well they fit with the framework that
you built in earlier chapters. If any of the results were unexpected,
offer explanations for why this might be. It’s a good idea to
consider alternative interpretations of your data and discuss any
limitations that might have influenced the results.

The discussion should reference other scholarly work to show how

your results fit with existing knowledge. You can also make
recommendations for future research or practical action.

Conclusion
The Research Work conclusion should concisely answer the main
research question, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of
your central argument. In some academic conventions, the
conclusion refers to a short section that comes before the
discussion: first you directly state your overall conclusions, then
you discuss and interpret their meaning.

In other contexts, however, the conclusion refers to the final

chapter, where you wrap up your Research Work with a final
reflection on what you did and how you did it. This type of
conclusion often also includes recommendations for research or
practice.

In this section, it’s important to show how your findings contribute

to knowledge in the field and why your research matters. What
have you added to what was already known?

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Reference list
You must include full details of all sources that you have cited in
a reference list (sometimes also called a works cited list or
bibliography). It’s important to follow a consistent citation style.
Each style has strict and specific requirements for how to format
your sources in the reference list.

Common styles include APA and MLA, but your program will often
specify which citation style you should use – make sure to check
the requirements, and ask your supervisor if you’re unsure.
To save time creating the reference list and make sure your
citations are correctly and consistently formatted, you can use the
Scribbr Citation Generator.

Appendices
Your Research Work itself should contain only essential
information that directly contributes to answering your research
question. Documents you have used that do not fit into the main
body of your Research Work (such as interview transcripts, survey
questions or tables with full figures) can be added as appendices.

Editing and proofreading

Making sure all the sections are in the right place is only the first
step to a well-written Research Work. Leave plenty of time for
editing and proofreading. Grammar mistakes and sloppy
formatting errors can drag down the quality of your hard work.
You should plan to write and revise several drafts of your thesis or
Research Work before focusing on language mistakes, typos and
inconsistencies.

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 GENERAL FORMATTING
Font Formatting
• Times New Roman 4.1 for sub headings
Font size 4.1.0 for sub sub headings
• General paragraph – 12 Chapter 5
• Main Headings – 12 5.0 for main headings
• Sub headings – 12 with 5.1 for sub headings
bold 5.1.0 for sub sub headings
• Sub sub headings 12 with
italic Margins
Spacing • Top – 1”
1.5 line spacing • Bottom –1”
• Left – 1”
Project Ordering • Right – 1”
Chapter 1 • Gutter – 0”
1.0 for main headings • Gutter position – Left
1.1 for sub headings Indentations
1.1.0 for sub sub headings Headings indents
Chapter 2 • Left – 0”
2.0 for main headings • Right – 0”
2.1 for sub headings • Before 12pt
2.1.0 for sub sub headings • After – 3pt
Chapter 3
3.0 for main headings Paragaphs
3.1 for sub headings • Left – 0.38”
3.1.0 for sub sub headings • Right – 0”
Chapter 4 • Before – 0pt
4.0 for main headings • After – 0pt

General Things to Note:

• The Report is written in past tenses
• You should state “the Researcher” instead of “I” when
referring to yourself.

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 WRITING CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Introduction/Background of the study

This is an overall introduction to your topic of interest that provides
an in-depth background to the topic. You must be precise and
state the purpose of your research. This is the most detail part of
your chapter one; here you would give a historical development of
your research topic. The historical development as in what has
pertained on the ground in relation to the people you are
conducting the research on and history as in relation to the
problem you are conducting the research into. State the different
overlapping views in this area and significant investigations that
researchers have been done.

Also, you should talk about the present state of your research. Have
there been any changes? You can cite a few paragraphs from your
literature review but it must be a summary of the conflicts in your
area of the project that has not been addressed.

Statement of the Problem

This is where you state the specific problem that you intend to
address. It usually will begin with: This project addresses the
problem of…” When writing your problem, make sure you address
the problems that were existing before that you intend to proffer
solution to in your research.

Purpose of the study

This is the section where you give an overall purpose of your
project. It must be related to your literature review and must also
answer the questions raised in your problem statement. Ensure
that your hypothesis is clearly stated and testable.

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The significance of the study
This states the importance of addressing the problem that you are
set to work on. You should link your work to any area that you think
the study will help. Is it going to improve the human condition or
state of education? Whatsoever it is, this is where you have to state
the relevance of your research.

Theoretical Framework
This is the basic theory that is used to provide an insight upon which
your research work is built. There lots of theories depending on
the topic you are working on. For example, research work on
evolution would be working with Charles Darwin’s theory.

Research Questions
These are guiding lights to your research and it provides insight into
your objective/purpose of the study. These are the main things you
are trying to find answers to so that the answers you will obtain are
expected to resolve the problem identified. Your questions should
be structured in a way that it will provide answers to the
researcher. Avoid Yes/No questions and try using the WH-
questions.

When you ask a YES/NO question you cannot make headway in

your project work because you will not have information to work.
Stay away from closed-ended questions rather use open-ended.

Research Hypothesis
This is an alternative to Research Questions mostly for First
Degrees. Hypothesis are statements of assumptions of what you
believe to the answers to the problem at hand so that your
research work is done to prove or disprove them or find
alternatives to them. Your hypothesis must be tentative to the
problem under study and should relate to the questions you have
raised in your research questions

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Limitations
There may be constraints that may influence the outcome of your
research; they are beyond your control so you must state them. In
other words, they are the hindrances that may occur or occurred in
the course of conducting the Research Activities.

Delimitation
Some topics are broad and because of the time you have, you might
have to deliberately chop off some areas; clearly define the length
to which your project will cover. That is, here you define the scope
of coverage and areas which shall not be covered so as to keep
readers expectations in focus.

Definition of terms
Make sure you define important terms and concept in your projects
such as variables, acronyms, and keywords.

Academic Phrases, Sentences & Vocabulary

1. General introduction:
Research on __ has a long tradition
For decades, one of the most popular ideas in __ literature
is the idea that __
Recent theoretical developments have revealed that __
A common strategy used to study __ is to __
This research constitutes a relatively new area which has
emerged from __
These approaches have been influential in the field
because of __
In the past several decades, __ have played an
important role in __
There are growing appeals for __
This is the field of study that deals with __
Most of the theories of __ are however focused on
explaining __
There are three major theoretical and conceptual
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 frameworks for __
The field has gradually broadened as __
This field of study is sometimes referred as __
This has been widely adopted in the field of __
This thesis considers the field of __ as the main subject of
its study
One of the major topics to be investigated in this field is __
This is now a mature field which is now being spun out
into commercial applications __
This field is maturing, with a wealth of well-understood
methods and algorithms __
This field closely follows the paradigm of __
The field has met with great success in many problems __
The field only really took off in the late __ as it became
more accessible to __
This is not particularly new and has been used for many
years in the field of __
This field closely follows the paradigm of __
Widely considered to be a good way to __
This has been widely adopted in the field of __
This is more widely used at the time of __
This phenomenon has been widely observed
A common technique is to __
This is a technique common in __
There are several common kinds of __

2. Problem definition:
This seems to be a common problem in __
This leads to myriad problems in __
The main problem is that __
There is a further problem with __
One primary problem with __ is that __
The methods are not without their problems as will be
discussed in __
The foremost problems are the facts that __
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 This makes up for the problem of __
This seems to be a common problem in __
This is a complex problem and to simplify it requires __
A challenging problem which arises in this domain is __
These problems are difficult to handle __
This is typically a complex problem __
A well-known problem with __ is that it does not take into
account the __
One of the problems is that it considers only the __
The key problem with this technique is __
It is usually an ill-posed problem in the case of __
This problem is well-posed and does not require to impose
__
This appears as a more straightforward problem compared
to the __
This turns out to be even more problematic because __
The problem with such an implementation is that __
This poses some problems when carrying out the __
This problem has attracted more attention in the field of
__
This is a basic chicken-and-egg problem because __
Unfortunately, this approach results in problems related to
__
These constraints make the problem difficult to __
Most of the research in this field is aimed at solving this
problem.
This remains an open problem in the area.
This problem has received substantial interest.
These examples highlight the problem that __
The main practical problem that confronts us is __

3. Gaps in literature:
There is no previous research using __ approach.
As far as we know, no previous research has investigated
__
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 There has been less previous evidence for __
Other studies have failed to __
To our knowledge, no study has yielded __
No study to date has examined __
Only a few studies have shown __
However, __ has rarely been studied directly.
Moreover, few studies have focused on __
In particular no study, to our knowledge, has considered
__

4. Problems solution:
One way to overcome these problems is to __
There are many alternative methods are available for
solving these problems.
In order to rectify the problem of __
A solution to this problem is proposed in __
One approach to solve this problem involves the use of __
An alternative approach to the problem is __
This can be applied to solve these problems.
A number of works have shown that this problem can be
overcome by using __
A large number of alternative approaches have been
developed over the last few decades to ++
To overcome this problem, in the next section we
demonstrate __
One way to overcome this problem is to __
To overcome this problem, some approaches have been
made __
One way of recovering from this problem could be to __
This has been proposed to surmount the problems caused
by __
A different approach to the traditional problem is given in
__
A whole range of different approaches to the problem are
available.
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These techniques have potential to solve contemporary
problems in __
We should tailor specific solutions to specific problems __
The standard solution to the problem is based on __
The solution proposed here addresses only the problem of
__
There are techniques that have been developed to solve
this problem __
This problem is usually overcome by __
There have been several attempts to solve the problem __
There exist many methods for dealing with this problem
__
Broadly speaking, the problem can be addressed by __
One of the simplest ways of tackling this problem is __
This problem has been largely studied and many viable
solutions have been found.
In general, this problem can be tackled in two different
ways.
Other approaches have been shown to cope with the
problem more efficiently.
We will review the main approaches to solve this problem.
Recently, a more general solution has been proposed for
this problem.
Both these works provide a solution to the problem.
Recent methods focus on overcoming the problems by
proposing different schemes for __
This strategy is not uncommon in this kind of problems.
We can apply our algorithm to solve this difficult problem.
This is how the problem can be tackled __
We have developed this generic method to solve a variety
of problems.
We will now demonstrate our method on some specific
problems.
Here we solve several problems simultaneously.
We have undergone a rethinking of the problem by __
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 A possible solution to the problem at hand is __
It is clear that the problem could be easily tackled by __

5. Study motivation:
It is of interest to know whether __ still hold true.
It would be of special interest to__
We therefore analyzed __ and investigated whether __
For this study, it was of interest to investigate __
We investigated whether __ can be partly explained by __
To examine the impact of __, we tested __
We have investigated the effect of __
We characterize different aspects of __
One way to investigate __ was to __
A new approach is therefore needed for __
To illuminate this uncharted area, we examined __

6. Aims & objectives:

The aim is to develop more sophisticated methods for __
The aim of this work is to develop __
The aims in this chapter are twofold: First __, Second __
For our first goal, we focus on two problems __
The aim here is to investigate __
The overall goal of this work was to __
This project aims to develop an overarching framework to
__
The aim of the experiment is to compare __
The ultimate goal is to produce a __
The overall goal of this thesis was to pursue __
After defining the problem we explain the goals of the
thesis.
With this aim in mind, in this research work we present a
new method for __
Our research aims at finding a solution for this challenging
problem of __
There is no overall goal, apart from __
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 We examine some previous work and propose a new
method for __
There are too many simultaneous goals making it difficult
to __
One of the major aims of this work was to create __
The main objective is to investigate methods for improving
__
The objectives can be restated in the light of __
The objective is to devise and implement a system for __
The objectives were partially met by developing a method
to __
The objective is to demonstrate the feasibility of __
One of the objectives is to improve the __

7. Significance and advantages of your work:

This thesis documents several key contributions made to

the fields of __
This thesis has made a number of significant contributions
to the field of __
The contributions made here have wide applicability.
The contributions made should be of wide interest.
The first main contribution proposed in this field is a __
The contributions of this work are presented as follows: __
The main achievements, including contributions to the
field can be summarised as follows: __
We summarize the main contributions of this thesis.
The key contribution of this work is the solution it provides
__
It has numerous advantages as explained here __
It has significant benefits in terms of __
There is a clear advantage in following the methods of __
This has particular advantages over other __
All of these advantages make it particularly valuable in __
One of the primary benefits of this algorithm is __
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This gives a significant advantage because __
These point out the advantages and practicability of __
One of the key benefits of the algorithm is __
The main advantage compared to previous method is __
This present some practical advantages.
The main advantage is the simplified pattern.
One practical advantage of the method is that it can be
used in __
The advantage becomes all the more significant when __
In comparison with other techniques, this method has the
advantage of __
The most important advantage of this method is that it can
perform very well in __
It yielded significant speed advantages when __
The benefit of using the __ is expected to __
The main advantage is that we are able to __
To give some idea of the benefits of this method __
The additional advantage of using this method is that it
results in __
This is an important advantage of this algorithm __
These are the main advantages of this method.

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 WRITING CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE
REVIEW

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources that provides an
overview of a particular topic. Literature reviews are a collection of
the most relevant and significant publications regarding that topic
in order to provide a comprehensive look at what has been said on
the topic and by whom.

Review is to identify and give commentary on the works done in

relation to the subject matter with appropriate citations. Here you
make comparisons of the works, see similarities and differences of
opinions or results obtained; what is your general view on all that
has been said on that particular issue.

It is not right to copy exact statements from authorities on the

subject matter and deposit it exactly as it is and leave it as the
literature review. This however can be done when you are quoting
exactly and review it as such. Consult your Supervisor on the extent
allowable.

The literature review should clearly demonstrate that the author

has a good knowledge of the research area. Literature review
typically occupies one or two passages in the introduction section.
A well-written literature review should provide a critical appraisal
of previous studies related to the current research area rather than
a simple summary of prior works. The author shouldn’t shy away
from pointing out the shortcomings of previous works. However,
criticizing other’s work without any basis can weaken research
work. This is a perfect place to coin your research question and
justify the need for such a study. It is also worth pointing out
towards the end of the review that your study is unique and there

21
is no direct literature addressing this issue. Add a few sentences
about the significance of your research and how this will add value
to the body of knowledge.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books,

journal articles, and theses) on a particular topic. It gives an
overview of key findings, concepts and developments in relation to
a research problem or question. A good literature review doesn’t
just summarize sources—it aims to:

• Analyze, interpret and critically evaluate the literature

• Synthesize sources to highlight patterns, themes, conflicts,
and gaps
• Show the state of current knowledge in relation to a
central research question or hypothesis

When do you have to write a literature review?

If you write a thesis or Research Work, you will have to conduct a
literature review to situate your research within existing
knowledge. You might include it in the introduction or theoretical
framework, or it might be a separate chapter that comes before
the methodology and results sections.

You might also be assigned a literature review as a stand-alone

research work. The content will look slightly different in each case,
but the process of conducting a literature review will follow the
same steps.

Step 1: Collect, evaluate and select literature

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a narrowly
defined topic.

If you are writing the literature review section of a Research Work

or research research work, you will search for literature related to
your research problem and questions. This is the first step in
22
understanding the state of knowledge on your topic before you
begin your own research.

Search for literature using keywords and citations

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic
and question. Some useful databases to search for journals and
articles include:
• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• JSTOR
• EBSCO
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

When you find a useful article, check the reference list to find more
relevant sources. To identify any important publications that didn’t
show up in your keyword search, take note of recurring citations. If
the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading,
make sure to seek them out. You can find out how many times an
article has been cited on Google Scholar—high citation counts
mean the article has been influential in the field.

Evaluate and select sources

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything on the
topic—start by reading the abstract to determine whether the
article is useful. You will have to evaluate which sources are most
valuable and relevant to your questions.
For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?

• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?

23
 • What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the
research use established frameworks or take an innovative
approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the
field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established
knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding
of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you
read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of
research. The scope of your review will depend on your topic and
discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature,
but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective
(for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over
time).

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process—take notes
that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature
review. It is important to keep track of your sources
with citations to avoid plagiarism.

It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you

compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary
and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you
read and saves time later in the process.

What is your plagiarism score?

Compare your research work with over 60 billion web pages and 30
million publications.
• In partnership with Turnitin
• Best plagiarism checker of 2019
24
 • Plagiarism report & percentage
• Largest plagiarism database

Step 2: Find connections and themes

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and
structure, you need to identify relationships between the sources
you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do

certain approaches become more or less popular over
time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the
literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources
disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or
studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there
weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature
review and (if applicable) show how your own research will
contribute to existing knowledge.

Step 3: Plan your literature review’s structure

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature
review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you
start writing. Depending on the length of your literature review,
you can combine several of these strategies—for example, your
overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed
chronologically.

Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over
time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid
25
simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze
patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the
direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why
certain developments occurred.

Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize
your literature review into subsections that address different
aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in

migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare
policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and
economic access.

Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use
a variety of research methods, you might want to compare the
results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For
example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus

quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical
versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and
cultural sources

Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical
framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and
definitions of key concepts. You might argue for the relevance of a
specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical
concepts to create a framework for your research.

26
Step 4: Write your literature review
Like any other academic text, your literature review should have
an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. What you include
in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

Introduction
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of
the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your Research

Work or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question
and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can
emphasize the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have
focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature
(“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have
taken y into consideration”).

Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want
to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for
each theme, time period, or methodological approach.
As you write, you can follow these tips:
• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main
points of each source and combine them into a coherent
whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other
researchers—add your own interpretations where possible,
discussing the significance of findings in relation to the
literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses
of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs:
use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections,
comparisons and contrasts

27
Literature review paragraph example
The example below is taken from the body of a literature review on
the relationship between national identity and nature
conservation. This paragraph discusses how humanities scholars
have approached the concept of wilderness.

Early work in environmental humanities tended to take a

sharply critical approach to wilderness, focusing on the
cultural construction of supposedly ‘natural’
landscapes. The rise of climate change awareness in the
1980s had been framed by narratives about “the end of
nature” (McKibben 1989), in which a once-pristine
wilderness is degraded by humans to the point of
disappearance. In response to this popular discourse,
environmental historian William Cronon critiqued the
concept of a pure, pristine nature to be preserved from
human influence, arguing that ideas like “wilderness” are
themselves products of particular human cultures and
histories. In his influential essay ‘The Trouble with
Wilderness’ (1995), Cronon traces how the ideal of
untouched wilderness, anxiety over its loss, and the
political will to preserve it has been central to American
national identity, entwined with religious motifs and
colonial frontier mythologies. Following Cronon, the racial
and class politics of wilderness preservation was a theme
taken up by several scholars in the late 1990s and early
2000s, who researched the material effects of
conservation politics on indigenous and rural Americans
(Catton 1997; Spence 1999; Jacoby 2001). The US National
Park system became the dominant paradigm for
analyzing relations between conservation, nationhood
and nationalism. However, this approach has sometimes
led to a narrowly US-centric perspective that fails to
engage closely with the meanings and materialities of

28
 “wilderness” in different contexts. Recent work has begun
to challenge this paradigm and argue for more varied
approaches to understanding the socio-political relations
between nation and nature.

The example combines the thematic and chronological

approaches. This section of the literature review focuses on the
theme of wilderness, while the paragraph itself is organized
chronologically.

Conclusion
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have
taken from the literature and emphasize their significance. Since
the literature review is part of your thesis or Research Work, show
how your research addresses gaps and contributes new
knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories
and methods to build a framework for your research.

Academic Phrases, Sentences & Vocabulary

Transition words
Transitions are phrases or words used to connect one idea and are
used by the writer to help the reader progress from one significant
idea to the next. Transitions also show the relationship within a
paragraph (or even within a sentence) between the main idea and
the support the author gives for those ideas

Here are four types of transitions:

1. Additive: addition, introduction, similarity to other ideas

• Addition: indeed, further, as well (as this), either (neither),

not only (this) but also, (that) as well, also, moreover, what
is more, as a matter of fact, and, furthermore, in addition
(to this), besides (this), to tell you the truth, or, in fact,
29
 actually, to say nothing of, too, let alone, much
less, additionally, nor, alternatively, on the other hand, not
to mention (this)
• Introduction: such as, as, particularly, including, as an
illustration, for example, like, in particular, for one thing, to
illustrate, for instance, especially, notably, by way of
example
• Reference: speaking about (this), considering
(this), regarding (this), with regards to (this), as for (this),
concerning (this), on the subject of (this), the fact that
• Similarity: similarly, in the same way, by the same
token, in a like manner, equally, likewise
• Identification: that is (to say), namely, specifically, thus,
• Clarification: that is (to say), I mean, (to) put (it) another
way, in other words

2. Adversative: signal conflict, contradiction

• Conflict: but, by way of contrast, while, on the other
hand, however, (and) yet, whereas, though (final
position), in contrast, when in fact, conversely, still
• Emphasis: even more, above all, indeed, more
importantly, besides
• Concession: but even so, nevertheless, even though, on
the other hand,
admittedly, however, nonetheless, despite (this),
notwithstanding (this), albeit, (and) still, although, in spite
of (this), regardless (of this), (and) yet, though, granted
(this), be that as it may,
• Dismissal: either way, whichever happens, in either
event, in any case, at any rate, in either case, whatever
happens, all the same, in any event,
• Replacement: (or) at least, (or) rather, instead

3. Causal: signal cause/effect and reason/result

30
 • Cause/Reason: for the (simple) reason that, being that, for,
in view of (the fact), inasmuch as, because (of the fact),
seeing that, as, owing to (the fact), due to (the fact that), in
that since, forasmuch as
• Condition: on (the) condition (that), granted
(that), if, provided that, in case, in the event that, as/so
long as, unless, given that, granting (that), providing
that, even if, only if
• Effect/Result: as a result (of this), consequently, hence, for
this reason, thus, because (of this), in consequence, so
that, accordingly, as a consequence, so much (so) that,
so, therefore,
• Purpose: for the purpose of, in the hope that, for fear that,
so that, with this intention, to the end that, in order to, lest,
with this in mind, in order that, so as to, so
• Consequence: under those circumstances, then, in that
case, if not, that being the case, if so, otherwise

4. Sequential: chronological or logical sequence

• Numerical: in the (first, second, etc.) place, initially, to start
with, first of all thirdly, (&c.) to begin with, at first, for a
start, secondly,
• Continuation: subsequently, previously, eventually, next,
before (this), afterwards, after (this), then
• Conclusion: to conclude (with), as a final point, eventually,
at last, last but not least, in the end, finally, lastly,
• Digression: to change the topic, incidentally, by the way,
• Resumption: to get back to the point, to resume, anyhow,
anyway, at any rate, to return to the subject
• Summation: as was previously stated, so, consequently, in
summary, all in all, to make a long story short, thus, as I
have said, to sum up, overall, as has been
mentioned, then, to summarize, to be brief, briefly, given
these points, in all, on the whole, therefore, as has been

31
 noted, hence, in conclusion, in a word, to put it
briefly, in sum, altogether, in short,

Useful Templates

INTRODUCING WHAT “THEY SAY”

• A number of sociologists have recently suggested that X’s
work has several fundamental problems.
• Is has become common today to dismiss X’s contribution
to this field of sociology.
• In their recent work, Y and Z have offered harsh critiques
of Dr. X for _________.

INTRODUCING “STANDARD VIEWS”

• Ghanaians today tend to believe that _________.
• Conventional wisdom has it that _________.
• Common sense seems to dictate that _________.
• The standard way of thinking about topic X has it that
_________.
• It is often said that _________.
• My whole life I have heard it said that _________.
• You would think that _________.
• Many people assumed that _________.

MAKING WHAT “THEY SAY” SOMETHING YOU SAY

• I’ve always believed that _________.
• When I was a child, I used to think that _________.
• Although I should know better by now, I cannot help
thinking that _________.
• At the same time that I believe _________. I also believe
_________.

INTRODUCING SOMETHING IMPLIED OR ASSUMED

32
 • Although none of them have ever said it so directly, my
teachers have often given me the impression that
_________.
• One implication of X’s treatment of _________ is that
_________.
• Although X does not say so directly, she apparently
assumes that _________.
• While they rarely admit as much, _________ often take for
granted that _________.

INTRODUCING AN ONGOING DEBATE

• In discussions of X, one controversial issue has been
_________. On one hand, _________ argues _________.
On the other hand, _________ contends _________.
Others even maintain _________. My own view is
_________.
• When it comes to the topic of _________, most of us will
readily agree that _________. Where this agreement
usually ends, however, is on the question of _________.
Whereas some are convinced that _________, others
maintain that _________.
• In conclusion then, as I suggested earlier, defenders of
_________ can’t have it both ways. Their assertion that
_________ in contradicted by their claim that _________.

CAPTURING AUTHORIAL ACTION

• X acknowledges that _________.
• X agrees that _________.
• X argues that _________.
• X believes that _________.
• X denies/does not deny that _________.
• X complains that _________.
• X concedes that _________.
• X demonstrates that _________.

33
 • X deplores the tendency to _________.
• X celebrates the fact that _________.
• X emphasizes that _________.

CAPTURING AUTHORIAL ACTION cont.

• X insists that _________.
• X observes that _________.
• X questions whether _________.
• X refutes the claim that _________.
• X reminds us that _________.
• X reports that _________.
• X suggests that _________.
• X urges us to _________.

INTRODUCING QUOTATIONS
• X states, “_________.”
• As the prominent philosopher X puts it, “_________.”
• According to X, “_________.”
• X himself writes, “_________.”
• In her book, ________, X maintains that “_________.”
• Writing the journal Commentary, X complains that,
“_________.”
• In X’s view, “_________.”
• X agrees when she writes, “_________.”
• X disagrees when he writes, “_________.”
• X complicates matters further when he writes,
“_________.”

EXPLAINING QUOTATIONS
• Basically, X is saying _________.
• In other words, X believes _________.
• In making this comment, X argues that _________.
• X is insisting that _________.
• X’s point is that _________.
• The essence of X’s argument is that _________.
34
DISAGREEING, WITH REASONS
• I think X is mistaken because she overlooks _________.
• X’s claim that _________ rests upon the questionable
assumption that _________.
• I disagree with X’s view that _________ because, as recent
research has shown, _________.
• X contradicts herself/can’t have it both ways. On the one
hand, she argues _________. But on the other hand, she
also says _________.
• By focusing on _________, X overlooks the deeper problem
of _________.
• X claims _________, but we don’t need him to tell us that.
Anyone familiar with _________ has long known that
_________.

AGREEING—WITH A DIFFERENCE
• I agree that _________ because my experience _________
confirms it.
• X is surely right about _________ because, as she may not
be aware, recent studies have shown that _________.
• X’s theory of _________ is extremely useful because it
sheds insight on the difficult problem of _________.
• I agree that _________, a point that needs emphasizing
since so many people believe _________.
• Those unfamiliar with this school of thought may be
interested to know that it basically boils down to
_________.
• If group X is right that _________, as I think they are, then
we need to reassess the popular assumption that
_________.

EMBEDDING VOICE MARKERS

• X overlooks what I consider an important point about
_________.
35
 • My own view is that what X insists is a _________ is in fact
a _________.
• I wholeheartedly endorse what X calls _________.
• These conclusions, which X discusses in _________, add
weight to the argument that _________.

AGREEING AND DISAGREEING SIMUTANEOUSLY

• Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept his
overall conclusion that _________.
• Although I disagree with much that X says, I fully endorse
his final conclusion that _________.
• Though I concede _________, I still insist that _________.
• Whereas X provides ample evidence that _________, Y
and Z’s research on _________ and _________ convinces
me that _________ instead.
• X is right that _________, but she seems on more dubious
ground when she claims that _________.
• While X is probably wrong when she claims that
_________, she is right that _________.
• I’m of two minds about X’s claim that _________. On the
one hand, I agree that _________. On the other hand, I’m
not sure if _________.
• My feelings on the issue are mixed. I do support X’s
position that _________, but I find Y’s argument about
_________ and Z’s research on _________ to be equally
persuasive.

SIGNAL WHO IS SAYING WHAT

• X argues _________.
• According to both X and Y, _________.
• Politicians _________, X argues, should _________.
• Most athletes will tell you that _________.
• My own view, however, is that _________.
• I agree, as X may not realize, that _________.

36
 • But _________ are real, and arguably, the most significant
factor in _________.
• But X is wrong that _________.
• However, it is simply not true that _________.
• Indeed, it is highly likely that _________.
• But the view that _________ does not fit all the facts.
• X is right that _________.
• X is wrong that _________.
• X is both right and wrong that _________.
• Yet a sober analysis of the matter reveals _________.
• Nevertheless, new research shows _________.
• Anyone familiar with _________ should see that
_________.

ENTERTAINING OBJECTIONS
• At this point I would like to raise some objections that
have been inspired by the skeptic in me. She feels that I
have been ignoring ________. “_________,” she says to
me, “_________.
• Yet some readers may challenge the view that _________.
After all, many believe _________. Indeed, my own
argument that _________ seems to ignore _________ and
_________.
• Of course, many will probably disagree with this assertion
that _________.

NAMING YOUR NAYSAYERS

• Here many feminists would probably object that
_________.
• But social Darwinists would certainly take issue with the
argument that _________.
• Biologists, of course, may want to dispute my claim that
_________.
• Nevertheless, both followers and critics of Malcolm X will
probably argue that _________.
37
 • Although not all Christians think alike, some of them will
probably dispute my claim that _________.
• Non-native English speakers are so diverse in their views
that it’s hard to generalize about them, but some are likely
to object on the grounds that _________.

INTRODUCING OBJECTIONS INFORMALLY

• But is my proposal realistic? What are the chances of its
actually being adopted?
• Yet is it always true that _________? Is it always the case,
as I have been suggesting, that _________?
• However, does the evidence I’ve cited prove conclusively
that _________?
• “Impossible,” you say. “Your evidence must be skewed.”

MAKING CONCESSIONS WHILE STILL STANDING YOUR GROUND

• Although I grant that _________, I still maintain that
_________.
• Proponents of X are right to argue that _________. But
they exaggerate when they claim that _________.
• While it is true that _________, it does not necessarily
follow that _________.
• On the one hand, I agree with X that _________. But on
the other hand, I still insist that _________.

INDICATING WHO CARES

• _________ used to think _________. But recently [or
within the past few decades] _________ suggests that
_________.
• What this new research does, then, is correct the mistaken
impression, held by many earlier researchers, that
_________.

38
 • These findings challenge the work of earlier researchers,
who tended to assume that _________.
• Recent studies like these shed new light on _________,
which previous studies had not addressed.
• Researchers have long assumed that _________. For
instance, one eminent scholar of cell biology, _________,
assumed in _________, her seminal work on cell
structures and functions that fat cells _________. As
_________ herself put it, “_________” (200). Another
leading scientist, _________, argued that fat cells
“_________” (200). Ultimately, when it came to the nature
of fat, the basic assumption was that _________.
• If sports enthusiasts stopped to think about it, many of
them might simply assume that the most successful
athletes _________. However, new research shows
_________.
• These findings challenge dieter’s common assumptions
that _________.
• At first glance, teenagers appear to _________. But on
closer inspection _________.

ESTABLISHING WHY YOUR CLAIM MATTERS

• X matters/is important because _________.
• Although X may seem trivial, it is in fact crucial in terms of
today’s concern over _________.
• Ultimately, what is at stake here is _________.
• These findings have important consequences for the
broader domain of _________.
• My discussion of X is in fact addressing the larger matter of
_________.
• These conclusions/This discovery will have significant
applications in _________ as well as in _________.
• Although X may seem of concern to only a small group of
_________, is should in fact concern anyone who cares
about _________.
39
ADDING METACOMMENTARY
• In other words,
• What _________ really means by this is
• Essentially, I am arguing that
• My point is not that we should _________, but that we
should _________.
• What _________ really means is _________.
• In other words, _________.
• To put it another way, _________.
• In sum, then, _________.
• My conclusion, then, is that, _________.
• In short, _________.
• What is more important, _________.
• Incidentally, _________.
• By the way, _________.
• Chapter 2 explores, _________, while Chapter 3 examines
_________.
• Having just argued that _________, let us now turn our
attention to _________.
• Although some readers may object that _________, I
would answer that _________.

1. Previous literature:
The literature review shows that __
Previous research showed __
Seminal contributions have been made by __
A series of recent studies has indicated that __
Several theories have been proposed to __, some focusing
on __, others on __
There has been numerous studies to investigate __
This has been used in several studies to assess __
Previous studies have shown __
Several studies suggest that __
40
This has also been explored in prior studies by __
Prior research suggests that __
Previous studies have emphasized __
The majority of prior research has applied __
Most early studies as well as current work focus on __
For instance, the following studies were conducted on __
Studies of __are well documented, it is also well
acknowledged that __
A number of authors have recognized __
Some authors have also suggested that __
Some authors have driven the further development of __
This has been discussed by a great number of authors in
literature.
For example, research has provided evidence for __
The authors bring some information about the background
of the problem, __
As has been previously reported in the literature, __
A large number of existing studies in the broader literature
have examined __
The literature review shows that __
There exists a considerable body of literature on __
In short, the literature pertaining to __ strongly suggests
that __
Over time, an extensive literature has developed on __
This section presents a review of recent literature on __
This research work begins with a short review of the
literature regarding the __
Several methods are reported in the literature to address
this issue.
There is a wide choice of __ available in the literature.
This section reviews the literature related to __
It was reported in literature that __
A recent study by __ concluded that __
In the light of reported __ it is conceivable that __
The method introduced by __ has the advantage that __
41
 One method employed by __ is __
A more comprehensive description can be found in __
For example, recent research suggests that __
This was successfully established as described by __
The author employed a __ methodology which prescribes
the use of __

2. Limitations of previous research:

A number of questions regarding __ remain to be
addressed.
A closer look to the literature on __, however, reveals a
number of gaps and shortcomings.
This question has previously never been addressed
because__
Most studies have relied on __
Previous studies by __ cannot be considered as conclusive
because __
Previous studies have almost exclusively focused on __
This has been previously assessed only to a very limited
extent because __
In the present studies __ were constrained to __
In previous studies were limited to __
Although results appear consistent with prior research,
they appear inconsistent with __
These are previously unstudied because __
As far as we know, no previous research has investigated
__
Moreover, although research has illuminated __ no study
to date has examined __
Despite decades of research, this continues to be debated
among __
This section points out some of the problems encountered
in the extant research.
Although there are many studies, the research in __
remains limited.
42
 However, the existing research has many problems in
representing __
The literature on __ is less consistent
Historically, there has been a great deal of confusion in the
literature regarding __
This approach remains briefly addressed in the literature.
These are rarely analyzed in the literature as __
There are key questions and notions that are still not
discussed in the literature __
This is not clearly presented in the literature because __
This research work addresses the need for __, so far
lacking in the scientific literature.
To fill this literature gap, this research work identifies __
Only a few works in literature demonstrate __
Although studies have been conducted by many authors,
this problem is still insufficiently explored.
To our knowledge, no prior studies have examined __
However, the existing research has many problems in __
Therefore, important issue in the literature is __
However, we argue that previous literature suffers from
certain weaknesses: __
Previous research can only be considered a first step
towards a more profound understanding of __
The previous studies reveal that __ are usually the most
problematic to __

3. Research questions:
More specific research questions will be introduced and
investigated in __
A further question is whether __
Finally, another promising line of research would be __
The study addresses several further questions on __
Some of the interesting questions in this context are __
In order to address the questions outlined above, we
report here __
43
 These questions are of central interest as much recent
research in __
Furthermore, __ is arguably an important question to be
addressed.
The question now is how __ can be used to explain __
Study addresses the research question __
In order to properly address this question, we __
An important question associated with __ is __
A critical open question is whether __
A still unsolved question is whether __
This remains an open question as __
This question has previously never been addressed
because __
This study offers a test of __ research question
Study addresses the research question __
Even in general __ research strategies is needed to explain
__
The researcher should be interested here in __
Many questions remain unanswered __
There are some potentially open questions about the
validity of __
The question that then naturally arises is __
The question then becomes how best to define__
This was an important question to study as __

4.Research to be explored:
A more systematic and theoretical analysis is required for
__
As the authors note earlier, more work is necessary to__
Additional studies to understand more completely the key
tenets of __ are required.
The unexpected findings signal the need for additional
studies to understand more about __
This research work addresses __, so far lacking in the
scientific literature.
44
 A new approach is therefore needed for __
One of the tough challenges for all researchers in this
domain is __

Describing the scope of a current project or prior research

Purpose Original Recommended Substitute
Word/Phrase

To express the • aims to This Research + [use the verb

purpose of a that originally followed "aims
Research or to"] or This Research + (any
research other verb listed above as a
• This Research/ substitute for “explain”) +
study/ who/what/when/where/how
investigation… X. For example:
• “This Research applies X to
Y,” instead of, “This Research
aims to apply X to Y.”
• “This Research explores how
lower sun exposure impacts
moods,” instead of, “This
Research aims to address the
impact of lower sun
exposure on moods.”

To introduce • discusses • surveys

the topic of a • presents • questions
project or • highlights
Research • outlines
• The Research/ • features
study/ article/ • investigates
work…
• Prior research/
investigations…

45
 To describe the • considers • evaluates
analytical • analyzes • interprets
scope of a • explains • clarifies
Research or • identifies
study • delves into
• The Research/ • advances
study/ article/ • appraises
work… • defines
• Prior research/ • dissects
investigations… • probes
• tests
• explores
*Adjectives to describe
degree can include: briefly,
thoroughly, adequately,
sufficiently, inadequately,
insufficiently, only partially,
partially, etc.

To preview • covers • outlines

other sections • deals with • highlights
of a Research • talks about • sketches
• Section X… • assesses
• contemplates
[any of the verbs suggested
as replacements for
“explain,” “analyze,” and
“consider” above]

B. Outlining a topic’s background

Purpose Original Recommended Substitute
Word/Phrase

46
 To discuss the • plays an Topic
historical important in significantly/considerably +
significance [nominalization] • influences
• plays a vital role • controls
of a topic
in • regulates
• Subject/ [nominalization] • directs
Mechanism…
• inhibits
• constrains
• governs
+
who/what/when/where/how…

*In other words, take the

nominalized verb and make it
the main verb of the sentence.

To describe • …is widely • Widely accepted, … [to

the historical accepted as… eliminate the weak be verb]
popularity of • …is widely used • The preferred…
as… • Commonly/Frequently
a topic
implemented,… [to eliminate
• X Theory… the weak be verb]
• The prevailing method for…

To describe • Much attention • Discussions regarding X have

the recent has been drawn dominated research in recent
focus on a to years.
• …has gained • …has appealed to…
topic
much • …has propelled to the
importance in forefront in investigations of Y.
recent years • … has
dramatically/significantly
shaped queries on X in recent
years.
• …has critically influenced
academic dialogue on Y.

47
 To identify • The consensus • Prior research generally
the current has been that… confirms that…
majority • Several studies agree that…
• Prior research substantiates
opinion about
the belief that…
a topic

To discuss the • indicate • contend

findings of • have • purport
existing documented • suggest
• have • proffer
literature
demonstrated • have proven that
• Previous • have shown that • evidence
studies…

To express • Much is known • The academic community has

the breadth about… extensively explored X…
of our current • But, little is • Prior research has thoroughly
known about… investigated….
knowledge-
• However, little research has
base, been conducted to show…
including • However, prior studies have
gaps failed to evaluate/ identify /
(any other word suggested to
replace “analyze” above)

To segue into • Several theories • Recent/Previous studies have

expressing have been promoted…
your research proposed to • Prior investigations have
explain… implemented/ queried diverse
question
• To solve this approaches to…
problem, many • A number of authors have
researchers posited…
have tried
several methods

48
 C. Describing the analytical elements of a Research
Purpose Original Recommended Substitute
Word/Phrase

To express • supports • substantiates

agreement between • confirms
one finding and • corroborates
• underlines
another
• This Research/
study/ investigation

To present • calls into • challenges

contradictory question • disputes
findings • rebuts
• refutes
• This Research/
• disproves
study/ investigation
• debunks
• invalidates
• rejects
• questions

To discuss • The • These investigations,

limitations of a limitations of however, disregards…
study this Research • This method/ approach
include: fails to…
• This study only…
• …falls short of addressing/
identifying / illustrating…
• A drawback/disadvantage
of this framework is…
• This framework, however,
solely pertains to…

49
 D. Discussing results
Purpose Original Recommended Substitute
Word/Phrase

To draw inferences • suggest • extrapolate

from results • show • deduce
• The data… • surmise
• These findings… • approximate
• derive
• extract
• evidence

To describe • appeared • manifested

observations • was observed • surfaced
• [Observed event or to • materialized
result]… • yielded
• generated
• perceived
• detected

E. Discussing methods
Purpose Original Recommended Substitute
Word/Phrase

To discuss methods • used • applied

• This study… • performed • administered
• X method… • employed
• diffused
• disseminated
• relayed

50
 To • was created This study/ research…
describe simulations to… • simulated
• A simulation… • was used to… • replicated
• was • imitated
performed +
to… “X environment/ condition
to..”
+
[any of the verbs
suggested as
replacements for
“analyze” above]

F. Explaining the impact of new research

Purpose Original Recommended Substitute
Word/Phrase
To explain the • demonstrates • illustrates
impact of a • shows • proves
Research’s findings • evidences
• This Research/ • strengthens (the position
study/ investigation that)
To highlight a • establishes • attributes
Research’s • proves • illustrates
conclusion • advances (the idea that)
• This Research/
study/ investigation

51
 To explain how • offers • ushers in
• introduces
research contributes • proffers
to the existing • conveys
knowledge-base • promotes
• This Research/ • advocates
study/ investigation • introduces
• broach (issue)
• reveals
• unveils
• exposes
• unearth

52
 WRITING CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
In your thesis or Research Work, you will have to discuss the
methods you used to do your research. The methodology or
methods section explains what you did and how you did it, allowing
readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research. It
should include:

• The type of research you did

• How you collected your data
• How you analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• Your rationale for choosing these methods

The methodology section should generally be written in the past

tense.

Step 1: Explain your methodological approach

Begin by introducing your overall approach to the research.
What research problem or question did you investigate, and what
kind of data did you need to answer it?

• Quantitative methods (e.g. surveys) are best for measuring,

ranking, categorizing, identifying patterns and making
generalizations
• Qualitative methods (e.g. interviews) are best for
describing, interpreting, contextualizing, and gaining in-
depth insight into specific concepts or phenomena
• Mixed methods allow for a combination of numerical
measurement and in-depth exploration

Depending on your discipline and approach, you might also begin

with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning
your methodology.

53
 • Was your aim to address a practical or a theoretical
research problem?
• Why is this the most suitable approach to answering
your research questions?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field or does it
require justification?
• Were there any ethical or philosophical considerations?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type
of research?

In a quantitative experimental study, you might aim to produce

generalizable knowledge about the causes of a phenomenon. Valid
research requires a carefully designed study with a representative
sample and controlled variables that can be replicated by other
researchers.

In a qualitative ethnographic case study, you might aim to produce

contextual real-world knowledge about the behaviors, social
structures and shared beliefs of a specific group of people. As this
methodology is less controlled and more interpretive, you will need
to reflect on your position as researcher, taking into account how
your participation and perception might have influenced the
results.

Step 2: Describe your methods of data collection

Once you have introduced your overall methodological approach,
you should give full details of the methods you used to conduct the
research. Outline the tools, procedures and materials you used to
gather data, and the criteria you used to select participants or
sources.

54
Quantitative methods
Surveys
Describe where, when and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questions and what form did they
take (e.g. multiple choice, rating scale)?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person,
and how long did participants have to respond?
• What was the sample size and response rate?

You might want to include the full questionnaire as an appendix so

that your reader can see exactly what data was collected.

Experiments
Give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures you used
to conduct the experiment.

• How did you design the experiment (e.g. between-subjects

or within-subjects)?
• How did you recruit participants?
• What tools or technologies did you use in the experiment?

In experimental research, it is especially important to give enough

detail for another researcher to reproduce your results.

Existing data
Explain how you gathered and selected material (such as
publications or archival data) for inclusion in your analysis.
• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g. date
range)?

55
Quantitative methods example
The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10
questions that the respondents had to answer with a 7-
point Likert scale. The aim was to conduct the survey with
350 customers of Company X on the company premises in
The Hague from 4-8 July 2017 between 11:00 and 15:00.
A customer was defined as a person who had purchased a
product from Company X on the day of questioning.
Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey
anonymously, and 408 customers responded. Because not
all surveys were fully completed, 371 survey results were
included in the analysis.

Qualitative methods
Interviews or focus groups
Describe where, when and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?

• How many people took part?
• What form did the interviews take (structured, semi-
structured, unstructured)?
• How long were the interviews and how were they
recorded?

Questionnaires
If your intended research question requires you to collect
standardized (and therefore comparable) information from a
number of people, then questionnaires may be the best method to
use.

Questionnaires can be used to collect both quantitative and

qualitative data, although you will not be able to get the level of

56
detail in qualitative responses to a questionnaire that you could in
an interview.

Questionnaires require a great deal of care in their design and

delivery, but a well-developed questionnaire can be distributed to
a much larger number of people than it would be possible to
interview.

Questionnaires are particularly well suited for research seeking to

measure some parameters for a group of people (e.g., average age,
percentage agreeing with a proposition, level of awareness of an
issue), or to make comparisons between groups of people (e.g., to
determine whether members of different generations held the
same or different views on immigration).

Participant observation
Describe where, when and how you conducted the observation.

• What group or community did you observe and how did you
gain access to them?
• How long did you spend conducting the research and where
was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g. audiovisual recordings,
note-taking)?

Existing data
Explain how you selected case study materials (such as texts or
images) for the focus of your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyze?

• How did you collect and select them?

57
Qualitative methods example
In order to gain a better insight into the possibilities for
improvement of the product range, semi-structured
interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers
from the main target group of Company X. A returning
customer was defined as someone who usually bought
products at least twice a week from Company X. The
surveys were used to select participants who belonged to
the target group (20-45 years old). Interviews were
conducted in a small office next to the cash register, and
lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were
recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also
filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be
filmed.

Step 3: Describe your methods of analysis

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed the
data. Avoid going into too much detail—you should not start
presenting or discussing any of your results at this stage.

Quantitative methods
In quantitative research, your analysis will be based on numbers. In
the methods section you might include:

• How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g.

checking for missing data, removing outliers, transforming
variables)
• Which software you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS or
Stata)
• Which statistical methods you used (e.g. regression
analysis)
58
Quantitative methods example
Before analysis the gathered data was prepared. The
dataset was checked for missing data and outliers. For this
the “outlier labeling rule” was used. All values outside the
calculated range were considered outliers (Hoaglin &
Iglewicz, 1987). The data was then analyzed using
statistical software SPSS.

Qualitative methods
In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language,
images and observations (often involving some form of textual
analysis). Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis: categorizing and discussing the meaning

of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis: coding and closely examining the data to
identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis: studying communication and meaning
in relation to their social context

Qualitative methods example

The interviews were transcribed and thematic
analysis was conducted. This involved coding all the data
before identifying and reviewing six key themes. Each
theme was examined to gain an understanding of
participants’ perceptions and motivations.

Step 4: Evaluate and justify your methodological choices

Your methodology should make the case for why you chose these
particular methods, especially if you did not take the most standard
approach to your topic. Discuss why other methods were not
suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach
contributes new knowledge or understanding.
59
You can acknowledge limitations or weaknesses in the approach
you chose, but justify why these were outweighed by the strengths.

Lab-based experiments can’t always accurately simulate real-life

situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal
relationships between variables.

Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be

generalized beyond the sample group, but they provide a more in-
depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations and
emotions.

Tips for writing a strong methodology

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but
to show how and why you applied them and to demonstrate that
your research was rigorously conducted.

Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods
suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the
best possible approach to answering your problem
statement and research questions. Throughout the section, relate
your choices back to the central purpose of your Research Work.

Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by reference to existing
research in the field, either to:

• Confirm that you followed established practices for this

type of research
• Discuss how you evaluated different methodologies and
decided on your approach

60
 • Show that you took a novel methodological approach to
address a gap in the literature

Our free citation generators can help you to create MLA

citations and APA citations.

Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and don’t go into
unnecessary detail. If you are using methods that are standard for
your discipline, you probably don’t need to give lots of background
or justification. But if you take an approach that is less common in
your field, you might need to explain and justify your
methodological choices.

In either case, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured

text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of
technical details and procedures.

Discuss obstacles
If you encountered difficulties in collecting or analyzing data,
explain how you dealt with them. Show how you minimized the
impact of any unexpected obstacles. Pre-empt any major critiques
of your approach and demonstrate that you made the research as
rigorous as possible.

General Structure of Chapter Three:

• Introduction
• Research Design
• Population and Sampling Collection
• Sampling and Sampling Technique
• Research Instruments
• Mode of Data Collection
• Intervention Design and Implementation
• Data Collection and Intervention Implementation Challenges
61
 • Methods of Data Analysis
• How the study was carried out; how data was analyzed

Academic Phrases, Sentences & Vocabulary

1. Experimental setup:
This experimental design was employed because __
In the course of the experiment, __ played an important
role.
The experiments were performed with __
This was experimentally investigated by __
Most experiments have been carried out with __
The main focus of the experiments was to calculate __
Prior to each experiment __
The experiments are completely based on __
In our preliminary experiments we estimated that __
In this experiment, we introduced a __
Methods were based on previous experiments __
This proceeds in two stages: __
After a series of experiments it was found that __
Therefore, in this experiment we define goals as __
In this experiment, we introduced a __
We consider the setup generic, however, __
This was designed to acquire approximately __
These were designed in such a way that __
This experimental design was employed because __
This was specifically designed for __
This was designed to acquire approximately __

2. Data collection:
There were __ participants in this sample.
Participants first provided informed consent about __
We performed additional data collection with __
For this study, we analyzed the data collected from __
The data are less clear-cut than __
Data were collected and maintained by __
62
 For this purpose, we employ survey data collected from __
The application employs data obtained from __
The analyzed data included: __
The procedures of handling the data followed the
suggestions of __
Subsequently, __ were then used to elicit further data.
The experimental data on __ is very scarce.
The data in this work consists of __
Survey data were collected from __
This study used different data collection methods such as
__
The quality can be enhanced by providing additional data
for__
Such data are prone to __
We utilize secondary data from __
The data was divided into __
Participants in the first data collection were __
The sample was heterogeneous with respect to __
The sample size in this study was not considered large
enough for__
We cannot deny the presence of some sample selection
biases because __
The sample of respondents included __
The researchers pooled samples to __
The sample strategy was the same as for__

3. Data analysis:
However, there are trends in our data to suggest that __
The trend values were then subjected to __
We analysed data as a function of __
We used an established technique, namely __, to analyse
__
This showed a judgement error of __
To investigate this statistically, we calculated __
A __ test was used to determine the significance of data
63
 Our data show that there is __
Our data suggest that __ which may be based partly on __
Data also revealed a significant __
Our data also address the __
Data were analyzed and correlated with __
The data are presented in Table __
However, according to our data __
We undertake the empirical analysis using data collected
in __
The data is analyzed from different points of view such as
__
The data reveals significant differences in __
Thus, the data supports the premise that __
Results provides a good fit to the data __
We compared the results with the original data in ways __
The evaluation of the data is shown in __
We explicitly accounted for __
Missing values were replaced using __
This analysis was confined to __
The evaluation of the data presented in this work leads to
__

4. Statistical testing:
We explored these effects statistically by __
Statistical analyses was performed by using the __
applying a significance level of __
The results were statistically significant when compared
using __
This was normally distributed throughout the study
population.
This distribution resulted in __
Significant differences in the __ remained.
This was the only parameter that had a statistically
significant correlation with __
We used __ statistics to report __
64
 This had a statistically significant impact on __
The correlation between __ and __ is positive and
statistically significant at __
We calculate __ statistic to test the null hypothesis that __
As shown in Table __ are statistically significant at all
levels.
We can clearly see that the estimated values are positive
and statistically significant at __
This revealed no statistical differences on __
The test for __ found no significant differences.
Our results show a statistically significant improvement in
__
All differences in performance were statistically significant
in __
The method achieves a statistically significant
improvement compared to __
In order to obtain statistically representative __ it is
required to __
To investigate this statistically, we calculated __
Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables used
in the study using __
The significance testing was based on __
All statistical analyses were performed using __

5. Assumptions:
Such a potentially unrealistic assumption arises from the
fact that __
Based on these assumptions, hypotheses were developed:
__
Based on these assumptions, __ have been treated as __
This is based on assumptions that __
These assumptions are generally accepted these days__
The fundamental assumptions of the models are: __
This assumption is supported by the fact that __
Under certain assumptions, __ can be construed as __
65
 These assumptions result in __
This assumption might be addressed in future studies by
__
This compilation of research assumptions should result in
__
These assumptions have been disproved by __
According to __ assumption, the study reports faithfully __

6. Remit of the experiment:

For the current work, it is sufficient to point out that __
Because we were interested in __, we considered only __
This was sufficient to __
This is sufficiently generic to be adapted to other __
This is generally sufficient to produce good results.
Still, results might be sufficient, especially in __
This was not possible due to insufficient observations.
After a series of experiments __ was considered as
sufficient.
It has been proven that __ must be sufficient to __
This was not sensitive enough to __
This study cannot be considered large enough for __
This is simpler and usually sufficient to __
It turns out that it is sufficiently accurate for __
There is in fact sufficient information present in __
This is considered sufficiently unique for __
This is enough to get a sufficiently accurate solution.

66
 WRITING CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
Once you’ve finished collecting and analysing your data, you can
begin writing up the results section of your dissertation. This is
where you report the main findings of your research and briefly
observe how they relate to your research questions or hypotheses.

When to write a results section

Your results will look different depending on the research
methodology you used. In some types of research, it might not
make sense to include a separate results section – for example,
in desk research that focuses on interpretation of texts or analysis
of case studies.

But in most dissertations based on experimental research or

collection of primary data, it’s a good idea to report the results of
your study before you move onto the discussion of their meaning.
This will give the reader a clear idea of exactly what you found.

The results section should be written in the past tense. Its length
will depend on the amount of data you collected and analyzed, but
make sure you only include information that is relevant to your
research problem and questions.

Results of quantitative research (e.g. surveys)

The easiest way to report your results is to frame them around any
research sub-questions or hypotheses that you formulated.

For each sub-question, present the relevant results, including any

statistical analysis you conducted, and briefly evaluate their
significance and reliability. Observe how each result relates to the
question or whether the hypothesis was supported. You can
highlight the most important trends, differences, and relationships
among the data, but do not speculate on their meaning or
67
consequences – this should be saved for
the discussion and conclusion sections.

If you have results that are not directly relevant to answering your
questions, or any extra information that will help the reader
understand how you gathered the data (such as the full survey
design), you can include them in an appendix.

Tables and figures

In quantitative research, it’s often helpful to include visual
elements such as graphs, charts and tables, but only if they
accurately reflect your results and add value to the story you are
trying to tell.

Make sure you refer to all tables and figures in the text, but don’t
simply repeat information. Tables and figures can be used to
condense lots of complex data or clearly illustrate a trend in the
results, while the text should summarize or elaborate on specific
aspects. Give your tables and figures clear, descriptive titles and
labels so the reader can easily understand what is being shown.

Example: Write-up of a quantitative survey

The first hypothesis was tested by means of a regression
analysis that used donation intention as the dependent
variable and social distance as the independent variable.
The results of this analysis (see Table 5) show that social
distance has a significant weak link with donation intention
(b * = 18, p = .05), which makes it a significant predictor of
donation intention; once social distance increases,
donation intention increases as well. As a result, H1 is not
confirmed. On the contrary, this result suggests a significant
effect in the opposite direction.

68
Results of qualitative research (e.g. interviews)
In qualitative research, the results might not be directly related to
specific sub-questions or hypotheses. In this case, you can
structure your results section around key themes or topics that
emerged from your analysis of the data.

For each theme, make general observations about what the data
showed. For example, you might mention recurring points of
agreement or disagreement, patterns and trends, and individual
responses that were particularly significant to your research
question. You can clarify and support these points with direct
quotations.

Further information (such as full transcripts of your interviews, if

appropriate) can be included in an appendix.

Example: Write-up of qualitative interviews

When asked about video games as a form of art, the
respondents tended to believe that video games
themselves are not an art form, but agreed that creativity is
involved in their production. The criteria used to identify
artistic video games included design, story, music, and
creative teams. One respondent noted a difference in
creativity between popular video game genres:

69
 “I think that in role-playing games, there’s more attention
to character design, to world design, because the whole
story is important and more attention is paid to certain
game elements […] so that perhaps you do need bigger
teams of creative experts than in an average shooter or
something.”

It is clear from the responses that video game consumers

consider some types of games to have more artistic
potential than others.

FORMAT FOR REPRESENTING STATISTICAL DATA IN TABLES, FIGURES

AND CHARTS

Table Format
For some general data other than what is in Chapter 4/5 (Sample below)
Table 1 – Table heading
Country Total Internet Penetration Country's
Country Users (% of Pop share of
Population with Internet World
Internet
Users
Russia 142,467,651 84,437,793 59.27% 2.89%
Germany 82,652,256 71,727,551 86.78% 2.46%
Nigeria 178,516,904 67,101,452 37.59% 2.30%
United 63,489,234 57,075,826 89.90% 1.95%
Kingdom
France 64,641,279 55,429,382 85.75% 1.90%

70
For Chapter 4/5 (sample below)
Table 2 – Table heading
Definition Pre- Post-
Intervention Intervention
Freq. % Freq. %

1. Going over information learnt in 50 56 15 17

class and after class
2. Time spent on books and other 26 29 8 9
materials
3. Habit acquisition and change in 9 10 17 19
behaviour
4. Appreciating concepts in area of 4 5 49 55
vocation or course
Total 89 100 89 100

Table Line Spacing – 1.0

Table Font size – 10
Table Alignment – Centre

Figure Format
For general figures (Sample)

Figure 1.0 - Wired LAN/Wi-Fi Network

71
For chapters 4/5 (Sample)
Respondents awareness of Wi-Fi Hotspot
Security
100
Axis Title

50

0
Northern Ashanti Brong
region region Ahafo
Yes 5 8 8
No 23 58 33

Figure 4.0 – Respondents awareness of Wi-Hi Hotspot

security measures

NB: The percentages of data being analyzed must be given in the

text interpretation

Participants Demographics
5%

46% 0 to 19
37%
20 to 25
26 to 45
12%
46 and above

Figure 4.1 – Demographics of participants

72
Results vs discussion vs conclusion
The results chapter should objectively report the findings,
presenting only brief observations in relation each sub-question,
hypothesis or topic. It should not give an overall answer to the
main research question or speculate on the meaning of the results.

Avoid subjective and interpretive words like “appears”, “suggests”

or “implies”. These are more suitable for the discussion section,
where you will interpret the results in detail and draw out their
implications. In the conclusion, you will synthesize your sub-
questions or hypotheses into an overall answer to the main
research question.

The discussion part is where you delve into the meaning,

importance and relevance of your results. It should focus on
explaining and evaluating what you found, showing how it relates
to your literature review and research questions, and making an
argument in support of your overall conclusion. There are many
different ways to write this section, but you can focus your
discussion around four key elements:

• Interpretations: what do the results mean?

• Implications: why do the results matter?
• Limitations: what can’t the results tell us?
• Recommendations: what practical actions or scientific
studies should follow?

There is often overlap between the discussion and conclusion, and

in some dissertations these two sections are included in a single
chapter. Occasionally, the results and discussion will be combined
into one chapter. If you’re unsure of the best structure for your
research, look at sample dissertations in your field or consult your
supervisor.

73
Summarize your key findings
Start this chapter by reiterating your research problem and
concisely summarizing your major findings. Don’t just repeat all
the data you have already reported – aim for a clear statement of
the overall result that directly answers your main research
question. This should be no more than one paragraph.

Examples
• The results indicate that…
• The study demonstrates a correlation between…
• The analysis confirms…
• The data suggests that…

Give your interpretations

The meaning of the results might seem obvious to you, but it’s
important to spell out their significance for the reader and show
exactly how they answer your research questions.

The form of your interpretations will depend on the type of

research, but some typical approaches to interpreting the data
include:
• Identifying correlations, patterns and relationships among
the data
• Discussing whether the results met your expectations or
supported your hypotheses
• Contextualizing your findings within previous research and
theory
• Explaining unexpected results and evaluating their
significance
• Considering possible alternative explanations and making
an argument for your position

You can organize your discussion around key themes, hypotheses

or research questions, following the same structure as your results

74
section. You can also begin by highlighting the most significant or
unexpected results.

Examples
• In line with the hypothesis…
• Contrary to the hypothesized association…
• The results contradict the claims of Smith (2007) that…
• The results might suggest that X. However, based on the
findings of similar studies, a more plausible explanation
is Y.

Receive feedback on language, structure and layout

Professional editors proofread and edit your Research by focusing
on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Grammar
• Style consistency

Discuss the implications

As well as giving your own interpretations, make sure to relate your
results back to the scholarly work that you surveyed in the
literature review. The discussion should show how your findings fit
with existing knowledge, what new insights they contribute, and
what consequences they have for theory or practice. Ask yourself
these questions:
• Do your results agree with previous research? If so, what do
they add to it?
• Are your findings very different from other studies? If so,
why might this be?
• Do the results confirm or challenge existing theories?
• Are there any practical implications?

75
Your overall aim is to show the reader exactly what your research
has contributed and why they should care.

Examples
• These results build on existing evidence of…
• The results do not fit with the theory that…
• The experiment provides a new insight into the
relationship between…
• These results should be taken into account when
considering how to…
• The data contributes a clearer understanding of…
• While previous research has focused on X, these results
demonstrate that Y.

Acknowledge the limitations

Even the best research has some limitations, and acknowledging
these is important to demonstrate your credibility. Limitations
aren’t about listing your errors, but about providing an accurate
picture of what can and cannot be concluded from your study.

Limitations might be due to your overall research design,

specific methodological choices, or unanticipated obstacles that
emerged during the research process. You should only mention
limitations that are directly relevant to your research objectives,
and evaluate how much impact they had on achieving the aims of
the research.

For example, if your sample size was small or limited to a specific

group of people, note that this limits its generalizability. If you
encountered problems when gathering or analyzing data, describe
these and explain how they influenced the results.

76
After noting the limitations, you can reiterate why the results are
nonetheless valid for the purpose of answering your research
questions.

Examples
• The generalizability of the results is limited by…
• The reliability of this data is impacted by…
• Due to the lack of available data, the results cannot
confirm…
• The methodological choices were constrained by…
• It is beyond the scope of this study to…

State your recommendations

Based on the discussion of your results, you can make
recommendations for practical implementation or further
research. Sometimes the recommendations are saved for
the conclusion.

Suggestions for further research can lead directly from the

limitations. Don’t just state that more studies should be
done – give concrete ideas for how future work can build on areas
that your own research was unable to address.
• Further research is needed to establish…
• Future studies should take into account…

What to leave out of the discussion

There are a few common mistakes to avoid when writing the
discussion section of your dissertation.
• Don’t introduce new results – you should only discuss the
data that you have already reported in the results chapter.
• Don’t make inflated claims – avoid over interpretation and
speculation that isn’t supported by your data.

77
 • Don’t undermine your research – the discussion of
limitations should aim to strengthen your credibility, not
emphasize weaknesses or failures.

Checklist
Discussion
• The most important findings have been concisely
summarized.
• The results have been discussed and interpreted in
relation to the research objectives.
• The discussion is logically ordered to show patterns or
themes among the data.
• The research questions have been answered.
• Relevant literature and theory has been cited.
• Alternative explanations of the results have been
considered.
• The practical and/or theoretical implications have been
stated.
• Any limitations of the research have been acknowledged
and evaluated.
• Relevant recommendations have been made for further
research or action.
• The importance of the results has been emphasized.

Academic Phrases, Sentences & Vocabulary

1. Findings:
From the short review above, key findings emerge: __
We describe the results of __, which show __
This suggests that __
We showed that __
Our findings on __ at least hint that __
This is an important finding in the understanding of the __
The present study confirmed the findings about __
Another promising finding was that __

78
Our results demonstrated that __
This result highlights that little is known about the __
A further novel finding is that __
Together, the present findings confirm __
The implications of these findings are discussed in __
The results demonstrate two things. First, __. Second, __
The results of the experiment found clear support for the
__
This analysis found evidence for __
Planned comparisons revealed that __
Our results casts a new light on __
This section summarizes the findings and contributions
made.
It performs well, giving good results.
This gives clearly better results than __
The results confirm that this a good choice for __
From the results, it is clear that __
In this section, we will illustrate some experimental
results.
This delivers significantly better results due to __
The result now provides evidence to __
It leads to good results, even if the improvement is
negligible.
This yields increasingly good results on data.
The result of this analysis is then compared with the __
The applicability of these new results are then tested on
__
This is important to correctly interpret the results.
The results are substantially better than __
The results lead to similar conclusion where __
Superior results are seen for __
From these results it is clear that __
Extensive results carried out show that this method
improves __
We obtain good results with this simple method.
79
 However, even better results are achieved when using our
algorithm.
It is worth discussing these interesting facts revealed by
the results of __
Overall, our method was the one that obtained the most
robust results.
Slightly superior results are achieved with our algorithm.
The result is equal to or better than a result that is
currently accepted.

2. Comparison with prior studies:

The results demonstrated in this chapter match state of
the art methods.
Here we compare the results of the proposed method with
those of the traditional methods.
These results go beyond previous reports, showing that __
In line with previous studies __
This result ties well with previous studies wherein __
Contrary to the findings of __ we did not find __
They have demonstrated that __
Others have shown that __ improves __
By comparing the results from __, we hope to determine
__
However, in line with the ideas of __, it can be concluded
that __
When comparing our results to those of older studies, it
must be pointed out that __
We have verified that using __ produces similar results
Overall these findings are in accordance with findings
reported by __
Even though we did not replicate the previously reported
__, our results suggest that __
A similar conclusion was reached by __
However, when comparing our results to those of older
studies, it must be pointed out __
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 This is consistent with what has been found in previous __
A similar pattern of results was obtained in __
The findings are directly in line with previous findings
These basic findings are consistent with research showing
that __
Other results were broadly in line with __

3. Limitations of your work:

Because of the lack of __ we decided to not investigate __
One concern about the findings of __ was that __
Because of this potential limitation, we treat __
The limitations of the present studies naturally include __
Regarding the limitations of __, it could be argued that __
Another limitation of this __
This limitation is apparent in many __
Another limitation in __ involves the issue of __
The main limitation is the lack of __
One limitation is found in this case.
One limitation of these methods however is that they __
It presents some limitations such as __
Although widely accepted, it suffers from some limitations
due to __
An apparent limitation of the method is __
There are several limitations to this approach.
One limitation of our implementation is that it is __
A major source of limitation is due to __
The approach utilized suffers from the limitation that __
The limitations are becoming clear __
It suffers from the same limitations associated with a __

4. Casual arguments:
A popular explanation of __ is that __
It is by now generally accepted that __
A popular explanation is that __
As it is not generally agreed that __
81
 These are very small and difficult to observe.
It is important to highlight the fact that __
It is notable that __
An important question associated with __ is __
This did not impair the __
This is important because there is __
This implies that __ is associated with __
This is indicative for lack of __
This will not be biased by __
There were also some important differences in __
It is interesting to note that, __
It is unlikely that __
This may alter or improve aspects of __
In contrast, this makes it possible to __
This is particularly important when investigating __
This has been used to successfully account for __
This introduces a possible confound in __
This was included to verify that __

Speculations:
However, we acknowledge that there are considerable
discussions among researchers as to __
We speculate that this might be due to __
There are reasons to doubt this explanation of __
It remains unclear to which degree __ are attributed to __
However, __ does seem to improve __
This does seem to depend on __
It is important to note, that the present evidence relies on __
The results show that __ does not seem to impact the __
However, the extent to which it is possible to __ is unknown
Alternatively, it could simply mean that __
It is difficult to explain such results within the context of __
It is unclear whether this is a suitable for __
This appears to be a case of __
From this standpoint, __ can be considered as __
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 To date, __remain unknown
Under certain assumptions, this can be construed as __
Because of this potential limitation, we treat __
In addition, several questions remain unanswered.
At this stage of understanding, we believe__
Therefore, it remains unclear whether __
This may explain why __

4. Deductive Arguments:
A difference between these __ can only be attributable to
__
Nonetheless, we believe that it is well justified to __
This may raise concerns about __ which can be addressed
by __
As discussed, this is due to the fact that __
Results demonstrate that this is not necessarily true.
These findings support the notion that __ is not influenced
by __
This may be the reason why we did not find __
In order to test whether this is equivalent across __, we __
Therefore, __ can be considered to be equivalent for __

83
 WRITING CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION &
RECOMMENDATION
A research work should end with a well-constructed conclusion.
The conclusion is somewhat similar to the introduction. You restate
your aims and objectives and summarize your main findings and
evidence for the reader. You can usually do this in one paragraph
with three main key points, and one strong take-home message.
You should not present any new arguments in your conclusion. You
can raise some open questions and set the scene for the next study.
This is a good place to register your thoughts about possible future
work. Try to explain to your readers what more could be done?
What do you think are the next steps to take? What other
questions warrant further investigation? Remember, the
conclusion is the last part of the essay that your reader will see, so
spend some time writing the conclusion so that you can end on a
high note.

The conclusion section of your Research should include the

following:
The conclusion is the very last part of your thesis or dissertation. Its
main purposes are to:

• Clearly state the answer to the main research question

• Summarize and reflect on the research
• Make recommendations for future work on the topic
• Show what new knowledge you have contributed

The conclusion should be concise and engaging. Aim to leave the

reader with a clear understanding of the main discovery or
argument that your research has advanced.

84
Discussion vs Conclusion
The conclusion contains similar elements to the discussion, and
sometimes these two sections are combined (especially in shorter
Research and journal articles). But in a thesis or dissertation, it’s
usual to include a final chapter that wraps up your research and
gives the reader a final impression of your work.

The conclusion chapter should be shorter and more general than

the discussion. Instead of discussing specific results and
interpreting the data in detail, here you make broad statements
that sum up the most important insights of the research.

The conclusion should not introduce new data, interpretations, or

arguments.

Length of the conclusion

Depending on the type of thesis, the conclusion should typically be
around 5-7% of the overall word count. An empirical scientific
study will often have a short conclusion that concisely states the
main findings and recommendations, while a humanities thesis
might require more space to conclude its analysis and tie all the
chapters together in an overall argument.

Answer the research question

The conclusion should begin from the main question that your
thesis or dissertation aimed to address. This is your final chance to
show that you’ve done what you set out to do, so make sure to
formulate a clear, concise answer.

Don’t repeat a list of all the results that you already discussed, but
synthesize them into a final takeaway that the reader will
remember.

85
Examples
In a thesis that set out to solve a practical problem with empirical
research, the conclusion might begin like this:

This research aimed to identify effective fundraising

strategies for environmental non-profit organizations.
Based on a quantitative and qualitative analysis of
donation intention in response to campaign materials, it
can be concluded that social distance and temporal
distance are important factors to consider when
designing and targeting campaigns. The results indicate
that potential donors are more receptive to images
portraying a large social distance and a small temporal
distance.

In a thesis that set out to make a theoretical argument based on an

analysis of case studies, it might begin like this:

By analyzing changing representations of migration and

UK border policy in the past ten years, this thesis has
shown how media discourse can directly and indirectly
shape political decision-making.

Note that in the second example, the research aim is not directly
restated, but is implicit in the statement (the research aimed to
analyze the relationship between media discourse and migration
policy). To avoid repeating yourself, it is helpful to reformulate your
aims and questions into an overall statement of what you did and
how you did it.

Summarize and reflect on the research

The conclusion is an opportunity to remind the reader why you
took the approach you did, what you expected to find, and how
well the results matched your expectations. It should give an
86
overview of the steps you took in conducting your research or
building your argument.

To avoid repetition, instead of just writing a summary of each

chapter, you can write more reflectively here. You might consider
how effective your methodology was in answering your research
questions, and whether any new questions or unexpected insights
arose in the process.
You can also mention any limitations of your research if you haven’t
already included these in the discussion. Don’t dwell on them at
length, though – focus on the positives of your work.

Examples
• While X limits the generalizability of the results, this
approach provides new insight into Y.
• This research clearly illustrates X, but it also raises the
question of Y.

Make recommendations
You might already have made recommendations for future
research in the discussion, but the conclusion is a good place to
elaborate and look ahead, considering the implications of your
findings for theory and practice.

Examples

• Based on these conclusions, practitioners should consider…

• To better understand the implications of these results,
future studies could address…
• Further research is needed to determine the causes
of/effects of/relationship between…

Avoid exaggerating the applicability of your research. If you’re

making recommendations for policy, business or other practical

87
implementation, it’s generally best to frame them as suggestions
rather than imperatives – the purpose of academic research is to
inform, explain and explore, not to instruct.

If you’re making recommendations for further research, be sure

not to undermine your own work. Future studies might confirm,
build on or enrich your conclusions, but they shouldn’t be required
to complete them.

Emphasize your contributions

Make sure your reader is left with a strong impression of what your
research has contributed to knowledge in your field. Some
strategies to achieve this include:

• Returning to your problem statement to explain how your

research helps solve the problem.
• Referring back to the literature review and showing how
you have addressed a gap in knowledge.
• Discussing how your findings confirm or challenge an
existing theory or assumption.

Again, here, try to avoid simply repeating what you’ve already

covered in the discussion. Pick out the most important points and
sum them up with a succinct overview that situates your project in
its broader context.

Finish your thesis

The end is near! Once you’ve finished writing your conclusion, it’s
time to wrap up the final steps to a completed thesis.

It’s a good idea to write the abstract next, while the research is still
fresh in your mind. If you’re not sure where to begin, read our guide
on how to write an abstract.

88
Then you need to make sure your reference list is complete and
correctly formatted. To speed up the process, you can use our free
APA citation generator.

Once you’ve added any appendices, you can create a table of

contents and title page. Finally, read through the whole document
again to make sure your thesis is clearly written and free from
language errors. You can proofread it yourself, ask a friend, or take
a look at Scribbr’s proofreading and editing service.

Checklist
Conclusion
• The main research question has been concisely answered.
• The overall argument has been summarized.
• There is reflection on the aims, methods and results of the
research.
• Any important limitations have been mentioned.
• Relevant recommendations have been discussed.
• The contributions of the research have been clearly
explained.
• No new data or arguments have been introduced.

Academic Phrases, Sentences & Vocabulary

1. Overall summary
The Research concludes by arguing __
On this basis, we conclude that __
The authors concluded that __ is not confined to __
This allows the conclusion that __
The findings of this study can be understood as __
This may be considered a promising aspect of __
This may be considered a further validation of __
Remaining issues are subject of __
In summary, this Research argued that __
This aspect of the research suggested that __

89
In conclusion, __ seems to improve __
In summary, this Research argued that __
In conclusion, it would appear that __
The analysis leads to the following conclusions: __
It is difficult to arrive at any conclusions with regard to __
The main conclusion that can be drawn is that __
The present findings confirm __
As we have argued elsewhere __ may be considered a
promising aspect of __
Ideally, these findings should be replicated in a study
where __
By using __ we tested the hypothesis that __
In conclusion, __ seems to improve __
Broadly translated our findings indicate that __
This is an important finding in the understanding of the __
More generally, these basic findings are consistent with
research showing that __
In addition, these findings provide additional information
about __
Despite the limitations these are valuable in light of __
Overall, our results demonstrate a strong effect of __
Nevertheless, we found __
To our knowledge, this is the first report of __
Our results on __ are broadly consistent with __
The broad implication of the present research is that __
This conclusion follows from the fact that __
Collectively, our results appear consistent with __
Importantly, our results provide evidence for __
Results provide a basis for __
This experiment adds to a growing corpus of research
showing __
Our data indicate that __; a result that casts a new light on
__
These findings provide a potential mechanism for __

90
 We have shown that __
Our data suggest that we still have a long way to go to __

2. Future work:
Future research should consider the potential effects of __
more carefully, for example __
This assumption might be addressed in future studies.
Future research on __ might extend the explanations of
__
This is very much the key component in future attempts to
overcome __
In future work, investigating __ might prove important.
This is desirable for future work.
Future investigations are necessary to validate the kinds of
conclusions that can be drawn from this study.
Future studies could fruitfully explore this issue further by
__
Future research is needed to delimitate __
It will be important that future research investigate __
It is a question of future research to investigate __
We believe that apart from looking for __, future research
should look for __
Regardless, future research could continue to explore __
This is an issue for future research to explore.
Future studies could investigate the association between
__
Future studies should aim to replicate results in a larger __
Future research should be devoted to the development of
__
This may constitute the object of future studies.
Future research could examine __
Interesting research questions for future research that can
be derived from __
In future research, more research is needed to apply and
test __
91
This is an interesting topic for future work.
Future research should further develop and confirm these
initial findings by __
Future research should certainly further test whether __
As also recommended above, future research should __
Future research should examine strategically __
Future research might apply __
In addition, __ might prove an important area for future
research.
A number of recommendations for future research are
given.
Therefore, future research should be conducted in more
realistic settings to __
Further research on __ issue is warranted.
Further work is certainly required to disentangle these
complexities in __
Looking forward, further attempts could prove quite
beneficial to the literature.
Further research is needed to confirm this novel finding.
These result warrant further investigation via __
This provides a good starting point for discussion and
further research.
Further studies should investigate __
The possibility of __ warrants further investigation.

92
 APA STYLE CITATION GUIDELINES (6TH
EDITION)

APA style is one of the most common formats for citing sources
Other well known citation styles include MLA and Chicago. This
citation guide is based on the 6th edition APA Style. The APA
Manual 7th edition , introduced in October 2019, is not yet
supported.

APA Style citations consist of two parts:

1. In-text citation: brief citation included in the sentence

where the information is used. The in-text citation only
contains the author’s last name and year of publication,
e.g. (Smith, 2019). It identifies and helps locate the full
source in the reference list.
2. Reference list entry: full publication details listed
alphabetically on the reference page, which appears right
after the main body. The reference provides all information
that is required to find the source, e.g. Smith, P. (2019, April
18). Citing Sources in APA Format. Retrieved April 21, 2019,
from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/

In-text citations
An in-text citation is a concise way to show the reader where the
original idea came from and to give credit to the original author.
According to the APA citation guidelines, you should write down
the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication. When
quoting a source it is also required to include the page number(s).
This can be done in multiple ways:

• An earlier study in which X and Y were compared revealed that

… (Smith, 2017).
93
• Smith (2017) shows how, in the past, research into X was mainly
concerned with …
• In 1984, research was carried out by Smith that indicated that …

Multiple authors
When there are two authors, separate their last names with an
ampersand.

When there are three or more authors, separate their last names
using commas. The last two authors’ last names should
be separated by both a comma and an ampersand (in a
citation) or “and” (in the running text).

2 authors

• Research shows that there is a great need for … (Reynolds &

Thomas, 2014).
• Reynolds and Thomas (2014) write that there is a great need
for …

3-5 authors

• Recent research suggests that there is … (McGuire, Morrison,

Reynolds, & Thomas, 2014).
• McGuire, Morrison, Reynolds, and Thomas (2014) argue that …

As you can imagine, citing a source with 3–5 authors takes up a lot
of space in the text.

That is why you shorten the citation when you use the source a
second, third or fourth time.

How? Instead of writing down all authors’ last names, write only
the last name of the first author, followed by “et al.,” which means
“and others.”
94
• In this research, many participants made use of … (McGuire et
al., 2014).
• McGuire et al. (2014) noticed that …

6 or more authors
When your source has six or more authors, simply use the last
name of the first author followed by “et al.” in your in-text citation:

• Lunott et al. (2015) see the …

Organization as author
When the source is published by an organization instead of a
person, cite the organization’s name as the author.

• According to new research … (Microsoft, 2014).

Quotes
When you copy an excerpt of a text from another source and place
it between quotation marks, you are quoting. When you quote
sources, you are required to add the page number to the in-text
citation.

• This is also true from the business plan: “making an APA

Citation Generator is a lot of work, but many students benefit
from it” (Swan, 2014, p. 5).

Multiple sources in one citation

Sometimes, it’s necessary to cite multiple sources in one sentence.
You can do this by citing multiples sources and separating them
using semicolons.

• Various studies show that … (Docker & Vagrant, 2002; Porter,

1997; Lima, Swan, & Corrieri, 2012).

95
Reference list or bibliography
Every source that is cited in the text also has to be cited in full in
your reference list.
The format differs depending on the source type (e.g. a website,
journal, book, etc.), but every reference starts the same:

• Format:
LastnameAuthor1, InitialsAuthor1, & LastnameAuthor2,
InitialsAuthor2. (PublicationYear/Date). Title.
• In reference list:
Beswick, G., & Rothblum, E. D. (1988). Psychological
antecedents of student procrastination.

Book citations
Note: Book titles should be italicized.

• Format:
AuthorLastName, Initials. (Year). TitleBook (edition). City,
State/Country: Publisher.
• In reference list:
Porter, M. E. (1998). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for
Analyzing Industries and Competitors (3th ed.). New York, NY:
Free Press.

Journal article citations

Note: The journal title and volume number should be italicized.

• Format:
AuthorLastName, Initials., & Author LastName, Initials. (Year).
TitleArticle. TitleJournal, Volume (Issue), Page Number(s).
https://doi.org/DoiNumber

96
• In reference list:
Andreff, W., & Staudohar, P. D. (2000). The evolving European
model of professional sports finance. Journal of Sports
Economics, 1(3), 257–276.
https://doi.org./10.1177/152700250000100304

Website citations
Nothing should be italicized.

• Format:
AuthorLastName, Initials. (Year, Month Day). TitleArticle
[OptionalType]. Retrieved from http://WebAddress
• In reference list:
Worland, J. (2015, July 27). U.S. flood risk could be worse than
we thought. Retrieved from
http://time.com/3973256/flooding-risk-coastal-cities/

Report citations
Note: The title should be italicized.

• Format:
NameOrganization or AuthorLastName, Initials.
(YearofPublication). Title Report. Retrieved from
http://WebAddress
• In reference list:
Royal Bank of Scotland. (2015). Annual Report and Accounts
2014. Retrieved from
http://investors.rbs.com/~/media/Files/R/RBS-IR/2014-
reports/annual-report-2014.pdf

More APA Style examples

Do you want to cite a photo, interview, YouTube video, movie or
another source type that is not on this list? We have many
more APA Style examples to help you cite correctly.

97
Sorting the reference list
Sort the references in alphabetical order based on the author’s last
names of that reference. If multiple sources are written by the
same author(s), then sort them by publication year.
When you use the APA Citation Generator, your list is sorted
automatically.

APA formatting for Researchs

There are certain formatting rules you must adhere to when writing
a Research in apa format.

The basic requirements are:

• Text must be double-spaced
• Margins must be set to one inch (or 2.54 cm)
• You must use a left-aligned running head with a shortened
title on all pages
• It is strongly recommended to use Times New Roman in 12
pt (if your university allows it, you might be able to use a
different font)

In addition to these general rules that apply for every part of

an APA style Research, each section has its own requirements.
Learn about the requirements by looking at the interactive
formatting examples of the title page, running
head, abstract, reference page and headings and subheadings.

Avoid plagiarism
Plagiarism means copying someone else’s work, without giving that
author credit. This is not only unfair for the original author, but also
considered cheating and can have direct consequences for you. So,
always try to avoid plagiarism!
Tips for avoiding plagiarism:

98
 • Save your sources. This way, you can keep track of them.
You don’t necessarily have to have the citation perfectly
formatted from the beginning.
• When you quote or paraphrase text, temporarily highlight
it to remind yourself that you need to add the correct
citations.
Check whether you’ve cited all your sources correctly, both
in the text and in the reference list.
• Quote, paraphrase and summarize other’s work correctly.
• Run a plagiarism checker.

APA MANUAL 7TH EDITION: THE MOST

NOTABLE CHANGES

References and in-text citations in APA Style

When it comes to citing sources, more guidelines have been added
that make citing online sources easier and clearer.

In total, 114 examples are provided, ranging from books and

periodicals to audiovisuals and social media. For each reference
category, an easy template is provided to help you understand and
apply the citation guidelines. The biggest changes in the 7th edition
are:
1. The publisher location is no longer included in the
reference.
✓ Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective
people: Powerful lessons in personal change. New
York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
✓ Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective
people: Powerful lessons in personal change. Simon
& Schuster.

99
2. The in-text citation for works with three or more authors is
now shortened right from the first citation. You only include
the first author’s name and “et al.”.
✓ (Taylor, Kotler, Johnson, & Parker, 2018)
✓ (Taylor et al., 2018)
3. Surnames and initials for up to 20 authors (instead of 7)
should be provided in the reference list.
✓ Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B.,
Kelly, R. S., Turner, S. T., … Lee, L. H. (2018).
✓ Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B.,
Kelly, R. S., Turner, S. T., Lewis, F., Lee, L. H., Cox, G.,
Harris, H. L., Martin, P., Gonzalez, W. L., Hughes, W.,
Carter, D., Campbell, C., Baker, A. B., Flores, T., Gray,
W. E., Green, G., … Nelson, T. P. (2018).
4. DOIs are formatted the same as URLs. The label “DOI:” is no
longer necessary.

✓ doi: 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
✓ https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
5. URLs are no longer preceded by “Retrieved from,” unless a
retrieval date is needed. The website name is included
(unless it’s the same as the author), and web page titles are
italicized.
✓ Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids
recession but growth remains weak. Retrieved
from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-
50419127
✓ Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids
recession but growth remains weak. BBC
News. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-
50419127
6. For ebooks, the format, platform, or device (e.g. Kindle) is
no longer included in the reference, and the publisher is
included.

100
 ✓ Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish
astronomy: Stars and satellites [Kindle
version]. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-
2
✓ Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish
astronomy: Stars and satellites. Springer
Nature. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
7. Clear guidelines are provided for including contributors
other than authors and editors. For example, when citing a
podcast episode, the host of the episode should be
included; for a TV series episode, the writer and director of
that episode are cited.
8. Dozens of examples are included for online source types
such as podcast episodes, social media posts, and YouTube
videos. The use of emojis and hashtags is also explained.

Inclusive and bias-free language

Writing inclusively and without bias is the new standard, and APA’s
new publication manual contains a separate chapter on this topic.
The guidelines provided by APA help authors reduce bias around
topics such as gender, age, disability, racial and ethnic identity, and
sexual orientation, as well as being sensitive to labels and
describing individuals at the appropriate level of specificity. Some
examples include:
9. The singular “they” or “their” is endorsed as a gender-
neutral pronoun.
o A researcher’s career depends on how often he or
she is cited.
o A researcher’s career depends on how
often they are cited.
10. Instead of using adjectives as nouns to label groups of
people, descriptive phrases are preferred.
o The poor
o People living in poverty

101
 11. Instead of broad categories, you should use exact age
ranges that are more relevant and specific.
o People over 65 years old
o People in the age range of 65 to 75 years old

APA Research format

In the 7th edition, APA decided to provide different Research
format guidelines for professional and student Researchs. For both
types a sample Research is included. Some notable changes
include:
12. Increased flexibility regarding fonts: options include Calibri
11, Arial 11, Lucida Sans Unicode 10, Times New Roman 12,
and Georgia 11.
13. The running head on the title page no longer includes the
words “Running head:”. It now contains only a page number
and the (shortened) Research title.
o Running head: THE EFFECT OF GOOGLE ON THE
INTERNET
o THE EFFECT OF GOOGLE ON THE INTERNET
14. The running head is omitted in student Researchs (unless
your instructor tells you otherwise).
15. Heading levels 3-5 are updated to improve readability.
Mechanics of style
In terms of style, not much has changed in the 7th edition. In
addition to some updated and better explained guidelines, there
are two notable changes:
16. Use only one space after a period at the end of a sentence.
17. Use double quotation marks to refer to linguistic examples
(e.g. APA endorses the use of the singular pronoun “they”)
instead of italics.
o APA endorses the use of the singular pronoun they
o APA endorses the use of the singular
pronoun “they”

102
 GENERAL FRONT MATERIALS

FRONT MATTER – OUTSIDE COVER

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

TOPIC

NAME (INDEX NUMBER)

BEREKUM COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, BEREKUM

(MONTH, YEAR)

103
FRONT MATTER – OUTSIDE COVER

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

TOPIC

NAME (INDEX NUMBER)

BEREKUM COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, BEREKUM

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARDS
OF DIPLOMA IN BASIC EDUCATION

MONTH, 2019

104
 STUDENT DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this project work is the result of my own original
research and that no part of it has been presented for another Diploma in
this University or elsewhere.

Signature: .............................................. Date: ..........................................

(STUDENT’S NAME – INDEX)

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this project work
were supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of
project work laid down by the University of Cape Coast.

Signature: ........................................... Date: .........................................

SUPERVISOR’S NAME

105
 WRITE-UP STRUCTURE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DEDICATION
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

• Introduction,
• Background of the Project,
• Statement of the Problem/Justification,
• Purpose of the Study,
• Objectives of the Study,
• Significance of the Study/Project,
• Research Questions/Hypothesis,
• Limitations,
• Delimitations,
• Definition of Key Terms,
• Organization of the Report.

CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY

• Introduction
• Research Design
• Population and Sampling Collection
• Sampling and Sampling Technique
• Research Instruments
• Mode of Data Collection
• Pre-Intervention Data Collection/Analysis
• Intervention Design and Implementation
• Data Collection and Intervention Implementation Challenges
• Methods of Data Analysis

106
CHAPTER FOUR – RESULTS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER FIVE – SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

107