Circuits 1

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Week 3
 Objectives
At the end of the discussion, the students shall be able to:
• Explain why the current is the same in all parts of a series circuit,
likewise, voltage is the same in all parts of a parallel circuit.

• Determine the net voltage of series aiding and series-opposing voltage

sources.

• Solve for the voltage, current, resistance, and power in a series and
parallel circuit having random unknowns with respect to ground.

• Describe the effect of an open and short in a series and parallel circuit.

• Troubleshoot series and parallel circuits containing opens and shorts.

 Series Circuit
• A series circuit is any circuit that
provides only one path for
current flow.

• An example of a series circuit is

shown in Fig. 4–1.

• Here two resistors are

connected end to end with their
opposite ends connected across
the terminals of a voltage
source.

• Figure 4–1 a shows the pictorial

wiring diagram, and Fig. 4–1b
shows the schematic diagram.
 Series Circuit
• The small dots in Fig. 4–1b
represent free electrons.

• Notice that the free electrons

have only one path to follow as
they leave the negative terminal
of the voltage source, flow
through resistors R2 and R1, and
return to the positive terminal.

• Since there is only one path for

electrons to follow, the current, I,
must be the same in all parts of
a series circuit.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• An electric current is a movement of charges between two
points, produced by the applied voltage.

• When components are connected in successive order, as

in Fig. 4–1, they form a series circuit.

• The resistors R1 and R2 are in series with each other and

the battery.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• In Fig. 4–2a, the battery supplies the potential difference
that forces free electrons to drift from the negative terminal
at A, toward B, through the connecting wires and
resistances R3 , R2 , and R1, back to the positive battery
terminal at J.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• At the negative battery terminal, its negative charge repels
electrons.

• Therefore, free electrons in the atoms of the wire at this

terminal are repelled from A toward B.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• Similarly, free electrons at point B can then repel adjacent
electrons, producing an electron drift toward C and away
from the negative battery terminal.

• At the same time, the positive charge of the positive

battery terminal attracts free electrons, causing electrons
to drift toward I and J.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• As a result, the free electrons in R1, R2, and R3 are forced
to drift toward the positive terminal.

• The positive terminal of the battery attracts electrons just

as much as the negative side of the battery repels
electrons.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• Therefore, the motion of free electrons in the circuit starts
at the same time and at the same speed in all parts of the
circuit.

• The electrons returning to the positive battery terminal are

not the same electrons as those leaving the negative
terminal.

• Free electrons in the wire are forced to move to the

positive terminal because of the potential difference of the
battery.

• The free electrons moving away from one point are

continuously replaced by free electrons flowing from an
adjacent point in the series circuit.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• All electrons have the same speed as those leaving the
battery.

• In all parts of the circuit, therefore, the electron drift is the

same.

• An equal number of electrons move at one time with the

same speed.

• That is why the current is the same in all parts of the series
circuit.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• In Fig. 4–2b , when the current is 2A, for example, this is
the value of the current through R1, R2, R3, and the battery
at the same instant.

• Not only is the amount of current the same throughout, but

the current in all parts of a series circuit cannot differ in
any way because there is just one current path for the
entire circuit.
Current: Is the Same in All Parts of a
Series Circuit
• Figure 4–2c shows how to assemble axial-lead resistors
on a lab prototype board (breadboard) to form a series
circuit.
Examples of Series Circuit
Series Circuit
• The question of whether a component is first, second, or
last in a series circuit has no meaning in terms of current.

• The reason is that I is the same amount at the same time

in all series components.

• In fact, series components can be defined as those in the

same current path.

• The path is from one side of the voltage source, through

the series components, and back to the other side of the
applied voltage.

• However, the series path must not have any point at which
the current can branch off to another path in parallel.
Total R Equals the Sum
of All Series Resistances
• When a series circuit is connected across a voltage
source, as shown in Fig. 4–3, the free electrons forming
the current must drift through all the series resistances.

• This path is the only way the electrons can return to the
battery.

• With two or more resistances in the same current path,

therefore, the total resistance across the voltage source is
the opposition of all the resistances.
Total R Equals the Sum
of All Series Resistances
• Specifically, the total resistance RT of a series string is
equal to the sum of the individual resistances.

• This rule is illustrated in Fig. 4–4.

Total R Equals the Sum
of All Series Resistances
• In Fig. 4–4b, 2-Ω is added in series with the 3-Ω of Fig. 4–
4a, producing the total resistance of 5-Ω.

• The total opposition of R1 and R2 limiting the amount of

current is the same as though a 5-Ω resistance were used,
as shown in the equivalent circuit in Fig. 4–4c.
Series Resistance Formula
• In summary, the total resistance of a series string equals
the sum of the individual resistances.

• The formula is
(4–1)

where RT is the total resistance and R1, R2, and R3 are

individual series resistances.

• This formula applies to any number of resistances,

whether equal or not, as long as they are in the same
series string.
Series Resistance Formula
• Note that RT is the resistance to use in calculating the
current in a series string.

• Then Ohm’s law is

(4–2)
where RT is the sum of all the resistances, VT is the voltage
applied across the total resistance, and I is the current in all
parts of the string.
Series Resistance Formula
• Note that adding series
resistance reduces the
current.

• In Fig. 4–4a the 3-Ω R1

allows 10 V to produce
3 1 ⁄ 3 A.

• However, I is reduced to 2 A
when the 2-Ω R2 is added
for a total series resistance
of 5-Ω opposing the 10-V
source.
Series Resistance Formula
Series IR Voltage Drops
• With current I through a resistance, by Ohm’s law, the
voltage across R is equal to I x R.

• This rule is illustrated in Fig. 4–5 for a string of two

resistors.
Series IR Voltage Drops
• In this circuit, I is 1 A because the applied VT of 10-V is
across the total RT of 10-Ω, equal to the 4-Ω R1 plus the
6-Ω R2 .

• Then I is 10-V/10-Ω = 1-A.

Series IR Voltage Drops
• For each IR voltage in Fig. 4–5, multiply each R by the
1-A of current in the series circuit, then
Series IR Voltage Drops
• The IR voltage across each resistance is called an IR
drop, or a voltage drop, because it reduces the potential
difference available for the remaining resistances in the
series circuit.

• Note that the symbols V1 and V2 are used for the voltage
drops across each resistor to distinguish them from the
source VT applied across both resistors.
Series IR Voltage Drops
Series IR Voltage Drops
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• When a voltage drop exists across a resistance, one end
must be either more positive or more negative than the
other end.

• Otherwise, without a potential difference no current could

flow through the resistance to produce the voltage drop.

• The polarity of this IR voltage drop can be associated with

the direction of I through R.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• In brief, electrons flow into the negative side of the IR
voltage and out the positive side (see Fig. 4–8a).
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• If we want to consider conventional current, with positive
charges moving in the opposite direction from electron
flow, the rule is reversed for the positive charges. See Fig.
4–8b.

• Here the positive charges for I are moving into the

positive side of the IR voltage.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• A more fundamental way to consider the polarity of IR
voltage drops in a circuit is the fact that between any two
points the one nearer to the positive terminal of the
voltage source is more positive; also, the point nearer to
the negative terminal of the applied voltage is more
negative.

• A point nearer the terminal means that there is less

resistance in its path.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• In Fig. 4–9 point C is nearer to the
negative battery terminal than
point D.

• The reason is that C has no

resistance to B, whereas the path
from D to B includes the
resistance of R2.

• Similarly, point F is nearer to the

positive battery terminal than
point E, which makes F more
positive than E.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• Notice that points D and E in Fig.
4–9 are marked with both plus
and minus polarities.

• The plus polarity at D indicates

that it is more positive than C.

• This polarity, however, is shown

just for the voltage across R2.

• Point D cannot be more positive

than points F and A.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• The positive terminal of the
applied voltage must be the most
positive point because the battery
is generating the positive potential
for the entire circuit.

• Similarly, points B and C must

have the most negative potential
in the entire string, since point B
is the negative terminal of the
applied voltage.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• Actually, the plus polarity marked
at D means only that this end of
R2 is less negative than C by the
amount of voltage drop across R2.

• Consider the potential difference

between E and D in Fig. 4–9,
which is only a piece of wire.

• This voltage is zero because

there is no resistance between
these two points.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• Without any resistance here, the
current cannot produce the IR
drop necessary for a difference in
potential.

• Points E and D are, therefore, the

same electrically since they have
the same potential.

• When we go around the external

circuit from the negative terminal
of VT, with electron flow, the
voltage drops are drops in
negative potential.
Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
• For the opposite direction, starting
from the positive terminal of VT,
the voltage drops are drops in
positive potential.

• Either way, the voltage drop of

each series R is its proportional
part of the VT needed for the one
value of current in all resistances.
Total Power in a Series Circuit
• The power needed to produce current in each series
resistor is used up in the form of heat.

• Therefore, the total power used is the sum of the individual

values of power dissipated in each part of the circuit.

• As a formula,

(4-4)
Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing
Voltages
• Series-aiding voltages are
connected with polarities that allow
current in the same direction.

• In Fig. 4–11a, the 6-V of V1 alone

could produce a 3-A electron flow
from the negative terminal, with the
2-Ω R.

• Also, the 8-V of V2 could produce

4-A in the same direction.

• The total I then is 7-A.

Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing
Voltages
• Instead of adding the currents,
however, the voltages V1 and V2
can be added, for a VT of 6 + 8 =
14 V.

• This 14-V produces 7-A in all parts

of the series circuit with a
resistance of 2-Ω.

• Then I is 14/2 = 7-A.

• Voltages are connected series-

aiding when the plus terminal of
one is connected to the negative
terminal of the next.
Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing
Voltages
• They can be added for a total
equivalent voltage.

• This idea applies in the same way

to voltage sources, such as
batteries, and to voltage drops
across resistances.

• Any number of voltages can be

added, as long as they are
connected with series-aiding
polarities.
Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing
Voltages
• Series-opposing voltages are
subtracted, as shown in
Fig. 4–11b.

• Notice here that the positive

terminals of V1 and V2 are
connected.

• Subtract the smaller from the

larger value, and give the net V the
polarity of the larger voltage.

• In this example, VT is 8 - 6 = 2 V.

• The polarity of VT is the same as

Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing
Voltages
• Series-opposing voltages are
subtracted, as shown in
Fig. 4–11b.

• Notice here that the positive

terminals of V1 and V2 are
connected.

• Subtract the smaller from the larger value, and give the net
V the polarity of the larger voltage.

• In this example, VT is 8 - 6 = 2 V.

• The polarity of VT is the same as V2 because its voltage is

higher than V1.
General Methods for Series Circuits
• For other types of problems with series circuits, it is useful
to remember the following:
1. When you know the I for one component, use this
value for I in all components, for the current is the
same in all parts of a series circuit.

2. To calculate I , the total VT can be divided by the total

RT, or an individual IR drop can be divided by its R.
However, do not mix a total value for the entire circuit
with an individual value for only part of the circuit.

3. When you know the individual voltage drops around

the circuit, these can be added to equal the applied VT.
This also means that a known voltage drop can be
subtracted from the total VT to find the remaining
voltage drop.
Ground Connections in Electrical
and Electronic Systems
• In most electrical and electronic systems, one side of the
voltage source is connected to ground.

• For example, one side of the voltage source of the 120-Vac

power line in residential wiring is connected directly to
earth ground.

• The reason for doing this is to reduce the possibility of

electric shock.

• The connection to earth ground is usually made by driving

copper rods into the ground and connecting the ground
wire of the electrical system to these rods.
Ground Connections in Electrical
and Electronic Systems
• The pitchfork-like symbol shown in Fig. 4–16 is considered
by many people to be the most appropriate symbol for a
metal chassis or copper foil ground on printed-circuit
boards.

• This chassis ground symbol represents a common return

path for current and may or may not be connected to an
actual earth ground.
Ground Connections in Electrical
and Electronic Systems
• Another ground symbol, common
ground, is shown in Fig. 4–16.

• This is just another symbol used

to represent a common return
path for current in a circuit. In all
cases, ground is assumed to be
at a potential of 0-V, regardless of
which symbol is shown.
The Effect of an Open in a Series
Circuit
• An open circuit is a break in the current path. The
resistance of an open circuit is extremely high because the
air between the open points is a very good insulator.

• Air can have billions of ohms of resistance.

• For a series circuit, a break in the current path means zero

current in all components.
The Effect of a Short in a Series
Circuit
• A short circuit is an extremely low resistance path for
current flow.

• The resistance of a short is assumed to be 0-Ω.

• This is in contrast to an open, which is assumed to have a

resistance of infinite ohms.
The Effect of a Short in a Series
Circuit
• Let’s reconsider the circuit with R2 shorted.

• With the 10-Ω R2 shorted, the total resistance RT will

decrease from 40-Ω to 30-Ω.

• This will cause the series current to increase from 1-A to

1.33 A.
The Effect of a Short in a Series
Circuit
• This is calculated as 40-V/30-Ω = 1.33 A.

• The increase in current will cause the voltage drop across

resistors R1 and R3 to increase from their normal values.
The Effect of a Short in a Series
Circuit
• The new voltage drops across R1 and R3 with R2 shorted
are calculated as follows:
General Rules for Troubleshooting
Series Circuits
• When troubleshooting a series circuit containing three or
more resistors, remember this important rule:

• The defective component will have a voltage drop that will

change in the opposite direction as compared to the good
components.

• In other words, in a series circuit containing an open, all

the good components will have a voltage decrease from
their normal value to 0-V.

• The defective component will have a voltage increase from

its normal value to the full applied voltage.
General Rules for Troubleshooting
Series Circuits
• Likewise, in a series circuit containing a short, all good
components will have a voltage increase from their normal
values and the defective component’s voltage drop will
decrease from its normal value to 0-V.

• The component whose voltage changes in the opposite

direction of the other components is the defective
component.

• In the case of an open resistor, the voltage drop increases

to the value of the applied voltage and all other resistor
voltages decrease to 0-V.
General Rules for Troubleshooting
Series Circuits
• In the case of a short, all good components show their
voltage drops increasing, whereas the shorted component
shows a voltage decrease to 0-V.

• This same general rule applies to a series circuit that has

components whose resistances have increased or
decreased from their normal values but are neither open or
shorted.
Parallel Circuits
• A parallel circuit is any circuit that provides one common
voltage across all components.

• Each component across the voltage source provides a

separate path or branch for current flow.

• The individual branch currents are calculated as VA / R

where VA is the applied voltage and R is the individual
branch resistance.

• The total current, IT, supplied by the applied voltage,

must equal the sum of all individual branch currents.
The Applied Voltage V A Is the Same
across Parallel Branches
• A parallel circuit is formed when two or more
components are connected across a voltage source, as
shown in Fig. 5–1.

• In this figure, R1 and R2 are in parallel with each other

and a 1.5-V battery.
The Applied Voltage V A Is the Same
across Parallel Branches
• In Fig. 5–1 b, points A, B, C, and E are equivalent to a
direct connection at the positive terminal of the battery
because the connecting wires have practically no
resistance.

• Similarly, points H, G, D, and F are the same as a direct

connection at the negative battery terminal.
The Applied Voltage V A Is the Same
across Parallel Branches
• Since R1 and R2 are directly connected across the two
terminals of the battery, both resistances must have the
same potential difference as the battery.

• It follows that the voltage is the same across

components connected in parallel.
The Applied Voltage V A Is the Same
across Parallel Branches
• The parallel circuit arrangement is used, therefore, to
connect components that require the same voltage.
The Applied Voltage V A Is the Same
across Parallel Branches
• A common application of parallel circuits is typical house
wiring to the power line, with many lights and appliances
connected across the 120-V source (Fig. 5–2).

• The wall receptacle has a potential difference of 120-V

across each pair of terminals.
The Applied Voltage V A Is the Same
across Parallel Branches
• Therefore, any resistance
connected to an outlet has an
applied voltage of 120-V.

• The lightbulb is connected to

one outlet and the toaster to
another outlet, but both have
the same applied voltage of
120-V.

• Therefore, each operates

independently of any other
appliance, with all the individual
branch circuits connected
across the 120-V line.
Each Branch I Equals VA / R
• In applying Ohm’s law, it is important to note that the
current equals the voltage applied across the circuit
divided by the resistance between the two points where
that voltage is applied.

• In Fig. 5–3a, 10-V is applied across the 5-Ω of R2,

resulting in the current of 2-A between points E and F
through R2.
Each Branch I Equals VA / R
• The battery voltage is also applied across the parallel
resistance of R1, applying 10-V across 10-Ω.

• Through R1, therefore, the current is 1-A between points

C and D.

• The current has a different value through R1, with the

same applied voltage, because the resistance is different.
Each Branch I Equals VA / R
• These values are calculated as follows:
Each Branch I Equals VA / R
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
• Components to be connected in parallel are usually wired
directly across each other, with the entire parallel
combination connected to the voltage source, as
illustrated in Fig. 5–5.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
• This circuit is equivalent to wiring each parallel branch
directly to the voltage source, as shown in Fig. 5–1, when
the connecting wires have essentially zero resistance.

• The advantage of having only one pair of connecting

leads to the source for all the parallel branches is that
usually less wire is necessary.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
• The pair of leads connecting all the branches to the
terminals of the voltage source is the main line.

• In Fig. 5–5, the wires from G to A on the negative side and

from B to F in the return path form the main line.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
• In Fig. 5–5b, with 20-Ω of resistance for R1 connected
across the 20-V battery, the current through R1 must be
20-V/20-Ω = 1 A.

• This current is electron flow from the negative terminal of

the source, through R1, and back to the positive battery
terminal.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
• Similarly, the R2 branch of 10-Ω across the battery has its
own branch current of 20-V/10-Ω = 2-A.

• This current flows from the negative terminal of the

source, through R2, and back to the positive terminal,
since it is a separate path for electron flow.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
• All current in the circuit, however, must come from one
side of the voltage source and return to the opposite side
for a complete path. In the main line, therefore, the
amount of current is equal to the total of the branch
currents.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
Resistances in Parallel
• The combined equivalent resistance across the main line
in a parallel circuit can be found by Ohm’s law:

Divide the common voltage across the parallel

resistances by the total current of all the branches.
Resistances in Parallel
• Referring to Fig. 5–6a, note that the parallel resistance of
R1 with R2, indicated by the equivalent resistance REQ, is
the opposition to the total current in the main line.

• In this example, VA / IT is 60-V / 3-A = 20-Ω for REQ.

Resistances in Parallel
Parallel Bank
• A combination of parallel branches is often called a bank.
In Fig. 5–6, the bank consists of the 60-Ω R1 and 30- Ω R2
in parallel.

• Their combined parallel resistance REQ is the bank

resistance, equal to 20- Ω in this example.

• A bank can have two or more parallel resistors.

Reciprocal Resistance Formula
Total-Current Method
Special Case of Equal R in All
Branches
• If R is equal in all branches, the combined REQ equals the
value of one branch resistance divided by the number of
branches.
Special Case of Only Two Branches
• When there are two
parallel resistances and
they are not equal, it is
usually quicker to calculate
the combined resistance
by the method shown in
Fig. 5–10.

• This rule says that the

combination of two parallel
resistances is their product
divided by their sum.
Short-Cut Calculations
Finding an Unknown Branch
Resistance
Finding an Unknown Branch
Resistance
Conductances in Parallel
Total Power in Parallel Circuits
Troubleshooting: Opens and Shorts
in Parallel Circuits
• In a parallel circuit, the effect of an open or a short is much
different from that in a series circuit.

• For example, if one branch of a parallel circuit opens, the

other branch currents remain the same.

• The reason is that the other branches still have the same
applied voltage even though one branch has effectively
been removed from the circuit.

• Also, if one branch of a parallel circuit becomes shorted,

all branches are effectively shorted.
Troubleshooting: Opens and Shorts
in Parallel Circuits
• The result is excessive current in the shorted branch and
zero current in all other branches.

• In most cases, a fuse will be placed in the main line that

will burn open (blow) when its current rating is exceeded.

• When the fuse blows, the applied voltage is removed from

each of the parallel-connected branches.
The Effect of an Open in a Parallel
Circuit
• An open in any circuit is an infi nite resistance that results
in no current.

• However, in parallel circuits there is a difference between

an open circuit in the main line and an open circuit in a
parallel branch.

• These two cases are illustrated in Fig. 5–16.

The Effect of an Open in a Parallel
Circuit
• In Fig. 5–16a the open circuit in the main line prevents any
electron flow in the line to all the branches.

• The current is zero in every branch, therefore, and none of

the bulbs can light.
The Effect of an Open in a Parallel
Circuit
• However, in Fig. 5–16b the open is in the branch circuit for
bulb 1.

• The open branch circuit has no current, then, and this bulb
cannot light.

• The current in all the other parallel branches is normal,

though, because each is connected to the voltage source.
The Effect of an Open in a Parallel
Circuit
• Therefore, the other bulbs light.

• These circuits show the advantage of wiring components

in parallel.

• An open in one component opens only one branch,

whereas the other parallel branches have their normal
voltage and current.
The Effect of a Short in a Parallel
Circuit
• A short circuit has practically zero resistance.

• Its effect, therefore, is to allow excessive current in the

shorted circuit. Consider the example in Fig. 5–17.
The Effect of a Short in a Parallel
Circuit
• In Fig. 5–17a, the circuit is normal, with 1-A in each
branch and 2-A for the total line current.
The Effect of a Short in a Parallel
Circuit
• However, suppose that the conducting wire at point G
accidentally makes contact with the wire at point H, as
shown in Fig. 5–17b.

• Since the wire is an excellent conductor, the short circuit

results in practically zero resistance between points G and
H.
The Effect of a Short in a Parallel
Circuit
• These two points are connected directly across the
voltage source.

• Since the short circuit provides practically no opposition to

current, the applied voltage could produce an infinitely
high value of current through this current path.
The Short-Circuit Current
• Practically, the amount of current is
limited by the small resistance of the
wire.

• Also, the source usually cannot

maintain its output voltage while
supplying much more than its rated
load current.

• Still, the amount of current can be

dangerously high.

• For instance, the short-circuit current

might be more than 100-A instead of
the normal line current of 2-A in
Fig. 5–17a.
The Short-Circuit Current
• Because of the short
circuit, excessive current
flows in the voltage source,
in the line to the short
circuit at point H, through
the short circuit, and in the
line returning to the source
from G.

• Because of the large

amount of current, the
wires can become hot
enough to ignite and burn
the insulation covering the
wire.
The Short-Circuit Current
• There should be a fuse that would open if there is too
much current in the main line because of a short circuit
across any of the branches.
 The Short-Circuited Components
Have No Current
• For the short circuit in Fig. 5–17b,
the I is 0-A in the parallel resistors
R1 and R2.

• The reason is that the short circuit

is a parallel path with practically
zero resistance.

• Then all the current flows in this

path, bypassing the resistors R1
and R2.
 The Short-Circuited Components
Have No Current
• Therefore R1 and R2 are short-
circuited or shorted out of the
circuit.

• They cannot function without their

normal current.

• If they were filament resistances

of light bulbs or heaters, they
would not light without any
current.
 The Short-Circuited Components
Have No Current
• The short-circuited components
are not damaged, however.

• They do not even have any

current passing through them.

• Assuming that the short circuit

has not damaged the voltage
source and the wiring for the
circuit, the components can
operate again when the circuit is
restored to normal by removing
the short circuit.
 Finding R T for Series-Parallel
Resistances
• In Fig. 6–1, R1 is in series with R2. Also, R3 is in parallel with
R4.

• However, R2 is not in series with either R3 or R4.

 Finding R T for Series-Parallel
Resistances
• The reason is that the current through R2 is equal to the sum
of the branch currents I3 and I4 flowing into and away from
point A (see Fig. 6–1b).

• As a result, the current through R3 must be less than the

current through R2.
 Finding R T for Series-Parallel
Resistances
• Therefore, R2 and R3 cannot be in series because they do
not have the same current.

• For the same reason, R4 also cannot be in series with R2.

• However, because the current in R1 and R2 is the same as

the current flowing to and from the terminals of the voltage
source, R1, R2, and VT are in series.
Finding R T for Series-Parallel
Resistances
Finding R T for Series-Parallel
Resistances
Resistance Strings in Parallel
Resistance Banks in Series
Resistance Banks and Strings
in Series-Parallel
The Wheatstone Bridge
• A Wheatstone* bridge is a circuit that is used to determine
the value of an unknown resistance.

• A typical Wheatstone bridge is shown in Fig. 6–10.

The Wheatstone Bridge
• Notice that four resistors are configured in a diamond-like
arrangement, which is typically how the Wheatstone bridge
is drawn.

• In Fig. 6–10, the applied voltage VT is connected to

terminals A and B, which are considered the input terminals
to the Wheatstone bridge.
 The Wheatstone Bridge
• A very sensitive zero-centered current meter M1, called a
galvonometer, is connected between terminals C and D,
which are considered the output terminals.

Galvanometer, instrument for measuring a small electrical current or a function of the

current by deflection of a moving coil. The deflection is a mechanical rotation derived from
forces resulting from the current.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• As shown in Fig. 6–10, the unknown resistor RX is placed
in the same branch as a variable standard resistor RS.

• It is important to note that the standard resistor RS is a

precision resistance variable from 0–9999-Ω in 1- Ω steps.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• In the other branch, resistors R1 and R2 make up what is
known as the ratio arm.

• Resistors R1 and R2 are also precision resistors having

very tight resistance tolerances.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• To determine the value of an unknown resistance RX,
adjust the standard resistor RS until the current in M1 reads
exactly 0-A.

• With zero current in M1 the Wheatstone bridge is said to be

balanced.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• With zero current in M1, the voltage division among
resistors RX and RS is identical to the voltage division
among the ratio arm resistors R1 and R2.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• When the voltage division in the RX–RS branch is identical
to the voltage division in the R1–R2 branch, the potential
difference between points C and D will equal 0 V.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• With a potential difference of 0 V across points C and D,
the current in M1 will read 0 !A, which is the balanced
condition.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• At balance, the equal voltage ratios can be stated as:
The Wheatstone Bridge
• The ratio arm R1/R2 can be varied in most cases, typically
in multiples of 10, such as 100/1, 10/1, 1/1, 1/10, and
1/100.

• However, the bridge is still balanced by varying the

standard resistor RS.

• The placement accuracy of the measurement of RX is

determined by the R1/R2 ratio.

• For example, if R1/R2 = 1/10, the value of RX is accurate to

within ±0.1-Ω.

• Likewise, if R1/R2 = 1/100, the value of RX will be accurate

to within ± 0.01-Ω.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• The R1/R2 ratio also determines the maximum unknown
resistance that can be measured.

• Expressed as an equation.
The Wheatstone Bridge
END