AC Electricity Generators

(AC Power Generators)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdSKlg80DjU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwIdZjjd8fo
• Mostly synchronous machines
o However, DC machines can be used as DC generator to generate DC
electric power
o Induction machines are used in wind power plants as the AC generator

• Mechanical input → GENERATOR → Electrical output

• Synchronous machine-Motor mode : When the stator is supplied with 3-

phase 50Hz ac electricity, rotor rotates at the synchronous speed
• Synchronous machine-Generator mode : When the rotor is rotated by an external
mechanical source at synchronous speed, a 3-phase, 50Hz, AC electricity is
generated in the stator windings
• Stator: has a distributed AC winding (stator winding)
• Rotor: is an electromagnet (field winding)
• Working principle: When the rotor electromagnet is rotated inside the stator
winding, voltages are induced in the stator windings according to the Faraday’s
law. Hence, the induced voltage depends on the speed of rotation and the
current in the field winding (rotor winding).

• Mechanical input to rotate the rotor comes from the “prime mover” such as
 o Combustion engines; eg. diesel, petrol, natural gas, heavy fuel
o Turbines ; eg. hydro, steam, gas, wind

Frequency Governor : Law of conservation of energy

AVR : Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Speed regulator (frequency governor):

Turbine/Engine → Mechanical Power → AC Generator → Electric Power

The function of the frequency governor is to regulate the output voltage frequency at
the rated value, eg. at 50 Hz, all the time. This is an automatic control system.
• When the electric load on the generator increases, engine or the turbine needs
more power to rotate the generator rotor. Engine and the generator rotor slow
down. Generator speed slows down below the synchronous speed. Hence,
frequency of the output ac voltage drops.
• If the electric load deceases, engine/turbine speeds up. Generator rotor speeds
up and hence the output frequency increases.
• In order to regulate (maintain) the frequency at 50 Hz, generator must rotate at
the constant synchronous speed. Hence, engine/turbine rpm has to be regulated
at a constant value ALL THE TIME irrespective of the changes in the electric load.
• Governor regulates the engine/turbine speed to maintain the frequency of the ac
voltage output at 50 Hz all the time.
• In engines: the throttle valve is opened and closed to adjust the air and fuel
supply to the engine. This way the speed is regulated at constant value all the
time. Generator output frequency is maintained at 50 Hz all the time.

• In turbines: water, steam, gas (hot air) flow is adjusted by opening and closing
valves to regulate the speed of the turbine.

Valve
50 Hz Motor Throtlle Engine +
Controller + valve
Power Generator
r
Unit
𝑓

Frequency
measurement
Automatic voltage regulator (AVR):

• AVR regulates the terminal voltage at 230 V (1-phase) or 400 V (3-phase line-to-
line) all the time. This is achieved by adjusting the magnetic field produced by
the rotor electromagnet as required.
• Recall the power transformer. It has internal impedance. As a result, there is an
internal voltage drop. This drop depends on the current. Current depends on the
load. We defined the voltage regulation as
Noload voltage − full load voltage
× 100%
Full load voltage
• Just like in a power transformer, power generator has a core and windings, and
as a result, an internal impedance. Because of the internal impedance, the
terminal voltage tends to drop as the load increases.
•
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝑍0 𝐼
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the terminal voltage, 𝑍0 is the internal impedance, 𝐼 is the output current,
and 𝐸 is the induced voltage in the stator according to the Faraday’s law. Note
that 𝐸 is also the terminal voltage at no-load (𝐼 = 0).
At no-load =0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝑍0 𝐼
Plot 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 versus 𝐼
V

• Generator has an internal impedance due to the core, winding resistances and
leakage inductances, just like in the power transformers.

Field winding Stator winding

• Because of the internal impedance, generator terminal voltage varies with the
load current. In high quality generators, the terminal voltage difference at full-
load and no-load will be smaller (better voltage regulation).
• Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) automatically adjusts the rotor magnetic field
when the terminal voltage varies. This way AVR maintains the terminal voltage at
230 V (1-phase) or 400 V (3-phase line-to-line) all the time.
• However, low-end and small generators sometimes do not have an AVR. In such
generators, the terminal voltage varies with the load (or load current). How
much it varies depends on the internal impedance of the generator and its
capacity (load current). However, large generators almost always come with a
voltage regulator.
Basic concept of AVR:
How an AVR in a self-excited generator works?

• The actual terminal voltage of the generator, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 , is sensed by the voltage
sensor. This value is fed to the voltage controller (a microcontroller. In this
diagram, voltage detection circuit)
• Voltage controller compares the actual value, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 , with the reference value, eg.
230 V, and adjusts the dc current through the rotor field winding. This way, the
magnetic field is adjusted till 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 becomes equal to the reference, 230 V.
How is the magnetic field strength automatically adjusted in a AVR system of a self-
excited generator?
• Magnetic field strength is adjusted by varying the dc current through the field
winding in the rotor. This is done by varying the ON duration of the transistor in
the circuit.
• In a self-excited generator, the dc voltage supply for the field winding is
produced by rectifying (RB-rectifier bridge. See the diagram) the ac voltage
induced in the excitation winding and charging a capacitor. No external dc is
required during running. Hence, such generators are called self-excited.
• dc current through the field is varied by varying the ON period (𝑡𝑂𝑁 ) of the
transistor, Q. Here, 𝑡𝑂𝑁 + 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 𝑇 is a constant. When 𝑡𝑂𝑁 is longer, the average
dc current in the field winding is higher.
• When Q is ON, the current flows through Q. When Q is off, the current circulates
(and decays) through the diode, D.
Starting:
Engine-generator units larger than about 1 kW rating often have a battery and electric
starter motor; very large units may start with compressed air either to an air driven
starter motor (pneumatic motors) or introduced directly to the engine cylinders to
initiate engine rotation. Standby power generating units often include an automatic
starting system.
Why need a battery?
1. For the starter motor
2. To energize the field winding at the start
Transfer switch:
A transfer switch is required to disconnect the load from the utility supply (CEB or
LECO) when there is a grid power outage and connect it to the generator.

Fig. 2: An automatic electronic transfer switch

Safety:
A 5.5 kW generator may generate the same amount of carbon monoxide as six cars,
which can quickly build up to fatal levels if the generator has been placed indoors. Using
engine generators in garages, or near open windows or air conditioning vents can also
result in carbon monoxide poisoning.
 Fig. 3: Generator warning stating

CE Marking

Associated Press
Tue, 20 July 2021, 5:07 pm

Three young friends camping at a country music festival in the US state of

Michigan have died of what is believed to be carbon monoxide exposure,
while two other friends are fighting for their lives in hospital.
Kole Sova (left) , 19, and Dawson Brown (right), 20, died alongside their friend William Mays Jr., 20.
Source: The Dawson and Sova families/MLive

The deaths on Saturday (local time) were probably caused by carbon

monoxide from a portable generator that was operating too close to their
travel trailer, Lenawee County Sheriff Troy Bevier said on Monday.
The victims likely were asleep and “never knew what happened,” Bevier told
The Associated Press.

Inverter generators:
 • Lower frequency (eg. 20 Hz) ac is generated by the generator. This ac is rectified
to produce dc. This dc becomes the input to the inverter. Inverter produces
higher (eg. 50 Hz) frequency, high quality (sine ac waveform) ac output.
• Advantages:
o Quiet operation: because the generator can run at lower speeds (eg.
without inverter 3000 rpm and with inverter 1200 rpm)
o High quality power: advanced inverters produce better quality and stable
sine waveform
o Better fuel efficiency: because engine does not have to run at high rpm
(eg. 3000 rpm for 50 Hz; 3600 rpm for 60 Hz) all the time, it can operate
at lower speeds that give better power efficiencies
Eg. Engine efficiency versus speed curves

Examples from the industry:-

What inverter-generator vendors say?
https://powerequipment.honda.com/generators
Power quality:
www.elemax.jp/products_iv.html
High Quality, pure sine wave electrical output perfect for sensitive equipment like

computers and TVs, as well as inductive load like pumps.

Conventional gens show prominent voltage drop, around 5%, between no-load to rated

load, whereas SHX8000Di's drop is within 1%.

Conventional gen's frequency fluctuates, most notably under inrush loads, by around
 5%.

SHX8000Di on the other hand maintains perfectly stable frequency.

An industry Problem:
A printing machine is supplied by a conventional diesel generator. However,
during the operation, the engine-generator set vibrates rapidly. The recorded
output frequency is found to be chattering fast around the rated value. It is also
noted that the printing machine consists of certain electric heating loads that
turn on and off quite rapidly.
a. Theoretically explain this scenario giving the reasons why the encountered
problems happen
b. It is recommended that the conventional generator be replaced by an inverter
type diesel generator of the same capacity from the above company (see the
diagrams) to rectify the problems. Your opinion is sought with clear
discussion of the problem in the light of the technologies used in the inverter
type generator
The 2 problems:
1. Engine-generator set vibrates rapidly
2. Generator output frequency oscillates rapidly
Proposed solution:
Conventional generator be replaced by an inverter type generator of the same capacity
from the above company
Review of the proposed solution:
In conventional engine-generator sets, engine provides mechanical kinetic energy to the
generator and the generator produces ac electrical energy of 50 Hz frequency and rated
voltage. This electrical energy is supplied to the load.
Engine →Mechanical power → Generator → AC electric power 50 Hz, 230 V → Load
In the steady-state, the generator runs at the constant synchronous speed and
produces ac electricity at 50 Hz. However, if the electrical load increases or decreases
suddenly, generator speed and hence the output frequency goes down and up.
Frequency governor increases or decreases the mechanical power input to bring the
generator speed back at the constant synchronous speed. This way the frequency will
be quickly restored at 50 Hz. However, this takes a little time. As a result, frequency
fluctuates if the load increases and decreases rapidly.
50 Hz
At the same time, mechanical vibrations may be observed as a result of rapid
accelerations and decelerations of the engine-generator set.
In the inverter generator, the engine generator runs at a much slower speed and
produces ac electricity of lower frequency such as 20 Hz. This ac electricity is rectified
and filtered to produce dc. An inverter converts this dc to pure sinusoidal, 50 Hz ac
electricity of the right rms voltage.
Engine →Mechanical power → Generator → AC electricity, eg. 20 Hz
→Rectifier/Filter/Inverter → 50 Hz, 230 V, pure sine wave ac → Load
Problem 1: Mechanical vibration of the engine-generator set
Mechanical vibration is due to the frequency governor response time in the face of
rapidly changing electric load and as a result frequent acceleration and deceleration of
the engine-generator set. Rectifier, filter, inverter arrangement in the inverter generator
cannot solve this power unbalance and resulting vibrations. However, the engine
generator set in an inverter generator runs at a lower speed, eg. 1200 rpm in contrast
to 3000 rpm. As a result, one can expect the mechanical vibration to improve.
Problem 2: Poor power quality due to frequency oscillations
In the inverter generator, the inverter produces 50 Hz ac using the dc obtained by
rectifying the ac waveform coming from the generator and filtering it. Modern inverters
can produce pure sine ac with very small or zero THD. Problem 2 will be solved.