PIA Training Centre Module 9A – HUMAN FACTORS

Category – B Sub Module 9.7 – Communication

MODULE 9A
Sub Module 9.7

COMMUNICATION

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Category – B Sub Module 9.7 – Communication

Contents

SECTION 1: COMMUNICATION WITHIN & BETWEEN TEAMS ------ 1

1.1 COMMUNICATION --------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2 WITHIN AND BETWEEN TEAMS ---------------------------------------- 1
1.3 MODES OF COMMUNICATION ----------------------------------------- 1
1.4 VERBAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION -------------------------- 2
1.5 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION -------------------------------------- 2
1.6 COMMUNICATION WITHIN TEAMS------------------------------------ 3
1.7 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN TEAMS --------------------------------- 3
1.8 COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS ----------------------------------------- 4
SECTION 2: WORKLOGGING & RECORDING ----------------------------- 7
SECTION 3: KEEPING UP TO DATE, CURRENCY UPDATING ---------- 9
SECTION 4: DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION ----------------------10

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SECTION 1: COMMUNICATION WITHIN & BETWEEN As the sender of a message, he will typically expect some kind
TEAMS of response from the person he is communicating with (the
recipient), which could range from a simple acknowledgement
1.1 COMMUNICATION that his message has been received (and hopefully
understood), to a considered and detailed reply. The response
Good communication is important in every industry. In aircraft constitutes feedback. Communication is defined in the Penguin
maintenance engineering, it is vital. Communication, or more Dictionary of Psychology as:
often a breakdown in communication, is often cited as a
contributor to aviation incidents and accidents. This chapter “The transmission of something from one location to another.
examines the various aspects of communication that affect the The ‘thing’ that is transmitted may be a message, a signal, a
aircraft maintenance engineer. meaning, etc. In order to have communication both the
transmitter and the receiver must share a common code, so that
1.2 WITHIN AND BETWEEN TEAMS the meaning or information contained in the message may be
interpreted without error”.
As noted in previous chapters, aircraft maintenance engineers
often work as teams. Individuals within team exchange As can be seen in the above definition, communication can be:
information and need to receive instructions, guidance, etc.
Moreover, one team will have to pass on tasks to another team  Verbal/spoken - e.g. a single word, a phrase or
at shift handover. An engineer needs a good understanding of sentence, a grunt
the various processes of communication, as without this, it is
impossible to appreciate how communication can go wrong.  Written/textual - e.g. printed words and/or numbers
on paper or on a screen, hand written notes
1.3 MODES OF COMMUNICATION  Non-verbal –

We are communicating almost constantly, whether consciously  Graphic - e.g. pictures, diagrams, hand drawn
or otherwise. An aircraft maintenance engineer might regularly sketches, indications on a cockpit instrument
communicate:  Symbolic - e.g. ‘thumbs up’, wave of the hand,
nod of the head
 Information
 Ideas  Body language - e.g. facial expressions, touch
 Feelings such as a pat on the back, posture
 Attitudes and beliefs
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1.4 VERBAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 1.5 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Generally speaking, verbal and written communication is Non-verbal communication can accompany verbal
purposeful. For a spoken or written message to be understood, communication, such as a smile during a face-to-face chat. It
the sender has to make sure that the receiver: can also occur independently, for instance a colleague may
pass on his ideas by using a sketch rather than the use of
 is using the same channel of communication words. It can also be used when verbal communication is
impossible, such as a nod of the head in a noisy environment.
 recognizes and understands his language
Non-verbal communication is also the predominant manner by
 is able to make sense of the message’s meaning which systems communicate their status. For instance, most
displays in the aircraft cockpit present their information
The channel of communication is the medium used to convey graphically.
the message. For spoken communication, this might be face-to-
face, or via the telephone. Written messages might be notes, Body language can be very subtle, but often quite powerful. For
memos, documents or e-mails. In the UK it is expected that example, the message “No” accompanied by a smile will be
aircraft maintenance engineers will communicate in English. interpreted quite differently from the same word said whilst the
However, it is also vital that the message coding used by the sender scowls.
sender is appreciated by the recipient so that he can decode the
message accurately. This means that engineers must have a
similar knowledge of technical language, jargon and acronyms.

Assuming the channel and language used are compatible, to

extract meaning, the engineer has to understand the content of
the message. This means that it has to be clear and
unambiguous. The message must also be appropriate to the
context of the workplace and preferably be compatible with the
receiver’s expectations. Where any ambiguity exists, the
engineer must seek clarification.

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1.6 COMMUNICATION WITHIN TEAMS 1.7 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN TEAMS

Individual aircraft maintenance engineers need to communicate: Communication between teams is critical in aircraft
maintenance engineering. It is the means by which one team
 Before starting a task - to find out what to do passes on tasks to another team. This usually occurs at shift
handover. The information conveyed will include:
 During a task - to discuss work in progress, ask
colleagues questions, confirm actions or intentions, or to  Tasks that have been completed
ensure that others are informed of the maintenance
state at any particular time  Tasks in progress, their status, and any problems
encountered, etc.
 At the end of a task - to report its completion and
highlight any problems  Tasks to be carried out

Spoken communication makes up a large proportion of day-to-  General company and technical information
day communication within teams in aircraft maintenance. It
relies both on clear transmission of the message (i.e. not Communication between teams will involve passing on written
mumbled or obscured by background noise) and the ability of reports of tasks from one shift supervisor to another. Ideally, this
the recipient of the message to hear it (i.e. active listening should be backed up by spoken details passed between
followed by accurate interpretation of the message). Good supervisors and, where appropriate, individual engineers. This
communication within a team helps to maintain group cohesion. means that, wherever necessary, outgoing engineers personally
brief their incoming colleagues. The written reports
It is much less common for individuals within teams to use (maintenance cards, procedures, work orders, logs, etc.) and
written communication. They would however be expected to warning flags / placards provide a record of work completed and
obtain pertinent written information communicated by service work yet to be completed - in other words, they provide
bulletins and work cards and to complete documentation traceability. Furthermore, information communicated at shift
associated with a task. handover ensures good continuity. It is important that
handovers are not rushed, so as to minimize omissions.

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1.8 COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS Perception

There are two main ways in which communication can cause If the transmitter of a message wrongly perceives the receiver
problems. These are lack of communication and poor he will use the wrong language and medium for transmission of
communication. The former is characterized by the engineer that message. Similarly, if the receiver has a perceived image
who forgets to pass on pertinent information to a colleague, or of the sender i.e. he thinks he is a ‘bit of an old granny’ then the
when a written message is mislaid. The latter is typified by the message received might not be treated with the respect and
engineer who does not make it clear what he needs to know urgency the transmitter desired.
and consequently receives inappropriate information, or a
written report in barely legible handwriting. Both problems can Jargon
lead to subsequent human error. Spoken messages provide
considerable flexibility and informality to express work-related
With modern technology there are a large number of words,
matters when necessary. The key to such communication is to
use words effectively and obtain feedback to make sure your phrases and acronyms being used in communication. When a
message has been heard and understood. member of one group communicates with a member of another
group, problems can occur because of the different language
Communication also goes wrong when one of the parties being used within each group.
involved makes some kind of assumption. The sender of a
message may assume that the receiver understands the terms Technical Words
he has used. The receiver of a message may assume that the
message means one thing when in fact he has misinterpreted it. The transmitter of the message must know his audience. If
Assumptions may be based on context and expectations, which technical words are used to communicate to a non-technical
have already been mentioned. Problems with assumptions can person/group, the sense of the message will become difficult
be minimized if messages are unambiguous and proper and may be lost.
feedback is given.
Process Difficulties
The most important distortions and misunderstandings occur in
vertical communications, especially where messages change If there is a difficult message to be communicated and there is
from oral to written and vice versa. Departments tend to operate no ‘feedback’ a problem may exist as a result of the message
in isolation and in larger organisations this can lead to strained not being correctly transmitted or understood.
and difficult communications. There are other barriers which
must be overcome if successful communication is to take place,
such as perceptions, jargon, technical words and process
difficulties.
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Verbal Reports Written Reports

If a message is straightforward and simple, and the other All written reports should be written as clearly and concisely as
person is easily reached, then you might prefer to talk to him possible for the intended reader. ‘Purpose’ type reports are
personally. The message might be for his ears alone, or he used where commercial policy and company control is used
might need to be shown something. If the information is within the organisation.
relatively simple and easily understood a short ‘briefing’ may be
News Summaries
given to a group in order that it can be passed easily to their
subordinates and so on amongst the employees. This is used within organisations to inform employees of
changes in company performance, safety issues, training
The disadvantage is that the message can change as it is course information etc. It can be in the form of a Newsletter,
conveyed down the line. The classic example is the army Magazine or a Notice on the bulletin board.
message sent back from the front line to headquarters:
Body Language
‘Send reinforcements we’re going to advance.’
Eye contact, facial expression, body orientation, hand and head
Unfortunately, by the time it reached headquarters, the movement and physical separation are all ways we
message had become: communicate without speaking. It can also affect our
relationships with and perception of the personality of the other
‘Send three and four pence we’re going to a dance.’ person. Body language conveys far more than speech alone.
Eye contact is usually very brief, except between the most
intimate of friends. Prolonged staring is seen as threatening
This, perhaps, is due to whispered words being perceived by
and should be avoided.
their sounds rather than their sense and meaning.
Facial expressions can convey a whole series of emotions,
Communications can fail when one or the other party is not sadness, delight, disgust, contempt, boredom and many more.
listening or is being distracted. The man reading his paper at By observing the listener’s facial expression, it soon becomes
breakfast, muttering and nodding without really listening to his apparent that you may have lost their interest or perhaps are
wife’s conversation. antagonising them.
Where distance or an interval of time is involved, or the Touch, except for a brief handshake, is not welcome in western
message is complex, a written report should be made. It can be society; one tends to be suspicious of someone who clings to
referred ‘back to’ if it is difficult to remember and understood. In your hand when introduced.
itself it forms a record and may be a basis for other actions.
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Posture and whole-body movement is a guide to the listener’s

interest. We tend to lean towards those with whom we agree
and away from those we dislike. When bored we avoid even
the briefest of eye contact or may display our disinterest by
drumming fingers or playing with a pencil.

We guard our personal space jealously, sitting or standing in

close proximity to other than intimate friends unsettles us. If
colleagues are sharing a desk, facing each other, they tend to
resent spill-over from their colleague’s side into what they see
as ‘their space’ and will move objects, openly or surreptitiously,
back to the other side.

Verbal communication can be altered by varying the pattern of

speech; by changing the pitch of our voice, stressing some
phrases or inserting pauses. A rising voice and rapid speech
may portray anxiety whilst short clipped speech may express
urgency. Rambling speech indicates uncertainty. The end of a
meaningful sentence, dropping the voice, eye contact and
possibly gestures are all clues to the completion of that
speaker’s turn and it is time for an input from another speaker.
An interruption can be taken as a threat. Most people, when
interrupted, will give way to avoid simultaneous speech. An
interruption is considered to break the rules and is seen as rude
and domineering.

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SECTION 2: WORKLOGGING & RECORDING Documentation

While it is generally regarded that English is the international The work layout on Job Cards and Work Sheets should
language of the aeroplane, it is not the language used encourage work to be signed for as it progresses throughout the
nationally. Manuals and documentation are provided in the stages. The design of the forms should be such that there are
country of manufacture in the national language and are full instructions available on how to complete the form with the
adequate for use there. When such aircraft equipment is used required information. Ambiguity should be avoided. The form
on the British register then the necessary written information should be as simple as possible to achieve the results desired.
must be in English, Log Books also must be in English, foreign Any data for onward processing should be in a form which is
language log books will be closed and retained with the records. easy to use. The layout should leave ample space for recording
The information being provided by every organisation and action.
person associated with aircraft and equipment needs to be clear
Printing of forms should have letters and numbers of a size that
and concise and free from ERROR. To this end training and is easily read, without the danger of misreading due to poor
examination techniques produce certifiers who have quality printing.
demonstrated the ability to communicate effectively in written
English!!! When recording work on the Job Cards and Work Sheets it shall
be in accordance with the approved maintenance manual text,
This ability is used when communicating between individuals, and all references made in accordance with the manual
teams, companies and authorities from the ramp to the numbering system. This also applies to work in accordance with
boardroom. Lines of communications are created which ensures Service Bulletins, Airworthiness Directives and Airworthiness
the transmission of information to all parties, the most important Notices etc. There should be NO RELYING ON MEMORY or
being how we communicate with our colleagues in the work referring to unauthorised books i.e. using training notes.
area. It is necessary to receive work instructions in writing from Routine tasks and major components changes usually have
whoever plans and schedules the work; this is usually pre-printed work sheets, with the job laid down in stages for
maintenance control in the form of work packs. These will be certification signatures. Non-routine tasks, such as repair and
compiled from various sources, monitored by the department rectification has to rely on the licensed engineer completing the
and presented to the work team as a package. The progress of work sheets as the job progresses in a logical, safe manner with
the work can be accounted for only by strict adherence to the duplicate inspections and tasks correctly called up as required
rules laid down in company manuals with regard to use of the by the task. The technical information used is only found in
work pack. Don’t do it your way, do it the Correct way!! approved publications and great care is needed to ensure these
are complete and up to date. It is the responsibility of the
Certificate of Release to Service issuer to ensure this. Should
errors be found or suspected in Manuals, Drawings and CDs
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your company publications’ section should help you initially. If

problems still exist the Aircraft’s Customer Services Department
must be contacted.

The certifying engineer should also be up to date with Company

Procedures and report discrepancies through the usual
channels. He should be aware of his responsibilities and duties
in accordance with the ANO, EASA’s and AWN No 3, with
paragraph 1:15 in mind constantly.

DO NOT ASSUME - CHECK!!

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SECTION 3: KEEPING UP TO DATE, CURRENCY UPDATING The literature supplied to support the operation of the aircraft
should contain all the information you need. If it doesn’t contact
All aircraft engineers have to be UP TO DATE with the latest the publication section of your company or contact the
service bulletins, letters and amendments to Manuals etc. This Aircraft/Component Manufacturer direct. If the correct
awareness of changes can be brought to the attention of information cannot be found straight away, the work on the
engineers by safety notices on the company notice boards and aircraft/equipment should STOP until it is available.
by-passing copies of the amendments around to be read. The
company’s Quality Assurance Department probably will require Reading Manuals during ‘slack periods’ will help with your
signatures of proof, that the engineer has read those important
amendments which are applicable to him. Outside the direct subject knowledge and ease of referral in the future.
changes to the aircraft the engineer is currently certificating, he
should be kept up to date with changing technology modern
techniques.

Reading commercial aircraft periodicals, watching technical

programmes on television and downloading technical
information from the Internet, help in the process of keeping
abreast of new developments in the industry. If the new
techniques and technology is going to be required in the near
future by the company, the engineers will be sent for specialist
courses, seminars and briefings etc.

One of the biggest causes of aircraft accidents and incidents

which can be attributed to engineers is the incorrect assembly
of components. This can be due to engineers’ carrying out work
without reading the Manuals and other technical information,
perhaps they are reverting to memory, we have also heard the
term ‘if all else fails, read the instructions’, and many people
dealing with technology have used this approach from time to
time. This is WRONG; the CORRECT thing to do is to read the
manuals FIRST! Not only the Aircraft Maintenance Manuals, but
the Service Bulletins, Illustrated Parts Catalogue, the pre-
printed job cards for the task in hand and any other information
required BEFORE you start the job.

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SECTION 4: DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION The engineer, when he becomes aware of the problem, has a
duty to share his knowledge with others. Directly to his peers
In the maintenance of aircraft, over their life, information has to verbally, and management within his company, perhaps
pass between the Manufacturers’ Regulatory Bodies, Operators following a laid down in-house reporting system.
and the Licensed Aircraft Engineers. Dissemination means
spreading information broad and this information can be passed As highlighted earlier, both the individual engineer and the
on by several methods. The information may be of a GENERAL organization in which he works have a shared responsibility to
OR TECHNICAL nature, not requiring any certifying action by keep abreast of new information. Good dissemination of
an individual engineer. The Civil Aviation Authority disseminates information within an organization forms part of its safety
information of an Airworthiness Technical and General nature to
all pilots, airfield ranges operators and licensed engineers, by culture. Typically, the maintenance organization will be the
their publication CAP 455 Airworthiness Notices. sender and the individual engineer will be the recipient.

Where information is required for the certification of aircraft by An aircraft maintenance engineer or team of engineers need to
the individual, the information will be written in a format he plan the way work will be performed. Part of this process should
should be capable of understanding. This information will be be checking that all information relating to the task has been
Service Bulletins, Letters, and Amendments to Manuals etc. gathered and understood. This includes checking to see if there
is any information highlighting a change associated with the
Incoming information will be disseminated, by circulars, notice task (e.g. the way something should be done, the tools to be
board bulletins posters, charts, photographs, videos and films. used, the components or parts involved)
Short, precise and urgent messages to groups could be
conveyed by telephone and public-address systems. There should normally be someone within the maintenance
organization with the responsibility for disseminating
If the information is very important and has a safety aspect,
feedback is required. All those who have a need to know, have information. Supervisors can play an important role by ensuring
received the information and that they understand it is shown by that the engineers within their team have seen and understood
signing an attached action slip. When completed it will give any communicated information.
evidence that all those who need to know have been made
aware of the new/changes of information. Communication is an active process whereby both the
organization and engineer have to play their part. It is
The Licensed Aircraft Engineer should be made aware of all imperative that engineers working remotely from the
Service Bulletins, Letters, Manual Amendments, Airworthiness engineering base (e.g. on the line) familiarize themselves with
Directives and Airworthiness Notices for those new information (on notice boards, in maintenance manuals,
aircraft/components that he is certifying serviceable for Release etc.) on a regular basis.
to Service.
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Poor dissemination of information was judged to have been a

contributory factor to the Eastern Airlines accident in 1983. The
NTSB accident report stated:

“On May 17, 1983, Eastern Air Lines issued a revised work card
7204 [master chip detector installation procedures, including the
fitment of O-ring seals] … The material was posted and all
mechanics were expected to comply with the guidance.
However, there was no supervisory follow-up to ensure that
mechanics and foremen were incorporating the training material
into the work requirements… Use of binders and bulletin boards
is not an effective means of controlling the dissemination of
important work procedures, especially when there is no
accountability system in place to enable supervisors to ensure
that all mechanics had seen the applicable training and
procedural information.”

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