PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.12

DC MOTOR / GENERATOR THEORY

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

CONTENTS
BASIC GENEARATOR AND MOTOR THEORY ------------------- 1
DC GENERATOR --------------------------------------------------------- 7
CONSTRUCTION AND PUPOSE OF COMPONENTS ---------- 7
ELECTROMAGNETIC PROBLEMS ---------------------------------14
FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT OF DC GENERATORS ---- 31
DC MOTORS -------------------------------------------------------------- 32
DC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION --------------------------------------- 35
TYPES OF DC MOTOR AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS ---35
SERIES DC MOTOR ---------------------------------------------------- 36
SHUNT DC MOTOR ----------------------------------------------------- 37
COMPOUND DC MOTOR ---------------------------------------------- 38
TORQUES IN A DC MOTOR: ----------------------------------------- 41
STARTER GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION ----------------------47

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

BASIC GENERATOR AND MOTOR THEORY

A electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical

energy (or power) into electrical energy (or power).

A dc generator produces direct power. Both of these generators

produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle
of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. According to
these law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts
magnetic lines force, due to which an emf is induced in the
conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon
the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the
conductor. This emf will cause an electric current to flow if the FIGURE:3.12.1 A SIMPLE DC GENERATOR
conductor circuit is closed.

The most basic essential parts of a DC generator are

It should be noted that any generator in the first instance
a) a magnetic field either Permanent or electro magnet
produces AC, however, it is the method in which the output is
b) conductors or Armature winding in which emf is induced.
picked off determines whether it is ac or dc, (i.e. Commutator or
c) Commutator or split Rings which converts AC to DC slip rings).

A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

It does this by producing relative motion between loops of wire
and magnetic flux so that an induced voltage is set up in the
loops of wire.

The simplest form of dc generator is shown in Fig 1 and

consists of a single loop of wire able to rotate freely between the
poles of a permanent magnet. Connection is made from the
loop to the external circuit (or ’load’) by carbon brushes pressing
on a Commutator, which is connected to the ends of the loop
and rotates with it.

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory
GENERATOR EQUATION

A conductor of unit length L, when moved with a velocity ‘v’ in a

magnetic field of flux density B shown, would experience

 Max emf induction if conductor moves left or right i.e.

perpendicular to the field magnetic lines of force; y
component of the velocity of the conductor.
y= V Sin Ө
 Min emf if the conductor moves up or down along the
direction of the field magnetic lines of forces i.e. x
component of the velocity of the conductor.
X = V Cos Ө

As per Faraday Laws the magnitude of the induced emf

in the conductor would be proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkage, the length of the conductor which
is under the influence of the magnetic lines of forces or
flux ‘L’ and the flux density of the field ‘B’ and Ө is
between B and direction of movement V of the
conductor. FIGURE: 3.12.2

Emf = B L V Sin Ө

In a basic generator since B, L and Velocity V are mutually

perpendicular thereby for a Generator the equation becomes

EMF = B L V

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

PRODUCTION OF DIRECT CURRENT

Direct current can be obtained in the external circuit by

substituting a form of automatic reversing switch, known as a
COMMUTATOR, for the slip rings. The commutator
mechanically reverses the armature loop connections to the
external circuit and this occurs at the same instant when the
polarity of the induced voltage in the armature loop reverses,
thus maintaining the direction of current in the load, as shown in
Fig 3.

Each end of the loop is connected to a segment of the FIGURE: 3.12.3 PRODUCTION OF DC BY COMMUTATOR ACTION
commutator and the load is connected to the loop by brushes
on opposite sides of the commutator. As the loop rotates, an
alternating voltage is induced in it, but, because of the action of
the commutator, a ‘rippled dc’ is produced as opposed to a
genuine ac waveform. Because Commutator rotates with the
loop, the brushes bear on opposite segments of it during each
half cycle. This results in the left-hand brush always being in
contact with the segment that is positive, with the change-over
taking place at the instant when the voltage induced in the loop
is zero. The current in the external circuit is therefore always in
the same direction and is called a UNI-DIRECTIONAL current.
It is also the first step towards obtaining a true dc output such
as we get from a battery.

FIGURE: 3.12.4

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory
At position A - zero degree
EMF = zero
The plane of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic line of
forces i.e. maximum flux linkage Nɸ, but as conductors move At position D: 1800 → 2700
parallel to the flux thereby flux cutting is minimum or zero Now the direction of cutting action of the conductors reverses,
thereby no emf or voltage is induced in the armature. as conductor ‘a’ is moving upwards whereas conductor ‘b’ is
Nɸ= max moving downwards, hence as per right hand rule the ‘dot’
appears at ‘b’ and ‘cross’ appears at the conductor ‘b’, therefore
= zero
the direction of induced EMFs also reverses
EMF = zero Nɸ= min

At position B: 00 → 900 = max

The conductor cuts through more and more lines of flux thereby EMF = - max
induced emf builds up from zero to a maximum value and at 900
which is B, it becomes highest. At position E: 2700 → 3600
Nɸ= min The conductors ‘a’ keeps on moving upward and the conductor
‘b’ downward, however now the conductors initially cut max
= max
lines of forces and finally at position ‘E’ they no more cut any
EMF = max magnetic line of force. The induced emf thereby decreases from
The loop conductor ‘a’ moves downward whereas ‘b’ moves max to zero, however its polarity is reversed.
upward, as per right hand rule ‘dot’ appears at ‘a’ and ‘cross’ Nɸ= max
appears at ‘b’, and as a result the induced EMFs in both the
conductors are series Aiding. Therefore, the resultant vector = zero
across the brushes is the vector sum of these voltages. EMF = zero

At position C: 900 → 1800 The voltage at the brushes, and therefore the current in the
The conductors initially cut max lines of force and progressively external circuit of a single loop dc generator, falls to zero twice
less and less number of lines and finally at position ‘c’ they no during each complete revolution. As has already been
more cut any magnetic line of force. The induced emf thereby mentioned, this variation of dc is called ‘ripple’ and can be
decreases from max to zero, however its polarity remains same. reduced by the addition of more loops as shown in Fig 3.12.4
Nɸ= max
= zero

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

construction of them can be a big determining factor in the

output obtained.

The voltage induced in a single-turn loop is quite small, and

although an increase in the number of loops does not increase
the maximum value of generated voltage, an increase in the
number of turns in each loop will. Within narrow limits, the
output voltage of a dc generator is determined by the product of
FIGURE: 3.12.5 MULTI-LOOP DC GENERATOR the number of turns per loop, the total flux pair of poles in the
machine and the speed of rotation of the armature.
As the number of loops is increased, the variation between
maximum and minimum values of voltage is reduced and the Whether it be an A.C or D.C generator, they are identical as far
output voltage of the generator approaches a steady dc value, as the method of generating voltage in the rotating loop is
as can be seen in Fig 3.12.6. concerned. However, if the current is taken from the loop by
slip rings, it is an alternating current and if it is collected by a
commutator, it is direct current.

The variation in the output of a dc generator is reduced to a very

small amount by having a large number of loops and a
commutator with a correspondingly large number of segments.
The construction is such that each loop is connected between
adjacent segments, the end of one loop being connected to the
same segment as the beginning of the next loop, as shown in
FIGURE: 3.12.6 OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF A MULTI-LOOP DC
Fig 3.12.7.
GENERATOR

It should also be noted that the number of segments on the

commutator is increased in direct proportion to the number of
loops; i.e. there are two segments for one loop, four segments

for two loops and eight segments for four loops. The loops are
not just loops of wire but are made up like coils and so the

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

The voltage at the brushes equals the sum of the emf’s induced
in the loops connected in series between the brushes. In Fig
5(a), loops A, B and C are in series between the brushes on the
right and loops D, E and F with the brushes on the left, with the
two branches in parallel with each other. The graph in Fig 5(b)
shows the resultant voltage between the brushes. Only three
loops need to be considered as the arrangement is symmetrical
and both branches (A, B and C and D, E and F) give the same
voltage at the instant shown. As the number of loops is
increased, the ripple in the brush voltage becomes smaller and
the magnitude of the dc output voltage increases
FIGURE: 3.12.7 Connection of Multiple Loops with
Commutator Segments and Resultant Output

Loop A is connected between segments 1 and 2, loop B

between segments 2 and 3 and so on. With this arrangement,
the emf induced in each loop will reach it’s maximum value
when the emf in the preceding loop is already decreasing, and
that in the succeeding loop is still increasing. Thus, the emf in
loop E in Fig 5(a) is at maximum, loop F is decreasing and loop
D increasing.

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory

DC GENERATOR

In a practical dc generator, we obtain high voltage outputs by:

Using a large number of coils of many turns instead of single
loops. Rotating the coils at high speed. Using electromagnets to
provide a strong magnetic field and mounting the coils in which
the voltage is to be induced on a soft iron core: the air gap
between this core and the electromagnet pole pieces is very
small. A DC generator is shown in FIGURE: 3.12.8.

The electromagnets used to provide the magnetic field require a

dc voltage source to pass current through the winding. In small
machines such as those used in aircraft, the design of the FIGURE:3.12.8
machine is simplified by using the output voltage of the CONSTRUCTION AND PUPOSE OF COMPONENTS
generator itself to provide this current.
A dc generator consists of two main assemblies:
The main principle of operation of DC machine is dynamically
induced EMF i.e. an EMF induced due to the relative movement  THE STATOR OR FIXED PORTION. This carries the
of either conductor or flux (field)
FIELDMAGNETSYSTEM, the BRUSHGEAR and the
E = Bɩ vSin Ө BEARINGS. The Brush Gear Assembly and end frame
Where B is the flux density of the field, ɩ means active length of may be considered as a separate major sub assembly.
conductor which is under the influence of the magnetic field and
v^ is the velocity of the conductor perpendicular to the flux,  THE ROTOR OR ARMATURE ASSEMBLY. This
responsible for the induction of emf i.e. v^ = v sin . Since in a carries the COILS, COMMUTATOR and often COOLING
FAN BLADES.
generator all the above components are mutually perpendicular
thereby the EMF Generator equation becomes:
Since the generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
E = B ɩ v^ energy, mechanical energy must be supplied to the generator to
turn it. The ‘prime mover’ used to drive aircraft generators is
usually the engine.

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The frame or yoke is the main chassis of the generator and it

also serves to complete the magnetic circuit between the pole
pieces. The pole pieces are laminated to reduce eddy current
losses, and the field coils or windings are mounted on the pole
pieces. The end housings contain the bearings for the armature
which rotates at high speed, and one of these housings also
holds the brush gear.

The armature (the rotating part of the machine) is made up of

shaft, armature core, armature windings or coils, and
commutator. The armature core is laminated to reduce eddy FIGURE: 3.12.9
current losses, and the armature windings rest in slots cut in the
core but insulated from it. Except for very small machines in which permanent magnets
are used, the magnetic field is produced by electromagnets in
The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from such a way that the armature conductors pass under North and
each other, and from the shaft. The ends of the armature South poles alternately. The poles may be salient, (Fig 10a) in
windings are hard soldered to their appropriate commutator which case the armature emf wave form has a flat top, or may
segments. be flush pole, low reluctance (Fig 10b) which gives an almost
The brushes ride on the commutator and carry the generated sinusoidal wave form. Salient poles are the most common in
voltage to the load. They are usually made of carbon and are aircraft DC generators.
held in brush holders in such a way that they can slide up and
down against a spring so as to follow the small irregularities in The salient pole piece may be laminated to prevent eddy
the surface of the commutator current heating, or it may be solid, with a laminated pole ‘shoe’
fitted to the end.
THE YOKE
The yoke is the outer cover for housing poles and field and for It will be noted from the diagram that the yoke is an essential
protecting the insulating materials from atmosphere elements part of the magnetic circuit and must therefore combine
like the moisture dust and vicinity. permeability with structural strength. It is normally of cast or
rolled steel.
Field Magnet System

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory
FIELD ASSEMBLY ELECTRO-GRAPHITIC BRUSHES of normal design,
although generally reliable in performance when used in ground
The heavy iron or steel housing that supports the field poles is equipment and low-altitude aircraft generators, tend to wear
called the field frame. It not only supports the field poles but
also forms part of the magnetic circuit of the field. Small
generators usually have two to four poles while larger very rapidly at high altitudes. This wear can be of the order of
generators can have as many as eight main poles and eight 12mm per hour and is because of the following factors:
inter-poles. (Inter-poles will be dealt with in a later chapter).
The pole pieces are rectangular and in most instances, are  At ground level and low altitudes, the moisture content of
laminated to prevent Eddy Current losses. the atmosphere gives a substantial degree of lubrication
between the contact surfaces of the brushes and the
BRUSH GEAR AND BRUSH HOLDER commutator or slip-rings on which the brushes are
bearing. Therefore, a resistive film is formed on the
The Brush Gear metallic surfaces by the electrolytic decomposition of the
moisture content of the atmosphere thereby the contact
Brushes are made of specially treated carbon which is self- resistance between brush surfaces and metallic surfaces
lubricating; therefore, causing little commutator wear. They are becomes HIGH.
carried in small open-ended boxes called BRUSHHOLDERS.  At high altitudes the moisture content of atmospheric air
Brush pressure is maintained on the commutator by SPRINGS. is negligible, and with little or no lubrication at the
‘rubbing contacts’ there is considerable friction which
Spring tension limits for DC Generators: removes the film. Rapid wear of the soft electro-
30W → 2.5 to 3.5 oz graphitic brushes is, in consequence, inevitable. Thus,
550W → 20 to 24 oz the contact-resistance between brush surfaces and
5.6 KW → 28 to 36 oz metallic surfaces becomes SMALL. This reduction in
Connection to the external circuit is made by copper braid contact resistance, in the case of a DC generator, gives
‘PIGTAILS’. rise to heavy reactive sparking which, in turn,
accelerates brush erosion.

The Figure: 3.12.7 shows brush gears with pig tail connection.

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Film Forming Brushes

The composition of these brushes include such chemicals as

BARIUM FLUORIDE which builds up, progressively, a
constant-resistance semi-lubricating film on the surfaces of

commutator or slip-rings. Brushes of this category DO NOT

WEAR ABNORMALLY at altitudes of up to some 35,000 ft
providing that generators to which such brushes are fitted are
previously run at low altitude for some hours to allow the
FIGURE: 3.12.10 formation of the protective film. This film, once it has been
Lack of lubrication of the brush-to-commutator contact surfaces formed, is very dark in colour and to the inexperienced eye it
at high altitudes and the reduction of brush-contact resistance may well give the impression of a dirty commutator or slip-rings.
experienced at increasing altitudes, are largely eliminated by
using brushes which have been specially developed for high- Non-Film Forming Brushes
altitude operation.
Brushes in this category contain a lubricating ingredient such as
HIGH ALTITUDE BRUSHES MOLYBDENUM DISULPHIDE: this lubricant is often packed in
There are two distinct categories of high-altitude brushes in cores running longitudinally through the brush. Since the brush
general use: is itself self-lubricating there is no question of preliminary
i- Semi Lubricating Film Forming type formation of film, hence there is no necessity for running
ii- Non-Film Forming or Self Lubricating generators fitted with these brushes at low altitude before
entering into high-altitude operation. Against this advantage of
The one category brushes form a constant resistance semi- immediate availability for high-altitude operation must be set the
lubricating film on the commutator or slip-rings, while those in disadvantage of appreciably SHORTER LIFE, due to somewhat
the other category are, in effect, self-lubricating brushes which more rapid wear when compared with film-forming brushes.
do not form film.
Precautions when using high-altitude brushes:

Film-forming brushes must not be used at high altitudes until the

generator has been in operation for a specified period after
fitting the brushes to a machine with a ‘Clean ‘commutator or
slip-rings – this period is essential to allow the film produced by

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brush action on the commutator or slip-ring surface to attain a The Iron Core provides a low reluctance path between the field
serviceable thickness. pole pieces giving increased flux density, ensuring that the
largest emf possible is induced into the output windings. The

core is constructed as a laminated soft iron drum with

longitudinal slots into which the output windings are fitted. The
core is laminated to reduce eddy currents and thus heat.

The Output Windings are placed in longitudinal slots in the iron

core to reduce the magnetic circuit air gap. The armature and
coil windings are vacuum impregnated with silicone varnish to
maintain insulation resistance under all conditions with the coils
also insulated with PTFE.

The windings are wedged into the slots with insulating material
FIGURE: 3.12.11: A worn and rusted brush in a generator. to prevent them from being thrown out by centrifugal force.
All coil connections are silver soldered to withstand local hot
Under no circumstances should non-film forming brushes be run spot temperatures.
on films created by film-forming brushes, nor should film forming
and non-film-forming brushes be used simultaneously in the
same machine. When changing from film-forming to non-film
forming brushes the existing film must be completely removed
by cleaning the commutator or slip-ring with a rag moistened in
lead free gasoline, or other approved cleaning agent.

THE ARMATURE

The rotor or Armature is cylindrical in shape for winding Copper

or Aluminum conductor on it. The Armature Assembly consists
of the shaft, the iron core, the output windings and Commutator, FIGURE: 3.12.12
as shown in Fig 3.12.12 A TYPICAL ARMATURE ASSEMBLY

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory
.
Another feature of multi-pole machines is the manner in which The provision of additional parallel paths makes the lap wound
the Coils of the armature winding are connected together to generator suitable for high output current.
provide the required output conditions. One method, called
Wave Winding while the other as LAP winding.
Wave winding is used for DC generators of high output voltage.
Lap winding is used for DC generators of high output current.
WAVE WINDING:

The wave winding, provides increased Output voltage by

arranging for the voltages induced by each pair of poles to be
added in series. Therefore, the output voltage is twice (four
pole) and three times (six pole) that of the equivalent two pole
machine. With wave winding the output voltage may be
obtained across one pair of brushes.

The total number of conductors are divided into two parallel

paths, irrespective of the number of Poles of the machine. Used
for < 500 A machines.

LAP WINDING

The other armature winding method is called lap winding and

this method is most useful when high output current is required.
In lap winding, groups of series connected coils are connected FIGURE: 3.12.13
in parallel by the provision of additional brushes at equipotential
points around the commutator. In a four-pole machine this THE COMMUTATOR
results in the provision of four parallel current paths from the
two positive brushes to the two negative brushes; in a six-pole This is a cylinder mounted at one end of the armature and
machine there are six parallel current paths from the three consists of a large number of copper segments. The segments
positive brushes to the three negative brushes are wedge-shaped and a large number are assembled side by
There are as many parallel paths and brushes as there are
main poles. Used for > 500 A machines.

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Category – B Sub Module 3.12 – DC Motor / Generator Theory
side to form a ring, each being insulated from the other by a
mica insulating strip.

Each segment forms the junction between two armature coils,

the wires being soldered into risers at the ends of the segments.

GENERATOR COOLING

The maximum output of any generator, assuming no limit to

input mechanical power, is largely determined by the facility with
which heat (arising from HYSTERESIS, thermal effect of
currents through armature and field windings, etc.) can be
dissipated. With large bulky generators of relatively low output
the natural processes of heat radiation from the extensive
surfaces of the machine case may well provide sufficient cooling
effect, but such ‘natural’ cooling is hopelessly inadequate for the
lightweight high output generators used for aircraft electrical
supply, and must, therefore, be supplemented by forced
cooling.

The majority of aircraft generators in current use are blast-

cooled by slipstream air. Generators fitted to the modern aero
planes are oil cooled. Adequate cooling may, therefore, be self-
induced, separately induced, a ram air function, or oil heat
exchanger system.

Some generator cooling are:

1. Natural heat dissipation through radiation (for bulky Gen) FIGURE: 3.12.14
2. Blast cooled by slipstream air. It is done by a fan.
3. Oil cooled

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GENERATOR DRIVES COMMUTATION PROBLEMS

The fundamental requirements of the element through which The commutator and brush gear of a dc machine have two
torque is transmitted to the rotor shaft of the generator may be distinct functions:
summarized as follows:
Collection - the transference of current between the moving
 Effective transmission of torque up to a specified armature and the fixed external circuit.
maximum.
Commutation - the periodic reversal of current during transfer
 Effective interruption of torque transmission if the torque- between the armature and the external circuit to produce DC
demand of the generator exceeds the permitted These two operations are independent, but faulty collection or
maximum, this condition can arise as a result of seizures incorrect commutation produce similar results, ie. the formation
of the generator rotor, etc. of a destructive spark or arc between the trailing edges of the
brushes and the commutator surface.
 Quick and simple removal and replacement of the
torque-transmission element. FAULTY COLLECTION

The requirements quoted above are satisfied almost entirely by Normally the result of poor brush fittings and maintenance
‘weak-link’ devices known as quill drives. The device is causes Sparking between the brush trailing edge and the
basically a ‘necked’ metal shaft with serrations or splines commutator surface which is very destructive.
(These may be either male or female) at one or both ends. The
serrations or splines mate with corresponding formations on the ELECTROMAGNETIC PROBLEMS
driven rotor shaft to transmit the torque delivered by the drive
unit, and the ‘necked’ portion is designed to shear in the event In addition to the problems associated with actual collection, two
of rotor seizure, etc, thus interrupting the drive and protecting problems which are associated with the electromagnetic
the components against further possible danger. functions in the generator also exist. Though having similar
effects, they are created by different things, may be
compensated for by different design features and should
therefore be understood as separate entities.

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These are:

 Armature Reaction
 Reactive Sparking

ARMATURE REACTION/REACTIVE SPARKING

Since an armature is wound with coils of wire, a magnetic field

is set up in the armature whenever a current flow in the coils, as
shown in Fig 1 (a). This is called the armature flux and it’s field
is right angles to the generator field, (also known as the field
flux. This is shown in Fig 1 (b) and is called cross magnetization
of the armature. The effect of the armature flux is to distort the
field flux and shift the magnetic neutral axis as illustrated in Fig
1 (c). This effect is known as armature reaction and is
proportional to the current flowing in the armature coils.

FIGURE: 3.12.15
RESULTANT MAGNETIC FIELDS DUE TO ARMATURE REACTION

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GEOMETRICAL NEUTRAL AXIS: COMPENSATING WINDINGS, both of which counteract the effect of
An imaginary line drawn vertically at a point midway between armature reaction.
the opposite Poles of a field is termed as GNA. In other words,
we can say GNA is an imaginary line drawn at right angles to
the field flux with No Armature Reaction. BRUSH POSITIONING
The brush-positioning method is only satisfactory in smaller
MAGNETIC NEUTRAL AXIS installations in which the generator operates under a fairly
MNA is an imaginary line drawn at right angle to the field flux constant load.
with Armature reaction. It is a line joining the two points at which
no emf is induced in the armature coil. If the load varies to a marked degree, the MNA will shift
proportionally, and the brushes will not be in the correct position
The brushes of a generator must be set in the MNA which at all times. This method is most commonly used in smaller
means that they must contact segments of the commutator that generators (those producing 1000W or less) because it is less
are connected to armature coils having no induced emf. If the expensive. Larger generators require the use of interpoles.
brushes were contacting commutator segments outside the
MNA, they would short-circuit ‘live’ coils and cause arcing and
loss of power (reactive sparking). In an ideal machine, the MNA
will be equal to the GNA, which means there would be no
distortion of the field flux and so no shifting of the MNA away
from the brushes. This would result in no armature reaction or
reactive sparking. However, the ideal machine has never been
invented and armature reaction is something that has to be
accepted and compensated for, and there are three principle
methods with which it is overcome.
1- Brush Positioning
2- Interpole Windings
3- Compensating windings
FIGURE: 3.12.16
The first method is to shift the position of the brushes so that GENERATOR CIRCUIT WITH INTERPOLES
they are in the MNA when the generator is producing its normal
load current. The second method is by using special field poles,
called INTERPOLES, and the third is by the use of

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INTERPOLE WINDINGS FIGURE: 3.12.17
USE OF COMPENSATING WINDINGS TO OVERCOME ARMATURE
The use of interpoles is a very efficient way of maintaining a
REACTION
constant MNA in a generator. The windings of the interpoles
are in series with the load, so the effect of the interpole is
The current flowing in them travels in the opposite direction to
proportional to the load. The polarity of the interpoles is such
that in the armature conductors, and by connecting them in
that their effect is opposite to that of the armature field; i.e. Each
series with the armature, the current in the windings is the
interpole is of the same polarity as the next field pole in the
same as that in the armature. With this method, the armature
direction of rotation. With this polarity, the interpole is said to
flux is cancelled out by the compensating flux under all
pull the generator field back into the near correct position. A
conditions of load resulting in the MNA and GNA being equal
typical interpole system is shown in Fig 3.12.16.
and commutation remains static. This method is employed in
separately excited machines for reactive sparking reduction.
COMPENSATING WINDINGS
Interpoles only have a limited effect around the brush area and
In many generators, compensating windings are used to the main field remains distorted due to armature reaction. When
overcome the problem of armature reaction. These are Interpoles are used in conjunction with compensating winding
windings placed in slots in the pole faces (see Fig 3). then the main field distortion is removed & reactive sparking is
reduced.

As shown in Fig 3.12.18. The compensating windings are

connected in series with the interpoles and increase their
effectiveness. The spark-less commutation obtained by the use
of interpoles and compensating winding increases the life of the
brushes and commutator, reduces radio interference and
greatly improves the efficiency of the generator.

If the brushes remain in the field’s neutral plane then they will
be short circuiting the coils that have voltage induced in them
consequently there will be less arcing between the brushes of
the commutator.

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 Self-Excited Generators

Regulations describe generator excitation as:

‘Generators shall, when used in conjunction with their

appropriate control equipment, be capable of building up their
output voltage and connection to their busbar, without the need
of a supply separate from the machine
This requirement is often satisfied by the designed inclusion of
permanent magnets into the generator construction.

ARRANGEMENTS OF FIELD WINDINGS

Fig 3.12.19 shows the arrangement of the fixed windings of a

simple four pole machine with energized magnets, suitable for
use as either a separately excited or self-excited generator.
The fixed portion of the armature circuit consists of the four
brushes, shown resting on the surface of the commutator, the
links connecting together brushes of like polarity and the final
FIGURE: 3.12.18GENERATOR WITH INTERPOLES AND cables connecting the linked brushes to the terminals in the
COMPENSATING WINDING terminal box. The ends of the armature circuit and the terminals
to which they are connected are marked A and AA or A1.
TYPES OF DC GENERATORS AND THEIR OPERATION
A1 or AA ARMATURE WINDING
DC generators are usually classified according to the method by Z1 or ZZ SHUNT FIELD WINDING
which the magnetic circuit of the machine is energized or Y1 or YY SERIES FIELD WINDING
‘excited’. H1 or HH INTERPOLE WINDING

There are three classes, which are:

 Permanent Magnetic Generators

 Separately Excited Generators
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winding of the interpole circuit, if fitted, is likewise separate, with

the ends marked H and HH (or H1).

NOTE Similar markings are used for the windings of dc

machines designed for use as motors.

GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS

The relationship between the current flowing in the external

circuit connected to a generator (usually termed the load current
FIGURE: 3.12.19 or load) and the voltage at the generator terminals is called the
The four field coils, each of high resistance, are connected in external characteristic or total characteristic of the machine.
series to form the field winding. The coils are wound and
connected in such a way that they produce alternate North and
South poles. The ends of the winding are marked Z and ZZ (or
Z1) and are brought out to separate terminals, similarly marked,
in the terminal box.

A high resistance winding of this type is suitable for connection

across the brushes of the machine or across an independent
supply and is known as a shunt winding.
External Characteristics Internal Characteristics
In more complicated machines each main pole may carry more b/w VT and IL b/w Eg and IL
for one particular value of If for one particular speed
than one type of coil, eg. a coil composed of a few turns of
heavy copper wire or copper strip, capable of carrying the whole for separately excited machines for self-excited machines
or a portion of the armature current, may be fitted to each pole.
The relationship between the load current and the actual emf
A low resistance winding of this nature, intended for connection
in series with the armature winding, is termed a series field generated in the armature windings is known as the internal
winding; its ends are also brought out to the terminal box in characteristic. These relationships are generally shown in the
most cases, and they are marked Y and YY (or Y1). The form of graphs, with the graph drawn for one particular speed of

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the machine, and, in the case of separately excited machines,

for one particular value of excitation current.

PERMANENT MAGNET MACHINES

The simplest form of dc generator in general use is found in

certain types of insulation tester and bicycles dynamos. The
main flux is provided by high-grade permanent magnets and the Other forms of permanent magnet generator have an armature
armature consists of an iron core carrying a single coil whose of conventional type, with multiple coils and multi-segment
ends are connected to the two segments of a split ring commutator. These machines are incorporated in the more
commutator. elaborate high-voltage test-equipment, and in some tacho
generators.

The open-circuit or no-load emf of a permanent magnet

generator is proportional to the speed of rotation of the armature
since the field strength and length of armature is constant.
E g = B ɩ v^

With load applied, causing current to flow in the armature winding, the
voltage at the generator terminals falls slightly, and the machine is
said to have a falling characteristic. (Fig 3.12.20 (b)) i.e. when IL ↑then
VT ↓This fall in terminal voltage is due to:
a- Weakening of the main flux by armature reaction, set up by
the current in the armature winding.
b- Va- Voltage drop (IaRa) in the armature winding and
c- Vb - Voltage drop (IaRb) in the Brushes
FIGURE: 3.12.20
Numerically, Eg = Va + Vb + VT
VT = Eg - (Ia Ra + IbRb)
= Eg – Ia(Ra + Rb)

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SEPARATELY EXCITED MACHINES The potentiometer method of control shown in the illustration
enables near-zero voltage to be obtained without opening the
Separately excited generators have their main field winding field circuit. Machines of this type are particularly suitable for
connected to an independent source of dc supply such as purposes in which complete control of voltage over a very wide
battery or small DC generator known as the exciter. The field range is essential like electroplating, electro refining of materials
winding is usually of fairly high resistance and provision is made etc.
for regulating the excitation current e.g. by a variable resistor. VT ≈ 0 V → max V by varying If
The armature is of normal construction and armature reaction is If = V / Rf
neutralized, in most cases, by compensating windings rather
than by interpoles.

Connection of a load to the generator does not affect the field

current, which remains constant since If = V / Rf. A slight fall in
terminal voltage occurs as the load is increased; as shown in
Fig 3.12.21(b) this is due to voltage (IaRa) drop in the armature
coil, brushes and compensating windings or interpole windings,
if these are fitted.

A further small drop in voltage will be caused by weakening of

the main field, owing to armature reaction, if the reaction is not
neutralized by compensating windings or interpoles. FIGURE: 3.12.21
With the machine driven at constant speed the generated emf is
determined by the strength of the magnetic field. The terminal
voltage can therefore be controlled by variation of the field
current. If the effect of residual magnetism in the pole shoes is
neglected, the voltage at constant speed can be varied from
zero, with no field current, to a maximum when the field current
has been increased to a point where it causes magnetic
saturation of the field.

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SELF-EXCITED MACHINES RESIDUAL MAGNETISM

Residual Magnetism is necessary for generating emf in such When the generator is not running, the residual magnetism
machines. creates a strong enough magnetic field to produce a weak emf
in the armature when rotation starts. As speed of rotation
Self-Excited generators may be series, shunt or compound increases, so does armature emf until full output voltage is
wound. reached.

In a series generator, the field coils are connected in series If a generator is not handled correctly, when it is off the aero
with the armature, so that the whole load current flows through plane, there is a risk that the residual magnetism will be lost.
them. Field coils are of a few turns of thick wire. If the load is Subjecting a generator to excessive heat, vibration, dropping it,
disconnected, the circuit is incomplete and no current flows leaving it on metal racks for a long time, may cause this
through the field coils. problem.

In a shunt generator, the field coils are connected in parallel ‘FLASHING’ THE FIELD
with the armature and generator output. The Field coils contain
many turns of fine wire and divert only a little of the armature The residual magnetism may be recreated by connecting a dc
current because of their high resistance. This generator is supply (with the generator disconnected) equivalent to the
excited even with the load disconnected. generator’s rated output across the field for a short duration and
then disconnecting that supply. The rapid collapse of the
A compound generator contains both series and shunt field magnetic field produced by the ‘flashing’ supply will induce a
windings. small quantity of permanent magnetism – the residual
There is enough residual magnetism in the pole pieces to magnetism – in the generator field poles.
enable a self-excited machine to start. As soon as a little
armature current flows, the magnetic field builds up until the full
generator output is reached.

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SERIES WOUND GENERATORS

In series generators the field current is also the load current, or

at least is proportional to it. The field coils, composed of a few
turns of heavy wire or copper strip of large cross-sectional area
and very low resistance, are connected in series with the
armature and the external load circuit.

No current flows through the field winding until an external load

is connected, and on open circuit the only emf generated is the
small amount due to residual magnetism in the magnetic circuit.

The FIG shown may be described numerically as:

Vf= P.D. across series field winding = IaRf
Vb= P.D. across brushes
VT = Terminal Voltage FIGURE: 3.12.22
Eg = EMF induced in the Armature

Eg=Va + VT+Vb+Vf= IaRa+ VT+IaRf+IaRb Before Saturation (IL∝VT): RL ↓, IL ↑, If ↑, B↑, Eg ↑, VT ↑

Or As the resistance of the external circuit is decreased an

increased current flow through the armature and the field
VT = Eg – Ia (Ra+Rf)-Vb winding. The increased current in the field winding causes an
increase in flux density in the magnetic circuit, leading to an
Also, the variable resistor is parallel to series field winding is increase in generated emf and terminal voltage. At first the
called the diverter resistor. increase in terminal voltage is almost proportional to the
increase in load current, but as saturation of the magnetic circuit
is approached the rise in terminal voltage becomes
progressively more gradual. Maximum terminal voltage is
attained when the magnetic circuit is saturated.

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After Saturation (IL ∝ ):IL↑, Ia↑, then (Va + Vf ) ↑, VT↓ in parallel with the armature, as shown in the illustration, the
machines are said to be ‘shunt-wound’.
After saturation IL and Ia increases and then (Va+Vf) increases
In such machines the armature current divides into two
while VT decreases.
branches, one portion of the current passing through the field
winding, the remainder through the external circuit. It is
Any further rise in current beyond this point will not result in a
therefore advantageous to keep the current in the shunt field
rise of generated emf since the flux is already at maximum, but
winding as small as possible, thus avoiding expenditure of
it will, on the other hand, cause an increase of voltage drop in
electrical energy in the machine itself. The necessary flux can
the armature and field windings. Since Vb is negligible therefore
be created by the ampere-turns produced by a small current in
it is ignored.
coils consisting of many turns of fine wire. A shunt field winding
is consequently of high resistance and, since it is iron-cored of
Since the terminal voltage is the difference between generated
high inductance.
emf and this voltage drop, it follows that the terminal voltage will
begin to fall.
Ia = Ish + IL
As Rsh>>RL therefore Ish<< IL
Eg is controlled by Rd , when Rd↓, If ↓, B↓, Eg↓
The voltage of a series generator may be controlled by a series
diverter, i.e. a resistance connected in parallel with the field
winding so as to divert some of the current from it. Decrease of
the diverter resistance reduces the current in the field winding
reducing the flux density and thus causing a fall in the
generated emf. Series wound generators have limited
application, and not used for aircraft main power supplies. They
are used as boosters on dc feeders & as a constant current
generator for welding generator and arc lamps.

SHUNT WOUND GENERATORS

Vsh = IshRsh = VT = VL
All self-excited generators obtain the necessary field current
from their own armatures. When the field winding is connected
The voltage equation by KVL:

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Eg = Va + Vse + Vb + VT
= Ia Ra + IaRse + Vb + VT
= Ia (Ra + Rse ) + Vb + VT

When IL = 0 then VT = Eg

When IL = Full Load VT↓ from Eg as If ↓, ɸf↓, Eg↓the Eg drops

more rapidly than the separately excited machine.

When IL> Full Load RL<<Rf VT ↓↓ until VT = 0 & IL = 0 The field

winding is shunted by the low resistance of the external circuit
and the main flux collapses.

FIGURE: 3.12.23

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After Saturation: when IL↑, Ia↑, then (Va + Vse ) ↑, VT↓↓ until
BUILD-UP OF TERMINAL VOLTAGE VT = 0 , IL = 0&Eg = 0.
If the process of increasing the load is continued after full
When the armature is rotated the conductors cut the weak working load condition have been reached, the terminal voltage
magnetic flux which is due to residual magnetism in the will fall at an increasing rate until a point is reached when the
magnetic system. A small emf is induced in the armature characteristic graph becomes vertical (see illustration). At this
winding and is applied to the ends of the field winding, causing point the generator shuts down; the collapsing voltage can no
a current to flow through the latter and so increasing the longer sustain the load current, and both voltage and load
magnetic flux. current fall to zero.

In this way a progressive increase in induced emf and in field Effect of Load Current on Voltage Build Up
current occurs until the induced emf and the voltage at the
terminals reach the steady open-circuit maximum. With reduced excitation (If ↓) the external characteristic of a
shunt generator falls much more rapidly than it does when the
Characteristic generator is normally excited. The voltage-collapse or
shutdown point is therefore reached with a much smaller load
current. Consider now the case of a shunt generator starting up
Before Saturation: When IL↑, Ia↑, Va↑, AR↑, B↓ slightly, on load.
Eg↓, If ↓, B↓, VT↓ slightly. Hence (IL ∝ )
The degree of excitation at the outset is extremely small,
probably less than 5 percent normal excitation, being solely due
With increasing load current the terminal voltage tends to fall
to residual magnetism.
owing to voltage drop in the armature winding and, in the
absence of interpoles or compensating windings, to weakening
The voltage collapse point will occur with only a small current in
of the main flux by armature reaction. This reduction of voltage
the load circuit, so the voltage will build up only sufficiently to
reduces the field current, thus weakening the main flux and
support the load current to this figure and will then collapse.
producing a further fall in terminal voltage. Provided the field
The generator thus fails to excite. (It is therefore essential that
system is normally excited (ie. there is a considerable degree of
shunt generators are allowed to build up to their correct voltage
magnetic saturation in the magnetic paths) the decrease in
before connecting the load circuit.)
terminal voltage will be relatively small and constant over the
whole working load range of the generator.

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Voltage Regulation COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR

The terminal voltage at a given speed can be controlled by This is a combination of shunt and series windings. Each pole
varying the field current. This is achieved by inserting a variable piece carries shunt and series windings which may assist or
resistance in series with the field winding. By increasing the oppose each other.
resistance of the field circuit, the field current is reduced,
causing a reduction of flux, hence of generated emf and Cumulative Compound ɸT = ɸsh + ɸse
terminal voltage.
In such machines the series field, consisting of a few turns
assists the main shunt field wound on the same pole. If the
number of series turns is arranged so that terminal pd at no load
and at full load is the same, the generator is said to be level
compounded. If the number of series turns is increased so that
the voltage increases with load, the machine is said to be over
compounded.
The shunt field winding is connected only across the armature,
excluding the series field impact.
Eg = Vsh + Va
Vsh = Eg – Ia Ra or
Ish=Eg – Ia Ra…… (1)
Uses of Shunt Wound Generators Rsh
The voltage equation for the generator is
Shunt generators are extensively employed for general supply Eg = VT + Vse + Va + Vb
purposes on aircraft, largely because of their simple voltage = VT + ILRse + Ia Ra + Vb
control and effective performance when operating in parallel, neglecting the small drop across the brushes, we get
together with their outstanding suitability for battery charging. Eg = VT + Ia Ra + ILRse
When used for such purposes a form of automatic voltage Eg – IaRa = VT + ILRse
control is essential, as neither speed or load is likely to be Vsh = VT + ILRse or
constant. They are also suitable for unattended operation on Ish= VT + ILRse…………..(2)
steady loads, provided that the prime mover is fitted with a Rsh
speed governor.

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FIGURE: 3.12.25

Differential Compound ɸT = ɸsh- ɸse

FIGURE: 3.12.24
The series field is wound to oppose the main shunt winding and
the volts/load characteristic falls steeply with increased load.
This type of generator tends to give a constant current output.
Used in applications like electric arc welding

Voltage Regulation

Since in most compound generators the shunt field is the main

field, the greatest voltage control is achieved by placing a
regulator resistance in series with the main shunt field.

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Uses

Level compounded-constant voltage supply to short feeder

installation.

Over-compounded-constant voltage supply to long feeder

installations.

Differential compounded – Lighting, where constant current is

more important than constant voltage.

A compound generator utilizes residual magnetism in the pole

pieces to build up the field emf. With large applications such as
electronic bay power supplies etc the generator may take 20-30
seconds to ‘build-up’ to full voltage.

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TYPICAL GENERATOR FAULT CHART

DEFECT Possible Cause Appropriate Action
1. FAILURE TO EXCITE Loss of residual magnetism Re-magnetize. Disconnect shunt field winding and
connect battery across the winding; positive of battery
to positive end of winding.
2. VOLTAGE FAILS TO BUILD a. Dirty commutator Clean as described
UP
b. Glazed contact surface on brushes Clean contact surface of brushes with Grade 00 glass
owing to prolonged ‘off load’ running. paper.
c. Brushes not in contact with If result of sticking brushes, treat as described.
commutator
d. Incorrect brush position. Check position and correct as necessary.
e. Disconnection in field circuit. Check all connections, test field winding for continuity
f. Reversed field connections Reconnect correctly
g. Incorrect direction of rotation Reverse drive
h. Machine run up on load (shunt Disconnect load, run up ‘off load’
machines only)
3. REVERSED POLARITY Residual magnetism reversed Re-magnetize. See 1 above.
4 INSUFFICIENT VOLTAGE a. Excessive load Reduce load
b. Weak field Reduce resistance of shunt field rheostat
c. Insufficient speed Reduce speed of prime mover
5. EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE a. Excessive field strength Increase resistance of shunt field rheostat
b. Excessive speed Reduce speed of prime mover
6. UNIFORM SPARKING AT ALL a. Dirty commutator Clean commutator
BRUSHES b. Excessive load Reduce load
c. Incorrect brush position Check position. See 2d above

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FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT OF DC GENERATORS current; from positive to negative).
There are three conditions necessary to induce a voltage into a
conductor.
1. A magnetic field
2. A conductor
3. Relative motion between the two

Fleming's right-hand rule (DIRECTION OF CURRENT)

The FIGURE: 3.12.26 shows the direction of induced current

when a conductor moves in a magnetic field.

The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second
finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as
shown in the diagram.
Figure: 3.12.26
 The Thumb represents the direction of Motion of the The AC generator would produce a negative emf the
conductor. commutator in the DC generator reverses the polarity of the coil
with respect to the external circuit, so that the negative half of
 The First finger represents the direction of the Field. the AC signal is reversed and made positive. The result is a
(north to south) bumpy direct emf which rises and falls but never changes
direction. This type of pulsating emf can be smoothed out by
 The Second finger represents the direction of the using more than one coil rotating about the same axis, or by
induced or generated Current (the direction of the other electrical techniques, to give a good imitation of the direct
induced current will be the direction of conventional current delivered by a battery.
current; from positive to negative).

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DC MOTORS

INTRODUCTION

Most devices in an airplane, from the starter to the auto pilot,

depend upon mechanical energy furnished by direct current
motors.

An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy

into mechanical energy. Its function is the reverse of a
generator. There is little difference between the construction of
dc motors and dc generators, both have essentially the same
parts and they look alike. In fact, in many cases, a dc machine
can be used either as a motor or a generator.

Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

FIGURE: 3.12.27 EFFECTS OF A CURRENT CARRYING
A current flowing through a wire placed in a magnetic field CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
causes the wire to move; a motor works on this principle. It is
the reaction of two magnetic fields that produces the motion that Fig 3.12.27 (a) and (b) shows the magnetic field between the
produces the torque that we see as the output of the motor. poles of a magnet and the magnetic field round a wire that is
The force with which the conductor moves is clearly dependent carrying a current. If the wire is placed in the magnetic field the
upon the strengths of the two-interacting magnetic field. In turn overlapping field pattern would seem to be as shown in (c). Of
this force relates to the speed at which a motor containing the course, as we have seen earlier, lines of flux cannot cross and
current carrying conductor will turn. this pattern cannot exist. The resultant field is as shown in (d).
The lines of flux reinforce each other in the space above the
conductor and oppose each other below it. Lines of flux act as
if they are pushing away from each other and also tend to
straighten out. In this way they apply a force to the conductor
tending to move it downwards.

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The force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is: To change the direction of rotation of a motor having an electro-
magnetic field we need to reverse the direction of current in the
This is expressed as: armature OR the direction of the current in the field.
Force =  ( → x →)
=  L BSin Ө Changing the supply connections to the motor will not have any
effect; the current being reversed in direction in both the
Where, B is the Flux Density of the major field,  is the current armature and the field, the motor continues to run in the same
through the Conductor (producing the minor field), Lis the length direction.
of the Conductor and Ө is between B and plane of the
conductor L. Permanent magnetic motors are however, reversible by simply
changing over the supply connections.
Since the direction of current through the conductor according
to the construction of a motor is always perpendicular to the
direction of field. i.e. Ө = 900, thereby

F = B  L Newton

DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF DC MOTORS

The direction in which the conductor moves depends on the

direction of the current in the wire and also on the direction of
the magnetic field. The direction of motion is given by Fleming’s
LEFT HAND RULE for motors:
FIGURE: 3.12.28FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
‘The first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the left hand
are held at right angles to each other’. With the first finger
pointing in the direction of the field (N to S) and the second
finger in the direction of conventional current, the thumb shows
the direction of motion of the wire.

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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION Hence Torque = B  L b/2 Cos Ө

since a couple is formed in a motor thereby:
The simplest form of motor has a single loop of wire able to Torque = 2 B  L b/2 Cos Ө
rotate freely between the poles of a permanent magnet. as L x b is the area of the loop in a motor thereby:
Connection is made from the dc supply voltage to the loop by Torque = B  A Cos Ө
BRUSHES bearing on a COMMUTATOR, the two segments of For N no. of turns of coil.
which are connected to the loop, as shown in Fig 1. Torque = B  N A Cos Ө

FIGURE: 3.12.29SIMPLE DC MOTOR

FIGURE: 3.12.30ACTION OF DC MOTOR
The forces acting on the two sides of the loop combine to apply By applying Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule to Fig 3.12.30, it can be
a force, known as a TORQUE, to turn the loop in an clearly seen that when the loop is in position (A), side ‘P’ of the
anticlockwise direction. loop tends to move downwards and side ‘Q’ upwards. As the
Torque = Force x Force Arm loop passes through the vertical position (B), the direction of the
Now force experienced by a conductor in a motor is B  L current flow must be reversed to keep the loop rotating in the
Newton. And Force arm for a loop of conductor having a same direction, and it is the action of the commutator that does
breadth of ‘b’ unit can be expressed as: b/2 Cos Ө. this. Because the commutator is two halves of a ring separated
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by insulation (Fig 1), the result of the loop rotating is such that protection are dealt with in a later section. The brake assembly
as one half of the commutator leaves a brush, the other half consists of a coil, a brake armature and a brake lining mounted
comes into contact with it. So now, at (C) in Fig 2, when we on the disc on one end of the motor armature. The operation of
apply Fleming’s Rule, side ‘Q’ will move in a downward direction the brake system is dealt with in a later section.
and side ‘P’ upward, keeping the rotation of the loop in an The voltage equation of a dc motor can be written as:
anticlockwise direction. At position (D), the loop passes through V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vb
the vertical and the current reverses direction again until we get by neglecting the brush drop
to (E) where the loop is back to where it was at the start (A) and V = Eb + Ia Ra
the process goes on. A single loop dc motor would not be able Ia = V - Eb
to turn heavy loads, so to obtain a large mechanical output with Ra
smooth running, some improvements have to be made. A The voltage equation changes little bit depending upon the type
laminated iron core carrying a number of armature coils is used of the dc motor.
together with a corresponding number of commutator segments.
The magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet and its field TYPES OF DC MOTOR AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
coils, with the spacing between the armature and the pole
pieces kept as small as possible. There are three basic types of dc motors, namely series, shunt
and compound and they differ largely in the way in which their
DC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION field and armature coils are connected.

The principle sections of a dc motor assembly are the:

a- Armature,
b- Commutator
c- the field coils and field frame,
d- the brake assembly and
e- the thermal protector assembly.
The armature is a standard drum type wound on a laminated
soft iron core and at either end of it is the commutator and the
brake disc. The field for the motor is provided by two poles
formed to fit around the armature. The field coils are double-
wound to provide for the reversal of field polarity to reverse the
motor rotation and thermal protectors are connected in the
circuit to prevent overheating. Motor reversal and thermal

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SERIES DC MOTOR starting torque is required under heavy load conditions, a series
motor would be the best application.

FIGURE: 3.12.31SERIES WOUND DC MOTOR FIGURE: 3.12. 32CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A SERIES DC

MOTOR
In the series motor shown in Fig 1, the field windings, which
consist of relatively few turns of heavy wire, are connected in
The voltage equation of a dc series motor by neglecting Vb is:
series with the armature winding. The same high current
V = Eb + Va + Vf
flowing through the field winding also flows through the
= Eb + Ia Ra + IfRf since Ia = If
armature winding because of the low field resistance. As If = Ia,
= Eb + Ia( Ra + Rf)
both are high at start due to zero (Eb) Back EMF thereby we get
Similarly, the Torque equation for a dc series motor can be
a High Starting Torque, which is this type of motor’s principal
found out as:
advantage.
T = B Ia N A Cos Ө as B ∝ If&Ia = If
= Ia2 N A Cos Ө
The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load. Any
Hence T∝ Ia2
change in load will result in a substantial change in speed, so it
Fig 3.12.32 shows the characteristic curve of a series dc motor
will run at high speeds with light loads and low speeds with
and it can be seen that when very little load is applied, the
heavy loads. If the load is removed entirely, the motor may
speed is very high and as the load is increased the speed
operate at such a high speed that the armature will break apart,
decreases.
so it must never be run under ‘no load’ conditions. So, if a high

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V = Eb + Ia Ra= Eb + Va
SHUNT DC MOTOR Va = V -Eb is also called Effective voltage

FIGURE: 3.12.34CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A SHUNT DC

MOTOR
FIGURE: 3.12.33 SHUNT WOUND DC MOTOR
Fig 3.12.34 shows the characteristic curve of the shunt dc motor
In the shunt motor shown in Fig 3.12.31, the field winding is and it can be seen that the speed varies very little with changes
connected in parallel with the armature winding. The resistance in load. If all the load is removed, it will assume a speed slightly
in the field winding is high and, as it is connected directly across higher than that when loaded. This type of motor is particularly
the power supply, the current through the field is constant. suitable for use when constant speed is desired and when high
Unlike the series motor, the field current does not vary with starting torque is not needed.
motor speed, so the torque of the shunt motor will only vary with START
the current through the armature. (Rf>> Ra) Also, the amount As Rf>> Ra thereby Ia>> If therefore no larger starting torque.
of torque developed at starting is less than that developed by a RUN
series motor of equal size. As If is almost fix therefore change in load has no considerable
From the fif 3.12.33 schematic we see that impact on the speed of motor.
I = Ia + Ish and Ish = V / Rsh and since ɸ ∝ Ish therefore it is a This motor is started OFF LOAD.
constant flux motor.
The motor equation for a dc shunt motor is:
V = Eb + IaRa + Vb

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COMPOUND DC MOTOR

FIGURE: 3.12.36CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A COMPOUND DC

MOTOR

Fig 3.12.36 shows the characteristic curve of the compound dc

motor and clearly shows the effect of load against speed, being
FIGURE: 3.12.35COMPOUND WOUND DC MOTOR somewhere between that of series and shunt wound motors.
The compound motor is a combination of the series and shunt Continuous and Intermittent Duty Motors
motors. There are both a shunt and a series winding in the
field. Fig 5 shows a schematic diagram of a compound motor. Many electric motors used in aircraft are not required to operate
The shunt winding is composed of many turns of fine wire and is continuously. Because the heat developed in a short time is not
connected in parallel with the armature winding and the series sufficient to cause any damage, a motor in this type of service is
winding consists of a few turns of heavy wire and is connected designed to deliver more power for its weight than a motor used
in series with it. i.e. for continuous service. If such a motor were used continuously,
I = Ish + Ise but Ise = Ia Hence I = Ish + Ia it would overheat and burn the insulation and thus become
Useless. Motors designed for short periods of operation are
The starting torque is higher than that of a shunt motor but called intermittent duty motors, and those which operate
lower than in the series motor, therefore no RACE condition on continuously are called continuous-duty motors.
NO LOAD, and any variation of speed with load is less than in a
series motor but more than in a shunt motor. It maintains
moderately a constant speed with change in load.
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The type of duty for which a motor is designed is sometimes

stated on the nameplate and if not on the nameplate, can be
found in the manufacturer’s specifications.

Continuous Duty Motors

These are usually shunt wound machines used as cooling fans,

blowers, fuel pumps.

Intermittent Duty Motors

These are usually series-wound machines used to actuate

loads such as landing gear, flaps, cowls, trim tabs, valves. The
machine, which is reversible is referred to as an ACTUATOR.

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MOTOR CONTROL resistance of 12. The motor takes a current of 6A under ‘no
load’. What is the back emf?
The movement of a conductor in a magnetic field induces in it
an emf, which we know from Lenz’s Law, will OPPOSE the As the back emf is produced by the armature, the first thing to
motion producing it. That is to say, the induced voltage will be calculated is the armature current.
oppose the supply voltage. This is called BACK EMF.
Armature Current (a) = Total Current – Field Current (f)
Back emf will never be as great as the supply input and the
difference between them is always such that current can flow in 24
the conductor and produce motion. The value of this current is f   2A
dependent upon the value of the voltage across the conductor. 12
This voltage, often referred to as the EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE is
equal to the difference between the applied voltage and the  a  6  2  4A
back emf. Therefore:
Back emf (Eb) = Supply Voltage – Armature Voltage
EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE = APPLIED EMF – BACK EMF
Example
E b  V  ( a  R a )

 24  (4  0.25)
 Eb  23V

When the motor is ‘on load’, the current it draws is 52A. What
effect does this have on the back emf (Eb)?

FIGURE: 3.12.37
Consider the diagram in Fig 1. A 24V supply is fed to a shunt
motor with an armature resistance of 0.25 and a field

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The field current (f) will remain the same (Ohm’s Law applied to The max power a motor can deliver to a load safely is called
a parallel circuit), so: OUTPUT Rating of a motor. Generally, it is expressed in Horse
Power.
 f  2A
The Power available at the shaft i.e. net output of a motor is the
product of Speed and Torque.
 a  52  2  50 A
POUT = Tshaft
 Eb  24  (50  0.25)  11.5V Where is the angular speed in radian per second.

It is noticeable how the back emf falls as the load is increased FOR a DC motor for Fixed value of Power the Torque is
on the motor. When the motor is ‘loaded’ it will tend to slow inversely proportional to the speed whereas if Power is varied
down, and as generated emf is directly proportional to the rate then Torque is directly proportional to the speed. Which means
of change of flux linkage (Faraday’s Law), the value of the back that, for the same output power, we cannot run an increased
emf will be reduced. This will increase the Effective Voltage, load on the same previous speed and thereby we have to
and therefore the Armature Current and the motor speed will be increase the Power.
restored. The back emf therefore determines the armature
current and makes the dc motor a SELF-REGULATING MOTOR SPEED CONTROL
machine. Back emf Eb determines the current in the armature, making the
motor a self-regulating machine in which speed and armature
current are automatically adjusted to the load. At small values
TORQUES IN A DC MOTOR: of load, the shaft torque exceeds the load torque causing the
armature to accelerate and produce a larger back emf. The
Basically, Torque is developed in the Armature of a DC motor increased back emf reduces the armature current, and therefore
and is then shifted to the Load through the Shaft of the motor. the shaft torque, until a state of balance is achieved and the
While transmitting the Power through the shaft, there is a power speed is stabilized. When the load torque is increased (with
loss due to the friction, windage and the Iron losses. The torque increasing load), it exceeds the shaft torque causing a fall in
required to overcome these losses is called a LOST Torque. armature speed. This results in a reduced back emf and a
increased armature current. This increase in armature current
Armature Torque = Shaft Torque + Lost Torque increases the shaft torque, restoring torque balance, and

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stabilizes the speed again. This variation of speed with

armature current is known as the SPEED CHARACTERISTIC
of the motor.
There are basically two methods employed to control the speed
of a DC motor. One is Field control and the other is Armature
Control.

From the basic torque equation T = B Ia N A Cos Ө, the speed

of a dc motor ∝ and also ∝ Ia.

FIELD CONTROL: B↓ ↑

When B↓ Eb↓ Va↑Ia↑Ta↑ as Ta > TLOAD ↑ Eb↑ Va↓ Ia↓Ta↓ until

Ta = TLOAD and the motor will stabilize at a new higher speed.

When the amount of current flowing through the field is

increased, the field strength increases, but the motor will slow
down because a larger amount of back emf has been generated
in the armature. When the field current is decreased, the field FIGURE: 3.12.38SHUNT MOTOR WITH VARIABLE SPEED
strength decreases and the motor speeds up because the back CONTROL
emf in the armature has been reduced. In the shunt motor shown in Fig 3.12.38, speed is controlled by
a rheostat connected in series with the field windings. The
speed of the motor will depend upon the amount of current
flowing through the rheostat to the field windings. To increase
ARMATURE CONTROL: Va ↑ ↑ or Ia↑ ↑ the speed the resistance in the rheostat is increased, which
decreased the field current, resulting in a decrease in strength
When Va↑, Ia↑, Ta↑ as Ta > TLOAD ↑, Eb↑, Va↓, Ia↓,Ta↓ until
of the magnetic field and also the back emf in the armature.
Ta = TLOAD& the motor will stabilize at a new Higher speed.
This will momentarily increase the armature current and the
A motor in which the speed can be controlled is called a torque causing the motor to automatically speed up until the
VARIABLE-SPEED MOTOR and may be either shunt or series back emf increases and the armature current decreases to its
wound. former value. When this has happened, the motor will operate

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at a higher fixed speed than before. The opposite action takes
place for a decrease in motor speed.

In a series-wound motor (Fig 3.12.39), the rheostat speed

control is connected either in parallel or series with the motor
field, or in parallel with the armature. When the rheostat is set
for maximum resistance, the motor speed is increased in the
parallel armature connection (a) by a decrease in current.
When the rheostat is set for maximum resistance in the series
connection (b), motor speed is reduced by a reduction in
voltage across the motor. For above-normal speed operation
(c), the rheostat is in parallel with the series field. This causes
some of the series field current to be bypassed and the motor
speeds up.

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FIGURE: 3.12.39Speed Control in a Series DC Motor

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REVERSIBLE DC MOTORS

Motors used for the operation of landing gear, flaps and other
types of apparatus must be designed to work in either direction
and are therefore called REVERSIBLE MOTORS.

The voltage polarity applied to the field and armature windings

of any motor will determine that motor’s direction of rotation
(clockwise or anticlockwise). To reverse the rotation of a dc
motor containing an electromagnetic field, the polarity of the
voltage applied to the field or the armature must be reversed.
This will reverse the magnetic field of one of the two coils and
change an attractive force into a repulsive force ( or vice versa),
hence reversing the motor’s direction

Reversing a motor by this method is shown in Fig 5, where it

can be seen that by moving the double-throw switch from the
UP to the DOWN position the current through the field coil is
reversed, thus reversing polarity, but stays the same through
the armature. It would require quite a complex external circuit
to achieve this, but a simpler method is normally employed that
provides a double field winding known as a SPLIT FIELD.

FIGURE: 3.12.40REVERSIBLE DC MOTOR SCHEMATIC

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dictated by the amount of current the motor draws while in

operation. Any motor requiring more than 20-30 amps will
operate more satisfactorily with a relay controlled circuit.

The separate field coils of a reversible motor are usually wound

either in opposite directions on the same poles or on alternate
poles. Since the field coils are in series with the armature, they
must be wound with wire of a size large enough to carry the
entire motor current.

FIGURE: 3.12.41SPLIT FIELD REVERSIBLE DC MOTOR

Fig 6 shows the schematic diagram for a split field motor. It is

operated by a single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switch which,
when connected to either the CW (clockwise) or CCW
(counterclockwise) positions will cause current to flow in the
respective field winding. This makes it possible to change the
direction of the motor at will by placing the switch in the desired
position. The motor is reversed by changing the field polarity in
relation to the armature polarity when the different field windings
are energized.

Reversible dc motors are commonly controlled by single-pole FIGURE: 3.12.42BRUSH AND HOLDER ASSEMBLY FOR SMALL
double-throw switches, as with the split field type, but can also MOTORS
be controlled indirectly by the use of relays. The use of relays is

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The brushes in a reversible motor are usually held in box-type If the driving motor is connected directly to the operating
holders in line with the centre of the motor shaft as shown in Fig mechanism, a great amount of strain will be imposed upon the
7. With this arrangement the brushes are perpendicular to a motor when it is forced to stop because of the momentum of the
plane tangential to the commutator at the point of brush contact armature and other moving parts. In installations requiring an
and the brushes will wear evenly regardless of the direction of instantaneous stop, a clutch and brake mechanism is employed
motor rotation. On small motors the field and brush housing is to prevent damage when the machine is stopped.
sometimes made in one piece.
CLUTCH AND BRAKE ASSEMBLY
The brush holders are inserted through openings at the end of
the housing and are insulated from the housing by plastic Clutches of several types have been designed for the purpose
bushes. Each brush assembly consists of the brush, a helical of disengaging the motor from the load when the power is cut
spring, a flexible connector inside the spring and a metal off. All such clutches are engaged by magnetic attraction when
contact. When a brush is installed in the motor, it is held in the power is switched on and disengaged by spring action. Two
place by a screw plug. clutch faces are located within the clutch coil. One of the faces
is mounted solidly on the armature shaft and the other is
On some light-duty dc motors, the field coil is replaced by a connected through a diaphragm spring to the drive mechanism.
permanent magnet. To reverse the rotation of this type of When the clutch coil is energized, the two faces are magnetized
motor, the polarity of the applied voltage needs only to be with opposite polarities, hence they are drawn together firmly.
reversed. This reverses the magnetic field of the armature, so The friction thus produced causes the driven mechanism to turn
the motor will reverse its direction of rotation. with the motor. When the power is cut off, the diaphragm spring
separates the faces, thus disengaging the motor.
BRAKES AND CLUTCHES
LIMIT SWITCHES AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Many motor-driven devices used in aircraft must be designed so
that the operated mechanism will stop at a precise point. For Because of the limited distance of travel permitted in the driven
example, when landing gear is being retracted or extended, it mechanism, reversible actuating motors are usually limited in
must stop instantly when the operation is complete. their amount of rotation in each direction. It is essential,
therefore, that the motor circuits be provided with switches

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which will cut off the power when the driven mechanism has The diagram is a schematic diagram of a reversible motor circuit
reached the limit of its travel. Switches of this type are called with a thermal protective device and a coil for operating the
limit switches and are actuated by cams or levers linked or clutch and brake. A circuit of the type shown would be used for
geared to the driven mechanism. The adjustment of these operating cowl flaps, oil cooler shutter, air valves, and a variety
switches is critical because severe damage may result if the of other devices. Both the limit switches shown are normally
motor continues to run after the limit of operation is reached. closed.
Stripped gears and broken shafts are often the result of
improperly adjusted limit switches. If the driven mechanism is
strong enough to withstand the torque imposed by the motor,
the fuse or circuit breaker in the motor circuit will usually cut off
the current to the motor.

Adjustment of the limit switches is accomplished by running the

motor to the limit of travel and then adjusting the switch-
actuating mechanism so that it has just opened the switch. The
switches should be adjusted to open slightly before the extreme
limit is reached.

Some actuating motors are provided with a thermal circuit

breaker, or thermal protector, to protect the motor from overload
and excessive heat. This device is mounted on the motor
frame, and when heat reaches a predetermined limit, the circuit
breaker will open and cut off the current to the motor. After the
motor has cooled sufficiently, the circuit breaker will FIGURE: 3.12.43REVERSIBLE MOTOR CIRCUIT WITH THERMAL
automatically close, thus permitting normal operation. PROTECTION

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Since they open only when the motor has reached the limit of During the start function, the GCU must energize the series field
travel in one direction or the other, it is readily apparent that and the armature causes the unit to act like a motor. During the
there will never be a time when both switches are open. Notice generating mode, the GCU must disconnect the series field,
that the thermal circuit breaker and the clutch coil are both in energize the parallel field, and control the current produced by
the ground (negative) side of the circuit and will therefore be in
operation for either direction of travel.
the armature. At this time, the starter generator acts like a
STARTER GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION typical generator. Of course, the GCU must perform all the
functions described earlier to control voltage and protect the
Most modern high output generators are found on turbine system. These functions include voltage regulation, reverse
powered corporate-type aircraft. These small business jets and current sensing, differential voltage, overexcitation protection,
turboprop aircraft employ a generator and starter combined into overvoltage protection, and parallel generator operations.
one unit. This unit is referred to as a starter-generator.
A starter-generator has the advantage of combining two units
into one housing, saving space and weight. Since the starter-
generator performs two tasks, engine starting and generation of
electrical power, the control system for this unit is relatively
complex.
A simple explanation of a starter-generator shows that the unit
contains two sets of field windings. One field is used to start the
engine and one used for the generation of electrical power fig
3.12.44.

Fig 3.12.44

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