Electric Circuit Fundamentals

This unit will introduce the theories of basic electric circuit and network
along with the components and quantities involved as a starting point in
electrical engineering.

Essential Question

1. What are the basic components of an electric circuit and the terms related? How
does each component function and term defined?

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the importance of each component and related terms in an electrical circuits
and recognize common electrical circuit symbols.
2. Able to distinguish and apply the independent and dependent energy sources in the
circuit.
Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

2.1.Voltage / Electric Potential

 Voltage is an electrical pressure that cause the electrons to move through a conductor
v = dw/dq

- A voltage of 1 volt is equal to 1 joule of work per 1 coulomb of charge .

 Potential difference is the change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit.

 Electromotive force (E.M.F.) is the voltage developed by any source of electrical energy such
as a battery or dynamo and defined as the electrical potential for a source in a circuit.

 Alessandro Antonio Volta was an Italian physicist who invented the electric cell or battery and
the capacitor. The unit of voltage, volt, was named after him.

Figure 2.1 – Electrical pressure (voltage) and water pressure cause the electron flow and water flow,
respectively

2.2.Electric Current
 Current is the flow of electrons in a conductor.
i = dq/dt

- The current of 1 ampere is equivalent to 1 coulomb of charge per second.

Figure 2.2 – Definition of Electric Current

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 Charge as a function of time t

q( ) ∫ q( )
where: i = electric current as a function of time and q(t0) = amount of charge at t = t0

 Andre-Marie Ampere was a French mathematician and physicist who defined the electric
current and developed a way to measure it. The unit of electric current, ampere, was named after
him.

Example 2.1

Find the current in an element when the charge entering the element is q = 12t2 – 8t + 5 coulombs
where t is the time in seconds.

Solution:
i = dq/dt = d/dt (12t2 – 8t + 5)
i = 8 (3t – 1) amperes

Example 2.2

Find the charge that has entered an element by time t when i = 12 sin 3t amperes, t > 0. Assume q = 0
at t < 0.

Solution:
q ∫ q(0) ∫ 12 s n 3 −4(cos 3 − cos 0)
q – 4 cos 3t + 4 coulombs

 Classification of Electric Current

1. Direct current (DC) – flows in one direction only, remains constant with time.
2. Alternating Current (AC) – reverses direction periodically, varies sinusoidally with time.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 – Classification of Electric Current Waveforms: (a) DC waveform, (b) AC waveform

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 Main Effects of Electric Current

Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include
- Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones, car – ignition
and lifting magnets
- Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating
- Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering
irons
- Luminous effect: lamps, LED (light-emitting diode)
- Physiological effect: heart stimulation, electrical shock

2.3. Power and Energy

 Power is the time rate of absorbing or supplying energy (w).
p = dw/dt = (dw/dq)(dq/dt) = v i

- Power is supplied by an element if the current enters at (–) terminal of the voltage and exits at
(+) terminal.
- Power is absorbed by an element if the current enters at (+) terminal of the voltage and exits
at (–) terminal.

 Energy absorbed or supplied by an element is expressed as ∫ p (0)

Example 2.3

If an element absorbs a current of 10 A with a voltage of 4 V. Find the power absorbed by the
element and the energy absorbed over 10-s interval.

Solution:
p = v i = (4 V)(10 A) = 40 W
1
∫ p ∫ 40 400 J

Example 2.4

An element with a voltage across of v = 8e – t V supplies a current of i = 20e – t A for t > 0. Assume
that v and i are zero for t < 0, determine the power supplied by this element at t = 1 s and the energy
supplied by the element over the first second of operation.

Solution:
p = v i = (8e – t)(20e – t) = 160e – 2(1 s) = 21.65 W
1
∫ p ∫ 160e −2 −80 (e −2 − e ) 69.2 J

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

2.4. Resistance
 Resistance (R) is defined as the opposition to electric current flow and measured in ohms (Ω),
named after a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm.
- A resistance of 1 Ω is equal to 1 volt per ampere.

 Conductance (G) – reciprocal of resistance, measured in terms of siemens (S) or mho.

G = 1/R

- For a resistance of 2 kΩ, its conductance is

G = 1 / 2 x 103 Ω = 5 x 10 – 4 S
G = 500 μS

 All materials, in accordance to the flow of electrons, can be classified as conductors, insulators,
and semiconductors.

Figure 2.4 – Classification of Electrical Materials

2.5. Scientific and Engineering Notations for Electrical Quantities

 Scientific notation is another way to express the prefix in mathematical form treated as a power
of 10.
 Engineering notation is used in electrical calculations to limit the exponents to a value that is a
multiple of 3, such as 3, 6, 9, 12, - 3, - 6, - 9, or – 12. Use calculator with a key marked ENG.

 Prefixes applied to the units of electrical quantities

pico (p) Divide by 1 x 1012 (x 10 – 12) centi (c) Divide by 100
nano (n) Divide by 1 x 109 (x 10 – 9) kilo (k) Multiply by 1000 (x 103)
6 –6
micro (μ) Divide by 1 x 10 (x 10 ) mega (M) Multiply by 106
–3
milli (m) Divide by 1,000 (x 10 ) giga (G) Multiply by 109

Example 2.5

Express the following

a. 2.75 kV to V c. 2,560 kΩ to MΩ
b. 25.8 μA to mA d. 20 μs to picoseconds (ps)

Solution:

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

Solution:
Use the factor-unit method
a. 2.75 kV (1000 V / 1 kV) = 2,750 V
b. 25.8 μA (1 x 10 – 6 A / 1 μA) (1 mA / 1 x 10 – 3 A) = 0.0258 mA
c. 2,560 kΩ (1000 Ω / 1 kΩ)(1 MΩ / 1 x 106 Ω) = 2.56 MΩ
d. 20 μs (1 x 10 – 6 s / 1 μs)(1 ps / 1 x 10 – 12 s) = 20,000,000 ps

Example 2.6

There are approximately 125 million passenger car registered. Assume the average passenger car
battery stores 440 watt – hour (Wh) of energy. Estimate the total energy stored in passenger cars in
gigawatt – hour (GWh).

Solution:
Total energy stored = (125,000,000)(440 W h) = 5.5 x 1010 W h
= 5.5 x 1010 W h (1 GWh / 1 x 109 W h) = 55 GWh

Example 2.7

Perform the following operations.

a. Add 876 μA and 4.6 mA c. Multiply 1.5 MW by 5 ms
b. Subtract 120 kΩ from 3.9 MΩ d. Divide 15 mC by 50 minutes

Solution:
a. Convert one of the values in such a way that the values will have the same exponent of 10.
In this case, convert 876 μA to mA.
876 μA = 0.876 mA
0.876 mA + 4.6 mA = 5.476 mA

b. Convert 120 kΩ to MΩ.

120 kΩ = 0.120 MΩ
3.9 MΩ – 0.120 MΩ = 3.78 MΩ

c. Multiply the coefficients and add the exponents of 10

(1.5 x 106 W)(5 x 10 – 3 s) = 7,500 N – m = 7,500 J

d. Convert 50 minutes to seconds, 50 minutes = 3000 s

Divide the coefficients and algebraically subtract the exponents of 10.
15 x 10 – 3 / 3 x 103 = 5 x 10 – 6 A = 5 μA

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

EXERCISE #3

1. Convert the following as indicated:

a. 1000 pF to nF d. 47 kΩ to MΩ
b. 0.02 μH to mH e. 0.32 mA to μA
c. 50 GHz to kHz f. 660 MV to kV

2. Perform the following operations:

a. Add the three resistances together, 330 Ω, 33 kΩ, and 3.3 MΩ.
b. Subtract 250 MW from 4.5 GW.
c. What power is dissipated for a 4.5 kJ of energy converted into heat in 300 ms?
d. How long must a current of 100 mA flow so as to transfer a charge of 80 μC?

3. A current of i = 8t2 – 4t A is supplied from an element whose voltage across is v = 11 + 0.5t V for
t > 0. Determine the total charge that left the element from t = 0 to t = 1 s, the power supplied by
the element at t = 1 s, & the energy supplied over the first 2 seconds. Assume q = 0, i = 0, and v =
0 at t < 0.

2.6. Basic Electric Circuit

 Electric circuit is any combination of a conductor and a source of electricity connected together
to permit electrons to travel around in a continuous stream.

 Basic Parts of an Electric Circuit:

1. A voltage source such as battery or power supply.
2. A load that represents the resistance of the circuit and transforms electrical energy from the
source of power into some useful function. e.g. lamps
3. Conductors or external path
4. Switch or controller
5. Protective device such as fuse and circuit breaker

Figure 2.5 – Basic Electric Circuit: Pictorial (left) and Schematic diagrams

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

2.7.Electrical Diagrams and Symbols

 Circuit symbols are combined in electrical diagrams to show how the components are connected
together, not where the components are.

AC Supply Loudspeaker

Ammeter Motor

Antenna Resistor (fixed)

Appliance Resistor (variable)

Battery Rheostat

Battery cell Switch

Semiconductor
Capacitor (fixed)
diode
Capacitor
Transformer
(variable)

Circuit breaker Transistor (NPN)

Fuse Transistor (PNP)

Generator (AC) Voltmeter

Generator (DC) Wattmeter

Ground Wires (connected)

Inductor Wires (unconnected)

Lamp Zener diode

Figure 2.6 – List of Standard Circuit Symbols

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 Schematic diagram
It is a short-hand way of drawing an electric circuit with components shown symbolically. See
Figure 2.5.

 Single-line diagram
It shows the component parts of a circuit by means of single lines and appropriate graphical
symbols and generally used to show complex electrical systems without the individual
conductors to the various loads.

Figure 2.7 – Single-line diagram of an electrical substation

 Block Diagram
It is used to show the relationship between the various component groups or stages in the
operation of a circuit.

Figure 2.8 – Block Diagram of Transistor Radio Receiver Circuit

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 Wiring Diagram
It is used to show wiring connections in a simple and easy-to-follow way and shows the
components of a circuit in a pictorial manner.

 Lighting and Power Layouts of an Electrical Plan

These are integral parts of any set of drawings for the building construction to locate the
components of the building’s electrical system such as lighting fixtures, receptacle outlets,
switches, and other devices.

Figure 2.9 – Lighting and Power Layout of a Given Floor Plan

2.8.Open-circuit and Short-circuit

 A closed-circuit is a complete path for the current to flow from the voltage source through a
load and back to the source.

Figure 2.10 – Schematic (left) and Pictorial Diagrams of Closed-Circuit

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 A circuit is called open-circuit if there is a broken in the circuit that does not provide a
conducting path for a current to flow.
- Resistance approaches infinity while the voltage across it exists called open-circuit voltage ,
VOC

Figure 2.11 – Schematic (left) and Pictorial Diagrams of Open-Circuit

 A high value of current (or the short-circuit current, ISC) flowing when short-circuit occurs
caused by an accidental connection across any two points in the circuit which can cause damage.
- Both resistance and voltage across it approach zero.

Figure 2.12 – Schematic (left) and Pictorial Diagrams of Short-Circuit

2.9.Concept of Network
 Electrical circuit is also called an “electrical network”. Electrical network is a mathematical
model that approximates the behavior of an actual electrical system.

Figure 2.13 – Electrical Network

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 Definition of Terms
1. Circuit Elements – any individual circuit component with two terminals by which it can be
connected to other elements.
a. Active Elements – elements which supply energy to the network.
e.g. Battery, Generator, Transistor

b. Passive Elements – elements which dissipate or store energy.

e.g. Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

2. Branch – a group of elements connected in series or in parallel and having two terminals.

3. Node – part of the network at which at least two or more two branches meet. The circuit
shown in Figure 2.13 has 3 nodes: a, b, and c.

4. Loop – a closed path in a circuit in which no elements or node is encountered more than
once. A loop that contains at least one new element which is not in the other loop of the
network is said to be independent.

The circuit shown in Figure 2.13 has 6 loops:

Independent Loops Loop 1: 10-V source, 5-Ω and 2-Ω resistors
Loop 2: 2-Ω and 3-Ω resistors
Loop 3: 3-Ω resistor and 2-A source

Non-independent Loops
Loop 4: 10-V source, 5-Ω and 3-Ω resistors (2- Ω resistor in between)
Loop 5: 2-Ω resistor and 2-A source (3- Ω resistor in between)
Loop 6: 10-V source, 5-Ω resistor, and 2-A source (2-Ω and 3-Ω resistors in between)

5. Mesh – a loop that contains no other loop in it. The circuit shown in Figure 2.13 has 3
meshes: loops 1, 2, and 3.

A network with “b” branches, “n” nodes, and “m” meshes will satisfy the fundamental theorem
of network topology:
b=m+n –1

6. Linear element – the one that follows the linear relationship between voltage and current. If
a network is made up of linear elements, the network is linear.

7. Nonlinear element – the one that does not follow the linear relationship between voltage and
current. If a network is made up of nonlinear elements, the network is nonlinear.

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

 Voltage and Current Sources

- Actually supply energy to the network or circuit to which they are connected.
- Broadly classified into categories: independent and dependent

1. Independent source – supplies constant voltage or current that is completely independent of

other circuit elements.

2. Ideal Voltage Source – gives constant voltage across the terminals irrespective of the current
drawn from the terminals with a zero internal resistance.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.14 – Symbols for (a) Independent voltage source used for DC, (b) Independent voltage source
used for constant /time varying voltage, and (c) Independent current source

3. Ideal Current Source – gives constant current across its terminals irrespective of the voltage
appearing across its terminals with infinity internal resistance across the source.

4. Dependent source – supplies in which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.
a. VCVS (Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source)
b. CCVS (Current-Controlled Voltage Source)

c. VCCS (Voltage-Controlled Current Source)

d. CCCS (Current-Controlled Current Source)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.15 – Symbols for Dependent Sources: (a) VCVS, (b) VCCS, (c) CCVS, and (d) CCCS
where α, β, γ, and δ are constants

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

5. Practical Voltage Source – a voltage source with an internal voltage connected in series
with its small internal resistance.

6. Practical Current Source – current source with an internal current connected in parallel
across its high internal resistance.

- If two or more than two current sources in the network, the single equivalent current source
will be
a. The algebraic sum of current values if parallel-connected
b. The larger current value if series-connected

- If two or more than two voltage sources in the network, the single equivalent voltage source
will be
a. The algebraic sum of voltage values if series-connected
b. The larger voltage value if parallel-connected

Example 2.8

Determine the number of branches, nodes, and meshes in the following circuits shown in Figure 2.20.

(a)

(b)
Figure 2.16

Solution:
Using the fundamental theorem of network topology,
(a) 4 branches, 3 nodes, and 2 meshes
(b) 5 branches, 3 nodes, 3 meshes

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Unit 2 - Electric Circuit Fundamentals Electrical Circuits with Lab (DC)

REFERENCES

Gupta J. B. (2016). Current Electricity Basic Concepts. Basic Electrical Engineering (pp. 1 –10). S.K.
Kataria & Sons

Gupta J. B. (2016). Units, Work, Power, and Energy. Basic Electrical Engineering (pp. 23 – 30). S.K.
Kataria & Sons

Kubala, T. (2008). Electron Theory and Ohm’s Law. Electricity 1: Devices, Circuits, and Materials
(pp. 7 – 14). Delmar Cengage Learning

Nahvi, M., Edminister, J. A. (2018). Introduction. Schaum’s Outline of Electric Circuits, 7 th Ed. (pp.
1 – 6). McGraw-Hill Education

Nahvi, M., Edminister, J. A. (2018). Circuit Concepts. Schaum’s Outline of Electric Circuits, 7 th Ed.
(pp. 7 – 20). McGraw-Hill Education

Phillips, P. (2016). Basic Meters. Electrical Principles 3 rd Ed. (pp. 157 – 187). Cengage Learning
Australia Pty Ltd.

Phillips, P. (2016). The Electric Circuit. Electrical Principles 3 rd Ed. (pp. 1 – 23). Cengage Learning
Australia Pty Ltd.

Additional Resources

Alexander, C. K., Sadiku, M.N.O. (2009). Basic Concepts. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 4 th
Edition (pp. 3 – 28). The McGraw-Hill Co., Inc.

Bird, J. (2007). An introduction to electric circuits. Electrical and Electronic Principles and
Technology, 3 rd Edition (pp. 9 – 19). Elsevier Ltd.

Gussow, M. (2009). Electrical Standards and Conventions. Schaum’s Outline of Basic Electricity 2 nd
Ed. (pp. 15 – 37). The McGraw-Hill Co., Inc.

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