1 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

UNIT 1: STUDYING CULTURE, SOCIETY

AND POLITICS
CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science

Society and Culture

Society is a group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location and

government. Human beings are considered to be naturally inclined to establish societies, since it is in
interacting with others that they are able to ensure their survival by establishing mutually beneficial
relationships with one another. Societies enable individuals to acquire necessary survival skills,
maximize their potential, and share resources

A society is characterized by the presence of the following elements: a) social solidarity, whereby
members of the community live together for mutual benefit; b) shared identity and culture among
members that serve as basis for their patterns of action and behavior; c) a common language, d) a
large population and the ability to sustain succeeding generations of members, e) definite
geographical area, and f) political, economic, and social organization.

Social scientists have also identified five (5) major types of societies according to how they changed
and developed over time. Hunting and gathering communities date as far back as several million
years ago and were considered the first societies. The basic social and economic units were the
family and local clan which organized hunting and gathering activities and distributed the
accumulated food supply. The earliest societies soon gave way to horticultural and pastoral
societies. Their emergence was brought about by the gradual shift from the hunting-and-gathering
lifestyle to a more sedentary life, and the introduction of agriculture as a more stable food production
method. Horticultural societies relied on the cultivation of plants as their primary source of food,
while pastoral societies depended on the domestication of animals. Around 10,000 years ago, the
development and spread of agriculture led to the emergence of civilizations in Mesopotamia and
China, and this brought about the establishment of agricultural societies. Food production became
more efficient due to the new methods of farming, the invention of more advanced tools, and the
establishment of permanent settlements. Meanwhile, the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in
England during the latter half of the 18th century transformed agricultural societies to industrial
societies. Technological advancements resulted in the invention of machines that improved
production. The rise of urban centers or cities was also a major development during this period. Since

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the latter portion of the 20th century, many countries have become post-industrialist societies,
where knowledge is a commodity and technological innovation is key to long-lasting growth and
development.

Culture is one of the important bases that define and influence a society. Culture refers to the
set of beliefs, ideas, values, practices, knowledge, history and shared experiences, attitudes, as well
as material objects and possessions accumulated over time and shared by the members of society.
The classic definition of culture is based on E.B. Tylor's concept which states that culture is "that
complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts,
symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society," There
are two primary categories of culture: material culture and nonmaterial culture. Material culture is
composed of the physical or tangible objects produced, shared, and utilized within society such as
tools or implements, paintings and other works of art, architectural styles, weaponry, and toys,
Nonmaterial culture, meanwhile, consists of the intangible properties and elements of society that
influence the patterns of action and behavior of its members. Examples of nonmaterial culture
language, beliefs, values, attitudes, ideas, and norms shared among members of society. The
community stories and other types of narratives shared within societies are collectively called as
folklore. Folklore, which comes in the form of myths, legends, folktales (kuwentong bayan), proverbs,
and riddles, embodies the history, beliefs, ideas, values, and practices that define a society. One
example of such is the story of Malakas at Maganda, a creation myth that tells about the origin of the
Filipino people.

Though individual societies have varying histories, experiences, identities, and organizations, all of
them have four vital cultural components: symbols, language, values, and norms. Symbols refer to
things that convey meaning or represent an idea. They are essential in communication, shaping
thoughts and ideas, and defining a society's culture. Language, meanwhile, is a set of symbols that
enables members of society to communicate verbally (spoken) and nonverbally (written.gestures).
Values are shared ideas, norms, and principles that provide members of society the standards that
pertain to what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Norms are shared rules of
conduct that determine specific behavior among society members. There are various categories of
norms according to their social importance Folkways are norms that may be violated without serious
consequences. Mores are norms with moral connotations. Laws are norms that are legally enacted
and enforced.

The process of culture and identity formation within society is facilitated through socialization and
enculturation. Socialization refers to the lifelong process of forging identity through social interaction.
Language, as well as social agents that teach aspects of culture to the members of society, also
contributes to the socialization of the individual. Enculturation refers to the process by which an
individual learns or acquires the important aspects of his or her society's culture.

It is important to understand that culture is dynamic. There are elements of culture that have
remained through the ages but there are also some aspects that have adapted to the realities of the
present context. Context refers to particular circumstances of a certain culture and is defined by
location, weather, time period, and other factors. When we become aware of the whole context of our

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own culture, we are able to understand that some of its aspects are shared, some are contested,
some are indigenous, and others are influenced by other societies. A contextual and relational
approach enables us to understand the existence of a multitude of societies that have their own
unique cultures. An example of this is the presence of Chinese communities or "Chinatowns" in
several countries. These communities allow a two way process of socialization and enculturation as
various aspects of their culture, including their food, language, and customs, are shared with their
host or adopted countries. Likewise, these Chinese communities also adopt some of the cultural
elements of their host or adopted countries.

Society and Culture According to the Three Disciplines

Anthropology considers culture as the central focus of its discipline. It studies the different
cultures of different societies. Anthropology examines and provides explanations for the existence of
different cultural patterns as well as the similarities and differences between different cultures. In their
studies of various cultures, anthropologists have adopted two major views with regard to how cultures
should be considered in comparison to others. The relativistic approach considers cultures as equal.
This view holds that there are no "superior" and "inferior" cultures, and each is unique in its own way.

The ethnocentric approach is the belief that one's native culture is superior to other cultures.
Ethnocentric societies tend to have a negative view of other countries and people.

Ethnocentrism diminishes or invalidates "other" ways of life and creates a distorted view of one's
own. As a result, this could affect individual behavior and relationships with other cultures. Extreme
forms of ethnocentrism have led to wars or colonization. William Howard Taft, for example, once
referred to the Filipinos as the Americans "little brown brothers" who needed to be supervised by the
United States of America in establishing a society and government that approximates "Anglo
American standards."

Conversely, there are some societies that have the tendency to consider their culture as inferior to
others. This is called xenocentrism. Some Filipinos share the perception that some aspects of
Philippine culture are inferior compared to foreign cultures, particularly those of our former colonizers.
Filipinos who have this perception are considered as Filipinos with "colonial mentality." Another
manifestation of xenocentrism and colonial mentality is the preference of Filipinos to speak in English
or other European languages.

At present, majority of modern societies place emphasis on cultural relativism, which recognizes and
accepts the cultural differences between societies. This view believes that every aspect of a culture
can justified by the context in which the culture has been formed. No particular culture therefore can
claim superiority over other cultures. However, it calls for a keen assessment of other cultures to gain
a holistic understanding of their uniqueness. Knowing and understanding the nature and
characteristics of societies and their respective cultures should always precede judgment and action.

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Interaction between members of different societies is more likely to succeed if everybody is aware
and is respectful of cultural diversity.

Sociology relates culture with the overall context of social order. There are different
sociological perspectives that explain this order. Structural functionalism operates on the assumption
that society is a stable and orderly system. Structural functionalists consider culture as a glue that
binds society together, leading to social order. Conflict theory assumes that there is a constant power
struggle among the various social groups and institutions within society. Conflict theorists study the
culture of "dominant classes and analyze how this culture is imposed on other classes. The effective
domination of this class facilitated by culture brings about social order. Symbolic interactionism views
individual and group behavior and social interactions as defining features of society. Symbolic
interactionists believe that culture provides shared meanings to the members of society. The more
meanings are shared, the more society ensures social order.

How are these perspectives applied in looking at Philippine society? Using a structural functional
approach, we can examine the significance of religion in binding Filipino Roman Catholics, Filipino
Muslims, and other Filipinos who belong to other faiths, and how they can relate to each other using
the same sacred texts, doctrines, beliefs, practices, and other related symbols. Religion, in this view,
becomes the glue that unites Filipinos together. However, using the conflict approach, Roman
Catholicism could be seen as a cultural tool that is partly responsible for the exclusion of other local
cultures. Through the lens of the symbolic interactionist model, religion could be viewed as the major
factor that affects the general patterns of behavior and life situations of the members of society. It
could also be suggested that symbols outside the realm of religion can be used to promote
interactions and unite Filipinos of different religions and other cultural orientations. It can be argued
that social order is possible in the Philippines when Filipinos of different cultures share. the same
symbols and meanings.

Political science also examines culture as a vital aspect of society. Culture, together with
political socialization, is analyzed in order to explain political behavior such as voting patterns and the
behavior of leaders. Culture is seen as an important element in building social capital and could also
lead to future conflicts and division. Political science also looks into the decline of cultural domination
by Western countries. and the subsequent rise of multiculturalism, an ideology that acknowledges
and promotes cultural diversity within society. Multiculturalism entails the establishment of political
groups and institutions comprised of people from diverse cultures. This view challenges the idea of
the nation-state and the advancement of nationalist and ultranationalist policies.

Multiculturalism in the Philippines is still an ongoing process, and its advancement is largely
dependent on government initiatives and policies. The issue of our national language, for instance,
reflects the intricate nature of advancing multiculturalism in a highly diverse society. While the Filipino
language is mainly based on Tagalog. its main proponents strive to include words from foreign and
local languages. The national language, however, is not intended to replace the other local languages
that the government still recognizes and intends to preserve.

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Instead of cultural relativism, some have advanced the concept of cultural sensitivity. Cultural
relativism implies that all aspects of a particular culture should be accepted and even celebrated.
Cultural sensitivity advances awareness and acceptance of cultural differences but encourages a
critical stance in dealing with issues regarding diversity. This view believes that not all cultural
practices, traditions, and views can be integrated, and that distinct cultures can harmoniously coexist
in society. This view advocates a respectful view of the uniqueness and distinctness of other cultures,
and encourages individuals and societies to guard against ethnocentric and xenocentric views, as
these are significant threats to cultural diversity and social stability.

 A society is a group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location, and

government.

 The major elements of a society include social solidarity, shared identity and culture, common
language, large population, definite geographical area, and political, economic, and social
organization.

 Culture is the set of beliefs, ideas, values, practices, knowledge, history and shared
experiences, attitudes, and material objects and possessions accumulated over time and
shared by the members of the society. Material and nonmaterial cultures are the two primary
categories of culture,

 Culture is acquired through socialization and enculturation. Socialization is the process of

forging identity through social interaction and social agents; enculturation is the process
whereby an individual learns and acquires the culture of the society he or she belongs to.

 Symbols, language, values, and norms are the four vital aspects of culture.

 Ethnocentric and xenocentric views, which believe in the notion that a culture may be
"superior" or "inferior" to other cultures, are challenged and negated by cultural relativism,
multiculturalism, and cultural sensitivity.

VILLARUZ, J.