which remote database users’ work, and server machines, on which the database system runs.

Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts. They are:

1. Two – Tier Architecture

2. Three – Tier Architecture.

Two-Tier Architecture:

The application is partitioned into a component that resides at the client machine,
which invokes database system functionality at the server machine through query language
statements. Application program interface standards like ODBC and JDBC are used for
interaction between the client and the server.

Three-Tier Architecture:

The client machine acts as merely a front end and does not contain any direct database
calls. Instead, the client end communicates with an application server, usually through forms
interface. The application server in turn communicates with a database system to access data.
The business logic of the application, which says what actions to carry out under what
conditions, is embedded in the application server, instead of being distributed across multiple
clients. Three-tier applications are more appropriate for large applications, and for applications
that run on the World Wide Web.

DATABASE DESIGN:

The database design process can be divided into six steps. The ER Model is most
relevant to the first three steps. Next three steps are beyond the ER Model.

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1. Requirements Analysis:

The very first step in designing a database application is to understand what data is to be
stored in the database, what applications must be built on top of it, and what operations are most
frequent and subject to performance requirements. The database designers collect information
of the organization and analyzer, the information to identify the user’s requirements. The
database designers must find out what the users want from the database.

2. Conceptual Database Design:

Once the information is gathered in the requirements analysis step a conceptual database design
is developed and is used to develop a high level description of the data to be stored in the
database, along with the constraints that are known to hold over this data. This step is often
carried out using the ER model, or a similar high-level data model.

3. Logical Database Design:

In this step convert the conceptual database design into a database schema (Logical
Database Design) in the data model of the chosen DBMS. We will only consider relational
DBMSs, and therefore, the task in the

logical design step is to convert an ER schema into a relational database schema. The result is a
conceptual schema, sometimes called the logical schema, in the relational data model.

Beyond the ER Design:

The first three steps are more relevant to the ER Model. Once the logical scheme is
defined designer consider the physical level implementation and finally provide certain
security measures. The remaining three steps of database design are briefly described below:

4. Schema Refinement:

The fourth step in database design is to analyze the collection of relations in our
relational database schema to identify potential problems, and to refine it. In contrast to the
requirements analysis and conceptual design steps, which are essentially subjective, schema
refinement can be guided by some elegant and powerful theory.

5. Physical Database Design:

In this step we must consider typical expected workloads that our database must
support and further refine the database design to ensure that it meets desired performance

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criteria. This step may simply involve building indexes on some tables and clustering some
tables, or it may involve a substantial redesign of parts of the database schema obtained from
the earlier design steps.

6. Security Design:

The last step of database design is to include security features. This is required to avoid
unauthorized access to database practice after all the six steps. We required Tuning step in
which all the steps are interleaved and repeated until the design is satisfactory.

DBMS FUNCTIONS:

DBMS performs several important functions that guarantee the integrity and consistency
of the data in the database.
Those functions transparent to end users and can be accessed only through the use of
DBMS. They include:
Data Dictionary Management
Data Storage Management
Data transformation and Presentation
Security Management
Multiple Access Control
Backup and Recovery Management
Data Integrity Management
Database Access Languages
Databases Communication Interfaces

Data Dictionary Management:

DBMS stores definitions of database elements and their relationship (Metadata) in the data
dictionary.
The DBMS uses the data dictionary to look up the required data component structures and
relationships.
Any change made in database structure is automatically recorded in the data dictionary.

Data Storage Management:

Modern DBMS provides storage not only for data but also for related data entities.
Data Storage Management is also important for database “performance tuning”.
Performance tuning related to activities that make database more efficiently.

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Data Transformation and Presentation:

DBMS transforms entered data to confirm to required data structures.

DBMS formats the physically retrieved data to make it confirms to user’s logical
expectations.
DBMS also presents the data in the user’s expected format.

Security Management:

DBMS creates a security system that enforces the user security and data privacy.
Security rules determines which users can access the database, which data items each user
can access etc.

DBA and authenticated user logged to DBMS through username and password or
through Biometric authentication such as Finger print and face reorganization etc.

Multiuser Access Control:

To provide data integrity and data consistency, DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to
ensure that multiple users can access the database concurrently without compromising
the integrity of database.

Backup and Recovery Management:

DBMS provides backup and recovery to ensure data safety and integrity.

Recovery management deals with the recovery of database after failure such as bad
sector in the disk or power failure. Such capability is critical to preserve database
integrity.

Data Integrity Management:

DBMS provides and enforces integrity rules, thus minimizing data redundancy and
maximizing data consistency.

Ensuring data integrity is especially important in transaction- oriented database systems.

Database Access Languages:

DBMS provides data access through a query language.

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 A query language is a non-procedural language i.e. it lets the user specify what
must be done without specifying how it is to be done.

SQL is the default query language for data access.

Databases Communication Interfaces:

Current DBMS’s are accepting end-user requests via different network environments.

For example, DBMS might provide access to database via Internet through the use of
web browsers such as Mozilla Firefox or Microsoft Internet Explorer.

What is Schema?

A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database. (or)

The logical structure of the database is called as

Database Schema. (or)

The overall design of the database is the database schema.

It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are associated.

It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.

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EG:

STUDENT

SID SNAME PHNO

What is Instance?

The actual content of the database at a particular

point in time. (Or)

The data stored in the database at any given time is an instance of the database

Student

Sid Name phno

1201 Venkat 9014901442
1202 teja 9014774422

In the above table 1201, 1202, Venkat etc are said to be instance of student table.

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Difference between File system & DBMS:

File system DBMS

File system is a collection of data. Any 1. DBMS is a collection of data and user is
1. management not
required to write the procedures for managing
with the file system, user has to write the procedures the
database.
File system gives the details of
2. the data 2. DBMS provides an abstract view of data that hides
representation and Storage of data. the details.
In File system storing and retrieving of data 3. DBMS is efficient to use since there are
3. cannot wide
varieties of sophisticated techniques to store
be done efficiently. and
retrieve the data.
Concurrent access to the data in the file system
4. has 4. DBMS takes care of Concurrent access using some
many problems like : Reading the file while other form of locking.
deleting some information, updating some
information
File system doesn’t provide crash
5. recovery 5. DBMS has crash recovery mechanism, DBMS
mechanism. protects user from the effects of system failures.
Eg. While we are entering some data into the file if
System crashes then content of the file is lost
6. Protecting a file under file system is very difficult. 6. DBMS has a good protection mechanism.

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