Newnes - Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, 2nd Ed - 2003 - (By Laxxuss)

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Electrical and Electronic Principles and

Technology
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To Sue
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Electrical and Electronic Principles
and Technology
Second edition
JOHN BIRD, BSc(Hons) CEng CMath MIEE FIMA FIIE(ELEC) FCollP
OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS

SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
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Newnes
An imprint of Elsevier Science
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
200 Wheeler Rd, Burlington MA 01803
Previously published as Electrical Principles and Technology for Engineering
Reprinted 2001
Second edition 2003
Copyright  2000, 2003, John Bird. All rights reserved
The right of John Bird to be identified as the author of this work

has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988
No part of this publication may be

reproduced in any material form (including
photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic
means and whether or not transiently or incidentally
to some other use of this publication) without the
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in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a
licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,
90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP.
Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission
to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed
to the publisher
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 7506 5778 2
For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at www.newnespress.com
Typeset by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain
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Contents
Preface ix 4 Chemical effects of electricity 29

4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Electrolysis 29
SECTION 1 Basic Electrical and
4.3 Electroplating 30
Electronic Engineering Principles 1
4.4 The simple cell 30
1 Units associated with basic electrical 4.5 Corrosion 31
quantities 3 4.6 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a
1.1 SI units 3 cell 31
1.2 Charge 3 4.7 Primary cells 34
1.3 Force 4 4.8 Secondary cells 34
1.4 Work 4 4.9 Cell capacity 35
1.5 Power 4 Assignment 1 38
1.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f. 5
1.7 Resistance and conductance 5 5 Series and parallel networks 39
1.8 Electrical power and energy 6 5.1 Series circuits 39
1.9 Summary of terms, units and their 5.2 Potential divider 40
symbols 7 5.3 Parallel networks 42
5.4 Current division 45
2 An introduction to electric circuits 9 5.5 Wiring lamps in series and in
2.1 Electrical/electronic system block parallel 49
diagrams 9
2.2 Standard symbols for electrical 6 Capacitors and capacitance 52
components 10 6.1 Electrostatic field 52
2.3 Electric current and quantity of 6.2 Electric field strength 53
electricity 10 6.3 Capacitance 54
2.4 Potential difference and 6.4 Capacitors 54
resistance 12 6.5 Electric flux density 55
2.5 Basic electrical measuring 6.6 Permittivity 55
instruments 12 6.7 The parallel plate capacitor 57
2.6 Linear and non-linear devices 12 6.8 Capacitors connected in parallel
2.7 Ohm’s law 13 and series 59
2.8 Multiples and sub-multiples 13 6.9 Dielectric strength 62
2.9 Conductors and insulators 14 6.10 Energy stored in capacitors 63
2.10 Electrical power and energy 15 6.11 Practical types of capacitor 64
2.11 Main effects of electric 6.12 Discharging capacitors 66
current 17
2.12 Fuses 18 7 Magnetic circuits 68
7.1 Magnetic fields 68
3 Resistance variation 20 7.2 Magnetic flux and flux
3.1 Resistance and resistivity 20 density 69
3.2 Temperature coefficient of 7.3 Magnetomotive force and
resistance 22 magnetic field strength 70
3.3 Resistor colour coding and ohmic 7.4 Permeability and B–H curves 70
values 25 7.5 Reluctance 73
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vi CONTENTS
7.6 Composite series magnetic 10.17 D.C. potentiometer 119

circuits 74 10.18 A.C. bridges 120
7.7 Comparison between electrical 10.19 Q-meter 121
and magnetic quantities 77 10.20 Measurement errors 122
7.8 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss 77
Assignment 2 81 11 Semiconductor diodes 127
11.1 Types of materials 127
8 Electromagnetism 82 11.2 Silicon and germanium 127
8.1 Magnetic field due to an electric 11.3 n-type and p-type materials 128
current 82 11.4 The p-n junction 129
8.2 Electromagnets 84 11.5 Forward and reverse bias 129
8.3 Force on a current-carrying 11.6 Semiconductor diodes 130
conductor 85 11.7 Rectification 132
8.4 Principle of operation of a simple
d.c. motor 89 12 Transistors 136
8.5 Principle of operation of a 12.1 The bipolar junction
moving-coil instrument 89 transistor 136
8.6 Force on a charge 90 12.2 Transistor action 137
12.3 Transistor symbols 139
12.4 Transistor connections 139
9 Electromagnetic induction 93 12.5 Transistor characteristics 140
9.1 Introduction to electromagnetic 12.6 The transistor as an
induction 93 amplifier 142
9.2 Laws of electromagnetic 12.7 The load line 144
induction 94 12.8 Current and voltage gains 145
9.3 Inductance 97 12.9 Thermal runaway 147
9.4 Inductors 98
9.5 Energy stored 99
9.6 Inductance of a coil 99 Assignment 3 152
9.7 Mutual inductance 101
Formulae for basic electrical and electronic
engineering principles 153
10 Electrical measuring instruments and
measurements 104
10.1 Introduction 104 SECTION 2 Further Electrical and
10.2 Analogue instruments 105 Electronic Principles 155
10.3 Moving-iron instrument 105
10.4 The moving-coil rectifier 13 D.C. circuit theory 157
instrument 105 13.1 Introduction 157
10.5 Comparison of moving-coil, 13.2 Kirchhoff’s laws 157
moving-iron and moving-coil 13.3 The superposition theorem 161
rectifier instruments 106 13.4 General d.c. circuit theory 164
10.6 Shunts and multipliers 106 13.5 Thévenin’s theorem 166
10.7 Electronic instruments 108 13.6 Constant-current source 171
10.8 The ohmmeter 108 13.7 Norton’s theorem 172
10.9 Multimeters 109 13.8 Thévenin and Norton equivalent
10.10 Wattmeters 109 networks 175
10.11 Instrument ‘loading’ effect 109 13.9 Maximum power transfer
10.12 The cathode ray theorem 179
oscilloscope 111
10.13 Waveform harmonics 114 14 Alternating voltages and currents 183
10.14 Logarithmic ratios 115 14.1 Introduction 183
10.15 Null method of 14.2 The a.c. generator 183
measurement 118 14.3 Waveforms 184
10.16 Wheatstone bridge 118 14.4 A.C. values 185
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CONTENTS vii
14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal 18.9 Current decay in an L –R

waveform 189 circuit 257
14.6 Combination of waveforms 191 18.10 Switching inductive circuits 260
14.7 Rectification 194 18.11 The effects of time constant on a
rectangular waveform 260
Assignment 4 197
19 Operational amplifiers 264
15 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 198 19.1 Introduction to operational
15.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit 198 amplifiers 264
15.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit 198 19.2 Some op amp parameters 266
15.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit 199 19.3 Op amp inverting amplifier 267
15.4 R–L series a.c. circuit 201 19.4 Op amp non-inverting
15.5 R –C series a.c. circuit 204 amplifier 269
15.6 R –L –C series a.c. circuit 206 19.5 Op amp voltage-follower 270
15.7 Series resonance 209 19.6 Op amp summing amplifier 271
15.8 Q-factor 210 19.7 Op amp voltage comparator 272
15.9 Bandwidth and selectivity 212 19.8 Op amp integrator 272
15.10 Power in a.c. circuits 213 19.9 Op amp differential
15.11 Power triangle and power amplifier 274
factor 214 19.10 Digital to analogue (D/A)
conversion 276
16 Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits 219 19.11 Analogue to digital (A/D)
16.1 Introduction 219 conversion 276
16.2 R –L parallel a.c. circuit 219
16.3 R –C parallel a.c. circuit 220 Assignment 5 281
16.4 L –C parallel a.c. circuit 222
16.5 LR–C parallel a.c. circuit 223 Formulae for further electrical and electronic
16.6 Parallel resonance and engineering principles 283
Q-factor 226
16.7 Power factor improvement 230 SECTION 3 Electrical Power
Technology 285
17 Filter networks 236
17.1 Introduction 236 20 Three-phase systems 287
17.2 Two-port networks and 20.1 Introduction 287
characteristic impedance 236 20.2 Three-phase supply 287
17.3 Low-pass filters 237 20.3 Star connection 288
17.4 High-pass filters 240 20.4 Delta connection 291
17.5 Band-pass filters 244 20.5 Power in three-phase
17.6 Band-stop filters 245 systems 293
20.6 Measurement of power in
18 D.C. transients 248 three-phase systems 295
18.1 Introduction 248 20.7 Comparison of star and delta
18.2 Charging a capacitor 248 connections 300
18.3 Time constant for a C–R 20.8 Advantages of three-phase
circuit 249 systems 300
18.4 Transient curves for a C–R
circuit 250 21 Transformers 303
18.5 Discharging a capacitor 253 21.1 Introduction 303
18.6 Current growth in an L –R 21.2 Transformer principle of
circuit 255 operation 304
18.7 Time constant for an L –R 21.3 Transformer no-load phasor
circuit 256 diagram 306
18.8 Transient curves for an L –R 21.4 E.m.f. equation of
circuit 256 a transformer 308
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viii CONTENTS
21.5 Transformer on-load phasor 23 Three-phase induction motors 354

diagram 310 23.1 Introduction 354
21.6 Transformer construction 311 23.2 Production of a rotating magnetic
21.7 Equivalent circuit of field 354
a transformer 312 22.3 Synchronous speed 356
21.8 Regulation of a transformer 313 23.4 Construction of a three-phase
21.9 Transformer losses and induction motor 357
efficiency 314 23.5 Principle of operation of a
21.10 Resistance matching 317 three-phase induction motor 358
21.11 Auto transformers 319 23.6 Slip 358
21.12 Isolating transformers 321 23.7 Rotor e.m.f. and frequency 359
21.13 Three-phase transformers 321 23.8 Rotor impedance and
21.14 Current transformers 323 current 360
21.15 Voltage transformers 324 23.9 Rotor copper loss 361
22.10 Induction motor losses and
Assignment 6 327 efficiency 361
23.11 Torque equation for an induction
22 D.C. machines 328 motor 363
22.1 Introduction 328 23.12 Induction motor torque-speed
22.2 The action of a commutator 329 characteristics 366
22.3 D.C. machine construction 329 23.13 Starting methods for induction
22.4 Shunt, series and compound motors 367
windings 330 23.14 Advantages of squirrel-cage
22.5 E.m.f. generated in an armature induction motors 367
winding 330 23.15 Advantages of wound rotor
22.6 D.C. generators 332 induction motors 368
22.7 Types of d.c. generator and their 23.16 Double cage induction
characteristics 333 motor 369
22.8 D.C. machine losses 337 23.17 Uses of three-phase induction
22.9 Efficiency of a d.c. motors 369
generator 337
22.10 D.C. motors 338 Assignment 7 372
22.11 Torque of a d.c. motor 339
22.12 Types of d.c. motor and their Formulae for electrical power
characteristics 341 technology 373
22.13 The efficiency of a d.c.
motor 344 Answers to multi-choice questions 375
22.14 D.C. motor starter 347
22.15 Speed control of d.c. motors 347 Index 377
22.16 Motor cooling 350
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Preface
Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technol- and measurements, semiconductors diodes and
ogy, 2nd edition introduces the principles which transistors.
describe the operation of d.c. and a.c. circuits, cov- Part 2, comprising chapters 13 to 19, involves
ering both steady and transient states, and applies Further Electrical and Electronic Principles, with
these principles to filter networks (which is new for chapters on d.c. circuit theorems, alternating volt-
this edition), operational amplifiers, three-phase sup- ages and currents, single-phase series and parallel
plies, transformers, d.c. machines and three-phase networks, filter networks, d.c. transients and opera-
induction motors. tional amplifiers.
This second edition of the textbook provides Part 3, comprising chapters 20 to 23, involves
coverage of the following: Electrical Power Technology, with chapters on
three-phase systems, transformers, d.c. machines
(i) ‘Electrical and Electronic Principles (National and three-phase induction motors.
Certificate and National Diploma unit 6) Each topic considered in the text is presented
(ii) ‘Further Electrical and Electronic Principles’ in a way that assumes in the reader little previ-
(National Certificate and National Diploma ous knowledge of that topic. Theory is introduced
unit 17) in each chapter by a reasonably brief outline of
(iii) ‘Electrical and Electronic Principles’ (Advan- essential information, definitions, formulae, proce-
ced GNVQ unit 7) dures, etc. The theory is kept to a minimum, for
problem solving is extensively used to establish and
(iv) ‘Further Electrical and Electronic Principles’ exemplify the theory. It is intended that readers will
(Advanced GNVQ unit 13) gain real understanding through seeing problems
(v) ‘Electrical Power Technology’ (Advanced solved and then through solving similar problems
GNVQ unit 27) themselves.
(vi) Electricity content of ‘Applied Science and ‘Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technol-
Mathematics for Engineering’ (Intermediate ogy’ contains over 400 worked problems, together
GNVQ unit 4) with 340 multi-choice questions (with answers at
the back of the book). Also included are over 420
(vii) The theory within ‘Electrical Principles and short answer questions, the answers for which can
Applications’ (Intermediate GNVQ unit 6) be determined from the preceding material in that
(viii) ‘Telecommunication Principles’ (City & particular chapter, and some 560 further questions,
Guilds Technician Diploma in Telecommuni- arranged in 142 Exercises, all with answers, in
cations and Electronics Engineering) brackets, immediately following each question; the
(ix) Any introductory/Access/Foundation course Exercises appear at regular intervals - every 3 or 4
involving Electrical and Electronic Engineer- pages - throughout the text. 500 line diagrams fur-
ing ther enhance the understanding of the theory. All of
the problems - multi-choice, short answer and fur-
The text is set out in three main sections: ther questions - mirror practical situations found in
Part 1, comprising chapters 1 to 12, involves electrical and electronic engineering.
essential Basic Electrical and Electronic Engi- At regular intervals throughout the text are seven
neering Principles, with chapters on electrical units Assignments to check understanding. For example,
and quantities, introduction to electric circuits, resis- Assignment 1 covers material contained in chapters
tance variation, chemical effects of electricity, series 1 to 4, Assignment 2 covers the material contained
and parallel networks, capacitors and capacitance, in chapters 5 to 7, and so on. These Assignments
magnetic circuits, electromagnetism, electromag- do not have answers given since it is envisaged that
netic induction, electrical measuring instruments lecturers could set the Assignments for students to
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x PREFACE
attempt as part of their course structure. Lecturers’ Instructor’s Manual

may obtain a complimentary set of solutions of the Full worked solutions and mark scheme for all the
Assignments in an Instructor’s Manual available Assignments are contained in this Manual, which is
from the publishers via the internet – see below. available to lecturers only. To obtain a password
A list of relevant formulae are included at the please e-mail [email protected] with the
end of each of the three sections of the book. following details: course title, number of students,
‘Learning by Example’ is at the heart of Elec- your job title and work postal address.
trical and Electronic Principles and Technology, 2nd To download the Instructor’s Manual visit
edition. http://www.newnepress.com and enter the book title
in the search box, or use the following direct URL:
John Bird http://www.bh.com/manuals/0750657782/
University of Portsmouth
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Electrical and Electronic Principles and
Technology
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Section 1
Basic Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Principles
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1
Units associated with basic electrical
quantities
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž state the basic SI units

ž recognize derived SI units
ž understand prefixes denoting multiplication and division
ž state the units of charge, force, work and power and perform simple calculations
involving these units
ž state the units of electrical potential, e.m.f., resistance, conductance, power and
energy and perform simple calculations involving these units
Acceleration – metres per second

1.1 SI units squared (m/s2 )
The system of units used in engineering and science
is the Système Internationale d’Unités (International SI units may be made larger or smaller by using
system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and prefixes which denote multiplication or division by a
is based on the metric system. This was introduced particular amount. The six most common multiples,
in 1960 and is now adopted by the majority of with their meaning, are listed below:
countries as the official system of measurement.
The basic units in the SI system are listed below Prefix Name Meaning
with their symbols:
M mega multiply by 1 000 000 (i.e. ð 106 )
Quantity Unit k kilo multiply by 1000 (i.e. ð 103 )
m milli divide by 1000 (i.e. ð 103 )
length metre, m µ micro divide by 1 000 000 (i.e. ð 106 )
mass kilogram, kg n nano divide by 1 000 000 000
time second, s (i.e. ð 109 )
electric current ampere, A p pico divide by 1 000 000 000 000
thermodynamic temperature kelvin, K (i.e. ð 1012 )
luminous intensity candela, cd
amount of substance mole, mol
Derived SI units use combinations of basic units 1.2 Charge

and there are many of them. Two examples are:
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where
Velocity – metres per second (m/s) one coulomb is one ampere second. (1 coulomb D
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4 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
6.24 ð 1018 electrons). The coulomb is defined as Mass D 200 g D 0.2 kg and acceleration due to
the quantity of electricity which flows past a given gravity, g D 9.81 m/s2
point in an electric circuit when a current of one
ampere is maintained for one second. Thus, Force acting
D weight
downwards
D mass ð acceleration
charge, in coulombs Q = It
D 0.2 kg ð 9.81 m/s2
where I is the current in amperes and t is the time D 1.962 N
in seconds.
1.4 Work
Problem 1. If a current of 5 A flows for
2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where
transferred. one joule is one newton metre. The joule is defined
as the work done or energy transferred when a force
of one newton is exerted through a distance of one
Quantity of electricity Q D It coulombs metre in the direction of the force. Thus
I D 5 A, t D 2 ð 60 D 120 s work done on a body, in joules, W = Fs
Hence Q D 5 ð 120 D 600 C
where F is the force in newtons and s is the distance
in metres moved by the body in the direction of the
force. Energy is the capacity for doing work.
1.3 Force
The unit of force is the newton (N) where one 1.5 Power
newton is one kilogram metre per second squared.
The newton is defined as the force which, when The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt
applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives it an is one joule per second. Power is defined as the rate
acceleration of one metre per second squared. Thus, of doing work or transferring energy. Thus,
force, in newtons F = ma W
power, in watts, P=
t
where m is the mass in kilograms and a is the accel-
eration in metres per second squared. Gravitational where W is the work done or energy transferred, in
force, or weight, is mg, where g D 9.81 m/s2 joules, and t is the time, in seconds. Thus,
energy, in joules, W = Pt
Problem 2. A mass of 5000 g is accelerated
at 2 m/s2 by a force. Determine the force
needed. Problem 4. A portable machine requires a
force of 200 N to move it. How much work
is done if the machine is moved 20 m and
what average power is utilized if the
Force D mass ð acceleration movement takes 25 s?
D 5 kg ð 2 m/s2 D 10 kg m/s2 D 10 N
Problem 3. Find the force acting vertically Work done D force ð distance
downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a D 200 N ð 20 m
wire.
D 4000 Nm or 4 kJ
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UNITS ASSOCIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 5
work done 8 Determine the force acting downwards on

Power D
time taken a mass of 1500 g suspended on a string.
4000 J [14.72 N]
D D 160 J=s = 160 W
25 s 9 A force of 4 N moves an object 200 cm in the
direction of the force. What amount of work
Problem 5. A mass of 1000 kg is raised is done? [8 J]
through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is 10 A force of 2.5 kN is required to lift a load.
(a) the work done and (b) the power How much work is done if the load is lifted
developed? through 500 cm? [12.5 kJ]
11 An electromagnet exerts a force of 12 N and
moves a soft iron armature through a distance
(a) Work done D force ð distance of 1.5 cm in 40 ms. Find the power consumed.
[4.5 W]
and force D mass ð acceleration
Hence, 12 A mass of 500 kg is raised to a height of 6 m
D 1000 kg ð 9.81 m/s2 ð 10 m in 30 s. Find (a) the work done and (b) the
work done
D 98 100 Nm power developed.
[(a) 29.43 kNm (b) 981 W]
D 98.1 kNm or 98.1 kJ
work done 98100 J
(b) Power D D
time taken 20 s
D 4905 J/s D 4905 W or 4.905 kW 1.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f.
Now try the following exercise The unit of electric potential is the volt (V), where
one volt is one joule per coulomb. One volt is
defined as the difference in potential between two
points in a conductor which, when carrying a cur-
Exercise 1 Further problems on charge, rent of one ampere, dissipates a power of one
force, work and power watt, i.e.
(Take g D 9.81 m/s2 where appropriate) watts joules/second
volts D D
1 What quantity of electricity is carried by amperes amperes
6.24 ð 1021 electrons? [1000 C] joules joules
D D
2 In what time would a current of 1 A transfer ampere seconds coulombs
a charge of 30 C? [30 s]
A change in electric potential between two points in
3 A current of 3 A flows for 5 minutes. What an electric circuit is called a potential difference.
charge is transferred? [900 C] The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a
4 How long must a current of 0.1 A flow so as source of energy such as a battery or a generator
to transfer a charge of 30 C? [5 minutes] is measured in volts.
5 What force is required to give a mass of 20 kg
an acceleration of 30 m/s2 ? [600 N]
6 Find the accelerating force when a car having 1.7 Resistance and conductance
a mass of 1.7 Mg increases its speed with a
constant acceleration of 3 m/s2 [5.1 kN] The unit of electric resistance is the ohm.Z/,
where one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined
7 A force of 40 N accelerates a mass at 5 m/s2 . as the resistance between two points in a conductor
Determine the mass. [8 kg] when a constant electric potential of one volt applied
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at the two points produces a current flow of one

ampere in the conductor. Thus, Problem 7. A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies
a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much
energy is provided in this time?
V
resistance, in ohms R=
I
Energy D power ð time, and power D voltage ð
current. Hence
where V is the potential difference across the two
points, in volts, and I is the current flowing between Energy D VIt D 5 ð 3 ð 10 ð 60
the two points, in amperes.
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance D 9000 Ws or J D 9 kJ
and is measured in siemens (S). Thus
Problem 8. An electric heater consumes
1 1.8 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for
conductance, in siemens G= 30 minutes. Find the power rating of the
R
heater and the current taken from the supply.
where R is the resistance in ohms.
energy 1.8 ð 106 J
Power D D
Problem 6. Find the conductance of a time 30 ð 60 s
conductor of resistance: (a) 10 (b) 5 k D 1000 J/s D 1000 W
(c) 100 m.
i.e. power rating of heater D 1 kW
1 1
(a) Conductance G D D siemen D 0.1 S P 1000
R 10 Power P D VI, thus I D D D 4A
V 250
1 1
(b) G D D S D 0.2 ð 103 S D 0.2 mS Hence the current taken from the supply is 4 A.
R 5 ð 103
1 1 103
(c) G D D S D S D 10 S
R 100 ð 103 100 Now try the following exercise
1.8 Electrical power and energy Exercise 2 Further problems on e.m.f.,

resistance, conductance, power and energy
When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an
electric circuit and the voltage across the circuit is 1 Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance
V volts, then (a) 10 (b) 2 k (c) 2 m
[(a) 0.1 S (b) 0.5 mS (c) 500 S]
power, in watts P = VI 2 A conductor has a conductance of 50 µS. What
is its resistance? [20 k]
Electrical energy D Power ð time
3 An e.m.f. of 250 V is connected across a resis-
D VIt joules tance and the current flowing through the resis-
tance is 4 A. What is the power developed?
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when [1 kW]
dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used
is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where 4 450 J of energy are converted into heat in
1 minute. What power is dissipated? [7.5 W]
1 kWh D 1000 watt hour
5 A current of 10 A flows through a conductor
D 1000 ð 3600 watt seconds or joules and 10 W is dissipated. What p.d. exists across
D 3 600 000 J the ends of the conductor? [1 V]
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UNITS ASSOCIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 7
6 A battery of e.m.f. 12 V supplies a current 4 Define electric current in terms of charge and
of 5 A for 2 minutes. How much energy is time
supplied in this time? [7.2 kJ] 5 Name the units used to measure:
7 A d.c. electric motor consumes 36 MJ when (a) the quantity of electricity
connected to a 250 V supply for 1 hour. Find (b) resistance
the power rating of the motor and the current (c) conductance
taken from the supply. [10 kW, 40 A] 6 Define the coulomb
7 Define electrical energy and state its unit
8 Define electrical power and state its unit
1.9 Summary of terms, units and 9 What is electromotive force?
their symbols 10 Write down a formula for calculating the
power in a d.c. circuit
Quantity Quantity Unit Unit 11 Write down the symbols for the following
Symbol Symbol quantities:
(a) electric charge (b) work
Length l metre m
(c) e.m.f. (d) p.d.
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s 12 State which units the following abbreviations
Velocity v metres per m/s or refer to:
second m s1 (a) A (b) C (c) J (d) N (e) m
Acceleration a metres per m/s2 or
second m s2
squared
Force F newton N Exercise 4 Multi-choice questions on units
Electrical Q coulomb C associated with basic electrical quantities
charge or (Answers on page 375)
quantity
Electric current I ampere A 1 A resistance of 50 k has a conductance of:
Resistance R ohm (a) 20 S (b) 0.02 S
Conductance G siemen S (c) 0.02 mS (d) 20 kS
Electromotive E volt V
force 2 Which of the following statements is incor-
Potential V volt V rect?
difference (a) 1 N D 1 kg m/s2 (b) 1 V D 1 J/C
Work W joule J (c) 30 mA D 0.03 A (d) 1 J D 1 N/m
Energy E (or W) joule J 3 The power dissipated by a resistor of 10
Power P watt W when a current of 2 A passes through it is:
(a) 0.4 W (b) 20 W (c) 40 W (d) 200 W
Now try the following exercises
4 A mass of 1200 g is accelerated at 200 cm/s2
by a force. The value of the force required
Exercise 3 Short answer questions on is:
units associated with basic electrical (a) 2.4 N (b) 2400 N
quantities (c) 240 kN (d) 0.24 N
1 What does ‘SI units’ mean? 5 A charge of 240 C is transferred in 2 minutes.
The current flowing is:
2 Complete the following:
(a) 120 A (b) 480 A (c) 2 A (d) 8 A
Force D . . . . . . ð . . . . . .
6 A current of 2 A flows for 10 h through a
3 What do you understand by the term ‘poten- 100 resistor. The energy consumed by the
tial difference’? resistor is:
TLFeBOOK
(a) 0.5 kWh (b) 4 kWh (c) energy

(c) 2 kWh (d) 0.02 kWh (d) quantity of electricity
10 In order that work may be done:
7 The unit of quantity of electricity is the: (a) a supply of energy is required
(a) volt (b) coulomb (b) the circuit must have a switch
(c) ohm (d) joule (c) coal must be burnt
(d) two wires are necessary
8 Electromotive force is provided by:
(a) resistance’s 11 The ohm is the unit of:
(b) a conducting path (a) charge (b) resistance
(c) an electric current (c) power (d) current
(d) an electrical supply source
12 The unit of current is the:
9 The coulomb is a unit of: (a) volt (b) coulomb
(a) power (c) joule (d) ampere
(b) voltage
TLFeBOOK
2
An introduction to electric circuits
ž appreciate that engineering systems may be represented by block diagrams

ž recognize common electrical circuit diagram symbols
ž understand that electric current is the rate of movement of charge and is measured
in amperes
ž appreciate that the unit of charge is the coulomb
ž calculate charge or quantity of electricity Q from Q D It
ž understand that a potential difference between two points in a circuit is required for
current to flow
ž appreciate that the unit of p.d. is the volt
ž understand that resistance opposes current flow and is measured in ohms
ž appreciate what an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter, a multimeter and a C.R.O.
measure
ž distinguish between linear and non-linear devices
ž state Ohm’s law as V D IR or I D V/R or R D V/I
ž use Ohm’s law in calculations, including multiples and sub-multiples of units
ž describe a conductor and an insulator, giving examples of each
ž appreciate that electrical power P is given by P D VI D I2 R D V2 /R watts
ž calculate electrical power
ž define electrical energy and state its unit
ž calculate electrical energy
ž state the three main effects of an electric current, giving practical examples of each
ž explain the importance of fuses in electrical circuits
system, where a microphone is used to collect

2.1 Electrical/electronic system block acoustic energy in the form of sound pressure waves
diagrams and converts this to electrical energy in the form
of small voltages and currents; the signal from
An electrical/electronic system is a group of com- the microphone is then amplified by means of
ponents connected together to perform a desired an electronic circuit containing transistors/integrated
function. Figure 2.1 shows a simple public address circuits before it is applied to the loudspeaker.
TLFeBOOK
A.C. Supply Thermostat

ErrorHeating
+ Enclosure
Temperature − system Temperature
command Actual of enclosure
Microphone Loudspeaker
temperature
Amplifier
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.1 actual room temperature with the desired temper-

ature and switches the heating on or off.
A sub-system is a part of a system which per- There are many types of engineering systems.
forms an identified function within the whole sys- A communications system is an example, where
tem; the amplifier in Fig. 2.1 is an example of a a local area network could comprise a file server,
coaxial cable, network adapters, several computers
sub-system
and a laser printer; an electromechanical system is
A component or element is usually the simplest
another example, where a car electrical system could
part of a system which has a specific and well-
comprise a battery, a starter motor, an ignition coil,
defined function – for example, the microphone in a contact breaker and a distributor. All such systems
Fig. 2.1 as these may be represented by block diagrams.
The illustration in Fig. 2.1 is called a block dia-
gram and electrical/electronic systems, which can
often be quite complicated, can be better understood
when broken down in this way. It is not always 2.2 Standard symbols for electrical
necessary to know precisely what is inside each components
sub-system in order to know how the whole system
functions. Symbols are used for components in electrical cir-
As another example of an engineering system, cuit diagrams and some of the more common ones
Fig. 2.2 illustrates a temperature control system con- are shown in Fig. 2.4
taining a heat source (such as a gas boiler), a fuel
controller (such as an electrical solenoid valve), a
thermostat and a source of electrical energy. The
system of Fig. 2.2 can be shown in block diagram 2.3 Electric current and quantity of
form as in Fig. 2.3; the thermostat compares the electricity
All atoms consist of protons, neutrons and elec-
240 V
trons. The protons, which have positive electrical
charges, and the neutrons, which have no electrical
charge, are contained within the nucleus. Removed
from the nucleus are minute negatively charged par-
Gas ticles called electrons. Atoms of different materials
Solenoid
boiler differ from one another by having different numbers
of protons, neutrons and electrons. An equal number
Fuel
supply
of protons and electrons exist within an atom and it
is said to be electrically balanced, as the positive and
negative charges cancel each other out. When there
are more than two electrons in an atom the electrons
Thermostat are arranged into shells at various distances from the
Set temperature nucleus.
All atoms are bound together by powerful forces
Radiators of attraction existing between the nucleus and its
electrons. Electrons in the outer shell of an atom,
Enclosed space
however, are attracted to their nucleus less power-
fully than are electrons whose shells are nearer the
Figure 2.2 nucleus.
TLFeBOOK
AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 11
current is said to be a current of one ampere.

Thus 1 ampere D 1 coulomb per second or
1 A D 1 C/s
Hence 1 coulomb D 1 ampere second or
1 C D 1 As
Generally, if I is the current in amperes and t the

time in seconds during which the current flows, then
I ð t represents the quantity of electrical charge
in coulombs, i.e. quantity of electrical charge trans-
ferred,
Q = I × t coulombs
Problem 1. What current must flow if

0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15 ms?
Since the quantity of electricity, Q D It, then
Q 0.24 0.24 ð 103

ID D D
t 15 ð 103 15
Figure 2.4 240
D D 16 A
15
It is possible for an atom to lose an electron;
the atom, which is now called an ion, is not now Problem 2. If a current of 10 A flows for
electrically balanced, but is positively charged and four minutes, find the quantity of electricity
is thus able to attract an electron to itself from transferred.
another atom. Electrons that move from one atom
to another are called free electrons and such random
motion can continue indefinitely. However, if an Quantity of electricity, Q D It coulombs. I D 10 A
electric pressure or voltage is applied across any and t D 4 ð 60 D 240 s. Hence
material there is a tendency for electrons to move
in a particular direction. This movement of free Q D 10 ð 240 D 2400 C
electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric
current flow. Thus current is the rate of movement
Now try the following exercise
of charge.
Conductors are materials that contain electrons
that are loosely connected to the nucleus and can Exercise 5 Further problems on charge
easily move through the material from one atom to
another. 1 In what time would a current of 10 A transfer
Insulators are materials whose electrons are held a charge of 50 C ? [5 s]
firmly to their nucleus. 2 A current of 6 A flows for 10 minutes. What
The unit used to measure the quantity of elec- charge is transferred ? [3600 C]
trical charge Q is called the coulomb C (where 1
coulomb D 6.24 ð 1018 electrons) 3 How long must a current of 100 mA flow so
If the drift of electrons in a conductor takes place as to transfer a charge of 80 C? [13 min 20 s]
at the rate of one coulomb per second the resulting
TLFeBOOK
current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a

2.4 Potential difference and resistance very high resistance.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring
For a continuous current to flow between two points resistance.
in a circuit a potential difference (p.d.) or voltage, A multimeter, or universal instrument, may be
V, is required between them; a complete conducting used to measure voltage, current and resistance. An
path is necessary to and from the source of electrical ‘Avometer’ is a typical example.
energy. The unit of p.d. is the volt, V. The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) may be
Figure 2.5 shows a cell connected across a fila- used to observe waveforms and to measure voltages
ment lamp. Current flow, by convention, is consid- and currents. The display of a CRO involves a spot
ered as flowing from the positive terminal of the of light moving across a screen. The amount by
cell, around the circuit to the negative terminal. which the spot is deflected from its initial position
depends on the p.d. applied to the terminals of
the CRO and the range selected. The displacement
is calibrated in ‘volts per cm’. For example, if
the spot is deflected 3 cm and the volts/cm switch
is on 10 V/cm then the magnitude of the p.d. is
3 cm ð 10 V/cm, i.e. 30 V.
(See Chapter 10 for more detail about electrical
measuring instruments and measurements.)
Figure 2.5
2.6 Linear and non-linear devices
Figure 2.6 shows a circuit in which current I can
The flow of electric current is subject to friction. be varied by the variable resistor R2 . For various
This friction, or opposition, is called resistance R settings of R2 , the current flowing in resistor R1 ,
and is the property of a conductor that limits current. displayed on the ammeter, and the p.d. across R1 ,
The unit of resistance is the ohm; 1 ohm is defined displayed on the voltmeter, are noted and a graph
as the resistance which will have a current of 1 is plotted of p.d. against current. The result is
ampere flowing through it when 1 volt is connected shown in Fig. 2.7(a) where the straight line graph
across it, passing through the origin indicates that current is
directly proportional to the p.d. Since the gradient,
Potential difference i.e. p.d.
/ current
is constant, resistance R1 is
i.e. resistance R = constant. A resistor is thus an example of a linear
current
device.
2.5 Basic electrical measuring

instruments
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure
current and must be connected in series with the
circuit. Figure 2.5 shows an ammeter connected
in series with the lamp to measure the current
flowing through it. Since all the current in the circuit
passes through the ammeter it must have a very low
Figure 2.6
resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure
p.d. and must be connected in parallel with the part If the resistor R1 in Fig. 2.6 is replaced by a
of the circuit whose p.d. is required. In Fig. 2.5, a component such as a lamp then the graph shown
voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp to in Fig. 2.7(b) results when values of p.d. are noted
measure the p.d. across it. To avoid a significant for various current readings. Since the gradient is
TLFeBOOK
2.8 Multiples and sub-multiples

Currents, voltages and resistances can often be
very large or very small. Thus multiples and sub-
multiples of units are often used, as stated in chap-
ter 1. The most common ones, with an example of
each, are listed in Table 2.1
Figure 2.7
Problem 4. Determine the p.d. which must
changing, the lamp is an example of a non-linear be applied to a 2 k resistor in order that a
device. current of 10 mA may flow.
2.7 Ohm’s law Resistance R D 2 k D 2 ð 103 D 2000
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a Current I D 10 mA D 10 ð 103 A

circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage 10 10
V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, or 3 A or A D 0.01 A
10 1000
provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,
From Ohm’s law, potential difference,
V V
I = or V = IR or R = V D IR D 0.01
2000
D 20 V
R I
Problem 5. A coil has a current of 50 mA

Problem 3. The current flowing through a flowing through it when the applied voltage
resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is is 12 V. What is the resistance of the coil?
applied. Determine the value of the
resistance.
V 12
Resistance, R D D
From Ohm’s law, I 50 ð 103
V 20 200 12 ð 103 12 000
resistance R D D D D 25 Z D D D 240 Z
I 0.8 8 50 50
Table 2.1
Prefix Name Meaning Example
M mega multiply by 1 000 000 2 M D 2 000 000 ohms

i.e. ð 106
k kilo multiply by 1000 10 kV D 10 000 volts

i.e. ð 103
25
m milli divide by 1000 25 mA D A
1000
i.e. ð 103
D 0.025 amperes
50
µ micro divide by 1 000 000 50 µV D V
1 000 000
i.e. ð 106
D 0.000 05 volts
TLFeBOOK
Problem 6. A 100 V battery is connected

across a resistor and causes a current of
5 mA to flow. Determine the resistance of the
resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to
25 V, what will be the new value of the
current flowing?
V 100 100 ð 103

Resistance R D D D
I 5 ð 103 5 Figure 2.8
3
D 20 ð 10 D 20 kZ
Current when voltage is reduced to 25 V, Now try the following exercise
V 25 25
ID D 3
D ð 103 D 1.25 mA
R 20 ð 10 20
Exercise 6 Further problems on
Ohm’s law
Problem 7. What is the resistance of a coil
which draws a current of (a) 50 mA and 1 The current flowing through a heating element
(b) 200 µA from a 120 V supply? is 5 A when a p.d. of 35 V is applied across it.
Find the resistance of the element. [7 ]
2 A 60 W electric light bulb is connected to a
V 120
(a) Resistance R D D 240 V supply. Determine (a) the current flow-
I 50 ð 103 ing in the bulb and (b) the resistance of the
120 12 000 bulb. [(a) 0.25 A (b) 960 ]
D D
0.05 5 3 Graphs of current against voltage for two resis-
D 2400 Z or 2.4 kZ tors P and Q are shown in Fig. 2.9 Determine
the value of each resistor. [2 m, 5 m]
120 120
(b) Resistance R D 6
D
200 ð 10 0.0002
1 200 000
D D 600 000 Z
2
or 600 kZ or 0.6 MZ
Problem 8. The current/voltage relationship

for two resistors A and B is as shown in
Fig. 2.8 Determine the value of the
resistance of each resistor.
Figure 2.9
For resistor A,
4 Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a
V 20 V 20 2000
RD D D D 5 k resistor such that a current of 6 mA may
I 20 mA 0.02 2 flow. [30 V]
D 1000 Z or 1 kZ
For resistor B,
V 16 V 16 16 000 2.9 Conductors and insulators
RD D D D
I 5 mA 0.005 5 A conductor is a material having a low resistance
D 3200 Z or 3.2 kZ which allows electric current to flow in it. All metals
TLFeBOOK
are conductors and some examples include copper,

aluminium, brass, platinum, silver, gold and carbon. Problem 10. Calculate the power dissipated
An insulator is a material having a high resis- when a current of 4 mA flows through a
tance which does not allow electric current to flow in resistance of 5 k.
it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rub-
ber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica, ceramics
and certain oils. Power P D I2 R D 4 ð 103
2 5 ð 103
D 16 ð 106 ð 5 ð 103
D 80 ð 103
2.10 Electrical power and energy
D 0.08 W or 80 mW
Electrical power
Alternatively, since I D 4 ð 103 and R D 5 ð 103
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the then from Ohm’s law, voltage
product of potential difference V and current I,
as stated in Chapter 1. The unit of power is the V D IR D 4 ð 103 ð 5 ð 103 D 20 V
watt, W.
Hence,
Hence P = V × I watts 1
power P D V ð I D 20 ð 4 ð 103
From Ohm’s law, V D IR. Substituting for V in D 80 mW
equation (1) gives:
P D IR
ð I Problem 11. An electric kettle has a
resistance of 30 . What current will flow
i.e. P = I 2 R watts when it is connected to a 240 V supply? Find
also the power rating of the kettle.
Also, from Ohm’s law, I D V/R. Substituting for I
in equation (1) gives: V 240
Current, I D D D 8A
V R 30
PDVð
R Power, P D VI D 240 ð 8 D 1920 W
D 1.92 kW D power rating of kettle
V2
i.e. P= watts
R
Problem 12. A current of 5 A flows in the
There are thus three possible formulae which may winding of an electric motor, the resistance
be used for calculating power. of the winding being 100 . Determine
(a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the
power dissipated by the coil.
Problem 9. A 100 W electric light bulb is
connected to a 250 V supply. Determine
(a) the current flowing in the bulb, and (a) Potential difference across winding,
(b) the resistance of the bulb.
V D IR D 5 ð 100 D 500 V
P (b) Power dissipated by coil,

Power P D V ð I, from which, current I D
V
P D I2 R D 52 ð 100
100 10 2 D 2500 W or 2.5 kW
(a) Current I D D D D 0.4 A
250 25 5
(Alternatively, P D V ð I D 500 ð 5
V 250 2500
(b) Resistance R D D D D 625 Z D 2500 W or 2.5 kW
I 0.4 4
TLFeBOOK
Problem 13. The hot resistance of a 240 V Problem 16. Electrical equipment in an
filament lamp is 960 . Find the current office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V
taken by the lamp and its power rating. supply. Estimate the cost per week of
electricity if the equipment is used for
30 hours each week and 1 kWh of energy
From Ohm’s law, costs 6p.
V 240
current I D D
R 960
Power D VI watts D 240 ð 13
24 1
D D A or 0.25 A D 3120 W D 3.12 kW
96 4

Power rating P D VI D 240
14 D 60 W Energy used per week D power ð time
D 3.12 kW
ð 30 h
D 93.6 kWh
Electrical energy
Cost at 6p per kWh D 93.6 ð 6 D 561.6p. Hence
Electrical energy = power × time weekly cost of electricity = £5.62
If the power is measured in watts and the time in

seconds then the unit of energy is watt-seconds or Problem 17. An electric heater consumes
joules. If the power is measured in kilowatts and the 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for
time in hours then the unit of energy is kilowatt- 40 minutes. Find the power rating of the
hours, often called the ‘unit of electricity’. The heater and the current taken from the supply.
‘electricity meter’ in the home records the number
of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy meter. energy 3.6 ð 106 J
Power D D (or W) D 1500 W
time 40 ð 60 s
Problem 14. A 12 V battery is connected
across a load having a resistance of 40 . i.e. Power rating of heater D 1.5 kW.
Determine the current flowing in the load, Power P D VI,
the power consumed and the energy
dissipated in 2 minutes. P 1500
thus ID D D 6A
V 250
Hence the current taken from the supply is 6 A.
V 12
Current I D D D 0.3 A
R 40
Power consumed, P D VI D 12
0.3
D 3.6 W. Problem 18. Determine the power
dissipated by the element of an electric fire
Energy dissipated D power ð time of resistance 20 when a current of 10 A
D 3.6 W
2 ð 60 s
flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours
determine the energy used and the cost if
D 432 J (since1 J D 1 Ws
1 unit of electricity costs 6.5p.
Problem 15. A source of e.m.f. of 15 V Power P D I2 R D 102 ð 20

supplies a current of 2 A for 6 minutes. How
much energy is provided in this time? D 100 ð 20 D 2000 W or 2 kW.
(Alternatively, from Ohm’s law,
Energy D power ð time, and power D voltage ð
current. Hence V D IR D 10 ð 20 D 200 V,
energy D VIt D 15 ð 2 ð 6 ð 60
hence power
D 10 800 Ws or J D 10.8 kJ P D V ð I D 200 ð 10 D 2000 W D 2 kW).
TLFeBOOK
Energy used in 6 hours D powerðtime D 2 kWð 6 A current of 4 A flows through a conduc-

6 h D 12 kWh. tor and 10 W is dissipated. What p.d. exists
1 unit of electricity D 1 kWh; hence the number across the ends of the conductor? [2.5 V]
of units used is 12. Cost of energy D 12ð6.5 D 78p
7 Find the power dissipated when:
(a) a current of 5 mA flows through a resis-
Problem 19. A business uses two 3 kW tance of 20 k
fires for an average of 20 hours each per (b) a voltage of 400 V is applied across a
week, and six 150 W lights for 30 hours each 120 k resistor
per week. If the cost of electricity is 6.4p per (c) a voltage applied to a resistor is 10 kV
unit, determine the weekly cost of electricity and the current flow is 4 mA
to the business. [(a) 0.5 W (b) 1.33 W (c) 40 W]
Energy D power ð time. 8 A battery of e.m.f. 15 V supplies a current of

Energy used by one 3 kW fire in 20 hours D 2 A for 5 min. How much energy is supplied
3 kW ð 20 h D 60 kWh. in this time? [9 kJ]
Hence weekly energy used by two 3 kW fires D
2 ð 60 D 120 kWh. 9 A d.c. electric motor consumes 72 MJ when
Energy used by one 150 W light for 30 hours D connected to 400 V supply for 2 h 30 min.
150 W ð 30 h D 4500 Wh D 4.5 kWh. Find the power rating of the motor and the
Hence weekly energy used by six 150 W lamps D current taken from the supply. [8 kW, 20 A]
6 ð 4.5 D 27 kWh.
10 A p.d. of 500 V is applied across the winding
Total energy used per week D 120 C 27 D
of an electric motor and the resistance of
147 kWh.
the winding is 50 . Determine the power
1 unit of electricity D 1 kWh of energy. Thus
dissipated by the coil. [5 kW]
weekly cost of energy at 6.4p per kWh D 6.4 ð
147 D 940.8p D £9.41. 11 In a household during a particular week three
2 kW fires are used on average 25 h each and
eight 100 W light bulbs are used on average
Now try the following exercise 35 h each. Determine the cost of electricity
for the week if 1 unit of electricity costs 7p.
[£12.46]
Exercise 7 Further problems on power
and energy 12 Calculate the power dissipated by the element
of an electric fire of resistance 30 when
1 The hot resistance of a 250 V filament lamp
a current of 10 A flows in it. If the fire
is 625 . Determine the current taken by the
is on for 30 hours in a week determine the
lamp and its power rating. [0.4 A, 100 W]
energy used. Determine also the weekly cost
2 Determine the resistance of a coil connected of energy if electricity costs 6.5p per unit.
to a 150 V supply when a current of [3 kW, 90 kWh, £5.85]
(a) 75 mA (b) 300 µA flows through it.
[(a) 2 k (b) 0.5 M]
3 Determine the resistance of an electric fire
which takes a current of 12 A from a 240 V 2.11 Main effects of electric current
supply. Find also the power rating of the fire
and the energy used in 20 h. The three main effects of an electric current are:
[20 , 2.88 kW, 57.6 kWh]
4 Determine the power dissipated when a cur- (a) magnetic effect
rent of 10 mA flows through an appliance (b) chemical effect
having a resistance of 8 k. [0.8 W] (c) heating effect
5 85.5 J of energy are converted into heat in Some practical applications of the effects of an
9 s. What power is dissipated? [9.5 W] electric current include:
TLFeBOOK
Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, genera-

tors, transformers, telephones, Exercise 8 Further problem on fuses
car-ignition and lifting magnets
(see Chapter 8) 1 A television set having a power rating of
120 W and electric lawnmower of power rating
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and 1 kW are both connected to a 250 V supply.
electroplating (see Chapter 4) If 3 A, 5 A and 10 A fuses are available
state which is the most appropriate for each
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric appliance. [3 A, 5 A]
fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and
soldering irons
Exercise 9 Short answer questions on the

2.12 Fuses introduction to electric circuits
1 Draw the preferred symbols for the follow-
A fuse is used to prevent overloading of electrical ing components used when drawing electrical
circuits. The fuse, which is made of material having circuit diagrams:
a low melting point, utilizes the heating effect of an (a) fixed resistor (b) cell
electric current. A fuse is placed in an electrical (c) filament lamp (d) fuse
circuit and if the current becomes too large the (e) voltmeter
fuse wire melts and so breaks the circuit. A circuit
diagram symbol for a fuse is shown in Fig. 2.1, on 2 State the unit of
page 11. (a) current
(b) potential difference
(c) resistance
Problem 20. If 5 A, 10 A and 13 A fuses
are available, state which is most appropriate 3 State an instrument used to measure
for the following appliances which are both (a) current
connected to a 240 V supply: (a) Electric (b) potential difference
toaster having a power rating of 1 kW (c) resistance
(b) Electric fire having a power rating of 4 What is a multimeter?
3 kW.
5 State Ohm’s law
P 6 Give one example of
Power P D VI, from which, current I D (a) a linear device
V
(b) a non-linear device
(a) For the toaster, 7 State the meaning of the following abbrevia-
tions of prefixes used with electrical units:
P 1000 100 (a) k (b) µ (c) m (d) M
current I D D D D 4.17 A
V 240 24 8 What is a conductor? Give four examples
Hence a 5 A fuse is most appropriate 9 What is an insulator? Give four examples
(b) For the fire, 10 Complete the following statement:
‘An ammeter has a . . . resistance and must
P 3000 300 be connected . . . with the load’
current I D D D D 12.5 A
V 240 24 11 Complete the following statement:
‘A voltmeter has a . . . resistance and must be
Hence a 13 A fuse is most appropriate connected . . . with the load’
12 State the unit of electrical power. State three
Now try the following exercises formulae used to calculate power
TLFeBOOK
13 State two units used for electrical energy (d) An electrical insulator has a high resis-
tance
14 State the three main effects of an electric
current and give two examples of each 7 A current of 3 A flows for 50 h through a 6
resistor. The energy consumed by the resistor
15 What is the function of a fuse in an electrical is:
circuit? (a) 0.9 kWh (b) 2.7 kWh
(c) 9 kWh (d) 27 kWh
8 What must be known in order to calculate the
energy used by an electrical appliance?
Exercise 10 Multi-choice problems on the (a) voltage and current
introduction to electric circuits (Answers on (b) current and time of operation
page 375) (c) power and time of operation
1 60 µs is equivalent to: (d) current and resistance
(a) 0.06 s (b) 0.00006 s 9 Voltage drop is the:
(c) 1000 minutes (d) 0.6 s (a) maximum potential
(b) difference in potential between two points
2 The current which flows when 0.1 coulomb
(c) voltage produced by a source
is transferred in 10 ms is:
(d) voltage at the end of a circuit
(a) 1 A (b) 10 A
(c) 10 mA (d) 100 mA 10 A 240 V, 60 W lamp has a working resistance
of:
3 The p.d. applied to a 1 k resistance in order (a) 1400 ohm (b) 60 ohm
that a current of 100 µA may flow is:
(c) 960 ohm (d) 325 ohm
(a) 1 V (b) 100 V (c) 0.1 V (d) 10 V
11 The largest number of 100 W electric light
4 Which of the following formulae for electri-
bulbs which can be operated from a 240 V
cal power is incorrect?
supply fitted with a 13 A fuse is:
V V2 (a) 2 (b) 7 (c) 31 (d) 18
(a) VI (b) (c) I2 R (d)
I R
12 The energy used by a 1.5 kW heater in
5 The power dissipated by a resistor of 4 5 minutes is:
when a current of 5 A passes through it is: (a) 5 J (b) 450 J
(a) 6.25 W (b) 20 W
(c) 7500 J (d) 450 000 J
(c) 80 W (d) 100 W
13 When an atom loses an electron, the atom:
6 Which of the following statements is true? (a) becomes positively charged
(a) Electric current is measured in volts (b) disintegrates
(b) 200 k resistance is equivalent to 2 M (c) experiences no effect at all
(c) An ammeter has a low resistance and (d) becomes negatively charged
must be connected in parallel with a
circuit
TLFeBOOK
3
Resistance variation
ž appreciate that electrical resistance depends on four factors

ž appreciate that resistance R D l/a, where is the resistivity
ž recognize typical values of resistivity and its unit

ž perform calculations using R D l/a
ž define the temperature coefficient of resistance, ˛

ž recognize typical values for ˛
ž perform calculations using R D R0 1 C ˛
ž determine the resistance and tolerance of a fixed resistor from its colour code
ž determine the resistance and tolerance of a fixed resistor from its letter and digit
code
symbol (Greek rho). Thus,

3.1 Resistance and resistivity
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on rl

resistance R= ohms
four factors, these being: (a) the length of the con- a
ductor, (b) the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
(c) the type of material and (d) the temperature of
the material. Resistance, R, is directly proportional is measured in ohm metres (
m). The value of
to length, l, of a conductor, i.e. R / l. Thus, for the resistivity is that resistance of a unit cube of
example, if the length of a piece of wire is doubled, the material measured between opposite faces of the
then the resistance is doubled. cube.
Resistance, R, is inversely proportional to cross- Resistivity varies with temperature and some typ-
sectional area, a, of a conductor, i.e. R / 1/a. Thus, ical values of resistivities measured at about room
for example, if the cross-sectional area of a piece of temperature are given below:
wire is doubled then the resistance is halved.
Since R / l and R / 1/a then R / l/a. By
inserting a constant of proportionality into this rela- Copper 1.7 ð 108
m (or 0.017 µ
m
tionship the type of material used may be taken into Aluminium 2.6 ð 108
m (or 0.026 µ
m
account. The constant of proportionality is known
as the resistivity of the material and is given the Carbon (graphite) 10 ð 108
m 0.10 µ
m
TLFeBOOK
RESISTANCE VARIATION 21
Glass 1 ð 1010
m (or 104 µ
m (b) When the resistance is 750
then

Mica 1 ð 1013
m (or 107 µ
m 1
750 D k
a
Note that good conductors of electricity have a low from which
value of resistivity and good insulators have a high
value of resistivity. k 600
cross-sectional area, a D D
750 750
Problem 1. The resistance of a 5 m length D 0.8 mm2
of wire is 600
. Determine (a) the
resistance of an 8 m length of the same wire, Problem 3. A wire of length 8 m and
and (b) the length of the same wire when the cross-sectional area 3 mm2 has a resistance
resistance is 420
. of 0.16
. If the wire is drawn out until its
cross-sectional area is 1 mm2 , determine the
resistance of the wire.
(a) Resistance, R, is directly proportional to length,
l, i.e. R / l. Hence, 600
/ 5 m or Resistance R is directly proportional to length l, and
600 D k 5 , where k is the coefficient of inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, a,
proportionality. i.e.
600 R / l/a or R D kl/a , where k is the coefficient
Hence, k D D 120 of proportionality.
5 Since R D 0.16, l D 8 and a D 3, then 0.16 D
When the length l is 8 m, then resistance k 8/3 , from which k D 0.16 ð 3/8 D 0.06
R D kl D 120 8 D 960 Z If the cross-sectional area is reduced to 1/3 of its
(b) When the resistance is 420
, 420 D kl, from original area then the length must be tripled to 3ð8,
which, i.e. 24 m

420 420 l 24
length l D D D 3.5 m New resistance R D k D 0.06
k 120 a 1
D 1.44 Z
Problem 2. A piece of wire of
Problem 4. Calculate the resistance of a
cross-sectional area 2 mm2 has a resistance
2 km length of aluminium overhead power
of 300
. Find (a) the resistance of a wire of
cable if the cross-sectional area of the cable
the same length and material if the
is 100 mm2 . Take the resistivity of
cross-sectional area is 5 mm2 , (b) the
aluminium to be 0.03 ð 106
m.
cross-sectional area of a wire of the same
length and material of resistance 750
.
Length l D 2 km D 2000 m, area a D 100 mm2 D
100 ð 106 m2 and resistivity D 0.03 ð 106
m.
Resistance R is inversely proportional to cross- l
sectional area, a, i.e. R / l/a Resistance R D
a
Hence 300
/ 12 mm2 or 300 D k 12 , 0.03 ð 106
m 2000 m
D
from which, the coefficient of proportionality, k D 100 ð 106 m2
300 ð 2 D 600 0.03 ð 2000
D
D 0.6 Z
(a) When the cross-sectional area a D 5 mm then 2 100
Problem 5. Calculate the cross-sectional

R D k 15
area, in mm2 , of a piece of copper wire,
D 600 15 D 120 Z 40 m in length and having a resistance of
0.25
. Take the resistivity of copper as
(Note that resistance has decreased as the cross- 0.02 ð 106
m.
sectional is increased.)
TLFeBOOK
Resistance R D l/a hence cross-sectional area

l 0.02 ð 106
m 40 m resistance and resistivity
aD D
R 0.25
1 The resistance of a 2 m length of cable is
D 3.2 ð 106 m2 2.5
. Determine (a) the resistance of a 7 m
length of the same cable and (b) the length of
D 3.2 ð 106 ð 106 mm2 D 3.2 mm2 the same wire when the resistance is 6.25
.
[(a) 8.75
(b) 5 m]
Problem 6. The resistance of 1.5 km of 2 Some wire of cross-sectional area 1 mm2 has
wire of cross-sectional area 0.17 mm2 is a resistance of 20
.
150
. Determine the resistivity of the wire. Determine (a) the resistance of a wire of the
same length and material if the cross-sectional
area is 4 mm2 , and (b) the cross-sectional area
of a wire of the same length and material if
Resistance, R D l/a hence the resistance is 32
[(a) 5
(b) 0.625 mm2 ]
Ra 3 Some wire of length 5 m and cross-sectional
resistivity D
l area 2 mm2 has a resistance of 0.08
. If the
150
0.17 ð 106 m2 wire is drawn out until its cross-sectional area
D is 1 mm2 , determine the resistance of the wire.
1500 m [0.32
]
D 0.017 × 10−6 Z m 4 Find the resistance of 800 m of copper cable
or 0.017 mZ m of cross-sectional area 20 mm2 . Take the resis-
tivity of copper as 0.02 µ
m [0.8
]
5 Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm2 , of
Problem 7. Determine the resistance of a piece of aluminium wire 100 m long and
1200 m of copper cable having a diameter of having a resistance of 2
. Take the resistivity
12 mm if the resistivity of copper is of aluminium as 0.03 ð 106
m [1.5 mm2 ]
1.7 ð 108
m.
6 The resistance of 500 m of wire of cross-
sectional area 2.6 mm2 is 5
. Determine the
Cross-sectional area of cable, resistivity of the wire in µ
m
[0.026 µ
m]
2
12 7 Find the resistance of 1 km of copper cable
a D r 2 D
2 having a diameter of 10 mm if the resistivity
of copper is 0.017 ð 106
m [0.216
]
D 36 mm2 D 36 ð 106 m2
l
Resistance R D
a
1.7 ð 108
m 1200 m 3.2 Temperature coefficient of
D
36 ð 106 m2 resistance
1.7 ð 1200 ð 106
D
In general, as the temperature of a material
108 ð 36
increases, most conductors increase in resistance,
1.7 ð 12 insulators decrease in resistance, whilst the
D
D 0.180 Z
36 resistance of some special alloys remain almost
constant.
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a
Now try the following exercise material is the increase in the resistance of a 1
TLFeBOOK
resistor of that material when it is subjected to a

rise of temperature of 1° C. The symbol used for Problem 9. An aluminium cable has a
the temperature coefficient of resistance is ˛ (Greek resistance of 27
at a temperature of 35° C.
alpha). Thus, if some copper wire of resistance 1
Determine its resistance at 0° C. Take the
is heated through 1° C and its resistance is then mea- temperature coefficient of resistance at 0° C
sured as 1.0043
then ˛ D 0.0043
/
° C for cop- to be 0.0038/° C.
per. The units are usually expressed only as ‘per
° C’, i.e. ˛ D 0.0043/° C for copper. If the 1
Resistance at ° C, R D R0 1 C ˛0 . Hence resis-

resistor of copper is heated through 100° C then the tance at 0° C,
resistance at 100° C would be 1 C 100 ð 0.0043 D
1.43
Some typical values of temperature coef- R 27
ficient of resistance measured at 0° C are given R0 D D
1 C ˛0 [1 C 0.0038 35 ]
below:
27
D
Copper 0.0043/° C 1 C 0.133
Nickel 0.0062/° C 27
Constantan 0 D D 23.83 Z
Aluminium 0.0038/° C 1.133
Carbon 0.00048/° C
Eureka 0.00001/° C Problem 10. A carbon resistor has a
resistance of 1 k
at 0° C. Determine its
(Note that the negative sign for carbon indicates resistance at 80° C. Assume that the
that its resistance falls with increase of temperature.) temperature coefficient of resistance for
If the resistance of a material at 0° C is known carbon at 0° C is 0.0005/° C.
the resistance at any other temperature can be deter-
mined from: Resistance at temperature ° C,
R D R0 1 C ˛0
Rq = R0 .1 + a0 q/
i.e.
where R0 D resistance at 0° C R D 1000[1 C 0.0005 80 ]
R D resistance at temperature ° C D 1000[1 0.040] D 10000.96 D 960 Z
˛0 D temperature coefficient of resistance
at 0° C
If the resistance of a material at room tempera-
ture (approximately 20° C), R20 , and the temperature
coefficient of resistance at 20° C, ˛20 , are known then
Problem 8. A coil of copper wire has a the resistance R at temperature ° C is given by:
resistance of 100
when its temperature is
0° C. Determine its resistance at 70° C if the Rq = R20 [1 + a20 .q − 20/]
temperature coefficient of resistance of
copper at 0° C is 0.0043/° C.
Problem 11. A coil of copper wire has a
resistance of 10
at 20° C. If the temperature
Resistance R D R0 1 C ˛0 . Hence resistance at coefficient of resistance of copper at 20° C is
100° C, 0.004/° C determine the resistance of the coil
when the temperature rises to 100° C.
R100 D 100[1 C 0.0043 70 ]
D 100[1 C 0.301] Resistance at ° C,
D 1001.301 D 130.1 Z R D R20 [1 C ˛20 20 ]
TLFeBOOK
Hence resistance at 100° C,

Problem 13. Some copper wire has a
R100 D 10[1 C 0.004 100 20 ] resistance of 200
at 20° C. A current is
passed through the wire and the temperature
D 10[1 C 0.004 80 ] rises to 90° C. Determine the resistance of the
D 10[1 C 0.32] wire at 90° C, correct to the nearest ohm,
assuming that the temperature coefficient of
D 101.32 D 13.2 Z resistance is 0.004/° C at 0° C.
Problem 12. The resistance of a coil of

aluminium wire at 18° C is 200
. The R20 D 200
, ˛0 D 0.004/° C
temperature of the wire is increased and the R20 [1 C ˛0 20 ]
resistance rises to 240
. If the temperature and D
coefficient of resistance of aluminium is R90 [1 C ˛0 90 ]
0.0039/° C at 18° C determine the temperature
to which the coil has risen. Hence
R20 [1 C 90˛0 ]
Let the temperature rise to ° C. Resistance at ° C, R90 D
[1 C 20˛0 ]
R D R18 [1 C ˛18 18 ] 200[1 C 900.004 ]
D
[1 C 200.004 ]
i.e. 200[1 C 0.36]
240 D 200[1 C 0.0039 18 ] D
[1 C 0.08]
240 D 200 C 200 0.0039 18
2001.36
240 200 D 0.78 18 D D 251.85 Z
1.08
40 D 0.78 18
i.e. the resistance of the wire at 90° C is 252 Z,
40 correct to the nearest ohm
D 18
0.78
51.28 D 18, from which,
D 51.28 C 18 D 69.28° C
Hence the temperature of the coil increases to Exercise 12 Further problems on the
69.28° C temperature coefficient of resistance
1 A coil of aluminium wire has a resistance of
If the resistance at 0° C is not known, but is known 50
when its temperature is 0° C. Determine
at some other temperature 1 , then the resistance at its resistance at 100° C if the temperature coef-
any temperature can be found as follows: ficient of resistance of aluminium at 0° C is
0.0038/° C [69
]
R1 D R0 1 C ˛0 1 2 A copper cable has a resistance of 30
at
and R2 D R0 1 C ˛0 2 a temperature of 50° C. Determine its resis-
tance at 0° C. Take the temperature coefficient
Dividing one equation by the other gives: of resistance of copper at 0° C as 0.0043/° C
[24.69
]
R1 1 + a0 q1 3 The temperature coefficient of resistance for
= carbon at 0° C is 0.00048/° C. What is the
R2 1 + a0 q2 significance of the minus sign? A carbon resis-
tor has a resistance of 500
at 0° C. Determine
where R2 D resistance at temperature 2 its resistance at 50° C. [488
]
TLFeBOOK
4 A coil of copper wire has a resistance of Table 3.1

20
at 18° C. If the temperature coefficient
of resistance of copper at 18° C is 0.004/° C, Colour Significant Multiplier Tolerance
determine the resistance of the coil when the Figures
temperature rises to 98° C [26.4
]
Silver – 102 š10%
5 The resistance of a coil of nickel wire at Gold – 101 š5%
20° C is 100
. The temperature of the wire Black 0 1 –
is increased and the resistance rises to 130
. Brown 1 10 š1%
If the temperature coefficient of resistance of Red 2 102 š2%
nickel is 0.006/° C at 20° C, determine the
Orange 3 103 –
temperature to which the coil has risen.
[70° C] Yellow 4 104 –
Green 5 105 š0.5%
6 Some aluminium wire has a resistance of 50
Blue 6 106 š0.25%
at 20° C. The wire is heated to a temperature Violet 7 107 š0.1%
of 100° C. Determine the resistance of the Grey 8 108 –
wire at 100° C, assuming that the temperature White 9 109 –
coefficient of resistance at 0° C is 0.004/° C None – – š20%
[64.8
]
7 A copper cable is 1.2 km long and has a cross-
sectional area of 5 mm2 . Find its resistance at Problem 14. Determine the value and
80° C if at 20° C the resistivity of copper is tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding
0.02ð106
m and its temperature coefficient of: orange-orange-silver-brown.
of resistance is 0.004/° C [5.95
]
The first two bands, i.e. orange-orange, give 33 from
Table 3.1
The third band, silver, indicates a multiplier of
102 from Table 3.1, which means that the value of
3.3 Resistor colour coding and ohmic the resistor is 33 ð 102 D 0.33
The fourth band, i.e. brown, indicates a tolerance

values of š1% from Table 3.1 Hence a colour coding of
orange-orange-silver-brown represents a resistor of
(a) Colour code for fixed resistors value 0.33 Z with a tolerance of ±1%
Problem 15. Determine the value and

The colour code for fixed resistors is given in tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding
Table 3.1 of: brown-black-brown.
(i) For a four-band fixed resistor (i.e. resistance The first two bands, i.e. brown-black, give 10 from
values with two significant figures): Table 3.1
The third band, brown, indicates a multiplier of
yellow-violet-orange-red indicates 47 k
with
10 from Table 3.1, which means that the value of
a tolerance of š2% the resistor is 10 ð 10 D 100
(Note that the first band is the one nearest the There is no fourth band colour in this case; hence,
end of the resistor) from Table 3.1, the tolerance is š20% Hence a
colour coding of brown-black-brown represents a
(ii) For a five-band fixed resistor (i.e. resistance resistor of value 100 Z with a tolerance of ±20%
values with three significant figures): red-
yellow-white-orange-brown indicates 249 k
Problem 16. Between what two values
with a tolerance of š1% should a resistor with colour coding
(Note that the fifth band is 1.5 to 2 times wider brown-black-brown-silver lie?
than the other bands)
TLFeBOOK
From Table 3.1, brown-black-brown-silver indicates Tolerance is indicated as follows: F D š1%,

10 ð 10, i.e. 100
, with a tolerance of š10% G D š2%, J D š5%, K D š10% and M D š20%
This means that the value could lie between Thus, for example,
100 10% of 100
R33M D 0.33
š 20%
and 100 C 10% of 100
4R7K D 4.7
š 10%
i.e. brown-black-brown-silver indicates any value 390RJ D 390
š 5%
between 90 Z and 110 Z
Problem 19. Determine the value of a
Problem 17. Determine the colour coding resistor marked as 6K8F.
for a 47 k
having a tolerance of š5%.
From Table 3.2, 6K8F is equivalent to: 6.8 k Z± 1%
3
From Table 3.1, 47 k
D 47 ð 10 has a colour
coding of yellow-violet-orange. With a tolerance of
š5%, the fourth band will be gold. Problem 20. Determine the value of a
Hence 47 k
š 5% has a colour coding of: yellow- resistor marked as 4M7M.
violet-orange-gold.
From Table 3.2, 4M7M is equivalent to: 4.7 M Z
Problem 18. Determine the value and ±20%
tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding
of: orange-green-red-yellow-brown.
Problem 21. Determine the letter and digit
code for a resistor having a value of
orange-green-red-yellow-brown is a five-band fixed 68 k
š 10%.
resistor and from Table 3.1, indicates: 352 ð 104
with a tolerance of š1%

352 ð 104
D 3.52 ð 106
, i.e. 3.52 M
From Table 3.2, 68 k
š 10% has a letter and digit
Hence orange-green-red-yellow-brown indicates code of: 68 KK
3.52 M Z ± 1%
(b) Letter and digit code for resistors
Another way of indicating the value of resistors is Exercise 13 Further problems on resistor
the letter and digit code shown in Table 3.2 colour coding and ohmic values
1 Determine the value and tolerance of a resis-
Table 3.2 tor having a colour coding of: blue-grey-
orange-red [68 k
š 2%]
Resistance Marked as:
Value 2 Determine the value and tolerance of a resis-
tor having a colour coding of: yellow-violet-
0.47
R47 gold [4.7
š 20%]
1
1R0
4.7
4R7 3 Determine the value and tolerance of a resis-
47
47R tor having a colour coding of: blue-white-
100
100R black-black-gold [690
š 5%]
1k
1K0
10 k
10 K 4 Determine the colour coding for a 51 k
10 M
10 M resistor having a tolerance of š2%
[green-brown-orange-red]
TLFeBOOK
5 Determine the colour coding for a 1 M

8 Explain briefly the colour coding on resistors
resistor having a tolerance of š10% 9 Explain briefly the letter and digit code for
[brown-black-green-silver] resistors
6 Determine the range of values expected for a
resistor with colour coding: red-black-green-
silver [1.8 M
to 2.2 M
]
7 Determine the range of values expected for Exercise 15 Multi-choice questions on

a resistor with colour coding: yellow-black- resistance variation (Answers on page 375)
orange-brown [39.6 k
to 40.4 k
]
1 The unit of resistivity is:
8 Determine the value of a resistor marked as (a) ohms
(a) R22G (b) 4K7F (b) ohm millimetre
[(a) 0.22
š 2% (b) 4.7 k
š 1%] (c) ohm metre
(d) ohm/metre
9 Determine the letter and digit code for a
resistor having a value of 100 k
š 5% 2 The length of a certain conductor of resistance
[100 KJ] 100
is doubled and its cross-sectional area
is halved. Its new resistance is:
10 Determine the letter and digit code for a
resistor having a value of 6.8 M
š 20% (a) 100
(b) 200
[6 M8 M] (c) 50
(d) 400
3 The resistance of a 2 km length of cable of

cross-sectional area 2 mm2 and resistivity of
2 ð 108
m is:
Exercise 14 Short answer questions on (a) 0.02
(b) 20
resistance variation
(c) 0.02 m
(d) 200
1 Name four factors which can effect the resis-

tance of a conductor 4 A piece of graphite has a cross-sectional area
of 10 mm2 . If its resistance is 0.1
and its
2 If the length of a piece of wire of constant resistivity 10 ð 108
m, its length is:
cross-sectional area is halved, the resistance
of the wire is . . . . . . (a) 10 km (b) 10 cm
(c) 10 mm (d) 10 m
3 If the cross-sectional area of a certain length
of cable is trebled, the resistance of the cable 5 The symbol for the unit of temperature coeffi-
is . . . . . . cient of resistance is:
4 What is resistivity? State its unit and the sym- (a)
/° C (b)
bol used. (c) ° C (d)

/
° C
5 Complete the following:
6 A coil of wire has a resistance of 10
at 0° C.
Good conductors of electricity have a . . . . . . If the temperature coefficient of resistance for
value of resistivity and good insulators have the wire is 0.004/° C, its resistance at 100° C is:
a . . . . . . value of resistivity (a) 0.4
(b) 1.4
6 What is meant by the ‘temperature coefficient (c) 14

(d) 10
of resistance ? State its units and the symbols

used. 7 A nickel coil has a resistance of 13
at 50° C.
If the temperature coefficient of resistance at
7 If the resistance of a metal at 0° C is R0 , 0° C is 0.006/° C, the resistance at 0° C is:
R is the resistance at ° C and ˛0 is the
temperature coefficient of resistance at 0° C (a) 16.9
(b) 10
then: R D . . . . . . (c) 43.3

(d) 0.1
TLFeBOOK
8 A colour coding of red-violet-black on a resis- 9 A resistor marked as 4K7G indicates a value of:
tor indicates a value of: (a) 47
š 20% (b) 4.7 k
š 20%
(a) 27
š 20% (b) 270
(c) 0.47
š 10% (d) 4.7 k
š 2%
(c) 270
š 20% (d) 27
š 10%
TLFeBOOK
4
Chemical effects of electricity
ž understand electrolysis and its applications, including electroplating

ž appreciate the purpose and construction of a simple cell
ž explain polarisation and local action
ž explain corrosion and its effects
ž define the terms e.m.f., E, and internal resistance, r, of a cell
ž perform calculations using V D E Ir
ž determine the total e.m.f. and total internal resistance for cells connected in series
and in parallel
ž distinguish between primary and secondary cells
ž explain the construction and practical applications of the Leclanché, mercury,
lead–acid and alkaline cells
ž list the advantages and disadvantages of alkaline cells over lead–acid cells
ž understand the term ‘cell capacity’ and state its unit
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Electrolysis

A material must contain charged particles to be Electrolysis is the decomposition of a liquid com-
able to conduct electric current. In solids, the current pound by the passage of electric current through
is carried by electrons. Copper, lead, aluminium, it. Practical applications of electrolysis include the
iron and carbon are some examples of solid con- electroplating of metals (see Section 4.3), the refin-
ductors. In liquids and gases, the current is carried ing of copper and the extraction of aluminium from
by the part of a molecule which has acquired an its ore.
electric charge, called ions. These can possess a An electrolyte is a compound which will undergo
positive or negative charge, and examples include electrolysis. Examples include salt water, copper
hydrogen ion HC , copper ion CuCC and hydroxyl sulphate and sulphuric acid.
ion OH . Distilled water contains no ions and is The electrodes are the two conductors carrying
a poor conductor of electricity, whereas salt water current to the electrolyte. The positive-connected
contains ions and is a fairly good conductor of electrode is called the anode and the negative-
electricity. connected electrode the cathode.
TLFeBOOK
When two copper wires connected to a battery are Table 4.1 Part of the
placed in a beaker containing a salt water solution, electrochemical series
current will flow through the solution. Air bubbles
appear around the wires as the water is changed into Potassium
hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis. sodium
aluminium
zinc
iron
4.3 Electroplating lead
hydrogen
Electroplating uses the principle of electrolysis to copper
apply a thin coat of one metal to another metal. silver
Some practical applications include the tin-plating of carbon
steel, silver-plating of nickel alloys and chromium-
plating of steel. If two copper electrodes connected
to a battery are placed in a beaker containing copper In a simple cell two faults exist – those due to
sulphate as the electrolyte it is found that the cathode polarisation and local action.
(i.e. the electrode connected to the negative terminal
of the battery) gains copper whilst the anode loses Polarisation
copper.
If the simple cell shown in Fig. 4.1 is left connected
for some time, the current I decreases fairly rapidly.
This is because of the formation of a film of hydro-
4.4 The simple cell gen bubbles on the copper anode. This effect is
known as the polarisation of the cell. The hydrogen
The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chem- prevents full contact between the copper electrode
ical energy into electrical energy. and the electrolyte and this increases the internal
A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conduc- resistance of the cell. The effect can be overcome by
tors (electrodes) in an electrolyte. Such a cell is using a chemical depolarising agent or depolariser,
shown in Fig. 4.1, comprising copper and zinc elec- such as potassium dichromate which removes the
trodes. An electric current is found to flow between hydrogen bubbles as they form. This allows the cell
the electrodes. Other possible electrode pairs exist, to deliver a steady current.
including zinc–lead and zinc–iron. The electrode
potential (i.e. the p.d. measured between the elec- Local action
trodes) varies for each pair of metals. By knowing
the e.m.f. of each metal with respect to some stan- When commercial zinc is placed in dilute sulphuric
dard electrode, the e.m.f. of any pair of metals may acid, hydrogen gas is liberated from it and the zinc
be determined. The standard used is the hydrogen dissolves. The reason for this is that impurities, such
electrode. The electrochemical series is a way of as traces of iron, are present in the zinc which set up
listing elements in order of electrical potential, and small primary cells with the zinc. These small cells
Table 4.1 shows a number of elements in such a are short-circuited by the electrolyte, with the result
series. that localised currents flow causing corrosion. This
action is known as local action of the cell. This may
be prevented by rubbing a small amount of mercury
on the zinc surface, which forms a protective layer
on the surface of the electrode.
When two metals are used in a simple cell the
electrochemical series may be used to predict the
behaviour of the cell:
(i) The metal that is higher in the series acts as the

negative electrode, and vice-versa. For example,
the zinc electrode in the cell shown in Fig. 4.1
Figure 4.1 is negative and the copper electrode is positive.
TLFeBOOK
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY 31
(ii) The greater the separation in the series between i.e. approximately 1 M, hence no current flows and
the two metals the greater is the e.m.f. produced the cell is not loaded.
by the cell. The voltage available at the terminals of a cell
falls when a load is connected. This is caused by
The electrochemical series is representative of the internal resistance of the cell which is the
the order of reactivity of the metals and their opposition of the material of the cell to the flow of
compounds: current. The internal resistance acts in series with
other resistances in the circuit. Figure 4.2 shows a
cell of e.m.f. E volts and internal resistance, r, and
(i) The higher metals in the series react more
XY represents the terminals of the cell.
readily with oxygen and vice-versa.
(ii) When two metal electrodes are used in a simple
cell the one that is higher in the series tends to
dissolve in the electrolyte.
4.5 Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal in a Figure 4.2
damp atmosphere by means of simple cell action.
In addition to the presence of moisture and air
required for rusting, an electrolyte, an anode and When a load (shown as resistance R) is not
a cathode are required for corrosion. Thus, if metals connected, no current flows and the terminal p.d.,
widely spaced in the electrochemical series, are used V D E. When R is connected a current I flows
in contact with each other in the presence of an which causes a voltage drop in the cell, given by
electrolyte, corrosion will occur. For example, if a Ir. The p.d. available at the cell terminals is less
brass valve is fitted to a heating system made of than the e.m.f. of the cell and is given by:
steel, corrosion will occur.
The effects of corrosion include the weakening V = E − Ir
of structures, the reduction of the life of components
and materials, the wastage of materials and the Thus if a battery of e.m.f. 12 volts and internal
expense of replacement. resistance 0.01 delivers a current of 100 A, the
Corrosion may be prevented by coating with terminal p.d.,
paint, grease, plastic coatings and enamels, or by
plating with tin or chromium. Also, iron may be V D 12
100
0.01
galvanised, i.e., plated with zinc, the layer of zinc D 12 1 D 11 V
helping to prevent the iron from corroding.
When different values of potential difference V
across a cell or power supply are measured for
different values of current I, a graph may be plotted
4.6 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a as shown in Fig. 4.3 Since the e.m.f. E of the cell
cell or power supply is the p.d. across its terminals on
no load (i.e. when I D 0), then E is as shown by
The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E, of a cell is the the broken line.
p.d. between its terminals when it is not connected Since V D E Ir then the internal resistance may
to a load (i.e. the cell is on ‘no load’). be calculated from
The e.m.f. of a cell is measured by using a high
resistance voltmeter connected in parallel with the E −V
r=
cell. The voltmeter must have a high resistance I
otherwise it will pass current and the cell will not
be on ‘no-load’. For example, if the resistance of a When a current is flowing in the direction shown
cell is 1 and that of a voltmeter 1 M then the in Fig. 4.2 the cell is said to be discharging
equivalent resistance of the circuit is 1 M C 1 , (E > V).
TLFeBOOK
Total internal resistance of 8 cells

E 1
Ir D ð internal resistance of one cell
8
Terminal p.d., V
1
D ð 0.2 D 0.025 Z
V 8
Problem 2. A cell has an internal resistance

0 Current, I
of 0.02 and an e.m.f. of 2.0 V. Calculate its
terminal p.d. if it delivers (a) 5 A (b) 50 A.
Figure 4.3
When a current flows in the opposite direction to (a) Terminal p.d. V D E Ir where E D e.m.f.
that shown in Fig. 4.2 the cell is said to be charging of cell, I D current flowing and r D internal
(V > E). resistance of cell
A battery is a combination of more than one cell. E D 2.0 V, I D 5 A and r D 0.02
The cells in a battery may be connected in series or
in parallel. Hence terminal p.d.
V D 2.0
5
0.02 D 2.0 0.1 D 1.9 V
(i) For cells connected in series:
Total e.m.f. D sum of cell’s e.m.f.s (b) When the current is 50 A, terminal p.d.,
Total internal resistance D sum of cell’s internal
resistances V D E Ir D 2.0 50
0.02
(ii) For cells connected in parallel: i.e. V D 2.0 1.0 D 1.0 V
If each cell has the same e.m.f. and internal
resistance: Thus the terminal p.d. decreases as the current
Total e.m.f. D e.m.f. of one cell drawn increases.
Total internal resistance of n cells
1
D ð internal resistance of one cell Problem 3. The p.d. at the terminals of a
n
battery is 25 V when no load is connected
and 24 V when a load taking 10 A is
Problem 1. Eight cells, each with an connected. Determine the internal resistance
internal resistance of 0.2 and an e.m.f. of of the battery.
2.2 V are connected (a) in series, (b) in
parallel. Determine the e.m.f. and the internal
resistance of the batteries so formed.
When no load is connected the e.m.f. of the battery,
E, is equal to the terminal p.d., V, i.e. E D 25 V
(a) When connected in series, total e.m.f When current I D 10 A and terminal p.d.
D sum of cell’s e.m.f. V D 24 V, then V D E Ir
D 2.2 ð 8 D 17.6 V i.e. 24 D 25
10r
Total internal resistance
Hence, rearranging, gives
D sum of cell’s internal resistance
D 0.2 ð 8 D 1.6 Z 10r D 25 24 D 1
(b) When connected in parallel, total e.m.f and the internal resistance,
D e.m.f. of one cell 1
rD D 0.1 Z
D 2.2 V 10
TLFeBOOK
3 The p.d. at the terminals of a battery is 16 V

Problem 4. Ten 1.5 V cells, each having an when no load is connected and 14 V when a
internal resistance of 0.2 , are connected in load taking 8 A is connected. Determine the
series to a load of 58 . Determine (a) the internal resistance of the battery. [0.25 ]
current flowing in the circuit and (b) the p.d.
at the battery terminals. 4 A battery of e.m.f. 20 V and internal resis-
tance 0.2 supplies a load taking 10 A. Deter-
mine the p.d. at the battery terminals and the
(a) For ten cells, battery e.m.f., E D 10 ð 1.5 D resistance of the load. [18 V, 1.8 ]
15 V, and the total internal resistance, r D
10 ð 0.2 D 2 . When connected to a 58 load 5 Ten 2.2 V cells, each having an internal resis-
the circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.4 tance of 0.1 are connected in series to a
load of 21 . Determine (a) the current flow-
e.m.f. ing in the circuit, and (b) the p.d. at the battery
Current I D
total resistance terminals [(a) 1 A (b) 21 V]
15 6 For the circuits shown in Fig. 4.5 the resistors
D
58 C 2 represent the internal resistance of the batter-
15 ies. Find, in each case:
D D 0.25 A (i) the total e.m.f. across PQ
60 (ii) the total equivalent internal resistances of
the batteries.
[(i) (a) 6 V (b) 2 V (ii) (a) 4 (b) 0.25 ]
Figure 4.4
(b) P.d. at battery terminals, V D E Ir

i.e. V D 15
0.25
2 D 14.5 V
Exercise 16 Further problems on e.m.f.

and internal resistance of a cell
1 Twelve cells, each with an internal resistance
of 0.24 and an e.m.f. of 1.5 V are connected
(a) in series, (b) in parallel. Determine the Figure 4.5
e.m.f. and internal resistance of the batteries so
formed. 7 The voltage at the terminals of a battery is
[(a) 18 V, 2.88 (b) 1.5 V, 0.02 ] 52 V when no load is connected and 48.8 V
2 A cell has an internal resistance of 0.03 and when a load taking 80 A is connected. Find the
an e.m.f. of 2.2 V. Calculate its terminal p.d. internal resistance of the battery. What would
if it delivers be the terminal voltage when a load taking
(a) 1 A, (b) 20 A, (c) 50 A 20 A is connected? [0.04 , 51.2 V]
[(a) 2.17 V (b) 1.6 V (c) 0.7 V]
TLFeBOOK
constant for a relatively long time. Its main advan-

4.7 Primary cells tages over the Lechlanché cell is its smaller size
and its long shelf life. Typical practical applications
Primary cells cannot be recharged, that is, the include hearing aids, medical electronics, cameras
conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy and for guided missiles.
is irreversible and the cell cannot be used once the
chemicals are exhausted. Examples of primary cells
include the Leclanché cell and the mercury cell.
4.8 Secondary cells
Lechlanché cell
Secondary cells can be recharged after use, that
A typical dry Lechlanché cell is shown in Fig. 4.6 is, the conversion of chemical energy to electri-
Such a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.5 V when cal energy is reversible and the cell may be used
new, but this falls rapidly if in continuous use due many times. Examples of secondary cells include
to polarisation. The hydrogen film on the carbon the lead–acid cell and the alkaline cell. Practical
electrode forms faster than can be dissipated by applications of such cells include car batteries, tele-
the depolariser. The Lechlanché cell is suitable phone circuits and for traction purposes – such as
only for intermittent use, applications including milk delivery vans and fork lift trucks.
torches, transistor radios, bells, indicator circuits,
gas lighters, controlling switch-gear, and so on. The
Lead–acid cell
cell is the most commonly used of primary cells,
is cheap, requires little maintenance and has a shelf A typical lead–acid cell is constructed of:
life of about 2 years.
(i) A container made of glass, ebonite or plastic.
(ii) Lead plates
(a) the negative plate (cathode) consists of
spongy lead
(b) the positive plate (anode) is formed by
pressing lead peroxide into the lead grid.
The plates are interleaved as shown in the
plan view of Fig. 4.8 to increase their effective
cross-sectional area and to minimize internal
resistance.
Separators Container
Negative plate
Positive plate
Figure 4.6 (cathode)
(anode)
Mercury cell
PLAN VIEW OF LEAD ACID CELL
A typical mercury cell is shown in Fig. 4.7 Such
a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.3 V which remains Figure 4.8
(iii) Separators made of glass, celluloid or wood.

(iv) An electrolyte which is a mixture of sulphuric
acid and distilled water.
The relative density (or specific gravity) of a lead–

acid cell, which may be measured using a hydrome-
ter, varies between about 1.26 when the cell is fully
charged to about 1.19 when discharged. The terminal
Figure 4.7 p.d. of a lead–acid cell is about 2 V.
TLFeBOOK
When a cell supplies current to a load it is said are separated by insulating rods and assembled in
to be discharging. During discharge: steel containers which are then enclosed in a non-
metallic crate to insulate the cells from one another.
(i) the lead peroxide (positive plate) and the spongy The average discharge p.d. of an alkaline cell is
lead (negative plate) are converted into lead about 1.2 V.
sulphate, and Advantages of an alkaline cell (for example, a
nickel–cadmium cell or a nickel–iron cell) over a
(ii) the oxygen in the lead peroxide combines with lead–acid cell include:
hydrogen in the electrolyte to form water.
The electrolyte is therefore weakened and the (i) More robust construction
relative density falls.
(ii) Capable of withstanding heavy charging and
The terminal p.d. of a lead–acid cell when fully discharging currents without damage
discharged is about 1.8 V. A cell is charged by
connecting a d.c. supply to its terminals, the pos- (iii) Has a longer life
itive terminal of the cell being connected to the (iv) For a given capacity is lighter in weight
positive terminal of the supply. The charging cur-
rent flows in the reverse direction to the discharge (v) Can be left indefinitely in any state of charge or
current and the chemical action is reversed. During discharge without damage
charging:
(vi) Is not self-discharging
(i) the lead sulphate on the positive and negative
plates is converted back to lead peroxide and Disadvantages of an alkaline cell over a lead–acid
lead respectively, and cell include:
(ii) the water content of the electrolyte decreases (i) Is relatively more expensive
as the oxygen released from the electrolyte (ii) Requires more cells for a given e.m.f.
combines with the lead of the positive plate. The (iii) Has a higher internal resistance
relative density of the electrolyte thus increases. (iv) Must be kept sealed
(v) Has a lower efficiency
The colour of the positive plate when fully charged
is dark brown and when discharged is light brown. Alkaline cells may be used in extremes of temper-
The colour of the negative plate when fully charged ature, in conditions where vibration is experienced
is grey and when discharged is light grey. or where duties require long idle periods or heavy
discharge currents. Practical examples include trac-
tion and marine work, lighting in railway carriages,
Alkaline cell military portable radios and for starting diesel and
There are two main types of alkaline cell – the petrol engines.
nickel–iron cell and the nickel–cadmium cell. In However, the lead–acid cell is the most common
both types the positive plate is made of nickel one in practical use.
hydroxide enclosed in finely perforated steel tubes,
the resistance being reduced by the addition of pure
nickel or graphite. The tubes are assembled into
nickel–steel plates. 4.9 Cell capacity
In the nickel–iron cell, (sometimes called the
Edison cell or nife cell), the negative plate is made The capacity of a cell is measured in ampere-hours
of iron oxide, with the resistance being reduced by (Ah). A fully charged 50 Ah battery rated for 10 h
a little mercuric oxide, the whole being enclosed in discharge can be discharged at a steady current of
perforated steel tubes and assembled in steel plates. 5 A for 10 h, but if the load current is increased to
In the nickel–cadmium cell the negative plate is 10 A then the battery is discharged in 3–4 h, since
made of cadmium. The electrolyte in each type of the higher the discharge current, the lower is the
cell is a solution of potassium hydroxide which effective capacity of the battery. Typical discharge
does not undergo any chemical change and thus the characteristics for a lead–acid cell are shown in
quantity can be reduced to a minimum. The plates Fig. 4.9
TLFeBOOK
18 State three typical applications of primary

Terminal p.d. (volts)
2.2 cells
2.0
19 State three typical applications of secondary
1.8 Discharge at cells
Discharge at
twice 10 h rate 10h rate
20 In what unit is the capacity of a cell mea-
0 2 4 6 8 10 sured?
Discharge time (hours)
Figure 4.9
Exercise 18 Multi-choice questions on the
chemical effects of electricity (Answers on
page 375)
1 A battery consists of:
(a) a cell (b) a circuit
Exercise 17 Short answer questions on the (c) a generator (d) a number of cells
chemical effects of electricity
2 The terminal p.d. of a cell of e.m.f. 2 V and
1 What is electrolysis? internal resistance 0.1 when supplying a
2 What is an electrolyte? current of 5 A will be:
(a) 1.5 V (b) 2 V
3 Conduction in electrolytes is due to . . . . . .
(c) 1.9 V (d) 2.5 V
4 A positive-connected electrode is called the
. . . . . . and the negative-connected electrode 3 Five cells, each with an e.m.f. of 2 V and
the . . . . . . internal resistance 0.5 are connected in
series. The resulting battery will have:
5 State two practical applications of electro- (a) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
lysis of 0.5
6 The purpose of an electric cell is to convert (b) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resis-
. . . . . . to . . . . . . tance of 2.5
(c) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
7 Make a labelled sketch of a simple cell of 0.1
8 What is the electrochemical series? (d) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resis-
tance of 0.1
9 With reference to a simple cell, explain
briefly what is meant by 4 If the five cells of question 2 are connected
(a) polarisation (b) local action in parallel the resulting battery will have:
10 What is corrosion? Name two effects of cor- (a) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
rosion and state how they may be prevented of 0.5
(b) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resis-
11 What is meant by the e.m.f. of a cell? How tance of 2.5
may the e.m.f. of a cell be measured? (c) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
12 Define internal resistance of 0.1
(d) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resis-
13 If a cell has an e.m.f. of E volts, an internal tance of 0.1
resistance of r ohms and supplies a current I
amperes to a load, the terminal p.d. V volts 5 Which of the following statements is false?
is given by: V D . . . . . . (a) A Leclanché cell is suitable for use in
torches
14 Name the two main types of cells
(b) A nickel–cadnium cell is an example of
15 Explain briefly the difference between pri- a primary cell
mary and secondary cells (c) When a cell is being charged its terminal
16 Name two types of primary cells p.d. exceeds the cell e.m.f.
(d) A secondary cell may be recharged
17 Name two types of secondary cells after use
TLFeBOOK
6 Which of the following statements is false? (c) Galvanising iron helps to prevent corr-
When two metal electrodes are used in a osion
simple cell, the one that is higher in the (d) A positive electrode is termed the cat-
electrochemical series: hode
(a) tends to dissolve in the electrolyte
(b) is always the negative electrode 10 The greater the internal resistance of a cell:
(c) reacts most readily with oxygen (a) the greater the terminal p.d.
(d) acts an an anode (b) the less the e.m.f.
(c) the greater the e.m.f.
7 Five 2 V cells, each having an internal resis- (d) the less the terminal p.d.
tance of 0.2 are connected in series to a
load of resistance 14 . The current flowing 11 The negative pole of a dry cell is made of:
in the circuit is: (a) carbon
(a) 10 A (b) 1.4 A (c) 1.5 A (d) 23 A (b) copper
(c) zinc
8 For the circuit of question 7, the p.d. at the (d) mercury
battery terminals is: 12 The energy of a secondary cell is usually
(a) 10 V (b) 9 13 V (c) 0 V (d) 10 23 V renewed:
(a) by passing a current through it
9 Which of the following statements is true?
(b) it cannot be renewed at all
(a) The capacity of a cell is measured in
(c) by renewing its chemicals
volts
(d) by heating it
(b) A primary cell converts electrical energy
into chemical energy
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 1
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 1 to 4.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 An electromagnet exerts a force of 15 N and 6 Calculate the resistance of 1200 m of copper cable
moves a soft iron armature through a distance of of cross-sectional area 15 mm2 . Take the resistiv-
12 mm in 50 ms. Determine the power consumed. ity of copper as 0.02 µ m (5)
(5)
7 At a temperature of 40° C, an aluminium cable has
2 A d.c. motor consumes 47.25 MJ when connected a resistance of 25 . If the temperature coefficient
to a 250 V supply for 1 hour 45 minutes. Deter- of resistance at 0° C is 0.0038/° C, calculate its
mine the power rating of the motor and the current resistance at 0° C (5)
taken from the supply. (5)
8 (a) Determine the values of the resistors with the
3 A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a following colour coding:
200 V supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing (i) red-red-orange-silver
in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb. (ii) orange-orange-black-blue-green
(4) (b) What is the value of a resistor marked as
47 KK? (6)
4 Determine the charge transferred when a current
of 5 mA flows for 10 minutes. (4) 9 Four cells, each with an internal resistance of
0.40 and an e.m.f. of 2.5 V are connected in
5 A current of 12 A flows in the element of an series to a load of 38.4 . (a) Determine the
electric fire of resistance 10 . Determine the current flowing in the circuit and the p.d. at the
power dissipated by the element. If the fire is on battery terminals. (b) If the cells are connected in
for 5 hours every day, calculate for a one week parallel instead of in series, determine the current
period (a) the energy used, and (b) cost of using flowing and the p.d. at the battery terminals.
the fire if electricity cost 7p per unit. (6) (10)
TLFeBOOK
5
Series and parallel networks
ž calculate unknown voltages, current and resistances in a series circuit

ž understand voltage division in a series circuit
ž calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in a parallel network
ž calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in series-parallel networks
ž understand current division in a two-branch parallel network
ž describe the advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel connection of lamps
From Ohm’s law: V1 D IR1 , V2 D IR2 , V3 D IR3

5.1 Series circuits and V D IR where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V D V1 C V2 C V3 then IR D IR1 C IR2 C IR3 .
Figure 5.1 shows three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 Dividing throughout by I gives
connected end to end, i.e. in series, with a battery
source of V volts. Since the circuit is closed a
current I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor R = R1 + R2 + R3
may be determined from the voltmeter readings V1 ,
V2 and V3 . Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is
obtained by adding together the values of the sepa-
rate resistance’s.
Problem 1. For the circuit shown in

Fig. 5.2, determine (a) the battery voltage V,
(b) the total resistance of the circuit, and
(c) the values of resistors R1 , R2 and R3 ,
given that the p.d.’s across R1 , R2 and R3 are
5 V, 2 V and 6 V respectively.
Figure 5.1
In a series circuit
(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit
and hence the same reading is found on each of
the ammeters shown, and
Figure 5.2
(b) the sum of the voltages V1 , V2 and V3 is equal
to the total applied voltage, V,
(a) Battery voltage V D V1 C V2 C V3
i.e. V = V1 + V2 + V3 D 5 C 2 C 6 D 13 V
TLFeBOOK
V 13
(b) Total circuit resistance R D D D 3.25 Z
I 4
V1 5
(c) Resistance R1 D D D 1.25 Z
I 4
V2 2
Resistance R2 D D D 0.5 Z Figure 5.4
I 4
V3 6 which is the current in the 9 resistor.
Resistance R3 D D D 1.5 Z
I 4 P.d. across the 9 resistor,
(Check: R1 C R2 C R3 D 1.25 C 0.5 C 1.5
D 3.25 D R V1 D I ð 9 D 0.5 ð 9 D 4.5 V
Power dissipated in the 11 resistor,

Fig. 5.3, determine the p.d. across resistor P D I2 R D 0.52 11
R3 . If the total resistance of the circuit is D 0.25 11 D 2.75 W
100 , determine the current flowing through
resistor R1 . Find also the value of resistor R2 .
5.2 Potential divider

The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.5(a) is given by:

R1 R2
V1 = V and V2 = V
Figure 5.3 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
P.d. across R3 , V3 D 25 10 4 D 11 V
V 25
Current I D D D 0.25 A,
R 100
which is the current flowing in each resistor
V2 4
Resistance R2 D D D 16 Z
I 0.25
Problem 3. A 12 V battery is connected in

a circuit having three series-connected
resistors having resistance’s of 4 , 9 and
11 . Determine the current flowing through,
and the p.d. across the 9 resistor. Find also
the power dissipated in the 11 resistor.
Figure 5.5
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 5.4
Total resistance R D 4 C 9 C 11 D 24 The circuit shown in Fig. 5.5(b) is often referred

to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit
V 12 can consist of a number of similar elements in
Current I D D D 0.5 A, series connected across a voltage source, voltages
R 24
TLFeBOOK
SERIES AND PARALLEL NETWORKS 41
being taken from connections between the elements.

Frequently the divider consists of two resistors as
shown in Fig. 5.5(b), where

R2
VOUT = VIN
R1 + R2 Figure 5.8
Value of unknown resistance,

Problem 4. Determine the value of voltage
V shown in Fig. 5.6
Rx D 8 2 D 6 Z
(b) P.d. across 2 resistor,
V1 D IR1 D 3 ð 2 D 6 V
Alternatively, from above,

Figure 5.6

R1
V1 D V
Figure 5.6 may be redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.7, R1 C Rx
and
2
D 24 D 6 V
6 2C6
voltage V D 50 D 30 V
6C4
Energy used D power ð time
D V ð I ð t
D 24 ð 3 W 50 h
D 3600 Wh D 3.6 kWh

Figure 5.7
Exercise 19 Further problems on series
Problem 5. Two resistors are connected in circuits
series across a 24 V supply and a current of 1 The p.d’s measured across three resistors con-
3 A flows in the circuit. If one of the nected in series are 5 V, 7 V and 10 V, and the
resistors has a resistance of 2 determine supply current is 2 A. Determine (a) the sup-
(a) the value of the other resistor, and (b) the ply voltage, (b) the total circuit resistance and
p.d. across the 2 resistor. If the circuit is (c) the values of the three resistors.
connected for 50 hours, how much energy [(a) 22 V (b) 11 (c) 2.5 , 3.5 , 5 ]
is used?
2 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.9, determine
the value of V1 . If the total circuit resistance
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 5.8 is 36 determine the supply current and the
value of resistors R1 , R2 and R3
(a) Total circuit resistance [10 V, 0.5 A, 20 , 10 , 6 ]
V 24 3 When the switch in the circuit in Fig. 5.10
RD D D 8 is closed the reading on voltmeter 1 is 30 V
I 3
TLFeBOOK
and that on voltmeter 2 is 10 V. Determine

the reading on the ammeter and the value of
resistor Rx [4 A, 2.5 ]
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.12
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1 , I2 and I3 is equal to
Figure 5.10
the total circuit current, I,
4 Calculate the value of voltage V in Fig. 5.11 i.e. I = I1 + I2 + I3 and

[45 V]
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the same across each
3Ω of the resistors.
From Ohm’s law:
V 5Ω V V V V
72 V I1 D , I2 D , I3 D and I D
R1 R2 R3 R
where R is the total circuit resistance. Since

Figure 5.11 V V V V
I D I1 C I2 C I3 then D C C
R R1 R2 R3
5 Two resistors are connected in series across an
18 V supply and a current of 5 A flows. If one Dividing throughout by V gives:
of the resistors has a value of 2.4 determine
(a) the value of the other resistor and (b) the 1 1 1 1
p.d. across the 2.4 resistor. = + +
[(a) 1.2 (b) 12 V] R R1 R2 R3
This equation must be used when finding the total

resistance R of a parallel circuit. For the special case
of two resistors in parallel
5.3 Parallel networks 1 1 1 R2 C R1
D C D
R R1 R2 R1 R2
Figure 5.12 shows three resistors, R1 , R2 and R3

R1 R2 product
connected across each other, i.e. in parallel, across Hence R= i.e.
a battery source of V volts. R1 + R2 sum
TLFeBOOK
1 1 1 1 3
Problem 9. Given four 1 resistors, state D C C D ,
R 1 1 1 1
how they must be connected to give an 1 1
overall resistance of (a) 14 (b) 1 (c) 1 13 i.e. R D 3 and 3 in series with 1 gives
1
(d) 2 12 , all four resistors being connected
in each case. (d) Two in parallel, in series with two in series
(see Fig. 5.19), since for the two in parallel
(a) All four in parallel (see Fig. 5.16), since
1 1 1 1 1 4 1
D C C C D i.e. R D
R 1 1 1 1 1 4 Figure 5.19
1ð1 1
RD D ,
1C1 2
1
and 2 , 1 and 1 in series gives 2 12
Problem 10. Find the equivalent resistance

for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.20
Figure 5.16
(b) Two in series, in parallel with another two

in series (see Fig. 5.17), since 1 and 1 in
series gives 2 , and 2 in parallel with 2
Figure 5.20
gives
2ð2 4 R3 , R4 and R5 are connected in parallel and their

D D 1 equivalent resistance R is given by
2C2 4
1 1 1 1 6C3C1 10
D C C D D
R 3 6 18 18 18
hence R D 18/10 D 1.8 . The circuit is now
equivalent to four resistors in series and the equiv-
alent circuit resistance D 1 C 2.2 C 1.8 C 4 D 9 Z
Figure 5.17
Problem 11. Resistances of 10 , 20 and
(c) Three in parallel, in series with one (see 30 are connected (a) in series and (b) in
Fig. 5.18), since for the three in parallel, parallel to a 240 V supply. Calculate the
supply current in each case.
(a) The series circuit is shown in Fig. 5.21

The equivalent resistance
RT D 10 C 20 C 30 D 60
V 240
Figure 5.18
Supply current I D D D 4A
RT 60
TLFeBOOK
5.4 Current division

For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.23, the total circuit
resistance, RT is given by
R 1 R2
RT D
Figure 5.21 R1 C R2
(b) The parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 5.22

The equivalent resistance RT of 10 , 20
and 30 resistance’s connected in parallel is
given by:
Figure 5.23

R1 R2
and V D IRT D I
R1 C R2

V I R1 R2
Current I1 D D
R1 R1 R1 C R2
Figure 5.22

R2
D .I/
1 1 1 1 6C3C2 11 R1 + R2
D C C D D
RT 10 20 30 60 60 Similarly,

60 V I R1 R2
hence RT D current I2 D D
11 R2 R2 R1 C R2

Supply current R1
D .I/
R1 + R2
V 240 240 ð 11
ID D D D 44 A Summarising, with reference to Fig. 5.23
RT 60 60
11
R2
(Check: I1 = .I/
R1 + R2
V 240
I1 D D D 24 A,
R1 10 R1
and I2 = .I/
R1 + R2
V 240
I2 D D D 12 A
R2 20
Problem 12. For the series-parallel
V 240 arrangement shown in Fig. 5.24, find (a) the
and I3 D D D 8A
R3 30 supply current, (b) the current flowing
through each resistor and (c) the p.d. across
For a parallel circuit I D I1 C I2 C I3 each resistor.
D 24 C 12 C 8 D 44 A, as above)
TLFeBOOK
p.d. across R1 , i.e.
V1 D IR1 D 25 2.5 D 62.5 V

p.d. across Rx , i.e.
Vx D IRx D 25 1.5 D 37.5 V

Figure 5.24
p.d. across R4 , i.e.
(a) The equivalent resistance Rx of R2 and R3 in V4 D IR4 D 25 4 D 100 V
parallel is:
Hence the p.d. across R2
6ð2 D p.d. across R3 D 37.5 V
Rx D DD 1.5
6C2
The equivalent resistance RT of R1 , Rx and R4 Problem 13. For the circuit shown in
in series is: Fig. 5.26 calculate (a) the value of resistor
Rx such that the total power dissipated in the
RT D 2.5 C 1.5 C 4 D 8 circuit is 2.5 kW, (b) the current flowing in
each of the four resistors.
Supply current
V 200
ID D D 25 A
RT 8
(b) The current flowing through R1 and R4 is 25 A.
The current flowing through

R3 2
R2 D ID 25
R2 C R3 6C2
D 6.25 A
Figure 5.26
The current flowing through

R2 (a) Power dissipated P D VI watts, hence
R3 D I 2500 D 250 I
R2 C R3

6 2500
D 25 D 18.75 A i.e. I D D 10 A
6C2 250
From Ohm’s law,
(Note that the currents flowing through R2 and
R3 must add up to the total current flowing into V 250
the parallel arrangement, i.e. 25 A) RT D D D 25 ,
I 10
(c) The equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.24 is shown in where RT is the equivalent circuit resistance.
Fig. 5.25 The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in par-
allel is
15 ð 10 150
D D 6
15 C 10 25
The equivalent resistance of resistors R3 and Rx
Figure 5.25 in parallel is equal to 25 6 , i.e. 19 .
TLFeBOOK

There are three methods whereby Rx can be R1 15
determined. Current I2 D ID 10
R1 C R2 15 C 10

Method 1 3
D 10 D 6 A
5
The voltage V1 D IR, where R is 6 , from above,
i.e. V1 D 10 6 D 60 V. Hence From part (a), method 1, I3 = I4 = 5 A
V2 D 250 V 60 V D 190 V
Problem 14. For the arrangement shown in
D p.d. across R3
Fig. 5.27, find the current Ix .
D p.d. across Rx
V2 190
I3 D D D 5 A.
R3 38
Thus I4 D 5 A also, since I D 10 A. Thus
V2 190
Rx D D D 38 Z
I4 5
Figure 5.27
Method 2
Commencing at the right-hand side of the arrange-
Since the equivalent resistance of R3 and Rx in ment shown in Fig. 5.27, the circuit is gradually
parallel is 19 , reduced in stages as shown in Fig. 5.28(a)–(d).

38Rx product
19 D i.e.
38 C Rx sum
Hence
19 38 C Rx D 38Rx
722 C 19Rx D 38Rx
722 D 38Rx 19Rx D 19Rx
D 19Rx
722
Thus Rx D D 38 Z
19
Figure 5.28
Method 3
When two resistors having the same value are con- From Fig. 5.28(d),
nected in parallel the equivalent resistance is always
half the value of one of the resistors. Thus, in 17
this case, since RT D 19 and R3 D 38 , then ID D 4A
4.25
Rx D 38 could have been deduced on sight.
From Fig. 5.28(b),
(b) Current I1 D
R2
I
9 9
R1 C R2 I1 D I D 4 D 3 A
9C3 12
10
D 10 From Fig. 5.27
15 C 10

2 2 2
D 10 D 4 A Ix D I1 D 3 D 0.6 A
5 2C8 10
TLFeBOOK
Exercise 20 Further problems on parallel

networks
1 Resistances of 4 and 12 are connected
in parallel across a 9 V battery. Determine
(a) the equivalent circuit resistance, (b) the
supply current, and (c) the current in each
resistor.
[(a) 3 (b) 3 A (c) 2.25 A, 0.75 A]
2 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.29 determine
(a) the reading on the ammeter, and (b) the
value of resistor R [2.5 A, 2.5 ] Figure 5.30
plete circuit expends a power of 0.36 kW,

find the total current flowing.
[2.5 , 6 A]
7 (a) Calculate the current flowing in the 30
resistor shown in Fig. 5.31 (b) What addi-
tional value of resistance would have to be
placed in parallel with the 20 and 30
resistors to change the supply current to 8 A,
the supply voltage remaining constant.
[(a) 1.6 A (b) 6 ]
Figure 5.29
3 Find the equivalent resistance when the fol-

lowing resistances are connected (a) in series
(b) in parallel (i) 3 and 2 (ii) 20 k and
40 k (iii) 4 , 8 and 16 (iv) 800 ,
4 k and 1500
[(a) (i) 5 (ii) 60 k Figure 5.31
(iii) 28 (iv) 6.3 k
(b) (i) 1.2 (ii) 13.33 k 8 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.32, find (a) V1 ,
(iii) 2.29 (iv) 461.54 k] (b) V2 , without calculating the current flow-
4 Find the total resistance between terminals A ing. [(a) 30 V (b) 42 V]
and B of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.30(a)
[8 ] 5Ω 7Ω
5 Find the equivalent resistance between ter-
minals C and D of the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.30(b) [27.5 ] V1 V2
6 Resistors of 20 , 20 and 30 are con-

nected in parallel. What resistance must be 72 V
added in series with the combination to
obtain a total resistance of 10 . If the com- Figure 5.32
TLFeBOOK
9 Determine the currents and voltages indicated now has 240/4 V, i.e. 60 V across it and each
in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.33 now glows even more dimly.
[I1 D 5 A, I2 D 2.5 A, I3 D 1 23 A, I4 D 56 A (iii) If a lamp is removed from the circuit or if a
I5 D 3 A, I6 D 2 A, V1 D 20 V, V2 D 5 V, lamp develops a fault (i.e. an open circuit) or if
V3 D 6 V] the switch is opened, then the circuit is broken,
10 Find the current I in Fig. 5.34 [1.8 A] no current flows, and the remaining lamps will
not light up.
(iv) Less cable is required for a series connection
than for a parallel one.
The series connection of lamps is usually limited to

decorative lighting such as for Christmas tree lights.
Parallel connection
Figure 5.36 shows three similar lamps, each rated at
240 V, connected in parallel across a 240 V supply.
Figure 5.33
Figure 5.34
Figure 5.36
5.5 Wiring lamps in series and in (i) Each lamp has 240 V across it and thus each
parallel will glow brilliantly at their rated voltage.
(ii) If any lamp is removed from the circuit or
Series connection develops a fault (open circuit) or a switch is
Figure 5.35 shows three lamps, each rated at 240 V, opened, the remaining lamps are unaffected.
connected in series across a 240 V supply. (iii) The addition of further similar lamps in parallel
(i) Each lamp has only 240/3 V, i.e. 80 V across does not affect the brightness of the other
it and thus each lamp glows dimly. lamps.
(ii) If another lamp of similar rating is added in (iv) More cable is required for parallel connection
series with the other three lamps then each lamp than for a series one.
The parallel connection of lamps is the most widely

used in electrical installations.
Problem 15. If three identical lamps are

connected in parallel and the combined
resistance is 150 , find the resistance of one
lamp.
Figure 5.35
TLFeBOOK
Let the resistance of one lamp be R, then 1 1 1 1

D C C
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 3
D C C D , 5 Explain the potential divider circuit
150 R R R R
6 Compare the merits of wiring lamps in
from which, R D 3 ð 150 D 450 Z (a) series (b) parallel
Problem 16. Three identical lamps A, B

and C are connected in series across a 150 V Exercise 23 Multi-choice questions on
supply. State (a) the voltage across each series and parallel networks (Answers on
lamp, and (b) the effect of lamp C failing. page 375)
1 If two 4 resistors are connected in series
the effective resistance of the circuit is:
(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 1
(a) Since each lamp is identical and they are con-
nected in series there is 150/3 V, i.e. 50 V across 2 If two 4 resistors are connected in parallel
each. the effective resistance of the circuit is:
(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 1
(b) If lamp C fails, i.e. open circuits, no current will 3 With the switch in Fig. 5.37 closed, the
flow and lamps A and B will not operate. ammeter reading will indicate:
(a) 1 A (b) 75 A (c) 13 A (d) 3 A
3Ω 5Ω 7Ω
Exercise 21 Further problems on wiring A

lamps in series and in parallel
1 If four identical lamps are connected in paral-
lel and the combined resistance is 100 , find
the resistance of one lamp. [400 ] 5V
2 Three identical filament lamps are connected Figure 5.37

(a) in series, (b) in parallel across a 210 V sup-
ply. State for each connection the p.d. across
4 The effect of connecting an additional paral-
each lamp. [(a) 70 V (b) 210 V]
lel load to an electrical supply source is to
increase the
(a) resistance of the load
(b) voltage of the source
Exercise 22 Short answer questions on (c) current taken from the source
series and parallel networks (d) p.d. across the load
1 Name three characteristics of a series circuit 5 The equivalent resistance when a resistor
2 Show that for three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 of 13 is connected in parallel with a 14
connected in series the equivalent resistance R resistance is:
is given by R D R1 C R2 C R3 (a) 17 (b) 7 1
(c) 12 (d) 34
3 Name three characteristics of a parallel net- 6 With the switch in Fig. 5.38 closed the am-
work meter reading will indicate:
(a) 108 A (b) 13 A (c) 3 A (d) 4 35 A
4 Show that for three resistors R1 , R2 and R3
connected in parallel the equivalent resistance 7 A 6 resistor is connected in parallel with
R is given by the three resistors of Fig. 5.38. With the
TLFeBOOK
switch closed the ammeter reading will indi- 10 The total resistance of two resistors R1 and
cate: R2 when connected in parallel is given by:
(a) 34 A (b) 4 A (c) 14 A (d) 1 13 A
1 1
(a) R1 C R2 (b) C
R1 R2
2Ω 6Ω 10 Ω
R1 C R2 R1 R2
(c) (d)
R1 R2 R1 C R2
A
11 If in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.39, the read-
ing on the voltmeter is 5 V and the reading
on the ammeter is 25 mA, the resistance of
resistor R is:
(a) 0.005 (b) 5
(c) 125 (d) 200
6V
Figure 5.38 R
A
8 A 10 resistor is connected in parallel with
a 15 resistor and the combination in series V
with a 12 resistor. The equivalent resis-
tance of the circuit is:
(a) 37 (b) 18 (c) 27 (d) 4
9 When three 3 resistors are connected in
parallel, the total resistance is:
(a) 3 (b) 9 Figure 5.39
(c) 1 (d) 0.333
TLFeBOOK
6
Capacitors and capacitance
ž describe an electrostatic field

ž appreciate Coulomb’s law
ž define electric field strength E and state its unit
ž define capacitance and state its unit
ž describe a capacitor and draw the circuit diagram symbol
ž perform simple calculations involving C D Q/V and Q D It
ž define electric flux density D and state its unit
ž define permittivity, distinguishing between εo , εr and ε
ž perform simple calculations involving
Q V D
DD ,E D and D εo εr
A d E
ž understand that for a parallel plate capacitor,
ε0 εr A n 1
CD
d
ž perform calculations involving capacitors connected in parallel and in series
ž define dielectric strength and state its unit
ž state that the energy stored in a capacitor is given by W D 12 CV2 joules
ž describe practical types of capacitor
ž understand the precautions needed when discharging capacitors
the negative plate. Any region such as that shown

6.1 Electrostatic field between the plates in Fig. 6.1, in which an electric
charge experiences a force, is called an electrostatic
Figure 6.1 represents two parallel metal plates, A field. The direction of the field is defined as that
and B, charged to different potentials. If an electron of the force acting on a positive charge placed
that has a negative charge is placed between the in the field. In Fig. 6.1, the direction of the force
plates, a force will act on the electron tending to is from the positive plate to the negative plate.
push it away from the negative plate B towards the Such a field may be represented in magnitude and
positive plate, A. Similarly, a positive charge would direction by lines of electric force drawn between
be acted on by a force tending to move it toward the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is
TLFeBOOK
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 53
the magnitude of their charges and inversely pro-

portional to the square of the distance separating
them, i.e.
q1 q2
force / 2
d
Figure 6.1 or
q1 q2
an indication of the field strength. Whenever a p.d. force = k
is established between two points, an electric field d2
will always exist.
Figure 6.2(a) shows a typical field pattern for where constant k ³ 9 ð 109 . This is known as
an isolated point charge, and Fig. 6.2(b) shows Coulomb’s law.
the field pattern for adjacent charges of opposite Hence the force between two charged spheres in
polarity. Electric lines of force (often called elec- air with their centres 16 mm apart and each carrying
tric flux lines) are continuous and start and finish a charge of C1.6 µC is given by:
on point charges; also, the lines cannot cross each 6 2
q1 q2 9 1.6 ð 10
other. When a charged body is placed close to an force D k ³ 9 ð 10
d2 16 ð 103 2
uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign
appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This D 90 newtons
is because lines of force from the charged body ter-
minate on its surface.
6.2 Electric field strength
Figure 6.3 shows two parallel conducting plates sep-
arated from each other by air. They are connected
to opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts.
There is therefore an electric field in the space
between the plates. If the plates are close together,
the electric lines of force will be straight and paral-
lel and equally spaced, except near the edge where
fringing will occur (see Fig. 6.1). Over the area in
which there is negligible fringing,
V
Electric field strength, E = volts/metre
d
where d is the distance between the plates. Electric

field strength is also called potential gradient.
Figure 6.2
The concept of field lines or lines of force is

used to illustrate the properties of an electric field.
However, it should be remembered that they are
only aids to the imagination.
The force of attraction or repulsion between
two electrically charged bodies is proportional to Figure 6.3
TLFeBOOK
where I is the current in amperes and t the time in

6.3 Capacitance seconds.
Static electric fields arise from electric charges,
electric field lines beginning and ending on electric Problem 1. (a) Determine the p.d. across a
charges. Thus the presence of the field indicates 4 µF capacitor when charged with 5 mC
the presence of equal positive and negative electric (b) Find the charge on a 50 pF capacitor
charges on the two plates of Fig. 6.3. Let the charge when the voltage applied to it is 2 kV.
be CQ coulombs on one plate and Q coulombs on
the other. The property of this pair of plates which
determines how much charge corresponds to a given (a) C D 4 µF D 4 ð 106 F and
p.d. between the plates is called their capacitance: Q D 5 mC D 5 ð 103 C.
Q Q Q 5 ð 103
capacitance C = Since C D then V D D
V V C 4 ð 106
5 ð 106 5000
The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more D D
4 ð 103 4
usually µF D 106 F or pF D 1012 F), which is
Hence p.d. V D 1250 V or 1.25 kV
defined as the capacitance when a p.d. of one volt
appears across the plates when charged with one (b) C D 50 pF D 50 ð 1012 F and
coulomb. V D 2 kV D 2000 V
Q D CV D 50 ð 1012 ð 2000
6.4 Capacitors 5ð2
D D 0.1 ð 106
108
Every system of electrical conductors possesses
capacitance. For example, there is capacitance Hence, charge Q D 0.1 mC
between the conductors of overhead transmission
lines and also between the wires of a telephone Problem 2. A direct current of 4 A flows
cable. In these examples the capacitance is into a previously uncharged 20 µF capacitor
undesirable but has to be accepted, minimized or for 3 ms. Determine the p.d. between
compensated for. There are other situations where the plates.
capacitance is a desirable property.
Devices specially constructed to possess capaci-
tance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they I D 4 A, C D 20 µF D 20 ð 106 F and t D 3 ms D
used to be called). In its simplest form a capaci- 3 ð 103 s. Q D It D 4 ð 3 ð 103 C.
tor consists of two plates which are separated by
an insulating material known as a dielectric. A Q 4 ð 3 ð 103
VD D
capacitor has the ability to store a quantity of static C 20 ð 106
electricity.
The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable 12 ð 106
D D 0.6 ð 103 D 600 V
capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are 20 ð 103
shown in Fig. 6.4
Hence, the p.d. between the plates is 600 V
Problem 3. A 5 µF capacitor is charged so

that the p.d. between its plates is 800 V.
Figure 6.4
Calculate how long the capacitor can provide
an average discharge current of 2 mA.
The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by:
C D 5 µF D 5 ð 106 F, V D 800 V and
Q = I × t coulombs I D 2 mA D 2 ð 103 A.
Q D CV D 5 ð 106 ð 800 D 4 ð 103 C
TLFeBOOK
Also, Q D It. Thus,

Q
Q 4 ð 103 electric flux density, D = coulombs/metre2
tD D D 2s A
I 2 ð 103
Hence, the capacitor can provide an average Electric flux density is also called charge den-
discharge current of 2 mA for 2 s. sity, .

6.6 Permittivity
Exercise 24 Further problems on At any point in an electric field, the electric field
capacitors and capacitance strength E maintains the electric flux and produces
a particular value of electric flux density D at that
1 Find the charge on a 10 µF capacitor when the point. For a field established in vacuum (or for
applied voltage is 250 V [2.5 mC] practical purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant
2 Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capac- ε0 , i.e.
itor to charge it with 2 µC [2 kV]
3 The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC D
= e0
when the potential between them is 2.4 kV. E
Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
[2.5 µF] where ε0 is called the permittivity of free space or
4 For how long must a charging current of 2 A the free space constant. The value of ε0 is
be fed to a 5 µF capacitor to raise the p.d. 8.85 ð 1012 F/m.
between its plates by 500 V. [1.25 ms] When an insulating medium, such as mica, paper,
plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the region of
5 A direct current of 10 A flows into a previously an electric field the ratio of D/E is modified:
uncharged 5 µF capacitor for 1 ms. Determine
the p.d. between the plates. [2 kV]
D
6 A 16 µF capacitor is charged at a constant = e0 er
E
current of 4 µA for 2 min. Calculate the final
p.d. across the capacitor and the corresponding
charge in coulombs. [30 V, 480 µC] where εr , the relative permittivity of the insulating
material, indicates its insulating power compared
7 A steady current of 10 A flows into a previ- with that of vacuum:
ously uncharged capacitor for 1.5 ms when the
p.d. between the plates is 2 kV. Find the capac-
itance of the capacitor. [7.5 µF] relative permittivity,
flux density in material
er =
flux density in vacuum
6.5 Electric flux density

εr has no unit. Typical values of εr include air, 1.00;
Unit flux is defined as emanating from a posi- polythene, 2.3; mica, 3–7; glass, 5–10; water, 80;
tive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux ceramics, 6–1000.
is measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q The product ε0 εr is called the absolute permit-
coulombs, the flux D Q coulombs. tivity, ε, i.e.
Electric flux density D is the amount of
flux passing through a defined area A that is e = e0 er
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:
TLFeBOOK
The insulating medium separating charged surfaces Electric field strength

is called a dielectric. Compared with conductors,
dielectric materials have very high resistivities. They V 200
are therefore used to separate conductors at differ- ED D D 250 kV=m
d 0.8 ð 103
ent potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric
power lines.
D
(a) For air: εr D 1 and D ε0 εr
E
Problem 4. Two parallel rectangular plates
measuring 20 cm by 40 cm carry an electric Hence electric flux density
charge of 0.2 µC. Calculate the electric flux
density. If the plates are spaced 5 mm apart D D Eε0 εr
and the voltage between them is 0.25 kV
determine the electric field strength. D 250 ð 103 ð 8.85 ð 1012 ð 1 C/m2
D 2.213 mC=m2
2 4 2
Area D 20 cm ð 40 cm D 800 cm D 800 ð 10 m
and charge Q D 0.2 µC D 0.2 ð 106 C, (b) For polythene, εr D 2.3
Electric flux density
Electric flux density
Q 0.2 ð 106 0.2 ð 104
DD D D
A 800 ð 104 800 ð 106 D D Eε0 εr
2000 D 250 ð 103 ð 8.85 ð 1012 ð 2.3 C/m2
D ð 106 D 2.5 mC=m2
800
D 5.089 mC=m2
Voltage V D 0.25 kV D 250 V and plate spacing,
d D 5 mm D 5 ð 103 m.
Electric field strength Now try the following exercise
V 250
ED D D 50 kV=m
d 5 ð 103 Exercise 25 Further problems on electric
field strength, electric flux density and
Problem 5. The flux density between two permittivity
plates separated by mica of relative
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ð 1012 F/m)
permittivity 5 is 2 µC/m2 . Find the voltage
gradient between the plates. 1 A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04 mm thick
and operates at 30 V. What is the electric field
Flux density D D 2 µC/m2 D 2 ð 106 C/m2 , strength across the dielectric at this voltage?
ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and εr D 5. [750 kV/m]
D/E D ε0 εr , hence voltage gradient, 2 A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25 C. If
D 2 ð 10 6 the effective area of each plate is 5 cm2 find
ED D V/m the electric flux density of the electric field.
ε0 εr 8.85 ð 1012 ð 5 [50 kC/m2 ]
D 45.2 kV=m
3 A charge of 1.5 µC is carried on two parallel
rectangular plates each measuring 60 mm by
Problem 6. Two parallel plates having a 80 mm. Calculate the electric flux density. If
p.d. of 200 V between them are spaced the plates are spaced 10 mm apart and the
0.8 mm apart. What is the electric field voltage between them is 0.5 kV determine the
strength? Find also the electric flux density electric field strength.
when the dielectric between the plates is [312.5 µC/m2 , 50 kV/m]
(a) air, and (b) polythene of relative
permittivity 2.3 4 Two parallel plates are separated by a dielec-
tric and charged with 10 µC. Given that the
TLFeBOOK
area of each plate is 50 cm2 , calculate the elec-

tric flux density in the dielectric separating
the plates. [2 mC/m2 ]
5 The electric flux density between two plates

separated by polystyrene of relative permittiv-
ity 2.5 is 5 µC/m2 . Find the voltage gradient
between the plates. [226 kV/m]
6 Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 250 V

between them are spaced 1 mm apart. Deter-
mine the electric field strength. Find also
the electric flux density when the dielectric
between the plates is (a) air and (b) mica of
relative permittivity 5
[250 kV/m (a) 2.213 µC/m2 (b) 11.063 µC/m2 ]
Figure 6.5
6.7 The parallel plate capacitor
For a parallel-plate capacitor, as shown in Problem 7. (a) A ceramic capacitor has an

Fig. 6.5(a), experiments show that capacitance C effective plate area of 4 cm2 separated by
is proportional to the area A of a plate, inversely 0.1 mm of ceramic of relative permittivity
proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e. the dielectric 100. Calculate the capacitance of the
thickness) and depends on the nature of the capacitor in picofarads. (b) If the capacitor in
dielectric: part (a) is given a charge of 1.2 µC what will
be the p.d. between the plates?
e0 er A
Capacitance, C = farads
d (a) Area A D 4 cm2 D 4 ð 104 m2 ,
d D 0.1 mm D 0.1 ð 103 m,
ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and εr D 100
where ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m (constant)
εr D relative permittivity Capacitance,
A D area of one of the plates, in m2 , and ε0 ε r A

C D farads
d D thickness of dielectric in m d
8.85 ð 1012 ð 100 ð 4 ð 104
Another method used to increase the capacitance is D F
0.1 ð 103
to interleave several plates as shown in Fig. 6.5(b).
Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with 8.85 ð 4
D F
a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates. 1010
If such an arrangement has n plates then capaci-
8.85 ð 4 ð 1012
tance C / n 1. Thus capacitance D pF D 3540 pF
1010
e0 er A.n − 1/ (b) Q D CV thus

C = farads
d Q 1.2 ð 106
V D D V D 339 V
C 3540 ð 1012
TLFeBOOK
2 A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel

Problem 8. A waxed paper capacitor has
two parallel plates, each of effective area plates, each of effective area 0.2 m2 . If the
capacitance is 4000 pF determine the effective
800 cm2 . If the capacitance of the capacitor
thickness of the paper if its relative permittiv-
is 4425 pF determine the effective thickness
ity is 2 [0.885 mm]
of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2.5
3 Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate
2 4
A D 800 cm D 800 ð 10 m D 0.08 m , C D2 2 capacitor having 5 plates, each 30 mm by
4425 pF D 4425 ð 1012 F, ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m 20 mm and separated by a dielectric 0.75 mm
and εr D 2.5. Since thick having a relative permittivity of 2.3
[65.14 pF]
ε 0 εA A ε 0 εr A
CD then d D 4 How many plates has a parallel plate capacitor
d C
having a capacitance of 5 nF, if each plate
8.85 ð 1012 ð 2.5 ð 0.08 is 40 mm by 40 mm and each dielectric is
D
4425 ð 1012 0.102 mm thick with a relative permittivity
of 6. [7]
D 0.0004 m
5 A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25
Hence, the thickness of the paper is 0.4 mm.
plates, each 70 mm by 120 mm interleaved
with mica of relative permittivity 5. If
the capacitance of the capacitor is 3000 pF
Problem 9. A parallel plate capacitor has
determine the thickness of the mica sheet.
nineteen interleaved plates each 75 mm by
[2.97 mm]
75 mm separated by mica sheets 0.2 mm
thick. Assuming the relative permittivity of
6 A capacitor is constructed with parallel plates
the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance of
and has a value of 50 pF. What would be the
the capacitor.
capacitance of the capacitor if the plate area
is doubled and the plate spacing is halved?
[200 pF]
n D 19 thus n1 D 18, A D 75ð75 D 5625 mm2 D
5625 ð 106 m2 , εr D 5, ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and 7 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
d D 0.2 mm D 0.2 ð 103 m. Capacitance, is 1000 pF. It has 19 plates, each 50 mm by
30 mm separated by a dielectric of thickness
ε0 εr A n 1
CD 0.40 mm. Determine the relative permittivity
d of the dielectric. [1.67]
8.85 ð 1012 ð 5 ð 5625 ð 106 ð 18
D F 8 The charge on the square plates of a multiplate
0.2 ð 103
capacitor is 80 µC when the potential between
D 0.0224 mF or 22.4 nF them is 5 kV. If the capacitor has twenty-five
plates separated by a dielectric of thickness
0.102 mm and relative permittivity 4.8, deter-
Now try the following exercise mine the width of a plate. [40 mm]
9 A capacitor is to be constructed so that its

capacitance is 4250 pF and to operate at a p.d.
Exercise 26 Further problems on parallel of 100 V across its terminals. The dielectric is
plate capacitors to be polythene εr D 2.3 which, after allow-
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ð 1012 F/m) ing a safety factor, has a dielectric strength
of 20 MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the
polythene needed, and (b) the area of a plate.
1 A capacitor consists of two parallel plates each
[(a) 0.005 mm (b) 10.44 cm2 ]
of area 0.01 m2 , spaced 0.1 mm in air. Calcu-
late the capacitance in picofarads. [885 pF]
TLFeBOOK
6.8 Capacitors connected in parallel

and series
(a) Capacitors connected in parallel
Figure 6.6 shows three capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 ,
connected in parallel with a supply voltage V
applied across the arrangement.
Figure 6.7
the p.d. across the individual capacitors be V1 , V2

and V3 respectively as shown.
Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor C1 be
CQ coulombs. This induces an equal but opposite
charge of Q coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor
between plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is electrically isolated
from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but
opposite charge of CQ coulombs must appear on
plate ‘c’, which, in turn, induces an equal and
opposite charge of Q coulombs on plate ‘d’, and
so on.
Hence when capacitors are connected in series the
Figure 6.6
charge on each is the same. In a series circuit:
When the charging current I reaches point A it V D V1 C V2 C V3

divides, some flowing into C1 , some flowing into
C2 and some into C3 . Hence the total charge QT D Q Q Q Q Q
Since V D then D C C
I ð t is divided between the three capacitors. The C C C1 C2 C3
capacitors each store a charge and these are shown
as Q1 , Q2 and Q3 respectively. Hence where C is the total equivalent circuit capaci-
QT D Q1 C Q 2 C Q 3 tance, i.e.
But QT D CV, Q1 D C1 V, Q2 D C2 V and Q3 D 1 1 1 1

C3 V. Therefore CV D C1 V C C2 V C C3 V where C = + +
C C1 C2 C3
is the total equivalent circuit capacitance, i.e.
C D C1 C C2 C C3 It follows that for n series-connected capacitors:
It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
C = C1 + C2 + C3 . . . . . . + Cn C C1 C2 C3 Cn
i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallel- i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the reciprocal
connected capacitors is the sum of the capacitances
of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of
of the individual capacitors. (Note that this for-
the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. (Note
mula is similar to that used for resistors connected
in series). that this formula is similar to that used for resistors
connected in parallel).
For the special case of two capacitors in series:
(b) Capacitors connected in series
Figure 6.7 shows three capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 , 1 1 1 C 2 C C1
connected in series across a supply voltage V. Let D C D
C C1 C2 C1 C2
TLFeBOOK
Hence C D C1 C C 2 C C 3 C C 4
i.e. C D 1 C 3 C 5 C 6 D 15 mF
C1 C2 product
C = i.e. (b) Total charge QT D CV where C is the equiva-
C1 + C2 sum
lent circuit capacitance i.e.
Problem 10. Calculate the equivalent QT D 15 ð 106 ð 100 D 1.5 ð 103 C

capacitance of two capacitors of 6 µF and D 1.5 mC
4 µF connected (a) in parallel and (b) in
series. (c) The charge on the 1 µF capacitor
Q1 D C1 V D 1 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.1 mC
(a) In parallel, equivalent capacitance,
C D C1 C C2 D 6 µF C 4 µF D 10 mF The charge on the 3 µF capacitor
(b) In series, equivalent capacitance C is given by: Q2 D C2 V D 3 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.3 mC
C1 C2 The charge on the 5 µF capacitor
CD
C1 C C2 Q3 D C3 V D 5 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.5 mC
This formula is used for the special case of two The charge on the 6 µF capacitor
capacitors in series. Thus
Q4 D C4 V D 6 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.6 mC
6ð4 24
C D D D 2.4 mF [Check: In a parallel circuit
6C4 10
Q T D Q1 C Q 2 C Q 3 C Q 4 .
Problem 11. What capacitance must be Q1 C Q2 C Q3 C Q4 D 0.1 C 0.3 C 0.5 C 0.6
connected in series with a 30 µF capacitor for
the equivalent capacitance to be 12 µF? D 1.5 mC D QT ]
Let C D 12 µF (the equivalent capacitance), Problem 13. Capacitance’s of 3 µF, 6 µF

C1 D 30 µF and C2 be the unknown capacitance. and 12 µF are connected in series across a
For two capacitors in series 350 V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent
1 1 1 circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each
D C capacitor, and (c) the p.d. across each
C C1 C2 capacitor.
Hence
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 6.8.
1 1 1 C1 C
D D
C2 C C1 CC1
and
CC1 12 ð 30 360
C2 D D D D 20 mF
C1 C 30 12 18
Problem 12. Capacitance’s of 1 µF, 3 µF, Figure 6.8

5 µF and 6 µF are connected in parallel to a
direct voltage supply of 100 V. Determine (a) The equivalent circuit capacitance C for three
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the capacitors in series is given by:
total charge and (c) the charge on
each capacitor. 1 1 1 1
D C C
C C1 C2 C3
(a) The equivalent capacitance C for four capacitors 1 1 1 1 4C2C1 7
in parallel is given by: i.e. D C C D D
C 3 6 12 12 12
TLFeBOOK
Hence the equivalent circuit capacitance

12 5
C D D 1 mF or 1.714 mF
7 7
(b) Total charge QT D CV, hence
12
QT D ð 106 ð 350
7
D 600 µC or 0.6 mC
Since the capacitors are connected in series Figure 6.9
0.6 mC is the charge on each of them.
The equivalent capacitance of 5 F in series
(c) The voltage across the 3 µF capacitor,
with 15 µF is given by
Q
V1 D 5 ð 15 75
C1 µF D µF D 3.75 mF
5 C 15 20
0.6 ð 103
D D 200 V (b) The charge on each of the capacitors shown in
3 ð 106
Fig. 6.10 will be the same since they are con-
The voltage across the 6 µF capacitor,
nected in series. Let this charge be Q coulombs.
Q
V2 D Then Q D C1 V1 D C2 V2
C2
i.e. 5V1 D 15V2
0.6 ð 103
D D 100 V V1 D 3V2 1
6 ð 106
The voltage across the 12 µF capacitor, Also V1 C V2 D 240 V
Q Hence 3V2 C V2 D 240 V from equation (1)

V3 D Thus V2 D 60 V and V1 D 180 V
C3
0.6 ð 103 Hence the voltage across QR is 60 V
D D 50 V
12 ð 106
[Check: In a series circuit V D V1 C V2 C V3 .
V1 C V2 C V3 D 200 C 100 C 50 D 350 V D
supply voltage]
In practice, capacitors are rarely connected in series
unless they are of the same capacitance. The reason
for this can be seen from the above problem where
the lowest valued capacitor (i.e. 3 µF) has the highest
p.d. across it (i.e. 200 V) which means that if all the
capacitors have an identical construction they must Figure 6.10
all be rated at the highest voltage.
(c) The charge on the 15 µF capacitor is
Problem 14. For the arrangement shown in C2 V2 D 15 ð 106 ð 60 D 0.9 mC
Fig. 6.9 find (a) the equivalent capacitance of
the circuit, (b) the voltage across QR, and The charge on the 2 µF capacitor is
(c) the charge on each capacitor. 2 ð 106 ð 180 D 0.36 mC
The charge on the 3 µF capacitor is
(a) 2 µF in parallel with 3 µF gives an equivalent
capacitance of 2 µF C 3 µF D 5 µF. The circuit 3 ð 106 ð 180 D 0.54 mC
is now as shown in Fig. 6.10.
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercise charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d.
across each capacitor.
[(a) 4 µF (b) 3 mC (c) 250 V]
capacitors in parallel and series 8 If two capacitors having capacitances of
3 µF and 5 µF respectively are connected
1 Capacitors of 2 µF and 6 µF are connected in series across a 240 V supply, determine
(a) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the (a) the p.d. across each capacitor and (b) the
equivalent capacitance in each case. charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 8 µF (b) 1.5 µF] [(a) 150 V, 90 V (b) 0.45 mC on each]
2 Find the capacitance to be connected in series 9 In Fig. 6.12 capacitors P, Q and R are iden-
with a 10 µF capacitor for the equivalent tical and the total equivalent capacitance of
capacitance to be 6 µF [15 µF] the circuit is 3 µF. Determine the values of
P, Q and R [4.2 µF each]
3 What value of capacitance would be obtained
if capacitors of 0.15 µF and 0.10 µF are con-
nected (a) in series and (b) in parallel
[(a) 0.06 µF (b) 0.25 µF]
4 Two 6 µF capacitors are connected in series
with one having a capacitance of 12 µF. Find
the total equivalent circuit capacitance. What
capacitance must be added in series to obtain
a capacitance of 1.2 µF? [2.4 µF, 2.4 µF]
Figure 6.12
5 Determine the equivalent capacitance when
the following capacitors are connected (a) in 10 Capacitances of 4 µF, 8 µF and 16 µF are
parallel and (b) in series: connected in parallel across a 200 V supply.
(i) 2 µF, 4 µF and 8 µF Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance,
(ii) 0.02 µF, 0.05 µF and 0.10 µF (b) the total charge and (c) the charge on
(iii) 50 pF and 450 pF each capacitor.
(iv) 0.01 µF and 200 pF [(a) 28 µF (b) 5.6 mC
[(a) (i) 14 µF (ii) 0.17 µF (c) 0.8 mC, 1.6 mC, 3.2 mC]
(iii) 500 pF (iv) 0.0102 µF 11 A circuit consists of two capacitors P and Q
(b) (i) 1.143 µF (ii) 0.0125 µF in parallel, connected in series with another
capacitor R. The capacitances of P, Q and R
(iii) 45 pF (iv) 196.1 pF] are 4 µF, 12 µF and 8 µF respectively. When
6 For the arrangement shown in Fig. 6.11 find the circuit is connected across a 300 V d.c.
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance and supply find (a) the total capacitance of the
(b) the voltage across a 4.5 µF capacitor. circuit, (b) the p.d. across each capacitor
[(a) 1.2 µF (b) 100 V] and (c) the charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 5.33 µF (b) 100 V across P, 100 V across
Q, 200 V across R (c) 0.4 mC on P, 1.2 mC
on Q, 1.6 mC on R]
6.9 Dielectric strength

The maximum amount of field strength that a dielec-
tric can withstand is called the dielectric strength of
Figure 6.11 the material. Dielectric strength,
7 Three 12 µF capacitors are connected in
series across a 750 V supply. Calcu- Vm
Em =
late (a) the equivalent capacitance, (b) the d
TLFeBOOK
energy 0.24
Problem 15. A capacitor is to be (b) Power D D W D 24 kW
constructed so that its capacitance is 0.2 µF time 10 ð 106
and to take a p.d. of 1.25 kV across its
terminals. The dielectric is to be mica which, Problem 17. A 12 µF capacitor is required
after allowing a safety factor of 2, has a to store 4 J of energy. Find the p.d. to which
dielectric strength of 50 MV/m. Find (a) the the capacitor must be charged.
thickness of the mica needed, and (b) the
area of a plate assuming a two-plate
construction. (Assume εr for mica to be 6). Energy stored
1
WD CV2
(a) Dielectric strength, 2
2W
V hence V2 D
ED C
d
V 1.25 ð 103 2W 2ð4
i.e. dD D m and p.d. V D D
E 50 ð 106 c 12 ð 106

D 0.025 mm
2 ð 106
(b) Capacitance, D D 816.5 V
3
ε0 εr A
CD Problem 18. A capacitor is charged with
d
10 mC. If the energy stored is 1.2 J find
hence
(a) the voltage and (b) the capacitance.
Cd 0.2 ð 106 ð 0.025 ð 103 2
area A D D m
ε0 εr 8.85 ð 1012 ð 6
Energy stored W D 12 CV2 and C D Q/V. Hence
2 2
D 0.09416 m D 941.6 cm
1 Q
WD V2
2 V
6.10 Energy stored in capacitors
D 12 QV from which
The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by
2W
VD
Q
1
W = CV 2 joules Q D 10 mC D 10 ð 103 C
2
and W D 1.2 J
Problem 16. (a) Determine the energy (a) Voltage

stored in a 3 µF capacitor when charged to
400 V (b) Find also the average power 2W 2 ð 1.2
developed if this energy is dissipated in a VD D D 0.24 kV or 240 V
Q 10 ð 103
time of 10 µs.
(b) Capacitance
(a) Energy stored
1 Q 10 ð 103 10 ð 106
CD D FD µF
W D CV2 joules D 12 ð 3 ð 106 ð 4002 V 240 240 ð 103
2
3 D 41.67 mF
D ð 16 ð 102 D 0.24 J
2
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercise plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end
view of Fig. 6.13.
As the moving plates are rotated through half a
Exercise 28 Further problems on energy revolution, the meshing, and therefore the capac-
stored in capacitors itance, varies from a minimum to a maximum
value. Variable air capacitors are used in radio
(Assume ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m) and electronic circuits where very low losses
are required, or where a variable capacitance is
1 When a capacitor is connected across a 200 V needed. The maximum value of such capacitors
supply the charge is 4 µC. Find (a) the capac- is between 500 pF and 1000 pF.
itance and (b) the energy stored
[(a) 0.02 µF (b) 0.4 mJ]
2 Find the energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor
when charged to 2 kV [20 J]
3 A 3300 pF capacitor is required to store 0.5 mJ
of energy. Find the p.d. to which the capacitor
must be charged. [550 V] Figure 6.13
4 A capacitor is charged with 8 mC. If the energy
stored is 0.4 J find (a) the voltage and (b) the 2. Mica capacitors. A typical older type construc-
capacitance. [(a) 100 V (b) 80 µF] tion is shown in Fig. 6.14.
5 A capacitor, consisting of two metal plates
each of area 50 cm2 and spaced 0.2 mm apart
in air, is connected across a 120 V supply.
Calculate (a) the energy stored, (b) the electric
flux density and (c) the potential gradient
[(a) 1.593 µJ (b) 5.31 µC/m2 (c) 600 kV/m]
6 A bakelite capacitor is to be constructed to
have a capacitance of 0.04 µF and to have
a steady working potential of 1 kV maxi- Figure 6.14
mum. Allowing a safe value of field stress
of 25 MV/m find (a) the thickness of bakelite
required, (b) the area of plate required if the Usually the whole capacitor is impregnated with
relative permittivity of bakelite is 5, (c) the wax and placed in a bakelite case. Mica is easily
maximum energy stored by the capacitor and obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator.
(d) the average power developed if this energy However, mica is expensive and is not used in
is dissipated in a time of 20 µs. capacitors above about 0.2 µF. A modified form
[(a) 0.04 mm (b) 361.6 cm2 of mica capacitor is the silvered mica type. The
mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer
(c) 0.02 J (d) 1 kW] of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance
is stable and less likely to change with age.
Such capacitors have a constant capacitance with
change of temperature, a high working voltage
6.11 Practical types of capacitor rating and a long service life and are used in high
frequency circuits with fixed values of capaci-
Practical types of capacitor are characterized by the tance up to about 1000 pF.
material used for their dielectric. The main types
include: variable air, mica, paper, ceramic, plastic, 3. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is
titanium oxide and electrolytic. shown in Fig. 6.15 where the length of the roll
corresponds to the capacitance required.
1. Variable air capacitors. These usually consist The whole is usually impregnated with oil or
of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium), wax to exclude moisture, and then placed in a
one fixed, the other variable. The set of moving plastic or aluminium container for protection.
TLFeBOOK
Figure 6.17
Figure 6.15
Paper capacitors are made in various working

voltages up to about 150 kV and are used where
loss is not very important. The maximum value
of this type of capacitor is between 500 pF and
10 µF. Disadvantages of paper capacitors include
variation in capacitance with temperature change
and a shorter service life than most other types Figure 6.18
of capacitor.
4. Ceramic capacitors. These are made in various capacitance, a very long service life and high
forms, each type of construction depending on reliability.
the value of capacitance required. For high val-
ues, a tube of ceramic material is used as shown 6. Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high
in the cross section of Fig. 6.16. For smaller val- capacitance with a small physical size when used
ues the cup construction is used as shown in at a low temperature.
Fig. 6.17, and for still smaller values the disc
construction shown in Fig. 6.18 is used. Certain 7 Electrolytic capacitors. Construction is similar
ceramic materials have a very high permittivity to the paper capacitor with aluminium foil used
and this enables capacitors of high capacitance for the plates and with a thick absorbent mate-
to be made which are of small physical size with rial, such as paper, impregnated with an elec-
a high working voltage rating. Ceramic capaci- trolyte (ammonium borate), separating the plates.
tors are available in the range 1 pF to 0.1 µF and The finished capacitor is usually assembled in
may be used in high frequency electronic circuits an aluminium container and hermetically sealed.
subject to a wide range of temperatures. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin
aluminium oxide layer on the positive plate by
electrolytic action when a suitable direct poten-
tial is maintained between the plates. This oxide
layer is very thin and forms the dielectric. (The
absorbent paper between the plates is a conductor
and does not act as a dielectric.) Such capaci-
tors must always be used on d.c. and must be
connected with the correct polarity; if this is not
Figure 6.16 done the capacitor will be destroyed since the
oxide layer will be destroyed. Electrolytic capaci-
tors are manufactured with working voltage from
5. Plastic capacitors. Some plastic materials such 6 V to 600 V, although accuracy is generally not
as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as very high. These capacitors possess a much larger
dielectrics. Construction is similar to the paper capacitance than other types of capacitors of sim-
capacitor but using a plastic film instead of paper. ilar dimensions due to the oxide film being only
Plastic capacitors operate well under conditions a few microns thick. The fact that they can be
of high temperature, provide a precise value of used only on d.c. supplies limit their usefulness.
TLFeBOOK
15 Three 3 µF capacitors are connected in series.

6.12 Discharging capacitors The equivalent capacitance is. . . .
When a capacitor has been disconnected from the 16 State a disadvantage of series-connected
supply it may still be charged and it may retain this capacitors
charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions 17 Name three factors upon which capacitance
must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is auto- depends
matically discharged after the supply is switched off.
This is done by connecting a high value resistor 18 What does ‘relative permittivity’ mean?
across the capacitor terminals. 19 Define ‘permittivity of free space’
20 What is meant by the ‘dielectric strength’ of
a material?
21 State the formula used to determine the
energy stored by a capacitor
Exercise 29 Short answer questions on 22 Name five types of capacitor commonly used
capacitors and capacitance 23 Sketch a typical rolled paper capacitor
1 Explain the term ‘electrostatics’ 24 Explain briefly the construction of a variable
2 Complete the statements: air capacitor
Like charges . . . . . . ; unlike charges . . . . . . 25 State three advantages and one disadvantage
of mica capacitors
3 How can an ‘electric field’ be established
between two parallel metal plates? 26 Name two disadvantages of paper capacitors
4 What is capacitance? 27 Between what values of capacitance are
ceramic capacitors normally available
5 State the unit of capacitance
28 What main advantages do plastic capacitors
6 Complete the statement: possess?
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Capacitance D 29 Explain briefly the construction of an elec-
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ trolytic capacitor
7 Complete the statements:
30 What is the main disadvantage of electrolytic
(a) 1 µF D . . . F (b) 1 pF D . . . F capacitors?
8 Complete the statement: 31 Name an important advantage of electrolytic
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ capacitors
Electric field strength E D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ 32 What safety precautions should be taken
9 Complete the statement: when a capacitor is disconnected from a sup-
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ ply?
Electric flux density D D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
10 Draw the electrical circuit diagram symbol
for a capacitor
Exercise 30 Multi-choice questions on
11 Name two practical examples where capaci- capacitors and capacitance (Answers on
tance is present, although undesirable page 375)
12 The insulating material separating the plates
of a capacitor is called the . . . . . . 1 Electrostatics is a branch of electricity con-
cerned with
13 10 volts applied to a capacitor results in a (a) energy flowing across a gap between con-
charge of 5 coulombs. What is the capaci- ductors
tance of the capacitor? (b) charges at rest
14 Three 3 µF capacitors are connected in paral- (c) charges in motion
lel. The equivalent capacitance is. . . . (d) energy in the form of charges
TLFeBOOK
2 The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio (d) is proportional to the relative permittivity
(a) charge to p.d. between plates of the dielectric
(b) p.d. between plates to plate spacing 8 Which of the following statement is false?
(c) p.d. between plates to thickness of dielec- (a) An air capacitor is normally a vari-
tric able type
(d) p.d. between plates to charge (b) A paper capacitor generally has a shorter
3 The p.d. across a 10 µF capacitor to charge it service life than most other types of
with 10 mC is capacitor
(a) 10 V (b) 1 kV (c) An electrolytic capacitor must be used
only on a.c. supplies
(c) 1 V (d) 10 V (d) Plastic capacitors generally operate sat-
4 The charge on a 10 pF capacitor when the isfactorily under conditions of high tem-
voltage applied to it is 10 kV is perature
(a) 100 µC (b) 0.1 C 9 The energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor when
charged to 500 V is
(c) 0.1 µC (d) 0.01 µC
(a) 1.25 mJ (b) 0.025 µJ
5 Four 2 µF capacitors are connected in paral- (c) 1.25 J (d) 1.25 C
lel. The equivalent capacitance is
10 The capacitance of a variable air capacitor is
(a) 8 µF (b) 0.5 µF at maximum when
(c) 2 µF (d) 6 µF (a) the movable plates half overlap the fixed
plates
6 Four 2 µF capacitors are connected in series. (b) the movable plates are most widely sep-
The equivalent capacitance is arated from the fixed plates
(a) 8 µF (b) 0.5 µF (c) both sets of plates are exactly meshed
(d) the movable plates are closer to one side
(c) 2 µF (d) 6 µF
of the fixed plate than to the other
7 State which of the following is false. 11 When a voltage of 1 kV is applied to a capac-
The capacitance of a capacitor itor, the charge on the capacitor is 500 nC.
(a) is proportional to the cross-sectional area The capacitance of the capacitor is:
of the plates
(b) is proportional to the distance between (a) 2 ð 109 F (b) 0.5 pF
the plates (c) 0.5 mF (d) 0.5 nF
(c) depends on the number of plates
TLFeBOOK
7
Magnetic circuits

ž describe the magnetic field around a permanent magnet
ž state the laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion for two magnets in close
proximity
ž define magnetic flux, , and magnetic flux density, B, and state their units
ž perform simple calculations involving B D /A
ž define magnetomotive force, Fm , and magnetic field strength, H, and state their
units
ž perform simple calculations involving Fm D NI and H D NI/l
ž define permeability, distinguishing between
0 ,
r and
ž understand the B–H curves for different magnetic materials

ž appreciate typical values of
r
ž perform calculations involving B D
0
r H
ž define reluctance, S, and state its units
ž perform calculations involving
m.m.f. l
SD D

0
r A
ž perform calculations on composite series magnetic circuits
ž compare electrical and magnetic quantities
ž appreciate how a hysteresis loop is obtained and that hysteresis loss is proportional
to its area
magnetic force produced by the magnet can be

7.1 Magnetic fields detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt,
A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic smelt or heard and therefore is difficult to represent.
material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which has Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field
properties of attracting other pieces of these mate- could be represented pictorially, by imagining the
rials. A permanent magnet will position itself in a field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which
north and south direction when freely suspended. enables investigation of the distribution and density
The north-seeking end of the magnet is called the of the field to be carried out.
north pole, N, and the south-seeking end the south The distribution of a magnetic field can be inves-
pole, S. tigated by using some iron filings. A bar magnet is
The area around a magnet is called the magnetic placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard,
field and it is in this area that the effects of the upon which is sprinkled some iron filings. If the
TLFeBOOK
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 69
cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a

pattern similar to that shown in Fig. 7.1. If a number
of magnets of different strength are used, it is found
that the stronger the field the closer are the lines
of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus a magnetic
field has the property of exerting a force, demon-
strated in this case by causing the iron filings to
move into the pattern shown. The strength of the
magnetic field decreases as we move away from
the magnet. It should be realized, of course, that the
magnetic field is three dimensional in its effect, and
not acting in one plane as appears to be the case in
this experiment.
Figure 7.2
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is

 (Greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is
the weber, Wb
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux pass-
Figure 7.1 ing through a defined area that is perpendicular to
the direction of the flux:
If a compass is placed in the magnetic field in
various positions, the direction of the lines of flux magnetic flux
may be determined by noting the direction of the Magnetic flux density D
area
compass pointer. The direction of a magnetic field at
any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit
pole of a compass needle points when suspended in of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T, where
the field. The direction of a line of flux is from
the north pole to the south pole on the outside of 1 T D 1 Wb/m2 . Hence
the magnet and is then assumed to continue through
the magnet back to the point at which it emerged at 8
the north pole. Thus such lines of flux always form B= tesla
A
complete closed loops or paths, they never intersect
and always have a definite direction.
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion where A m2 is the area
can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In
Fig. 7.2(a), with unlike poles adjacent, attraction
takes place. Lines of flux are imagined to contract Problem 1. A magnetic pole face has a
and the magnets try to pull together. The mag- rectangular section having dimensions
netic field is strongest in between the two magnets, 200 mm by 100 mm. If the total flux
shown by the lines of flux being close together. In emerging from the pole is 150 µWb, calculate
Fig. 7.2(b), with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two the flux density.
north poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. the two north
poles try to push each other apart, since magnetic
flux lines running side by side in the same direc- Flux  D 150 µWb D 150 ð 106 Wb
tion repel. Cross sectional area A D 200ð100 D 20 000 mm2 D
20 000 ð 106 m2 .
7.2 Magnetic flux and flux density  150 ð 106

Flux density, B D D
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field A 20 000 ð 106
(or the number of lines of force) produced by a D 0.0075 T or 7.5 mT
TLFeBOOK
H D 8000 A/m, l D d D ð30ð102 m and N D

Problem 2. The maximum working flux
750 turns. Since H D NI/l, then
density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and
the effective area of a pole face is circular in
Hl 8000 ð ð 30 ð 102
cross-section. If the total magnetic flux ID D
produced is 353 mWb, determine the radius N 750
of the pole face.
Thus, current I D 10.05 A
Flux density B D 1.8 T and flux  D 353 mWb D
353 ð 103 Wb. Now try the following exercise
Since B D /A, cross-sectional area A D /B
353 ð 103 2
D m D 0.1961 m2 Exercise 31 Further problems on
1.8 magnetic circuits
The pole face is circular, hence area D r 2 , where r 1 What is the flux density in a magnetic field
is the radius. Hence r 2 D p
0.1961 from which, r 2 D of cross-sectional area 20 cm2 having a flux of
0.1961/ and radius r D 0.1961/ D 0.250 m 3 mWb? [1.5 T]
i.e. the radius of the pole face is 250 mm.
2 Determine the total flux emerging from a mag-
netic pole face having dimensions 5 cm by
6 cm, if the flux density is 0.9 T [2.7 mWb]
7.3 Magnetomotive force and magnetic
3 The maximum working flux density of a lifting
field strength electromagnet is 1.9 T and the effective area
Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) is the cause of the of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If
existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit, the total magnetic flux produced is 611 mWb
determine the radius of the pole face. [32 cm]
m.m.f. Fm = NI amperes 4 An electromagnet of square cross-section pro-
duces a flux density of 0.45 T. If the magnetic
where N is the number of conductors (or turns) flux is 720 µWb find the dimensions of the
and I is the current in amperes. The unit of mmf electromagnet cross-section. [4 cm by 4 cm]
is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However 5 Find the magnetic field strength applied to a
since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the S.I. unit of magnetic circuit of mean length 50 cm when
m.m.f. is the ampere. a coil of 400 turns is applied to it carrying a
Magnetic field strength (or magnetising force), current of 1.2 A [960 A/m]
NI 6 A solenoid 20 cm long is wound with 500 turns
H = ampere per metre of wire. Find the current required to establish
l
a magnetising force of 2500 A/m inside the
solenoid. [1 A]
where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres.
Thus 7 A magnetic field strength of 5000 A/m is
applied to a circular magnetic circuit of mean
m.m.f. = NI = Hl amperes diameter 250 mm. If the coil has 500 turns find
the current in the coil. [7.85 A]
Problem 3. A magnetising force of

8000 A/m is applied to a circular magnetic
circuit of mean diameter 30 cm by passing a
current through a coil wound on the circuit. 7.4 Permeability and B–H curves
If the coil is uniformly wound around the
circuit and has 750 turns, find the current in For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio
the coil. of magnetic flux density to magnetising force is a
constant, i.e. B/H D a constant. This constant is
TLFeBOOK
0 , the permeability of free space (or the magnetic

space constant) and is equal to 4 ð 107 H/m, i.e.
for air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio
B
= m0
H
(Although all non-magnetic materials, including air,

exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can effec-
tively be neglected.)
For all media other than free space,
B
= m 0 mr
H
where ur is the relative permeability, and is

defined as
flux density in material

mr =
flux density in a vacuum
r varies with the type of magnetic material and, Figure 7.3

since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no unit.
From its definition,
r for a vacuum is 1. For a magnetic material: B D
0
r H
m0 mr = m, called the absolute permeability
By plotting measured values of flux density B B 1.2
i.e.
r D D D 764
against magnetic field strength H, a magnetisa-
0 H 4 ð 107 1250
tion curve (or B–H curve) is produced. For non-
magnetic materials this is a straight line. Typical Problem 5. Determine the magnetic field
curves for four magnetic materials are shown in strength and the m.m.f. required to produce a
Fig. 7.3 flux density of 0.25 T in an air gap of length
The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic 12 mm.
material is proportional to the slope of the B–H
curve and thus varies with the magnetic field
strength. The approximate range of values of For air: B D
0 H (since
r D 1
relative permeability
r for some common magnetic Magnetic field strength,
materials are: B 0.25
H D D D 198 940 A/m
Cast iron
r D 100–250
0 4 ð 107
Mild steel
r D 200–800
Silicon iron
r D 1000–5000 m.m.f. D Hl D 198 940 ð 12 ð 103 D 2387 A
Cast steel
r D 300–900
Mumetal
r D 200–5000
Stalloy
r D 500–6000 Problem 6. A coil of 300 turns is wound
uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic
material. The ring has a mean circumference
Problem 4. A flux density of 1.2 T is of 40 cm and a uniform cross-sectional area
produced in a piece of cast steel by a of 4 cm2 . If the current in the coil is 5 A,
magnetising force of 1250 A/m. Find the calculate (a) the magnetic field strength, (b)
relative permeability of the steel under these the flux density and (c) the total magnetic
conditions. flux in the ring.
TLFeBOOK
(a) Magnetic field strength

Problem 8. A uniform ring of cast iron has
NI 300 ð 5 a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2 and a mean
HD D circumference of 20 cm. Determine the
l 40 ð 102
m.m.f. necessary to produce a flux of
D 3750 A/m 0.3 mWb in the ring. The magnetisation
(b) For a non-magnetic material
r D 1, thus flux curve for cast iron is shown on page 71.
density B D
0 H
i.e. B D 4 ð 107 ð 3750 A D 10 cm2 D 10 ð 104 m2 , l D 20 cm D 0.2 m

and  D 0.3 ð 103 Wb.
D 4.712 mT
(c) Flux  D BA D 4.712 ð 103 4 ð 104  0.3 ð 103
Flux density B D D D 0.3 T
A 10 ð 104
D 1.885 mWb
From the magnetisation curve for cast iron on
Problem 7. An iron ring of mean diameter page 71, when B D 0.3 T, H D 1000 A/m, hence
10 cm is uniformly wound with 2000 turns m.m.f. D Hl D 1000 ð 0.2 D 200 A
of wire. When a current of 0.25 A is passed A tabular method could have been used in this
through the coil a flux density of 0.4 T is set problem. Such a solution is shown below in Table 1.
up in the iron. Find (a) the magnetising force
and (b) the relative permeability of the iron
under these conditions. Problem 9. From the magnetisation curve
for cast iron, shown on page 71, derive the
curve of
r against H.
l D d D ð 10 cm D ð 10 ð 102 m,
N D 2000 turns, I D 0.25 A and B D 0.4 T
B D
0
r H, hence
NI 2000 ð 0.25 B 1 B
(a) H D D
r D D ð
l ð 10 ð 102
0 H
0 H
D 1592 A/m
107 B
(b) B D
0
r H, hence
r D ð
4 H
B 0.4
D D D 200 A number of co-ordinates are selected from the B–H

0 H 4 ð 107 1592 curve and
r is calculated for each as shown in
Table 2.
Table 1
Part of Material  (Wb) A m2  H from l m m.m.f. D
BD T
circuit A graph Hl A
Ring Cast iron 0.3 ð 103 10 ð 104 0.3 1000 0.2 200
Table 2
B T 0.04 0.13 0.17 0.30 0.41 0.49 0.60 0.68 0.73 0.76 0.79
H A/m 200 400 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
107 B
r D ð 159 259 271 239 218 195 159 135 116 101 90
4 H
TLFeBOOK

r is plotted against H as shown in Fig. 7.4. 5 Find the relative permeability of a piece of
The curve demonstrates the change that occurs in silicon iron if a flux density of 1.3 T is pro-
the relative permeability as the magnetising force duced by a magnetic field strength of 700 A/m
increases. [1478]
6 A steel ring of mean diameter 120 mm is
uniformly wound with 1 500 turns of wire.
When a current of 0.30 A is passed through
the coil a flux density of 1.5 T is set up in
the steel. Find the relative permeability of the
steel under these conditions. [1000]
7 A uniform ring of cast steel has a cross-
sectional area of 5 cm2 and a mean circum-
ference of 15 cm. Find the current required
in a coil of 1200 turns wound on the ring to
produce a flux of 0.8 mWb. (Use the magneti-
sation curve for cast steel shown on page 71)
[0.60 A]
8 (a) A uniform mild steel ring has a diameter
of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2 .
Determine the m.m.f. necessary to produce a
Figure 7.4
flux of 50 µWb in the ring. (Use the B–H
curve for mild steel shown on page 71) (b)
If a coil of 440 turns is wound uniformly
around the ring in Part (a) what current would
be required to produce the flux?
[(a) 110 A (b) 0.25 A]
Exercise 32 Further problems on 9 From the magnetisation curve for mild steel
magnetic circuits shown on page 71, derive the curve of relative
permeability against magnetic field strength.
(Where appropriate, assume
0 D 4ð 107 H/m) From your graph determine (a) the value of
r
when the magnetic field strength is 1200 A/m,
1 Find the magnetic field strength and the mag- and (b) the value of the magnetic field strength
netomotive force needed to produce a flux den- when
r is 500 [(a) 590–600 (b) 2000]
sity of 0.33 T in an air-gap of length 15 mm.
[(a) 262 600 A/m (b) 3939 A]
2 An air-gap between two pole pieces is 20 mm
in length and the area of the flux path across
the gap is 5 cm2 . If the flux required in the 7.5 Reluctance
air-gap is 0.75 mWb find the m.m.f. necessary.
[23 870 A]
Reluctance S (or RM ) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of
3 (a) Determine the flux density produced in an a magnetic circuit to the presence of magnetic flux.
air-cored solenoid due to a uniform magnetic Reluctance,
field strength of 8000 A/m (b) Iron having a
relative permeability of 150 at 8000 A/m is FM NI Hl l l
inserted into the solenoid of part (a). Find the S D D D D D
  BA B/HA m0 mr A
flux density now in the solenoid.
[(a) 10.05 mT (b) 1.508 T]
The unit of reluctance is 1/H or H1 or A/Wb.
4 Find the relative permeability of a material if Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance
the absolute permeability is 4.084ð104 H/m. and can be used as magnetic screens to prevent
[325] magnetic fields affecting materials within the screen.
TLFeBOOK

Problem 10. Determine the reluctance of a
piece of mumetal of length 150 mm and
cross-sectional area 1800 mm2 when the
relative permeability is 4 000. Find also the
magnetic circuits
absolute permeability of the mumetal.
(Where appropriate, assume
0 D ð 107 H/m)
Reluctance,
1 Part of a magnetic circuit is made from steel
l of length 120 mm, cross sectional area 15 cm2
S D

0
r A and relative permeability 800. Calculate (a) the
reluctance and (b) the absolute permeability of
150 ð 103 the steel. [(a) 79 580 /H (b) 1 mH/m]
D
4 ð 107 4000 1800 ð 106
2 A mild steel closed magnetic circuit has a
D 16 580=H mean length of 75 mm and a cross-sectional
Absolute permeability, area of 320.2 mm2 . A current of 0.40 A flows
in a coil wound uniformly around the circuit
m D
0
r D 4 ð 107 4000 and the flux produced is 200 µWb. If the rel-
ative permeability of the steel at this value
D 5.027 × 10−3 H/m of current is 400 find (a) the reluctance of
the material and (b) the number of turns of
Problem 11. A mild steel ring has a radius the coil. [(a) 466 000 /H (b) 233]
of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of
400 mm2 . A current of 0.5 A flows in a coil
wound uniformly around the ring and the
flux produced is 0.1 mWb. If the relative
permeability at this value of current is 200 7.6 Composite series magnetic circuits
find (a) the reluctance of the mild steel and
(b) the number of turns on the coil. For a series magnetic circuit having n parts, the total
reluctance S is given by: S = S1 + S2 + . . . + Sn
(This is similar to resistors connected in series in an
l D 2r D 2 ð ð 50 ð 103 m, A D 400 ð 106 m2 , electrical circuit)
I D 0.5 A,  D 0.1 ð 103 Wb and
r D 200
Problem 12. A closed magnetic circuit of

(a) Reluctance, cast steel contains a 6 cm long path of
l cross-sectional area 1 cm2 and a 2 cm path of
S D cross-sectional area 0.5 cm2 . A coil of 200

0
r A turns is wound around the 6 cm length of the
2 ð ð 50 ð 103 circuit and a current of 0.4 A flows.
D Determine the flux density in the 2 cm path,
4 ð 107 200 400 ð 106
if the relative permeability of the cast steel
D 3.125 × 106 =H is 750.
m.m.f.
(b) S D from which m.m.f.
 For the 6 cm long path:
D S i.e. NI D S
l1
Hence, number of terms Reluctance S1 D

0
r A1
S 3.125 ð 106 ð 0.1 ð 103
N D D 6 ð 102
I 0.5 D
4 ð 107 750 1 ð 104
D 625 turns
D 6.366 ð 105 /H
TLFeBOOK
For the 2 cm long path: For the air gap:

l2 The flux density will be the same in the air gap as
Reluctance S2 D

0
r A2 in the iron, i.e. 1.4 T (This assumes no leakage or
fringing occurring). For air,
2 ð 102
D
4 ð 107 750 0.5 ð104 B 1.4
HD D D 1 114 000 A/m

0 4 ð 107
D 4.244 ð 105 /H
Total circuit reluctance S D S1 C S2 Hence the m.m.f. for the air gap D Hl D
D 6.366 C 4.244 ð 105 D 10.61 ð 105 /H 1 114 000 ð 2 ð 103 D 2228 A.
m.m.f m.m.f. NI Total m.m.f. to produce a flux of 0.6 mWb D
SD i.e.  D D 660 C 2228 D 2888 A.
 S S A tabular method could have been used as shown
200 ð 0.4 at the bottom of the page.
D D 7.54 ð 105 Wb
10.61 ð 105
Problem 14. Figure 7.5 shows a ring
Flux density in the 2 cm path,
formed with two different materials – cast
 7.54 ð 105 steel and mild steel. The dimensions are:
BD D D 1.51 T
A 0.5 ð 104
Problem 13. A silicon iron ring of

cross-sectional area 5 cm2 has a radial air
gap of 2 mm cut into it. If the mean length of
the silicon iron path is 40 cm calculate the
magnetomotive force to produce a flux of
0.7 mWb. The magnetisation curve for
silicon is shown on page 71.
Figure 7.5
There are two parts to the circuit – the silicon iron
and the air gap. The total m.m.f. will be the sum of mean length cross-sectional
the m.m.f.’s of each part. area
For the silicon iron: Mild steel 400 mm 500 mm2

Cast steel 300 mm 312.5 mm2
 0.7 ð 103
BD D D 1.4 T
A 5 ð 104
Find the total m.m.f. required to cause a flux
From the B–H curve for silicon iron on page 71, of 500 µWb in the magnetic circuit.
when B D 1.4 T, H D 1650 At/m Hence the m.m.f. Determine also the total circuit reluctance.
for the iron path D Hl D 1650 ð 0.4 D 660 A
Part of Material  Wb A m2 B T H A/m l m Łm.m.f. D

circuit ŁHl A
Ring Silicon iron 0.7 ð 103 5 ð 104 1.4 1650 0.4 660
(from graph)
1.4
Air-gap Air 0.7 ð 103 5 ð 104 1.4 2 ð 103 2228
4 ð 107
D 1 114 000
Total: 2888 A
TLFeBOOK
Part of Material  Wb A m2 B T H A/m l m m.m.f.

circuit (D /A) (from D Hl A
graphs page 71)
A Mild steel 500 ð 106 500 ð 106 1.0 1400 400 ð 103 560
B Cast steel 500 ð 106 312.5 ð 106 1.6 4800 300 ð 103 1440
Total: 2000 A
A tabular solution is shown above. For the air gap:

m.m.f.
Total circuit
S D l2
reluctance  Reluctance, S2 D

0
r A2
2000
D D 4 × 106 =H l2
500 ð 106 D (since
r D 1 for air)

0 A2
Problem 15. A section through a magnetic 1 ð 103
circuit of uniform cross-sectional area 2 cm2 D
4 ð 107 2 ð 104
is shown in Fig. 7.6. The cast steel core has
a mean length of 25 cm. The air gap is 1 mm D 3979 000/H
wide and the coil has 5000 turns. The B–H
curve for cast steel is shown on page 71. Total circuit reluctance
Determine the current in the coil to produce
a flux density of 0.80 T in the air gap, S D S1 C S2 D 1 172 000 C 3 979 000
assuming that all the flux passes through D 5 151 000/H
both parts of the magnetic circuit.
Flux  D BA D 0.80 ð 2 ð 104 D 1.6 ð 104 Wb
m.m.f.
SD ,

thus
m.m.f. D S hence NI D S
and
Figure 7.6 S 5 151 000 1.6 ð 104

current I D D
N 5000
For the cast steel core, when B D 0.80 T, D 0.165 A
H D 750 A/m (from page 71).
l1
Reluctance of core S1 D and Now try the following exercise

0
r A1
B
since B D
0
r H, then
r D .

0 H Exercise 34 Further problems on
l1 l1 H composite series magnetic circuits
S1 D D 1 A magnetic circuit of cross-sectional area
B BA1

0 A1 0.4 cm2 consists of one part 3 cm long, of

0 H
material having relative permeability 1200,
25 ð 102 750 and a second part 2 cm long of material having
D D 1 172 000/H relative permeability 750. With a 100 turn coil
0.8 2 ð 104
TLFeBOOK
carrying 2 A, find the value of flux existing in 6 Figure 7.8 shows the magnetic circuit of a
the circuit. [0.195 mWb] relay. When each of the air gaps are 1.5 mm
wide find the mmf required to produce a flux
2 (a) A cast steel ring has a cross-sectional area density of 0.75 T in the air gaps. Use the B–H
of 600 mm2 and a radius of 25 mm. Deter- curves shown on page 71. [2970 A]
mine the mmf necessary to establish a flux of
0.8 mWb in the ring. Use the B–H curve for
cast steel shown on page 71. (b) If a radial air
gap 1.5 mm wide is cut in the ring of part (a)
find the m.m.f. now necessary to maintain the
same flux in the ring. [(a) 270 A (b)1860 A]
3 A closed magnetic circuit made of silicon
iron consists of a 40 mm long path of cross-
sectional area 90 mm2 and a 15 mm long path
of cross-sectional area 70 mm2 . A coil of 50
turns is wound around the 40 mm length of
the circuit and a current of 0.39 A flows. Find
the flux density in the 15 mm length path if
the relative permeability of the silicon iron
at this value of magnetising force is 3 000.
[1.59 T]
Figure 7.8
4 For the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 7.7 find
the current I in the coil needed to produce a
flux of 0.45 mWb in the air-gap. The silicon
iron magnetic circuit has a uniform cross-
sectional area of 3 cm2 and its magnetisation
curve is as shown on page 71. [0.83 A]
7.7 Comparison between electrical and
magnetic quantities
Electrical circuit Magnetic circuit
e.m.f. E (V) m.m.f. Fm (A)

current I (A) flux  (Wb)
resistance R () reluctance S (H1 )
E m.m.f.
ID D
R S
Figure 7.7 l l
RD SD
A
0
r A
5 A ring forming a magnetic circuit is made

from two materials; one part is mild steel of
mean length 25 cm and cross-sectional area 7.8 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss
4 cm2 , and the remainder is cast iron of
mean length 20 cm and cross-sectional area Hysteresis loop
7.5 cm2 . Use a tabular approach to deter-
mine the total m.m.f. required to cause a flux Let a ferromagnetic material which is completely
of 0.30 mWb in the magnetic circuit. Find demagnetised, i.e. one in which B D H D 0 be
also the total reluctance of the circuit. Use subjected to increasing values of magnetic field
the magnetisation curves shown on page 71. strength H and the corresponding flux density B
measured. The resulting relationship between B and
[550 A, 18.3 ð 105 /H]
H is shown by the curve Oab in Fig. 7.9. At a
TLFeBOOK
particular value of H, shown as Oy, it becomes The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type
difficult to increase the flux density any further. of material. The area, and thus the energy loss,
The material is said to be saturated. Thus by is the is much greater for hard materials than for soft
saturation flux density. materials.
Figure 7.10 shows typical hysteresis loops for:
(a) hard material, which has a high remanence Oc

and a large coercivity Od
(b) soft steel, which has a large remanence and
small coercivity
(c) ferrite, this being a ceramic-like magnetic sub-
stance made from oxides of iron, nickel, cobalt,
magnesium, aluminium and mangenese; the hys-
teresis of ferrite is very small.
Figure 7.9
If the value of H is now reduced it is found

that the flux density follows curve bc. When H
is reduced to zero, flux remains in the iron. This
remanent flux density or remanence is shown as
Oc in Fig. 7.9. When H is increased in the opposite
direction, the flux density decreases until, at a value
shown as Od, the flux density has been reduced
to zero. The magnetic field strength Od required
to remove the residual magnetism, i.e. reduce B to
zero, is called the coercive force.
Further increase of H in the reverse direction
causes the flux density to increase in the reverse
direction until saturation is reached, as shown by
curve de. If H is varied backwards from Ox to Oy,
the flux density follows the curve efgb, similar to
curve bcde.
It is seen from Fig. 7.9 that the flux density
changes lag behind the changes in the magnetic field
strength. This effect is called hysteresis. The closed
figure bcdefgb is called the hysteresis loop (or the
B/H loop).
Figure 7.10
Hysteresis loss
For a.c.-excited devices the hysteresis loop is
A disturbance in the alignment of the domains (i.e. repeated every cycle of alternating current. Thus
groups of atoms) of a ferromagnetic material causes a hysteresis loop with a large area (as with hard
energy to be expended in taking it through a cycle steel) is often unsuitable since the energy loss
of magnetisation. This energy appears as heat in the would be considerable. Silicon steel has a narrow
specimen and is called the hysteresis loss hysteresis loop, and thus small hysteresis loss, and is
The energy loss associated with hysteresis is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine
proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. armatures.
TLFeBOOK

magnetic circuits (Answers on page 375)
Exercise 35 Short answer questions on
magnetic circuits 1 The unit of magnetic flux density is the:
(a) weber (b) weber per metre
1 What is a permanent magnet? (c) ampere per metre (d) tesla
2 Sketch the pattern of the magnetic field asso-
ciated with a bar magnet. Mark the direction 2 The total flux in the core of an electrical
of the field. machine is 20 mWb and its flux density is
1 T. The cross-sectional area of the core is:
3 Define magnetic flux (a) 0.05 m2 (b) 0.02 m2
2
4 The symbol for magnetic flux is . . . and the (c) 20 m (d) 50 m2
unit of flux is the . . .
3 If the total flux in a magnetic circuit is 2 mWb
5 Define magnetic flux density and the cross-sectional area of the circuit is
6 The symbol for magnetic flux density is . . . 10 cm2 , the flux density is:
and the unit of flux density is . . . (a) 0.2 T (b) 2 T (c) 20 T (d) 20 mT
7 The symbol for m.m.f. is . . . and the unit of Questions 4 to 8 refer to the following data:
m.m.f. is the . . . A coil of 100 turns is wound uniformly
8 Another name for the magnetising force is on a wooden ring. The ring has a mean
. . . . . . ; its symbol is . . . and its unit is . . . circumference of 1 m and a uniform cross-
sectional area of 10 cm2 . The current in the
9 Complete the statement: coil is 1 A.
flux density 4 The magnetomotive force is:
D ... (a) 1 A (b) 10 A (c) 100 A (d) 1000 A
magnetic field strength
10 What is absolute permeability? 5 The magnetic field strength is:
11 The value of the permeability of free space (a) 1 A/m (b) 10 A/m
is . . . (c) 100 A/m (d) 1000 A/m
12 What is a magnetisation curve? 6 The magnetic flux density is:
13 The symbol for reluctance is . . . and the unit (a) 800 T (b) 8.85 ð 1010 T
7
of reluctance is . . . (c) 4 ð 10 T (d) 40 µT
14 Make a comparison between magnetic and 7 The magnetic flux is:
electrical quantities (a) 0.04 µWb (b) 0.01 Wb
15 What is hysteresis? (c) 8.85 µWb (d) 4 µWb
16 Draw a typical hysteresis loop and on it 8 The reluctance is:
identify:
(a) saturation flux density 108 1
(a) H (b) 1000 H1
(b) remanence 4
(c) coercive force 2.5 108 1
(c) ð 109 H1 (d) H
17 State the units of (a) remanence (b) coercive 8.85
force
9 Which of the following statements is false?
18 How is magnetic screening achieved? (a) For non-magnetic materials reluctance
19 Complete the statement: magnetic materials is high
have a . . . reluctance;non-magnetic materials (b) Energy loss due to hysteresis is greater
have a . . .. reluctance for harder magnetic materials than for
softer magnetic materials
20 What loss is associated with hysteresis? (c) The remanence of a ferrous material is
measured in ampere/metre
TLFeBOOK
(d) Absolute permeability is measured in 12 The effect of an air gap in a magnetic circuit
henrys per metre is to:
10 The current flowing in a 500 turn coil wound (a) increase the reluctance
on an iron ring is 4 A. The reluctance of the (b) reduce the flux density
circuit is 2 ð 106 H. The flux produced is: (c) divide the flux
(d) reduce the magnetomotive force
(a) 1 Wb (b) 1000 Wb
13 Two bar magnets are placed parallel to each
(c) 1 mWb (d) 62.5 µWb other and about 2 cm apart, such that the
11 A comparison can be made between magnetic south pole of one magnet is adjacent to the
and electrical quantities. From the following north pole of the other. With this arrange-
list, match the magnetic quantities with their ment, the magnets will:
equivalent electrical quantities. (a) attract each other
(b) have no effect on each other
(a) current (b) reluctance (c) repel each other
(c) e.m.f. (d) flux (d) lose their magnetism
(e) m.m.f. (f) resistance
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 2
1 Resistances of 5 , 7 , and 8 are connected in picofarads, if the relative permittivity of mica

in series. If a 10 V supply voltage is connected is 5. (7)
across the arrangement determine the current
5 A 4 µF capacitor is connected in parallel with
flowing through and the p.d. across the 7 resis-
a 6 µF capacitor. This arrangement is then con-
tor. Calculate also the power dissipated in the 8
nected in series with a 10 µF capacitor. A sup-
resistor. (6)
ply p.d. of 250 V is connected across the circuit.
2 For the series-parallel network shown in Find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the circuit,
Fig. A2.1, find (a) the supply current, (b) the (b) the voltage across the 10 µF capacitor, and
current flowing through each resistor, (c) the p.d. (c) the charge on each capacitor. (7)
across each resistor, (d) the total power dissipated 6 A coil of 600 turns is wound uniformly on a ring
in the circuit, (e) the cost of energy if the circuit is of non-magnetic material. The ring has a uniform
connected for 80 hours. Assume electrical energy
cross-sectional area of 200 mm2 and a mean cir-
costs 7.2p per unit. (15)
cumference of 500 mm. If the current in the coil
3 The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 8 mC is 4 A, determine (a) the magnetic field strength,
when the potential between them is 4 kV. Deter- (b) the flux density, and (c) the total magnetic
mine the capacitance of the capacitor. (2) flux in the ring. (5)
4 Two parallel rectangular plates measuring 80 mm 7 A mild steel ring of cross-sectional area 4 cm2 has
by 120 mm are separated by 4 mm of mica a radial air-gap of 3 mm cut into it. If the mean
and carry an electric charge of 0.48 µC. The length of the mild steel path is 300 mm, calculate
voltage between the plates is 500 V. Calculate the magnetomotive force to produce a flux of
(a) the electric flux density (b) the electric field 0.48 mWb. (Use the B–H curve on page 71)
strength, and (c) the capacitance of the capacitor, (8)
Figure A2.1
TLFeBOOK
8
Electromagnetism
ž understand that magnetic fields are produced by electric currents

ž apply the screw rule to determine direction of magnetic field
ž recognize that the magnetic field around a solenoid is similar to a magnet
ž apply the screw rule or grip rule to a solenoid to determine magnetic field direction
ž recognize and describe practical applications of an electromagnet, i.e. electric bell,
relay, lifting magnet, telephone receiver
ž appreciate factors upon which the force F on a current-carrying conductor depends
ž perform calculations using F D BIl and F D BIl sin
ž recognize that a loudspeaker is a practical application of force F
ž use Fleming’s left-hand rule to pre-determine direction of force in a current carrying
conductor
ž describe the principle of operation of a simple d.c. motor
ž describe the principle of operation and construction of a moving coil instrument
ž appreciate that force F on a charge in a magnetic field is given by F D QvB
ž perform calculations using F D QvB
8.1 Magnetic field due to an electric

current
Magnetic fields can be set up not only by permanent
magnets, as shown in Chapter 7, but also by electric
currents.
Let a piece of wire be arranged to pass vertically
through a horizontal sheet of cardboard on which is
placed some iron filings, as shown in Fig. 8.1(a). If a
current is now passed through the wire, then the iron
filings will form a definite circular field pattern with
the wire at the centre, when the cardboard is gently
tapped. By placing a compass in different positions
the lines of flux are seen to have a definite direction
as shown in Fig. 8.1(b). Figure 8.1
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETISM 83
If the current direction is reversed, the direction of When dealing with magnetic fields formed by
the lines of flux is also reversed. The effect on both electric current it is usual to portray the effect as
the iron filings and the compass needle disappears shown in Fig. 8.3 The convention adopted is:
when the current is switched off. The magnetic
field is thus produced by the electric current. The (i) Current flowing away from the viewer, i.e. into
magnetic flux produced has the same properties the paper, is indicated by ý. This may be
as the flux produced by a permanent magnet. If thought of as the feathered end of the shaft of
the current is increased the strength of the field an arrow. See Fig. 8.3(a).
increases and, as for the permanent magnet, the
field strength decreases as we move away from the (ii) Current flowing towards the viewer, i.e. out
current-carrying conductor. of the paper, is indicated by þ. This may
In Fig. 8.1, the effect of only a small part of be thought of as the point of an arrow. See
the magnetic field is shown. If the whole length of Fig. 8.3(b).
the conductor is similarly investigated it is found
that the magnetic field round a straight conductor
is in the form of concentric cylinders as shown
in Fig. 8.2, the field direction depending on the
direction of the current flow.
Figure 8.3
The direction of the magnetic lines of flux is best

remembered by the screw rule which states that:
If a normal right-hand thread screw is screwed
along the conductor in the direction of the cur-
rent, the direction of rotation of the screw is in the
direction of the magnetic field.
For example, with current flowing away from the
viewer (Fig. 8.3(a)) a right-hand thread screw driven
into the paper has to be rotated clockwise. Hence the
direction of the magnetic field is clockwise.
A magnetic field set up by a long coil, or solenoid,
is shown in Fig. 8.4(a) and is seen to be sim-
ilar to that of a bar magnet. If the solenoid is
wound on an iron bar, as shown in Fig. 8.4(b), an
Figure 8.2 even stronger magnetic field is produced, the iron
Figure 8.4
TLFeBOOK
becoming magnetised and behaving like a perma- The magnetic field associated with the solenoid in
nent magnet. The direction of the magnetic field Fig. 8.5 is similar to the field associated with a bar
produced by the current I in the solenoid may be magnet and is as shown in Fig. 8.6 The polarity of
found by either of two methods, i.e. the screw rule the field is determined either by the screw rule or by
or the grip rule. the grip rule. Thus the north pole is at the bottom
and the south pole at the top.
(a) The screw rule states that if a normal right-
hand thread screw is placed along the axis of the
solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the
current it moves in the direction of the magnetic 8.2 Electromagnets
field inside the solenoid. The direction of the
magnetic field inside the solenoid is from south The solenoid is very important in electromagnetic
to north. Thus in Figures 4(a) and (b) the north theory since the magnetic field inside the solenoid
pole is to the right. is practically uniform for a particular current, and
is also versatile, inasmuch that a variation of the
(b) The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped current can alter the strength of the magnetic field.
with the right hand, with the fingers pointing An electromagnet, based on the solenoid, provides
in the direction of the current, then the thumb, the basis of many items of electrical equipment,
outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid, examples of which include electric bells, relays,
points in the direction of the magnetic field lifting magnets and telephone receivers.
inside the solenoid.
(i) Electric bell

Problem 1. Figure 8.5 shows a coil of wire
wound on an iron core connected to a There are various types of electric bell, including
battery. Sketch the magnetic field pattern the single-stroke bell, the trembler bell, the buzzer
associated with the current carrying coil and and a continuously ringing bell, but all depend on
determine the polarity of the field. the attraction exerted by an electromagnet on a soft
iron armature. A typical single stroke bell circuit is
shown in Fig. 8.7 When the push button is operated
a current passes through the coil. Since the iron-
cored coil is energised the soft iron armature is
attracted to the electromagnet. The armature also
carries a striker which hits the gong. When the
circuit is broken the coil becomes demagnetised and
the spring steel strip pulls the armature back to its
original position. The striker will only operate when
Figure 8.5 the push button is operated.
Figure 8.6 Figure 8.7
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETISM 85
(ii) Relay a protective non-magnetic sheet of material, R. The

load, Q, which must be of magnetic material is
A relay is similar to an electric bell except that lifted when the coils are energised, the magnetic flux
contacts are opened or closed by operation instead paths, M, being shown by the broken lines.
of a gong being struck. A typical simple relay is
shown in Fig. 8.8, which consists of a coil wound (iv) Telephone receiver
on a soft iron core. When the coil is energised
the hinged soft iron armature is attracted to the Whereas a transmitter or microphone changes
electromagnet and pushes against two fixed contacts sound waves into corresponding electrical signals,
so that they are connected together, thus closing a telephone receiver converts the electrical waves
some other electrical circuit. back into sound waves. A typical telephone receiver
is shown in Fig. 8.10 and consists of a permanent
magnet with coils wound on its poles. A thin,
flexible diaphragm of magnetic material is held in
position near to the magnetic poles but not touching
them. Variation in current from the transmitter varies
the magnetic field and the diaphragm consequently
vibrates. The vibration produces sound variations
corresponding to those transmitted.
Figure 8.8
(iii) Lifting magnet

Lifting magnets, incorporating large electromagnets,
are used in iron and steel works for lifting scrap Figure 8.10
metal. A typical robust lifting magnet, capable of
exerting large attractive forces, is shown in the
elevation and plan view of Fig. 8.9 where a coil, 8.3 Force on a current-carrying
C, is wound round a central core, P, of the iron
casting. Over the face of the electromagnet is placed conductor
If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field produced by permanent magnets,
then the fields due to the current-carrying conductor
and the permanent magnets interact and cause a
force to be exerted on the conductor. The force on
the current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
depends upon:
(a) the flux density of the field, B teslas
(b) the strength of the current, I amperes,
(c) the length of the conductor perpendicular to the
magnetic field, l metres, and
(d) the directions of the field and the current.
When the magnetic field, the current and the
conductor are mutually at right angles then:
Force F = BIl newtons

Figure 8.9
TLFeBOOK
When the conductor and the field are at an angle ° B D 0.9 T, I D 20 A and l D 30 cm D 0.30 m
to each other then: Force F D BIl D 0.9200.30 newtons when the
conductor is at right-angles to the field, as shown in
Force F = BIl sin q newtons Fig. 8.12(a), i.e. F = 5.4 N.
Since when the magnetic field, current and

conductor are mutually at right angles, F D BIl,
the magnetic flux density B may be defined by
B D F/Il, i.e. the flux density is 1 T if the force
exerted on 1 m of a conductor when the conductor
carries a current of 1 A is 1 N. Figure 8.12
Loudspeaker When the conductor is inclined at 30° to the field,

as shown in Fig. 8.12(b), then
A simple application of the above force is the
moving coil loudspeaker. The loudspeaker is used Force F D BIl sin
to convert electrical signals into sound waves.
D 0.9200.30 sin 30°
Figure 8.11 shows a typical loudspeaker having
a magnetic circuit comprising a permanent magnet i.e. F D 2.7 N
and soft iron pole pieces so that a strong magnetic
field is available in the short cylindrical airgap. A
moving coil, called the voice or speech coil, is If the current-carrying conductor shown in Fig. 8.3
suspended from the end of a paper or plastic cone (a) is placed in the magnetic field shown in
so that it lies in the gap. When an electric current Fig. 8.13(a), then the two fields interact and cause
flows through the coil it produces a force which a force to be exerted on the conductor as shown in
tends to move the cone backwards and forwards Fig. 8.13(b) The field is strengthened above the con-
according to the direction of the current. The cone ductor and weakened below, thus tending to move
acts as a piston, transferring this force to the air, and the conductor downwards. This is the basic principle
producing the required sound waves. of operation of the electric motor (see Section 8.4)
and the moving-coil instrument (see Section 8.5)
Figure 8.11
Figure 8.13
Problem 2. A conductor carries a current of
20 A and is at right-angles to a magnetic
field having a flux density of 0.9 T. If the The direction of the force exerted on a conductor
length of the conductor in the field is 30 cm, can be pre-determined by using Fleming’s left-hand
calculate the force acting on the conductor. rule (often called the motor rule) which states:
Determine also the value of the force if the Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the
conductor is inclined at an angle of 30° to left hand be extended such that they are all at right-
the direction of the field. angles to each other, (as shown in Fig. 8.14) If the
first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETISM 87
field, the second finger points in the direction of the

current, then the thumb will point in the direction of Problem 4. A conductor 350 mm long
the motion of the conductor. carries a current of 10 A and is at
Summarising: right-angles to a magnetic field lying between
two circular pole faces each of radius 60 mm.
First finger - Field If the total flux between the pole faces is
0.5 mWb, calculate the magnitude of the
SeCond finger - Current force exerted on the conductor.
ThuMb - Motion
l D 350 mm D 0.35 m, I D 10 A, area of pole
face A D r 2 D 0.062 m2 and  D 0.5 mWb D
0.5 ð 103 Wb

Force F D BIl, and B D hence
A

force F D Il
A
0.5 ð 103
D 100.35 newtons
0.062
i.e. force D 0.155 N
Figure 8.14
Problem 5. With reference to Fig. 8.15
determine (a) the direction of the force on
Problem 3. Determine the current required the conductor in Fig. 8.15(a), (b) the
in a 400 mm length of conductor of an direction of the force on the conductor in
electric motor, when the conductor is situated Fig. 8.15(b), (c) the direction of the current
at right-angles to a magnetic field of flux in Fig. 8.15(c), (d) the polarity of the
density 1.2 T, if a force of 1.92 N is to be magnetic system in Fig. 8.15(d).
exerted on the conductor. If the conductor is
vertical, the current flowing downwards and
the direction of the magnetic field is from left
to right, what is the direction of the force?
Force D 1.92 N, l D 400 mm D 0.40 m and

B D 1.2 T. Since F D BIl, then I D F/Bl hence Figure 8.15
1.92
current I D D 4A (a) The direction of the main magnetic field is from
1.20.4
north to south, i.e. left to right. The current is
If the current flows downwards, the direction of flowing towards the viewer, and using the screw
its magnetic field due to the current alone will rule, the direction of the field is anticlockwise.
be clockwise when viewed from above. The lines Hence either by Fleming’s left-hand rule, or
of flux will reinforce (i.e. strengthen) the main by sketching the interacting magnetic field as
magnetic field at the back of the conductor and shown in Fig. 8.16(a), the direction of the force
will be in opposition in the front (i.e. weaken the on the conductor is seen to be upward.
field). Hence the force on the conductor will
be from back to front (i.e. toward the viewer). (b) Using a similar method to part (a) it is seen that
This direction may also have been deduced using the force on the conductor is to the right – see
Fleming’s left-hand rule. Fig. 8.16(b).
TLFeBOOK
a single-turn coil. Hence force on coil side,

F D 300 BIl D 300 ð 0.0012 D 0.36 N
Exercise 37 Further problems on the force

on a current-carrying conductor
1 A conductor carries a current of 70 A at right-
angles to a magnetic field having a flux density
of 1.5 T. If the length of the conductor in the
field is 200 mm calculate the force acting on
the conductor. What is the force when the
conductor and field are at an angle of 45° ?
[21.0 N, 14.8 N]
2 Calculate the current required in a 240 mm
length of conductor of a d.c. motor when the
Figure 8.16 conductor is situated at right-angles to the
magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T, if a force
of 1.20 N is to be exerted on the conductor.
(c) Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, or by sketching [4.0 A]
as in Fig. 8.16(c), it is seen that the current is
toward the viewer, i.e. out of the paper. 3 A conductor 30 cm long is situated at right-
angles to a magnetic field. Calculate the
(d) Similar to part (c), the polarity of the magnetic strength of the magnetic field if a current of
system is as shown in Fig. 8.16(d). 15 A in the conductor produces a force on it
of 3.6 N. [0.80 T]
4 A conductor 300 mm long carries a current
Problem 6. A coil is wound on a of 13 A and is at right-angles to a magnetic
rectangular former of width 24 mm and field between two circular pole faces, each
length 30 mm. The former is pivoted about of diameter 80 mm. If the total flux between
an axis passing through the middle of the the pole faces is 0.75 mWb calculate the force
two shorter sides and is placed in a uniform exerted on the conductor. [0.582 N]
magnetic field of flux density 0.8 T, the axis
being perpendicular to the field. If the coil 5 (a) A 400 mm length of conductor carrying
carries a current of 50 mA, determine the a current of 25 A is situated at right-angles
force on each coil side (a) for a single-turn to a magnetic field between two poles of an
coil, (b) for a coil wound with 300 turns. electric motor. The poles have a circular cross-
section. If the force exerted on the conductor
is 80 N and the total flux between the pole
(a) Flux density B D 0.8 T, length of conductor faces is 1.27 mWb, determine the diameter of
lying at right-angles to field l D 30 mm D 30 ð a pole face.
103 m and current I D 50 mA D 50 ð 103 A (b) If the conductor in part (a) is vertical, the
For a single-turn coil, force on each coil side current flowing downwards and the direction
of the magnetic field is from left to right, what
F D BIl D 0.8 ð 50 ð 103 ð 30 ð 103 is the direction of the 80 N force?
[(a) 14.2 mm (b) towards the viewer]
D 1.2 ð 10−3 N, or 0.0012 N
6 A coil is wound uniformly on a former having
(b) When there are 300 turns on the coil there are a width of 18 mm and a length of 25 mm.
effectively 300 parallel conductors each carry- The former is pivoted about an axis passing
ing a current of 50 mA. Thus the total force through the middle of the two shorter sides
produced by the current is 300 times that for and is placed in a uniform magnetic field of
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETISM 89
flux density 0.75 T, the axis being perpendicular reversed and the coil rotates past this position the
to the field. If the coil carries a current of forces acting on it change direction and it rotates in
120 mA, determine the force exerted on each the opposite direction thus never making more than
coil side, (a) for a single-turn coil, (b) for a coil half a revolution. The current direction is reversed
wound with 400 turns. every time the coil swings through the vertical
[(a) 2.25 ð 103 N (b) 0.9 N] position and thus the coil rotates anti-clockwise for
as long as the current flows. This is the principle
of operation of a d.c. motor which is thus a device
that takes in electrical energy and converts it into
mechanical energy.
8.4 Principle of operation of a simple

d.c. motor
8.5 Principle of operation of a
moving-coil instrument
A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about
a fixed axis is shown placed inside a magnetic A moving-coil instrument operates on the motor
field produced by permanent magnets in Fig. 8.17 principle. When a conductor carrying current is
A direct current is fed into the coil via carbon placed in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on
brushes bearing on a commutator, which consists the conductor, given by F D BIl. If the flux density
of a metal ring split into two halves separated by B is made constant (by using permanent magnets)
insulation. When current flows in the coil a magnetic and the conductor is a fixed length (say, a coil) then
field is set up around the coil which interacts with the force will depend only on the current flowing in
the magnetic field produced by the magnets. This the conductor.
causes a force F to be exerted on the current- In a moving-coil instrument a coil is placed cen-
carrying conductor which, by Fleming’s left-hand trally in the gap between shaped pole pieces as
rule, is downwards between points A and B and shown by the front elevation in Fig. 8.18(a). (The
upward between C and D for the current direction air-gap is kept as small as possible, although for
shown. This causes a torque and the coil rotates clarity it is shown exaggerated in Fig. 8.18) The coil
anticlockwise. When the coil has turned through 90° is supported by steel pivots, resting in jewel bear-
from the position shown in Fig. 8.17 the brushes ings, on a cylindrical iron core. Current is led into
connected to the positive and negative terminals of and out of the coil by two phosphor bronze spiral
the supply make contact with different halves of the hairsprings which are wound in opposite directions
commutator ring, thus reversing the direction of the to minimize the effect of temperature change and
current flow in the conductor. If the current is not to limit the coil swing (i.e. to control the move-
ment) and return the movement to zero position
when no current flows. Current flowing in the coil
produces forces as shown in Fig. 8.18(b), the direc-
tions being obtained by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
The two forces, FA and FB , produce a torque which
will move the coil in a clockwise direction, i.e. move
the pointer from left to right. Since force is propor-
tional to current the scale is linear.
When the aluminium frame, on which the coil
is wound, is rotated between the poles of the mag-
net, small currents (called eddy currents) are induced
into the frame, and this provides automatically the
necessary damping of the system due to the reluc-
tance of the former to move within the magnetic
field. The moving-coil instrument will measure only
direct current or voltage and the terminals are
marked positive and negative to ensure that the cur-
rent passes through the coil in the correct direction
Figure 8.17 to deflect the pointer ‘up the scale’.
TLFeBOOK
Figure 8.18
The range of this sensitive instrument is extended

by using shunts and multipliers (see Chapter 10) Exercise 38 Further problems on the force
on a charge
1 Calculate the force exerted on a charge of
8.6 Force on a charge 2ð1018 C travelling at 2ð106 m/s perpendic-
ular to a field of density 2 ð 107 T
When a charge of Q coulombs is moving at a [8 ð 1019 N]
velocity of v m/s in a magnetic field of flux density B
teslas, the charge moving perpendicular to the field, 2 Determine the speed of a 1019 C charge trav-
then the magnitude of the force F exerted on the elling perpendicular to a field of flux density
charge is given by: 107 T, if the force on the charge is 1020 N
[106 m/s]
F = QvB newtons

Problem 7. An electron in a television tube electromagnetism
has a charge of 1.6 ð 1019 coulombs and
travels at 3 ð 107 m/s perpendicular to a field 1 The direction of the magnetic field around
of flux density 18.5 µT. Determine the force a current-carrying conductor may be remem-
exerted on the electron in the field. bered using the . . . . . . rule.
2 Sketch the magnetic field pattern associated
From above, force F D QvB newtons, where Q D with a solenoid connected to a battery and
charge in coulombs D 1.6 ð 1019 C, v D velocity wound on an iron bar. Show the direction of
of charge D 3 ð 107 m/s, and B D flux density D the field.
18.5 ð 106 T. Hence force on electron,
3 Name three applications of electromagnetism.
19 7 6
F D 1.6 ð 10 ð 3 ð 10 ð 18.5 ð 10 4 State what happens when a current-carrying
D 1.6 ð 3 ð 18.5 ð 10 18 conductor is placed in a magnetic field
between two magnets.
D 88.8 ð 1018 D 8.88 ð 10−17 N
5 The force on a current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field depends on four factors.
Now try the following exercises Name them.
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETISM 91
6 The direction of the force on a conductor in 4 For the current-carrying conductor lying in
a magnetic field may be predetermined using the magnetic field shown in Fig. 8.20(b), the
Fleming’s . . . . . . rule. direction of the current in the conductor is:
7 State three applications of the force on a (a) towards the viewer
current-carrying conductor. (b) away from the viewer
8 Figure 8.19 shows a simplified diagram of
a section through the coil of a moving-coil
instrument. For the direction of current flow
shown in the coil determine the direction that
the pointer will move.
Figure 8.20
5 Figure 8.21 shows a rectangular coil of wire

Figure 8.19
placed in a magnetic field and free to rotate
about axis AB. If the current flows into the
9 Explain, with the aid of a sketch, the action coil at C, the coil will:
of a simplified d.c. motor. (a) commence to rotate anti-clockwise
10 Sketch and label the movement of a moving- (b) commence to rotate clockwise
coil instrument. Briefly explain the principle (c) remain in the vertical position
of operation of such an instrument. (d) experience a force towards the north pole

electromagnetism (Answers on page 375)
1 A conductor carries a current of 10 A at
right-angles to a magnetic field having a
flux density of 500 mT. If the length of the
conductor in the field is 20 cm, the force on
the conductor is:
(a) 100 kN (b) 1 kN (c) 100 N (d) 1 N
2 If a conductor is horizontal, the current
flowing from left to right and the direction
of the surrounding magnetic field is from
above to below, the force exerted on the
conductor is:
(a) from left to right
(b) from below to above Figure 8.21
(c) away from the viewer
(d) towards the viewer
3 For the current-carrying conductor lying in 6 The force on an electron travelling at 107 m/s
the magnetic field shown in Fig. 8.20(a), the in a magnetic field of density 10 µT is 1.6 ð
direction of the force on the conductor is: 1017 N. The electron has a charge of:
(a) to the left (b) upwards (a) 1.6 ð 1028 C (b) 1.6 ð 1015 C
19
(c) to the right (d) downwards (c) 1.6 ð 10 C (d) 1.6 ð 1025 C
TLFeBOOK
7 An electric bell depends for its action on: in them is:

(a) a permanent magnet (a) in opposite directions
(b) reversal of current (b) in the same direction
(c) a hammer and a gong (c) of different magnitude
(d) an electromagnet (d) of the same magnitude
8 A relay can be used to: 10 The magnetic field due to a current-carrying
(a) decrease the current in a circuit conductor takes the form of:
(b) control a circuit more readily (a) rectangles
(c) increase the current in a circuit (b) concentric circles
(d) control a circuit from a distance (c) wavy lines
9 There is a force of attraction between two (d) straight lines radiating outwards
current-carrying conductors when the current
TLFeBOOK
9
Electromagnetic induction
ž understand how an e.m.f. may be induced in a conductor

ž state Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
ž state Lenz’s law
ž use Fleming’s right-hand rule for relative directions
ž appreciate that the induced e.m.f., E D Blv or E D Blv sin
ž calculate induced e.m.f. given B, l, v and and determine relative directions
ž define inductance L and state its unit
ž define mutual inductance
ž appreciate that emf
d dI
E D N D L
dt dt
ž calculate induced e.m.f. given N, t, L, change of flux or change of current
ž appreciate factors which affect the inductance of an inductor
ž draw the circuit diagram symbols for inductors
ž calculate the energy stored in an inductor using W D 12 LI2 joules
ž calculate inductance L of a coil, given L D N/I
ž calculate mutual inductance using E2 D M dI1 /dt
field. This effect is known as ‘electromagnetic

9.1 Introduction to electromagnetic induction’.
induction Figure 9.1 (a) shows a coil of wire connected
to a centre-zero galvanometer, which is a sensitive
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field ammeter with the zero-current position in the centre
so as to cut through the lines of force (or flux), of the scale.
an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced in the
conductor. If the conductor forms part of a closed
circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric (a) When the magnet is moved at constant speed
current to flow round the circuit. Hence an e.m.f. towards the coil (Fig. 9.1(a)), a deflection is
(and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor noted on the galvanometer showing that a cur-
as a result of its movement across the magnetic rent has been produced in the coil.
TLFeBOOK
9.2 Laws of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
state:
(i) An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the mag-
netic field linking that circuit changes.
(ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any cir-
cuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit.
Lenz’s law states:

The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that
it tends to set up a current opposing the motion or
the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.
An alternative method to Lenz’s law of deter-
mining relative directions is given by Fleming’s
Right-hand rule (often called the geneRator rule)
which states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the
Figure 9.1 right hand be extended such that they are all at right
angles to each other (as shown in Fig. 9.2). If the
first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as field and the thumb points in the direction of motion
in (a) but away from the coil the same deflection of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then
is noted but is in the opposite direction (see the second finger will point in the direction of the
Fig. 9.1(b)) induced e.m.f.
Summarising:
(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within
the coil, no deflection is recorded. First finger - Field
(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as ThuMb - Motion
in (a) and the magnet held stationary the same SEcond finger - E.m.f.
galvanometer deflection is noted.
(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the
galvanometer deflection is doubled.
(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a greater gal-
vanometer deflection is noted.
(g) When the number of turns of wire of the coil is
increased, a greater galvanometer deflection is
noted.
Figure 9.1(c) shows the magnetic field associated

with the magnet. As the magnet is moved towards
the coil, the magnetic flux of the magnet moves
across, or cuts, the coil. It is the relative movement
of the magnetic flux and the coil that causes an
e.m.f. and thus current, to be induced in the coil.
This effect is known as electromagnetic induction.
The laws of electromagnetic induction stated in
section 9.2 evolved from experiments such as those
described above. Figure 9.2
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 95
In a generator, conductors forming an electric cir- (a) If the ends of the conductor are open circuited
cuit are made to move through a magnetic field. By no current will flow even though 1.5 V has been
Faraday’s law an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors induced.
and thus a source of e.m.f. is created. A generator (b) From Ohm’s law,
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
(The action of a simple a.c. generator is described E 1.5
ID D D 0.075 A or 75 mA
in Chapter 14). R 20
The induced e.m.f. E set up between the ends of
the conductor shown in Fig. 9.3 is given by:
Problem 2. At what velocity must a
conductor 75 mm long cut a magnetic field
E = Blv volts of flux density 0.6 T if an e.m.f. of 9 V is to
be induced in it? Assume the conductor, the
field and the direction of motion are
mutually perpendicular.
Induced e.m.f. E D Blv, hence velocity v D E/Bl

Thus
9
vD
0.6 75 ð 103
9 ð 103
D
0.6 ð 75
Figure 9.3 D 200 m=s
where B, the flux density, is measured in teslas, Problem 3. A conductor moves with a
l, the length of conductor in the magnetic field, is velocity of 15 m/s at an angle of (a) 90°
measured in metres, and v, the conductor velocity, (b) 60° and (c) 30° to a magnetic field
is measured in metres per second. produced between two square-faced poles of
If the conductor moves at an angle ° to the mag- side length 2 cm. If the flux leaving a pole
netic field (instead of at 90° as assumed above) then face is 5 µWb, find the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f. in each case.
E = Blv sin q volts

v D 15 m/s, length of conductor in magnetic field,
l D 2 cm D 0.02 m, A D 2 ð 2 cm2 D 4 ð 104 m2
and 8 D 5 ð 106 Wb
Problem 1. A conductor 300 mm long
moves at a uniform speed of 4 m/s at (a) E90 D Blv sin 90°
right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of

flux density 1.25 T. Determine the current D lv sin 90°
flowing in the conductor when (a) its ends A
are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected
5 ð 106
to a load of 20 resistance. D 0.02 15 1
4 ð 104
D 3.75 mV
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field it will
have an e.m.f. induced in it but this e.m.f. can only (b) E60 D Blv sin 60° D E90 sin 60°
produce a current if there is a closed circuit. Induced
e.m.f. D 3.75 sin 60° D 3.25 mV
(c) E30 D Blv sin 30° D E90 sin 30°
300
E D Blv D 1.25 4 D 1.5 V
1000 D 3.75 sin 30° D 1.875 mV
TLFeBOOK
Problem 4. The wing span of a metal

aeroplane is 36 m. If the aeroplane is flying
at 400 km/h, determine the e.m.f. induced
between its wing tips. Assume the vertical
component of the earth’s magnetic field is
40 µT.
Induced e.m.f. across wing tips, E D Blv

B D 40 µT D 40 ð 106 T, l D 36 m and
km m 1h
v D 400 ð 1000 ð
h km 60 ð 60 s
400 1000
D
3600
4000
D m/s
36
Hence
4000
E D Blv D 40 ð 106 36
36
D 0.16 V
Problem 5. The diagrams shown in Fig. 9.4

represents the generation of e.m.f’s.
Determine (i) the direction in which the
conductor has to be moved in Fig. 9.4(a),
(ii) the direction of the induced e.m.f. in
Fig. 9.4(b), (iii) the polarity of the magnetic Figure 9.5
system in Fig. 9.4(c)
seen to reinforce to the left of the conductor.
Hence the force on the conductor is to the right.
However Lenz’s law states that the direction of
the induced e.m.f. is always such as to oppose
the effect producing it. Thus the conductor
will have to be moved to the left.
(ii) Using Fleming’s right-hand rule:
First finger - Field,
i.e. N ! S, or right to left;
Figure 9.4
ThuMb - Motion, i.e. upwards;
The direction of the e.m.f., and thus the current due SEcond finger - E.m.f.
to the e.m.f. may be obtained by either Lenz’s law
i.e. towards the viewer or out of the paper,
or Fleming’s Right-hand rule (i.e. GeneRator rule).
as shown in Fig. 9.5(b)
(i) Using Lenz’s law: The field due to the mag- (iii) The polarity of the magnetic system of
net and the field due to the current-carrying Fig. 9.4(c) is shown in Fig. 9.5(c) and is
conductor are shown in Fig. 9.5(a) and are obtained using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercise called self inductance, L When the e.m.f. is induced
in a circuit by a change of flux due to current
changing in an adjacent circuit, the property is called
Exercise 41 Further problems on induced mutual inductance, M. The unit of inductance is
e.m.f. the henry, H.
1 A conductor of length 15 cm is moved at A circuit has an inductance of one henry when
750 mm/s at right-angles to a uniform flux an e.m.f. of one volt is induced in it by a cur-
density of 1.2 T. Determine the e.m.f. induced rent changing at the rate of one ampere per second
in the conductor. [0.135 V] Induced e.m.f. in a coil of N turns,
2 Find the speed that a conductor of length
120 mm must be moved at right angles to a d8
E = −N volts
magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T to induce dt
in it an e.m.f. of 1.8 V [25 m/s]
3 A 25 cm long conductor moves at a uniform where d is the change in flux in Webers, and dt is
speed of 8 m/s through a uniform magnetic the time taken for the flux to change in seconds (i.e.
d
field of flux density 1.2 T. Determine the cur- dt
is the rate of change of flux).
rent flowing in the conductor when (a) its ends Induced e.m.f. in a coil of inductance L henrys,
are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected
to a load of 15 ohms resistance.
[(a) 0 (b) 0.16 A] dI
E = −L volts
dt
4 A straight conductor 500 mm long is moved
with constant velocity at right angles both to
its length and to a uniform magnetic field. where dI is the change in current in amperes and dt
Given that the e.m.f. induced in the conductor is the time taken for the current to change in seconds
is 2.5 V and the velocity is 5 m/s, calculate (i.e. dI
dt is the rate of change of current). The minus
the flux density of the magnetic field. If the sign in each of the above two equations remind us
conductor forms part of a closed circuit of total of its direction (given by Lenz’s law)
resistance 5 ohms, calculate the force on the
conductor. [1 T, 0.25 N]
Problem 6. Determine the e.m.f. induced in
5 A car is travelling at 80 km/h. Assuming the a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of
back axle of the car is 1.76 m in length and flux of 25 mWb linking with it in 50 ms.
the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic
field is 40 µT, find the e.m.f. generated in the
axle due to motion. [1.56 mV] d
Induced e.m.f. E D N
6 A conductor moves with a velocity of 20 m/s dt
at an angle of (a) 90° (b) 45° (c) 30° , to a
magnetic field produced between two square- 25 ð 103
D 200
faced poles of side length 2.5 cm. If the flux on 50 ð 103
the pole face is 60 mWb, find the magnitude D 100 volts
of the induced e.m.f. in each case.
[(a) 48 V (b) 33.9 V (c) 24 V]
Problem 7. A flux of 400 µWb passing
through a 150-turn coil is reversed in 40 ms.
Find the average e.m.f. induced.
9.3 Inductance
Inductance is the name given to the property of a Since the flux reverses, the flux changes from
circuit whereby there is an e.m.f. induced into the C400 µWb to 400 µWb, a total change of flux of
circuit by the change of flux linkages produced by 800 µWb.
a current change.
When the e.m.f. is induced in the same circuit as d
that in which the current is changing, the property is Induced e.m.f. E D N
dt
TLFeBOOK

800 ð 106 LdI 0.15 12
D 150 time dt D D
40 ð 103 jEj 40
150 ð 800 ð 103 D 0.045 s or 45 ms
D
40 ð 106
Hence, the average e.m.f. induced, E D 3 volts
Problem 8. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in Exercise 42 Further problems on

a coil of inductance 12 H by a current inductance
changing at the rate of 4 A/s.
1 Find the e.m.f. induced in a coil of 200 turns
when there is a change of flux of 30 mWb
dI linking with it in 40 ms. [150 V]
Induced e.m.f. E D L D 12 4
dt 2 An e.m.f. of 25 V is induced in a coil of
D 48 volts 300 turns when the flux linking with it changes
by 12 mWb. Find the time, in milliseconds, in
which the flux makes the change. [144 ms]
Problem 9. An e.m.f. of 1.5 kV is induced
in a coil when a current of 4 A collapses 3 An ignition coil having 10 000 turns has an
uniformly to zero in 8 ms. Determine the e.m.f. of 8 kV induced in it. What rate of
inductance of the coil. change of flux is required for this to happen?
[0.8 Wb/s]
Change in current, dI D 4 0 D 4 A, 4 A flux of 0.35 mWb passing through a 125-
dt D 8 ms D 8 ð 103 s, turn coil is reversed in 25 ms. Find the mag-
nitude of the average e.m.f. induced. [3.5 V]
dI 4 4000 5 Calculate the e.m.f. induced in a coil of induc-
D D
dt 8 ð 103 8 tance 6 H by a current changing at a rate of
D 500 A/s 15 A/s [90 V]
and E D 1.5 kV D 1500 V

dI 9.4 Inductors
Since jEj D L ,
dt A component called an inductor is used when the
jEj 1500 property of inductance is required in a circuit. The
inductance, L D D D 3H basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire.
dI/dt 500
Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor
(Note that jEj means the ‘magnitude of E’ which include:
disregards the minus sign)
(i) the number of turns of wire – the more turns
the higher the inductance
Problem 10. An average e.m.f. of 40 V is (ii) the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire – the
induced in a coil of inductance 150 mH when greater the cross-sectional area the higher the
a current of 6 A is reversed. Calculate the inductance
time taken for the current to reverse. (iii) the presence of a magnetic core – when the coil
is wound on an iron core the same current sets
up a more concentrated magnetic field and the
jEj D 40 V, L D 150 mH D 0.15 H and change in inductance is increased
current, dI D 6 6 D 12 A (since the current is
reversed). (iv) the way the turns are arranged – a short thick
dI coil of wire has a higher inductance than a long
Since jEj D , thin one.
dt
TLFeBOOK
Two examples of practical inductors are shown in

Fig. 9.6, and the standard electrical circuit diagram 9.5 Energy stored
symbols for air-cored and iron-cored inductors are
An inductor possesses an ability to store energy.
shown in Fig. 9.7
The energy stored, W, in the magnetic field of an
inductor is given by:
Laminated
Iron iron core
W = 12 LI 2 joules
core
Problem 11. An 8 H inductor has a current

of 3 A flowing through it. How much energy
is stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor?
Wire
Coil of
wire
Energy stored,
(a) (b)
W D 12 LI2 D 12 8 32 D 36 joules
Figure 9.6
Exercise 43 Further problems on energy

stored
1 An inductor of 20 H has a current of 2.5 A
Figure 9.7 flowing in it. Find the energy stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor. [62.5 J]
2 Calculate the value of the energy stored when
An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke a current of 30 mA is flowing in a coil of
since, when used in a.c. circuits, it has a choking inductance 400 mH [0.18 mJ]
effect, limiting the current flowing through it. 3 The energy stored in the magnetic field of an
Inductance is often undesirable in a circuit. To inductor is 80 J when the current flowing in
reduce inductance to a minimum the wire may be the inductor is 2 A. Calculate the inductance
bent back on itself, as shown in Fig. 9.8, so that the of the coil. [40 H]
magnetising effect of one conductor is neutralised
by that of the adjacent conductor. The wire may
be coiled around an insulator, as shown, without
increasing the inductance. Standard resistors may be
non-inductively wound in this manner. 9.6 Inductance of a coil
If a current changing from 0 to I amperes, produces
a flux change from 0 to  webers, then dI D I and
d D  . Then, from section 9.3,
N LI
induced e.m.f. E D D
t t
from which, inductance of coil,
N8
L= henrys
I
Figure 9.8
TLFeBOOK
Problem 12. Calculate the coil inductance Problem 15. A 750 turn coil of inductance
when a current of 4 A in a coil of 800 turns 3 H carries a current of 2 A. Calculate the
produces a flux of 5 mWb linking with the flux linking the coil and the e.m.f. induced in
coil. the coil when the current collapses to zero in
20 ms.
For a coil, inductance
N
N 800 5 ð 103 Coil inductance, L D from which, flux
LD D D 1H I
I 4
LI 3 2
D D D 8 ð 103 D 8 mWb
Problem 13. A flux of 25 mWb links with a N 750
1500 turn coil when a current of 3 A passes Induced e.m.f.
through the coil. Calculate (a) the inductance
of the coil, (b) the energy stored in the dI 20
E D L D 3
magnetic field, and (c) the average e.m.f. dt 20 ð 103
induced if the current falls to zero in 150 ms.
D 300 V
(a) Inductance, (Alternatively,

N 1500 25 ð 103 d 8 ð 103
LD D D 12.5 H E D N D 750
I 3 dt 20 ð 103
(b) Energy stored, D 300 V
1 2 1 2
W D 2 LI D 2 12.5 3 D 56.25 J
(c) Induced emf, Now try the following exercise

dI 30
E D L D 12.5
dt 150 ð 103 Exercise 44 Further problems on the
D −250 V inductance of a coil
(Alternatively, 1 A flux of 30 mWb links with a 1200 turn
coil when a current of 5 A is passing through
d the coil. Calculate (a) the inductance of the
E D N
dt coil, (b) the energy stored in the magnetic
field, and (c) the average e.m.f. induced if
25 ð 103
D 1500 the current is reduced to zero in 0.20 s
150 ð 103 [(a) 7.2 H (b) 90 J (c) 180 V]
D 250 V 2 An e.m.f. of 2 kV is induced in a coil when a
current of 5 A collapses uniformly to zero in
since if the current falls to zero so does the flux)
10 ms. Determine the inductance of the coil.
[4 H]
Problem 14. When a current of 1.5 A flows
3 An average e.m.f. of 60 V is induced in a
in a coil the flux linking with the coil is
coil of inductance 160 mH when a current of
90 µWb. If the coil inductance is 0.60 H,
7.5 A is reversed. Calculate the time taken for
calculate the number of turns of the coil.
the current to reverse. [40 ms]
N 4 A coil of 2500 turns has a flux of 10 mWb

For a coil, L D . Thus linking with it when carrying a current of 2 A.
I Calculate the coil inductance and the e.m.f.
LI 0.6 1.5 induced in the coil when the current collapses
ND D D 10 000 turns to zero in 20 ms. [12.5 H, 1.25 kV]
 90 ð 106
TLFeBOOK
5 Calculate the coil inductance when a current Induced e.m.f. jE2 j D MdI1 /dt, i.e. 1.5 D M 200.
of 5 A in a coil of 1000 turns produces a flux Thus mutual inductance,
of 8 mWb linking with the coil. [1.6 H]
1.5
6 A coil is wound with 600 turns and has a self M D D 0.0075 H or 7.5 mH
inductance of 2.5 H. What current must flow 200
to set up a flux of 20 mWb ? [4.8 A]
7 When a current of 2 A flows in a coil, the Problem 17. The mutual inductance
flux linking with the coil is 80 µWb. If the between two coils is 18 mH. Calculate the
coil inductance is 0.5 H, calculate the number steady rate of change of current in one coil
of turns of the coil. [12 500] to induce an e.m.f. of 0.72 V in the other.
8 A coil of 1200 turns has a flux of 15 mWb
linking with it when carrying a current of 4 A. dI1
Calculate the coil inductance and the e.m.f. Induced e.m.f. jE2 j D M
dt
induced in the coil when the current collapses Hence rate of change of current,
to zero in 25 ms [4.5 H, 720 V]
dI1 jE2 j 0.72
9 A coil has 300 turns and an inductance of D D D 40 A=s
4.5 mH. How many turns would be needed dt M 0.018
to produce a 0.72 mH coil assuming the same
core is used ? [48 turns] Problem 18. Two coils have a mutual
10 A steady current of 5 A when flowing in a inductance of 0.2 H. If the current in one coil
coil of 1000 turns produces a magnetic flux is changed from 10 A to 4 A in 10 ms,
of 500 µWb. Calculate the inductance of the calculate (a) the average induced e.m.f. in
coil. The current of 5 A is then reversed in the second coil, (b) the change of flux linked
12.5 ms. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in the with the second coil if it is wound with
coil. [0.1 H, 80 V] 500 turns.
(a) Induced e.m.f.

dI1
jE2 j D M
9.7 Mutual inductance dt

10 4
D 0.2 D 120 V
10 ð 103
Mutually induced e.m.f. in the second coil,
(b) Induced e.m.f.
dI1 d jE2 jdt
E2 = −M volts jE2 j D N , hence d D
dt dt N
Thus the change of flux,
where M is the mutual inductance between two 120 10 ð 103
coils, in henrys, and dI1 /dt is the rate of change d D D 2.4 mWb
of current in the first coil. 500
The phenomenon of mutual inductance is used in
transformers (see chapter 21, page 303) Now try the following exercises
Problem 16. Calculate the mutual Exercise 45 Further problems on mutual

inductance between two coils when a current inductance
changing at 200 A/s in one coil induces an
e.m.f. of 1.5 V in the other. 1 The mutual inductance between two coils is
150 mH. Find the magnitude of the e.m.f.
TLFeBOOK
induced in one coil when the current in the 10 If a current of I amperes flowing in a coil of
other is increasing at a rate of 30 A/s. N turns produces a flux of  webers, the coil
[4.5 V] inductance L is given by L D . . . . . . henrys
2 Determine the mutual inductance between two 11 The energy W stored by an inductor is given
coils when a current changing at 50 A/s in one by W D . . . . . . joules
coil induces an e.m.f. of 80 mV in the other. 12 What is mutual inductance ? State its symbol
[1.6 mH]
13 The mutual inductance between two coils is
3 Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.75 H. M. The e.m.f. E2 induced in one coil by the
Calculate the magnitude of the e.m.f. induced current changing at dI1 /dt in the other is
in one coil when a current of 2.5 A in the other given by E2 D . . . . . . volts
coil is reversed in 15 ms [250 V]
4 The mutual inductance between two coils is
240 mH. If the current in one coil changes
from 15 A to 6 A in 12 ms, calculate (a) the Exercise 47 Multi-choice questions on
average e.m.f. induced in the other coil, (b) the electromagnetic induction (Answers on
change of flux linked with the other coil if it page 375)
is wound with 400 turns. 1 A current changing at a rate of 5 A/s in a coil
[(a) 180 V (b) 5.4 mWb] of inductance 5 H induces an e.m.f. of:
5 A mutual inductance of 0.06 H exists between (a) 25 V in the same direction as the applied
two coils. If a current of 6 A in one coil voltage
is reversed in 0.8 s calculate (a) the average (b) 1 V in the same direction as the applied
e.m.f. induced in the other coil, (b) the number voltage
of turns on the other coil if the flux change (c) 25 V in the opposite direction to the
linking with the other coil is 5 mWb applied voltage
[(a) 0.9 V (b) 144] (d) 1 V in the opposite direction to the applied
voltage
2 A bar magnet is moved at a steady speed
of 1.0 m/s towards a coil of wire which is
Exercise 46 Short answer questions on connected to a centre-zero galvanometer. The
electromagnetic induction magnet is now withdrawn along the same
path at 0.5 m/s. The deflection of the gal-
1 What is electromagnetic induction? vanometer is in the:
2 State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic (a) same direction as previously, with the
induction magnitude of the deflection doubled
(b) opposite direction as previously, with the
3 State Lenz’s law magnitude of the deflection halved
4 Explain briefly the principle of the generator (c) same direction as previously, with the
magnitude of the deflection halved
5 The direction of an induced e.m.f. in a gen- (d) opposite direction as previously, with the
erator may be determined using Fleming’s magnitude of the deflection doubled
. . . . . . rule
3 When a magnetic flux of 10 Wb links with a
6 The e.m.f. E induced in a moving conduc- circuit of 20 turns in 2 s, the induced e.m.f. is:
tor may be calculated using the formula (a) 1 V (b) 4 V (c) 100 V (d) 400 V
E D Blv. Name the quantities represented
and their units 4 A current of 10 A in a coil of 1000 turns
produces a flux of 10 mWb linking with the
7 What is self-inductance? State its symbol coil. The coil inductance is:
8 State and define the unit of inductance (a) 106 H (b) 1 H
9 When a circuit has an inductance L and the (c) 1 µH (d) 1 mH
current changes at a rate of di/dt then the 5 An e.m.f. of 1 V is induced in a conductor
induced e.m.f. E is given by E D . . . . . . volts moving at 10 cm/s in a magnetic field of
TLFeBOOK
0.5 T. The effective length of the conductor in (c) as the number of turns increases
the magnetic field is: (d) as the cross-sectional area of the coil
(a) 20 cm (b) 5 m decreases
(c) 20 m (d) 50 m 9 The mutual inductance between two coils,
when a current changing at 20 A/s in one coil
6 Which of the following is false ? induces an e.m.f. of 10 mV in the other, is:
(a) Fleming’s left-hand rule or Lenz’s law (a) 0.5 H (b) 200 mH
may be used to determine the direction (c) 0.5 mH (d) 2 H
of an induced e.m.f.
(b) An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever 10 A strong permanent magnet is plunged into
the magnetic field linking that circuit a coil and left in the coil. What is the effect
changes produced on the coil after a short time?
(c) The direction of an induced e.m.f. is (a) There is no effect
always such as to oppose the effect pro- (b) The insulation of the coil burns out
ducing it (c) A high voltage is induced
(d) The induced e.m.f. in any circuit is pro- (d) The coil winding becomes hot
portional to the rate of change of the 11 Self-inductance occurs when:
magnetic flux linking the circuit (a) the current is changing
(b) the circuit is changing
7 The effect of inductance occurs in an electri-
(c) the flux is changing
cal circuit when:
(d) the resistance is changing
(a) the resistance is changing
(b) the flux is changing 12 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
(c) the current is changing are related to:
(a) the e.m.f. of a chemical cell
8 Which of the following statements is false? (b) the e.m.f. of a generator
The inductance of an inductor increases: (c) the current flowing in a conductor
(a) with a short, thick coil (d) the strength of a magnetic field
(b) when wound on an iron core
TLFeBOOK
10
Electrical measuring instruments and
measurements
ž recognize the importance of testing and measurements in electric circuits

ž appreciate the essential devices comprising an analogue instrument
ž explain the operation of an attraction and a repulsion type of moving-iron instrument
ž explain the operation of a moving-coil rectifier instrument
ž compare moving-coil, moving-iron and moving coil rectifier instruments
ž calculate values of shunts for ammeters and multipliers for voltmeters
ž understand the advantages of electronic instruments
ž understand the operation of an ohmmeter/megger
ž appreciate the operation of multimeters/Avometers
ž understand the operation of a wattmeter
ž appreciate instrument ‘loading’ effect
ž understand the operation of a C.R.O. for d.c. and a.c. measurements
ž calculate periodic time, frequency, peak to peak values from waveforms on a C.R.O.
ž recognize harmonics present in complex waveforms
ž determine ratios of powers, currents and voltages in decibels
ž understand null methods of measurement for a Wheatstone bridge and d.c. poten-
tiometer
ž understand the operation of a.c. bridges
ž understand the operation of a Q-meter
ž appreciate the most likely source of errors in measurements
ž appreciate calibration accuracy of instruments
quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or

10.1 Introduction power, it is necessary to transform an electrical
Tests and measurements are important in designing, quantity or condition into a visible indication. This
evaluating, maintaining and servicing electrical is done with the aid of instruments (or meters) that
circuits and equipment. In order to detect electrical indicate the magnitude of quantities either by the
TLFeBOOK
ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 105
position of a pointer moving over a graduated scale

(called an analogue instrument) or in the form of a
decimal number (called a digital instrument).
10.2 Analogue instruments

All analogue electrical indicating instruments
require three essential devices:
(a) A deflecting or operating device. A mechanical

force is produced by the current or voltage
which causes the pointer to deflect from its zero
position.
(b) A controlling device. The controlling force acts
in opposition to the deflecting force and ensures
that the deflection shown on the meter is always
the same for a given measured quantity. It also
prevents the pointer always going to the max-
imum deflection. There are two main types of
controlling device – spring control and gravity
control. Figure 10.2
(c) A damping device. The damping force ensures

current flows in the solenoid, a pivoted soft-
that the pointer comes to rest in its final position
iron disc is attracted towards the solenoid and
quickly and without undue oscillation. There
the movement causes a pointer to move across
are three main types of damping used – eddy-
a scale.
current damping, air-friction damping and fluid-
friction damping. (b) In the repulsion type moving-iron instrument
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.2(b), two
There are basically two types of scale – linear and pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one
non-linear. A linear scale is shown in Fig. 10.1(a), being fixed, and the other attached to the spin-
where the divisions or graduations are evenly dle carrying the pointer. When current passes
spaced. The voltmeter shown has a range 0–100 V, through the solenoid, the two pieces of iron are
i.e. a full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) of 100 V. A non- magnetized in the same direction and therefore
linear scale is shown in Fig. 10.1(b) where the scale repel each other. The pointer thus moves across
is cramped at the beginning and the graduations are the scale. The force moving the pointer is, in
uneven throughout the range. The ammeter shown each type, proportional to I2 and because of
has a f.s.d. of 10 A. this the direction of current does not matter. The
moving-iron instrument can be used on d.c. or
a.c.; the scale, however, is non-linear.
10.4 The moving-coil rectifier

instrument
Figure 10.1
A moving-coil instrument, which measures only
d.c., may be used in conjunction with a bridge
rectifier circuit as shown in Fig. 10.3 to provide an
10.3 Moving-iron instrument indication of alternating currents and voltages (see
Chapter 14). The average value of the full wave
(a) An attraction type of moving-iron instrument is rectified current is 0.637 Im . However, a meter being
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.2(a). When used to measure a.c. is usually calibrated in r.m.s.
TLFeBOOK
Type of instrument Moving-coil Moving-iron Moving-coil rectifier
Suitable for Direct current and Direct and alternating Alternating current
measuring voltage currents and voltage and voltage (reads
(reading in rms value) average value but
scale is adjusted to
give rms value for
sinusoidal waveforms)
Scale Linear Non-linear Linear
Method of control Hairsprings Hairsprings Hairsprings
Method of damping Eddy current Air Eddy current
Frequency limits 20–200 Hz 20–100 kHz
–
Advantages 1 Linear scale 1 Robust construction 1 Linear scale
2 High sensitivity 2 Relatively cheap 2 High sensitivity
3 Well shielded 3 Measures dc and ac 3 Well shielded from
from stray 4 In frequency range stray magnetic fields
magnetic fields 20–100 Hz reads 4 Lower power
4 Low power rms correctly consumption
consumption regardless of supply 5 Good frequency
wave-form range
Disadvantages 1 Only suitable for 1 Non-linear scale 1 More expensive
dc 2 Affected by stray than moving iron
2 More expensive magnetic fields type
than moving iron 3 Hysteresis errors in 2 Errors caused when
type dc circuits supply is
3 Easily damaged 4 Liable to non-sinusoidal
temperature errors
5 Due to the
inductance of the
solenoid, readings
can be affected by
variation of
frequency
10.5 Comparison of moving-coil,

moving-iron and moving-coil
rectifier instruments
See Table above. (For the principle of operation of

a moving-coil instrument, see Chapter 8, page 89).
Figure 10.3
values. For sinusoidal quantities the indication is 10.6 Shunts and multipliers
0.707Im /0.637Im i.e. 1.11 times the mean value.
Rectifier instruments have scales calibrated in r.m.s. An ammeter, which measures current, has a low
quantities and it is assumed by the manufacturer that resistance (ideally zero) and must be connected in
the a.c. is sinusoidal. series with the circuit.
TLFeBOOK
A voltmeter, which measures p.d., has a high

resistance (ideally infinite) and must be connected
in parallel with the part of the circuit whose p.d. is
required.
There is no difference between the basic instru-
ment used to measure current and voltage since both
use a milliammeter as their basic part. This is a Figure 10.5
sensitive instrument which gives f.s.d. for currents
of only a few milliamperes. When an ammeter is current flowing in instrument D 40 mA D 0.04 A,
required to measure currents of larger magnitude, a Is D current flowing in shunt and I D total circuit
proportion of the current is diverted through a low- current required to give f.s.d. D 50 A.
value resistance connected in parallel with the meter.
Such a diverting resistor is called a shunt. Since I D Ia C Is then Is D I Ia
From Fig. 10.4(a), VPQ D VRS . D 50 0.04 D 49.96 A.
Hence Ia ra D IS RS . Thus the value of the shunt,
Ia ra V D Ia ra D Is Rs , hence
RS = ohms Ia ra 0.0425
IS Rs D D D 0.02002
IS 49.96
The milliammeter is converted into a voltmeter by = 20.02 mZ
connecting a high value resistance (called a mul-
tiplier) in series with it as shown in Fig. 10.4(b). Thus for the moving-coil instrument to be used as
From Fig. 10.4(b), an ammeter with a range 0–50 A, a resistance of
value 20.02 m needs to be connected in parallel
V D Va C VM D Ira C IRM with the instrument.
Thus the value of the multiplier, Problem 2. A moving-coil instrument

having a resistance of 10 , gives a f.s.d.
V − Ira when the current is 8 mA. Calculate the value
RM = ohms of the multiplier to be connected in series
I with the instrument so that it can be used as
a voltmeter for measuring p.d.s. up to 100 V
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10.6, where

ra D resistance of instrument D 10 , RM D
resistance of multiplier I D total permissible instru-
ment current D 8 mA D 0.008 A, V D total p.d.
required to give f.s.d. D 100 V
V D Va C VM D Ira C IRM
Figure 10.4
i.e. 100 D 0.00810 C 0.008RM
or 100 0.08 D 0.008 RM , thus
Problem 1. A moving-coil instrument gives
a f.s.d. when the current is 40 mA and its 99.92
RM D D 12490 D 12.49 kZ
resistance is 25 . Calculate the value of the 0.008
shunt to be connected in parallel with the
meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter
for measuring currents up to 50 A
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10.5, where

ra D resistance of instrument D 25 , Rs D
resistance of shunt, Ia D maximum permissible Figure 10.6
TLFeBOOK
Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as input resistance (some as high as 1000 M ) and can
a voltmeter with a range 0–100 V, a resistance of handle a much wider range of frequency (from d.c.
value 12.49 k needs to be connected in series with up to MHz).
the instrument. The digital voltmeter (DVM) is one which
provides a digital display of the voltage being mea-
sured. Advantages of a DVM over analogue instru-
Now try the following exercise ments include higher accuracy and resolution, no
observational or parallex errors (see section 10.20)
and a very high input resistance, constant on all
Exercise 48 Further problems on shunts ranges.
and multipliers A digital multimeter is a DVM with additional
circuitry which makes it capable of measuring a.c.
1 A moving-coil instrument gives f.s.d. for a voltage, d.c. and a.c. current and resistance.
current of 10 mA. Neglecting the resistance Instruments for a.c. measurements are generally
of the instrument, calculate the approximate calibrated with a sinusoidal alternating waveform to
value of series resistance needed to enable the indicate r.m.s. values when a sinusoidal signal is
instrument to measure up to (a) 20 V (b) 100 V applied to the instrument. Some instruments, such
(c) 250 V [(a) 2 k (b) 10 k (c) 25 k ] as the moving-iron and electro-dynamic instruments,
2 A meter of resistance 50 has a f.s.d. of give a true r.m.s. indication. With other instruments
4 mA. Determine the value of shunt resis- the indication is either scaled up from the mean
tance required in order that f.s.d. should be value (such as with the rectified moving-coil instru-
(a) 15 mA (b) 20 A (c) 100 A ment) or scaled down from the peak value.
[(a) 18.18 (b) 10.00 m (c) 2.00 m ] Sometimes quantities to be measured have com-
3 A moving-coil instrument having a resistance plex waveforms (see section 10.13), and whenever a
of 20 , gives a f.s.d. when the current is quantity is non-sinusoidal, errors in instrument read-
ings can occur if the instrument has been calibrated
5 mA. Calculate the value of the multiplier to
for sine waves only. Such waveform errors can be
be connected in series with the instrument so
largely eliminated by using electronic instruments.
that it can be used as a voltmeter for measuring
p.d.’s up to 200 V [39.98 k ]
4 A moving-coil instrument has a f.s.d. of 20 mA
and a resistance of 25 . Calculate the val- 10.8 The ohmmeter
ues of resistance required to enable the instru-
ment to be used (a) as a 0–10 A ammeter, An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring
and (b) as a 0–100 V voltmeter. State the electrical resistance. A simple ohmmeter circuit
mode of resistance connection in each case. is shown in Fig. 10.7(a). Unlike the ammeter or
[(a) 50.10 m in parallel voltmeter, the ohmmeter circuit does not receive the
(b) 4.975 k in series] energy necessary for its operation from the circuit
under test. In the ohmmeter this energy is supplied
5 A meter has a resistance of 40 and reg- by a self-contained source of voltage, such as a
isters a maximum deflection when a cur- battery. Initially, terminals XX are short-circuited
rent of 15 mA flows. Calculate the value of
resistance that converts the movement into
(a) an ammeter with a maximum deflection of
50 A (b) a voltmeter with a range 0–250 V
[(a) 12.00 m in parallel
(b) 16.63 k in series]
10.7 Electronic instruments

Electronic measuring instruments have advantages
over instruments such as the moving-iron or
moving-coil meters, in that they have a much higher Figure 10.7
TLFeBOOK
and R adjusted to give f.s.d. on the milliammeter. If supplied to a load. The instrument has two coils:
current I is at a maximum value and voltage E is
constant, then resistance R D E/I is at a minimum (i) a current coil, which is connected in series with
value. Thus f.s.d. on the milliammeter is made zero the load, like an ammeter, and
on the resistance scale. When terminals XX are
(ii) a voltage coil, which is connected in parallel
open circuited no current flows and R D E/O is
with the load, like a voltmeter.
infinity, 1.
The milliammeter can thus be calibrated directly
in ohms. A cramped (non-linear) scale results and is
‘back to front’, as shown in Fig. 10.7(b). When cal- 10.11 Instrument ‘loading’ effect
ibrated, an unknown resistance is placed between
terminals XX and its value determined from the Some measuring instruments depend for their oper-
position of the pointer on the scale. An ohmme- ation on power taken from the circuit in which
ter designed for measuring low values of resis- measurements are being made. Depending on the
tance is called a continuity tester. An ohmmeter ‘loading’ effect of the instrument (i.e. the current
designed for measuring high values of resistance taken to enable it to operate), the prevailing circuit
(i.e. megohms) is called an insulation resistance conditions may change.
tester (e.g. ‘Megger’). The resistance of voltmeters may be calculated
since each have a stated sensitivity (or ‘figure of
merit’), often stated in ‘k per volt’ of f.s.d. A volt-
meter should have as high a resistance as possible
10.9 Multimeters (– ideally infinite). In a.c. circuits the impedance of
the instrument varies with frequency and thus the
Instruments are manufactured that combine a loading effect of the instrument can change.
moving-coil meter with a number of shunts and
series multipliers, to provide a range of readings
on a single scale graduated to read current and Problem 3. Calculate the power dissipated
voltage. If a battery is incorporated then resistance by the voltmeter and by resistor R in
can also be measured. Such instruments are Fig. 10.9 when (a) R D 250
called multimeters or universal instruments or (b) R D 2 M . Assume that the voltmeter
multirange instruments. An ‘Avometer’ is a typical sensitivity (sometimes called figure of merit)
example. A particular range may be selected either is 10 k /V
by the use of separate terminals or by a selector
switch. Only one measurement can be performed at
a time. Often such instruments can be used in a.c. as
well as d.c. circuits when a rectifier is incorporated
in the instrument.
10.10 Wattmeters Figure 10.9
A wattmeter is an instrument for measuring electri- (a) Resistance of voltmeter, Rv D sensitivity ð

cal power in a circuit. Fig. 10.8 shows typical con- f.s.d. Hence, Rv D 10 k /V ð 200 V D
nections of a wattmeter used for measuring power 2000 k D 2 M . Current flowing in voltmeter,
V 100
Iv D D D 50 ð 106 A
Rv 2 ð 106
Power dissipated by voltmeter
D VIv D 10050 ð 106 D 5 mW.

When R D 250 , current in resistor,
V 100
Figure 10.8 IR D D D 0.4 A
R 250
TLFeBOOK
Power dissipated in load resistor R D VIR D

1000.4 D 40 W. Thus the power dissipated Problem 5. A voltmeter having a f.s.d. of
in the voltmeter is insignificant in comparison 100 V and a sensitivity of 1.6 k /V is used
with the power dissipated in the load. to measure voltage V1 in the circuit of
Fig. 10.11 Determine (a) the value of voltage
(b) When R D 2 M , current in resistor, V1 with the voltmeter not connected, and (b)
the voltage indicated by the voltmeter when
V 100 connected between A and B
IR D D D 50 ð 106 A
R 2 ð 106
Power dissipated in load resistor R D VIR D
100ð50ð106 D 5 mW. In this case the higher
load resistance reduced the power dissipated
such that the voltmeter is using as much power
as the load. Figure 10.11
Problem 4. An ammeter has a f.s.d. of (a) By voltage division,

100 mA and a resistance of 50 . The 40
ammeter is used to measure the current in a V1 D 100 D 40 V
40 C 60
load of resistance 500 when the supply
voltage is 10 V. Calculate (a) the ammeter (b) The resistance of a voltmeter having a 100 V
reading expected (neglecting its resistance), f.s.d. and sensitivity 1.6 k /V is 100 V ð
(b) the actual current in the circuit, (c) the 1.6 k /V D 160 k . When the voltmeter is
power dissipated in the ammeter, and (d) the connected across the 40 k resistor the circuit
power dissipated in the load. is as shown in Fig. 10.12(a) and the equivalent
resistance of the parallel network is given by

From Fig. 10.10, 40 ð 160
k i.e.
40 C 160

40 ð 160
k D 32 k
200
The circuit is now effectively as shown in

Fig. 10.12(b). Thus the voltage indicated on the
voltmeter is

32
Figure 10.10 100 V D 34.78 V
32 C 60
(a) expected ammeter reading D V/R D 10/500 D A considerable error is thus caused by the load-
20 mA. ing effect of the voltmeter on the circuit. The error
is reduced by using a voltmeter with a higher
(b) Actual ammeter reading D V/R C ra D sensitivity.
10/500 C 50 D 18.18 mA. Thus the ammeter
itself has caused the circuit conditions to change
from 20 mA to 18.18 mA.
(c) Power dissipated in the ammeter D I2 ra D

18.18 ð 103 2 50 D 16.53 mW.
(d) Power dissipated in the load resistor D I2 R D

18.18 ð 103 2 500 D 165.3 mW. Figure 10.12
TLFeBOOK
3 A voltage of 240 V is applied to a circuit

Problem 6. (a) A current of 20 A flows
consisting of an 800 resistor in series with
through a load having a resistance of 2 .
a 1.6 k resistor. What is the voltage across
Determine the power dissipated in the load.
the 1.6 k resistor? The p.d. across the 1.6 k
(b) A wattmeter, whose current coil has a
resistor is measured by a voltmeter of f.s.d.
resistance of 0.01 is connected as shown in
250 V and sensitivity 100 /V. Determine the
Fig. 10.13 Determine the wattmeter reading.
voltage indicated. [160 V; 156.7 V]
10.12 The cathode ray oscilloscope

The cathode ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.) may be used
in the observation of waveforms and for the mea-
surement of voltage, current, frequency, phase and
periodic time. For examining periodic waveforms
Figure 10.13 the electron beam is deflected horizontally (i.e. in
the X direction) by a sawtooth generator acting as
a timebase. The signal to be examined is applied to
(a) Power dissipated in the load, P D I2 R D the vertical deflection system (Y direction) usually
202 2 D 800 W after amplification.
Oscilloscopes normally have a transparent grid
(b) With the wattmeter connected in the circuit the of 10 mm by 10 mm squares in front of the screen,
total resistance RT is 2 C 0.01 D 2.01 . The called a graticule. Among the timebase controls is
wattmeter reading is thus I2 RT D 202 2.01 D a ‘variable’ switch which gives the sweep speed as
804 W time per centimetre. This may be in s/cm, ms/cm
or µs/cm, a large number of switch positions being
available. Also on the front panel of a c.r.o. is a
Now try the following exercise Y amplifier switch marked in volts per centimetre,
with a large number of available switch positions.
Exercise 49 Further problems on (i) With direct voltage measurements, only the
instrument ‘loading’ effects Y amplifier ‘volts/cm’ switch on the c.r.o. is
1 A 0–1 A ammeter having a resistance of 50 used. With no voltage applied to the Y plates
is used to measure the current flowing in a the position of the spot trace on the screen is
1 k resistor when the supply voltage is 250 V. noted. When a direct voltage is applied to the
Calculate: (a) the approximate value of current Y plates the new position of the spot trace is
(neglecting the ammeter resistance), (b) the an indication of the magnitude of the voltage.
actual current in the circuit, (c) the power For example, in Fig. 10.14(a), with no voltage
dissipated in the ammeter, (d) the power dis- applied to the Y plates, the spot trace is in the
sipated in the 1 k resistor. centre of the screen (initial position) and then
[(a) 0.250 A (b) 0.238 A the spot trace moves 2.5 cm to the final position
(c) 2.83 W (d) 56.64 W] shown, on application of a d.c. voltage. With the
‘volts/cm’ switch on 10 volts/cm the magnitude
2 (a) A current of 15 A flows through a load of the direct voltage is 2.5 cm ð 10 volts/cm, i.e.
having a resistance of 4 . Determine the 25 volts.
power dissipated in the load. (b) A wattmeter,
whose current coil has a resistance of 0.02 is (ii) With alternating voltage measurements, let a
connected (as shown in Fig. 10.13) to measure sinusoidal waveform be displayed on a c.r.o.
the power in the load. Determine the wattmeter screen as shown in Fig. 10.14(b). If the time/cm
reading assuming the current in the load is still switch is on, say, 5 ms/cm then the periodic
15 A. time T of the sinewave is 5 ms/cm ð 4 cm, i.e.
[(a) 900 W (b) 904.5 W] 20 ms or 0.02 s. Since frequency
TLFeBOOK
Turning it to zero ensures no signal is

applied to the X-plates. The Y-plate input
is left open-circuited.
(iii) Set the intensity, X-shift and Y-shift con-
trols to about the mid-range positions.
(iv) A spot trace should now be observed on
the screen. If not, adjust either or both
of the X and Y-shift controls. The X-shift
control varies the position of the spot trace
in a horizontal direction whilst the Y-shift
control varies its vertical position.
(v) Use the X and Y-shift controls to bring the
spot to the centre of the screen and use the
focus control to focus the electron beam
into a small circular spot.
(b) To obtain a continuous horizontal trace on the
screen the same procedure as in (a) is initially
adopted. Then the timebase control is switched
to a suitable position, initially the millisecond
timebase range, to ensure that the repetition rate
Figure 10.14 of the sawtooth is sufficient for the persistence
of the vision time of the screen phosphor to hold
1 1 a given trace.
fD , frequency = = 50 Hz
T 0.02
If the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on, say, 20 volts/cm Problem 8. For the c.r.o. square voltage
then the amplitude or peak value of the waveform shown in Fig. 10.15 determine (a)
sinewave shown is 20 volts/cmð2 cm, i.e. 40 V. the periodic time, (b) the frequency and (c)
Since the peak-to-peak voltage. The ‘time/cm’ (or
peak voltage timebase control) switch is on 100 µs/cm and
r.m.s. voltage D p , (see Chapter 14), the ‘volts/cm’ (or signal amplitude control)
2 switch is on 20 V/cm
40
r.m.s. voltage D p D 28.28 volts
2
Double beam oscilloscopes are useful whenever
two signals are to be compared simultaneously. The
c.r.o. demands reasonable skill in adjustment and
use. However its greatest advantage is in observing
the shape of a waveform – a feature not possessed
by other measuring instruments.
Problem 7. Describe how a simple c.r.o. is Figure 10.15

adjusted to give (a) a spot trace, (b) a
continuous horizontal trace on the screen,
explaining the functions of the various (In Figures 10.15 to 10.18 assume that the squares
controls. shown are 1 cm by 1 cm)
(a) The width of one complete cycle is 5.2 cm.

(a) To obtain a spot trace on a typical c.r.o. screen: Hence the periodic time,
(i) Switch on the c.r.o. T D 5.2 cm ð 100 ð 106 s/cm D 0.52 ms.
(ii) Switch the timebase control to off. This
control is calibrated in time per centime- 1 1
tres – for example, 5 ms/cm or 100 µs/cm. (b) Frequency, f D D D 1.92 kHz.
T 0.52 ð 103
TLFeBOOK
(c) The peak-to-peak height of the display is 3.6 cm, (a) The width of one complete cycle is 4 cm. Hence
hence the peak-to-peak voltage the periodic time, T is 4 cm ð 500 µs/cm, i.e.
2 ms.
D 3.6 cm ð 20 V/cm D 72 V 1 1
Frequency, f D D D 500 Hz
T 2 ð 103
Problem 9. For the c.r.o. display of a pulse (b) The peak-to-peak height of the waveform is
waveform shown in Fig. 10.16 the ‘time/cm’ 5 cm. Hence the peak-to-peak voltage
switch is on 50 ms/cm and the ‘volts/cm’ D 5 cm ð 5 V/cm D 25 V.
switch is on 0.2 V/cm. Determine (a) the
1
periodic time, (b) the frequency, (c) the (c) Amplitude D 2 ð 25 V D 12.5 V
magnitude of the pulse voltage.
(d) The peak value of voltage is the amplitude, i.e.
12.5 V, and r.m.s.
peak voltage 12.5
voltage D p D p D 8.84 V
2 2
Problem 11. For the double-beam

oscilloscope displays shown in Fig. 10.18
determine (a) their frequency, (b) their r.m.s.
values, (c) their phase difference. The
Figure 10.16
‘time/cm’ switch is on 100 µs/cm and the
‘volts/cm’ switch on 2 V/cm.
(a) The width of one complete cycle is 3.5 cm.
Hence the periodic time, T D 3.5 cm ð
50 ms/cm D 175 ms.
1 1
(b) Frequency, f D D D 5.71 Hz.
T 0.52 ð 103
(c) The height of a pulse is 3.4 cm hence the magni-
tude of the pulse voltage D 3.4 cmð0.2 V/cm D
0.68 V.
Figure 10.18
Problem 10. A sinusoidal voltage trace
displayed by a c.r.o. is shown in Fig. 10.17
If the ‘time/cm’ switch is on 500 µs/cm and (a) The width of each complete cycle is 5 cm for
the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 5 V/cm, find, for both waveforms. Hence the periodic time, T, of
the waveform, (a) the frequency, (b) the each waveform is 5 cm ð 100 µs/cm, i.e. 0.5 ms.
peak-to-peak voltage, (c) the amplitude, Frequency of each waveform,
(d) the r.m.s. value. 1 1
fD D D 2 kHz
T 0.5 ð 103
(b) The peak value of waveform A is
2 cm ð 2 V/cm D 4 V, hence the r.m.s. value of
waveform A
p
D 4/ 2 D 2.83 V
The peak value of waveform B is
2.5 cm ð 2 V/cm D 5 V, hence the r.m.s. value
of waveform B
Figure 10.17 p
D 5/ 2 D 3.54 V
TLFeBOOK
(c) Since 5 cm represents 1 cycle, then 5 cm rep- 3 For the sinusoidal waveform shown in
resents 360° , i.e. 1 cm represents 360/5 D 72° . Fig. 10.21, determine (a) its frequency, (b) the
The phase angle D 0.5 cm peak-to-peak voltage, (c) the r.m.s. voltage
D 0.5 cm ð 72° /cm D 36° . [(a) 7.14 Hz (b) 220 V (c) 77.78 V]
Hence waveform A leads waveform B by 36°
Exercise 50 Further problems on the

cathode ray oscilloscope
1 For the square voltage waveform displayed
on a c.r.o. shown in Fig. 10.19, find (a) its
frequency, (b) its peak-to-peak voltage
[(a) 41.7 Hz (b) 176 V]
Figure 10.21
10.13 Waveform harmonics
(i) Let an instantaneous voltage v be represented

by v D Vm sin 2ft volts. This is a waveform
which varies sinusoidally with time t, has a
frequency f, and a maximum value Vm . Alter-
nating voltages are usually assumed to have
wave-shapes which are sinusoidal where only
one frequency is present. If the waveform is
Figure 10.19 not sinusoidal it is called a complex wave,
and, whatever its shape, it may be split up
2 For the pulse waveform shown in Fig. 10.20, mathematically into components called the fun-
find (a) its frequency, (b) the magnitude of the damental and a number of harmonics. This
pulse voltage process is called harmonic analysis. The funda-
[(a) 0.56 Hz (b) 8.4 V] mental (or first harmonic) is sinusoidal and has
the supply frequency, f; the other harmonics
are also sine waves having frequencies which
are integer multiples of f. Thus, if the supply
frequency is 50 Hz, then the third harmonic fre-
quency is 150 Hz, the fifth 250 Hz, and so on.
(ii) A complex waveform comprising the sum of
the fundamental and a third harmonic of about
half the amplitude of the fundamental is shown
in Fig. 10.22(a), both waveforms being initially
in phase with each other. If further odd har-
monic waveforms of the appropriate amplitudes
are added, a good approximation to a square
wave results. In Fig. 10.22(b), the third har-
monic is shown having an initial phase dis-
Figure 10.20 placement from the fundamental. The positive
TLFeBOOK
and negative half cycles of each of the com- a mirror image of the positive cycle about
plex waveforms shown in Figures 10.22(a) and point B. In Fig. 10.22(f), a complex wave-
(b) are identical in shape, and this is a feature form comprising the sum of the fundamen-
of waveforms containing the fundamental and tal, a second harmonic and a third harmonic
only odd harmonics. are shown with initial phase displacement. The
positive and negative half cycles are seen to be
dissimilar.
The features mentioned relative to Figures 10.22

(a) to (f) make it possible to recognize the harmon-
ics present in a complex waveform displayed on
a CRO.
10.14 Logarithmic ratios

In electronic systems, the ratio of two similar quan-
tities measured at different points in the system, are
often expressed in logarithmic units. By definition, if
the ratio of two powers P1 and P2 is to be expressed
in decibel (dB) units then the number of decibels,
X, is given by:

P2
X = 10 lg dB 1
P1
Thus, when the power ratio, P2 /P1 D 1 then the

decibel power ratio D 10 lg 1 D 0, when the
power ratio, P2 /P1 D 100 then the decibel power
ratio D 10 lg 100 D C20 (i.e. a power gain), and
Figure 10.22
when the power ratio, P2 /P1 D 1/100 then the
decibel power ratio D 10 lg 1/100 D 20 (i.e. a
(iii) A complex waveform comprising the sum of power loss or attenuation).
the fundamental and a second harmonic of Logarithmic units may also be used for voltage
about half the amplitude of the fundamen- and current ratios. Power, P, is given by P D I2 R
tal is shown in Fig. 10.22(c), each waveform or P D V2 /R. Substituting in equation (1) gives:
being initially in phase with each other. If
further even harmonics of appropriate ampli-
I22 R2
tudes are added a good approximation to a X D 10 lg dB
triangular wave results. In Fig. 10.22(c), the I21 R1
negative cycle, if reversed, appears as a mir-
ror image of the positive cycle about point A. V22 /R2
In Fig. 10.22(d) the second harmonic is shown or X D 10 lg dB
V21 /R1
with an initial phase displacement from the fun-
damental and the positive and negative half If R1 D R2 ,
cycles are dissimilar.
I22
(iv) A complex waveform comprising the sum then X D 10 lg dB or
of the fundamental, a second harmonic and I21
a third harmonic is shown in Fig. 10.22(e),
each waveform being initially ‘in-phase’. The V22
X D 10 lg dB
negative half cycle, if reversed, appears as V21
TLFeBOOK

I2
i.e. X = 20 lg dB
I1

V2
or X = 20 lg dB
V1
Figure 10.23
(from the laws of logarithms).
From equation (1), X decibels is a logarithmic
ratio of two similar quantities and is not an absolute From above, the power ratio in decibels, X, is given
unit of measurement. It is therefore necessary to by: X D 10 lg P2 /P1
state a reference level to measure a number of
decibels above or below that reference. The most P2
widely used reference level for power is 1 mW, and (a) When D 3,
P1
when power levels are expressed in decibels, above
or below the 1 mW reference level, the unit given X D 10 lg 3 D 100.477
to the new power level is dBm. D 4.77 dB
A voltmeter can be re-scaled to indicate the power
level directly in decibels. The scale is generally cal- P2
ibrated by taking a reference level of 0 dB when a (b) When D 20,
P1
power of 1 mW is dissipated in a 600 resistor (this
being the natural impedance of a simple transmis- X D 10 lg 20 D 101.30
sion line). The reference voltage V is then obtained D 13.0 dB
from
P2
V2 (c) When D 400,
PD , P1
R
X D 10 lg 400 D 102.60
3 V2
i.e. 1 ð 10 D D 26.0 dB
600
from which, V D 0.775 volts. In general, the number P2 1
(d) When D D 0.05,
of dBm, P1 20

V X D 10 lg 0.05 D 101.30
X D 20 lg
0.775 D −13.0 dB
(a), (b) and (c) represent power gains and (d) repre-
0.2
Thus V D 0.20 V corresponds to 20 lg sents a power loss or attenuation.
0.775
D 11.77 dBm and
Problem 13. The current input to a system
0.90 is 5 mA and the current output is 20 mA.
V D 0.90 V corresponds to 20 lg
0.775 Find the decibel current ratio assuming the
input and load resistances of the system are
D C1.3 dBm, and so on.
equal.
A typical decibelmeter, or dB meter, scale is shown
in Fig. 10.23. Errors are introduced with dB meters
From above, the decibel current ratio is
when the circuit impedance is not 600 .

I2 20
20 lg D 20 lg
Problem 12. The ratio of two powers is I1 5
(a) 3 (b) 20 (c) 4 (d) 1/20. Determine the D 20 lg 4 D 200.60
decibel power ratio in each case.
D 12 dB gain
TLFeBOOK
power ratio D 12 C 15 8 D 19 dB gain.

Problem 14. 6% of the power supplied to a

cable appears at the output terminals. P2
Determine the power loss in decibels. Thus 19 D 10 lg
P1

P2
If P1 D input power and P2 D output power then from which 1.9 D lg
P1
P2 6 P2
D D 0.06 and 101.9 D D 79.4
P1 100 P1

Decibel P2 P2
D 10 lg D 10 lg 0.06 Thus the overall power gain, = 79.4
power ratio P1 P1
D 101.222 D 12.22 dB [For the first stage,

Hence the decibel power loss, or attenuation, is P2
12.22 dB. 12 D 10 lg
P1
Problem 15. An amplifier has a gain of from which

14 dB and its input power is 8 mW. Find its P2
output power. D 101.2 D 15.85
P1
Decibel power ratio D 10 lg P2 /P1 where P1 D Similarly for the second stage,
input power D 8 mW, and P2 D output power.
P2
Hence D 31.62
P1
P2
14 D 10 lg and for the third stage,
P1
from which P2
D 0.1585
P1
P2
1.4 D lg The overall power ratio is thus
P1
15.85 ð 31.62 ð 0.1585 D 79.4]
P2 from the definition
and 101.4 D
P1 of a logarithm
Problem 17. The output voltage from an
P2 amplifier is 4 V. If the voltage gain is 27 dB,
i.e. 25.12 D
P1 calculate the value of the input voltage
assuming that the amplifier input resistance
Output power, P2 D 25.12 P1 D 25.128 D and load resistance are equal.
201 mW or 0.201 W
Voltage gain in decibels D 27 D 20 lg V2 /V1 D

Problem 16. Determine, in decibels, the 20 lg 4/V1 . Hence
ratio of output power to input power of a 3

stage communications system, the stages 27 4
having gains of 12 dB, 15 dB and 8 dB. D lg
20 V1
Find also the overall power gain.
4
i.e. 1.35 D lg
V1
The decibel ratio may be used to find the overall
power ratio of a chain simply by adding the decibel 4
power ratios together. Hence the overall decibel Thus 101.35 D
V1
TLFeBOOK
4 3.8 dB. Calculate the overall gain in decibels

from which V1 D
101.35 assuming that input and load resistances for
4 each stage are equal. If a voltage of 15 mV is
D applied to the input of the system, determine
22.39 the value of the output voltage.
D 0.179 V [8.5 dB, 39.91 mV]
Hence the input voltage V1 is 0.179 V. 9 The scale of a voltmeter has a decibel scale
added to it, which is calibrated by taking a
reference level of 0 dB when a power of 1 mW
Now try the following exercise is dissipated in a 600 resistor. Determine
the voltage at (a) 0 dB (b) 1.5 dB (c) 15 dB
(d) What decibel reading corresponds to
0.5 V?
[(a) 0.775 V (b) 0.921 V
Exercise 51 Further problems on (c) 0.138 V (d) 3.807 dB]
logarithmic ratios
1 The ratio of two powers is (a) 3 (b) 10 (c) 20
(d) 10 000. Determine the decibel power ratio
for each.
[(a) 4.77 dB (b) 10 dB (c) 13 dB (d) 40 dB] 10.15 Null method of measurement
1 1 1
2 The ratio of two powers is (a) 10 (b) (c)
3 40
1 A null method of measurement is a simple, accu-
(d) 100 . Determine the decibel power ratio for rate and widely used method which depends on an
each. instrument reading being adjusted to read zero cur-
[(a) 10 dB (b) 4.77 dB
(c) 16.02 dB (d) 20 dB] rent only. The method assumes:
3 The input and output currents of a system are (i) if there is any deflection at all, then some current
2 mA and 10 mA respectively. Determine the is flowing;
decibel current ratio of output to input current
assuming input and output resistances of the (ii) if there is no deflection, then no current flows
system are equal. [13.98 dB] (i.e. a null condition).
4 5% of the power supplied to a cable appears
at the output terminals. Determine the power Hence it is unnecessary for a meter sensing current
loss in decibels. [13 dB] flow to be calibrated when used in this way. A sensi-
tive milliammeter or microammeter with centre zero
5 An amplifier has a gain of 24 dB and its input position setting is called a galvanometer. Examples
power is 10 mW. Find its output power. where the method is used are in the Wheatstone
[2.51 W] bridge (see section 10.16), in the d.c. potentiometer
(see section 10.17) and with a.c. bridges (see sec-
6 Determine, in decibels, the ratio of the output tion 10.18)
power to input power of a four stage system,
the stages having gains of 10 dB, 8 dB, 5 dB
and 7 dB. Find also the overall power gain.
[20 dB, 100]
10.16 Wheatstone bridge
7 The output voltage from an amplifier is 7 mV.
If the voltage gain is 25 dB calculate the value Figure 10.24 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit
of the input voltage assuming that the amplifier which compares an unknown resistance Rx with
input resistance and load resistance are equal. others of known values, i.e. R1 and R2 , which have
[0.39 mV] fixed values, and R3 , which is variable. R3 is varied
until zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer
8 The voltage gain of a number of cascaded G. No current then flows through the meter, VA D
amplifiers are 23 dB, 5.8 dB, 12.5 dB and VB , and the bridge is said to be ‘balanced’. At
TLFeBOOK
balance,
10.17 D.C. potentiometer
R2 R3 The d.c. potentiometer is a null-balance instru-
R1 Rx D R2 R3 i.e. Rx = ohms
R1 ment used for determining values of e.m.f.’s and
p.d.s. by comparison with a known e.m.f. or p.d. In
Fig. 10.26(a), using a standard cell of known e.m.f.
E1 , the slider S is moved along the slide wire until
balance is obtained (i.e. the galvanometer deflection
is zero), shown as length l1 .
Figure 10.24
Problem 18. In a Wheatstone bridge

ABCD, a galvanometer is connected between
A and C, and a battery between B and D. A
Figure 10.26
resistor of unknown value is connected
between A and B. When the bridge is
balanced, the resistance between B and C is
100 , that between C and D is 10 and The standard cell is now replaced by a cell of
that between D and A is 400 . Calculate the unknown e.m.f. E2 (see Fig. 10.26(b)) and again
value of the unknown resistance. balance is obtained (shown as l2 ). Since E1 / l1
and E2 / l2 then
The Wheatstone bridge is shown in Fig. 10.25 where E1 l1

D
Rx is the unknown resistance. At balance, equating E2 l2
the products of opposite ratio arms, gives:

l2
Rx 10 D 100400 and E2 = E1 volts
l1
100400
and Rx D D 4000
10
A potentiometer may be arranged as a resistive two-
element potential divider in which the division ratio
is adjustable to give a simple variable d.c. supply.
Such devices may be constructed in the form of a
resistive element carrying a sliding contact which
is adjusted by a rotary or linear movement of the
control knob.
Problem 19. In a d.c. potentiometer,

balance is obtained at a length of 400 mm
when using a standard cell of 1.0186 volts.
Determine the e.m.f. of a dry cell if balance
is obtained with a length of 650 mm
Figure 10.25
Hence, the unknown resistance, Rx D 4 kZ. E1 D 1.0186 V, l1 D 400 mm and l2 D 650 mm
TLFeBOOK
With reference to Fig. 10.26, When the potential differences across Z3 and
Zx (or across Z1 and Z2 ) are equal in magnitude
E1 l1 and phase, then the current flowing through the
D
E2 l2 galvanometer, G, is zero. At balance, Z1 Zx D Z2 Z3
from which
from which,
Z2 Z3
l2 650 Zx = Z
E 2 D E1 D 1.0186 Z1
l1 400
D 1.655 volts There are many forms of a.c. bridge, and these
include: the Maxwell, Hay, Owen and Heaviside
bridges for measuring inductance, and the De Sauty,
Now try the following exercise Schering and Wien bridges for measuring capaci-
tance. A commercial or universal bridge is one
which can be used to measure resistance, inductance
Exercise 52 Further problems on the or capacitance. A.c. bridges require a knowledge
p of
Wheatstone bridge and d.c. potentiometer complex numbers (i.e. j notation, where j D 1).
A Maxwell-Wien bridge for measuring the induc-
1 In a Wheatstone bridge PQRS, a galvanometer
tance L and resistance r of an inductor is shown in
is connected between Q and S and a voltage
Fig. 10.28
source between P and R. An unknown resistor
Rx is connected between P and Q. When the
bridge is balanced, the resistance between Q
and R is 200 , that between R and S is 10
and that between S and P is 150 . Calculate
the value of Rx [3 k ]
2 Balance is obtained in a d.c. potentiometer at a
length of 31.2 cm when using a standard cell of
1.0186 volts. Calculate the e.m.f. of a dry cell
if balance is obtained with a length of 46.7 cm
[1.525 V]
10.18 A.C. bridges

Figure 10.28
A Wheatstone bridge type circuit, shown in
Fig. 10.27, may be used in a.c. circuits to determine
unknown values of inductance and capacitance, as At balance the products of diagonally opposite
well as resistance. impedances are equal. Thus
Z1 Z2 D Z3 Z4
Using complex quantities, Z1 D R1 , Z2 D R2 ,

R3 jXC product
Z3 D i.e.
R3 jXC sum
and Z4 D r C jXL . Hence
R3 jXC
R 1 R2 D r C jXL
R3 jXC
i.e. R1 R2 R3 jXC D jR3 XC r C jXL
Figure 10.27 R1 R2 R3 jR1 R2 XC D jrR3 XC j2 R3 XC XL
TLFeBOOK
i.e. R1 R2 R3 jR1 R2 XC D jrR3 XC C R3 XC XL If the frequency is constant then R3 / L/r / ωL/r /

Q-factor (see Chapters 15 and 16). Thus the bridge
(since j2 D 1. can be adjusted to give a direct indication of Q-factor.
Equating the real parts gives: A Q-meter is described in section 10.19 following.
R1 R2 R3 D R3 XC XL
R 1 R2 Now try the following exercise
from which, XL D
XC
R 1 R2 Exercise 53 Further problem on a.c.
i.e. 2fL D D R1 R2 2fC bridges
1
2fC 1 A Maxwell bridge circuit ABCD has the fol-
lowing arm impedances: AB, 250 resistance;
Hence inductance, BC, 15 µF capacitor in parallel with a 10 k
resistor; CD, 400 resistor; DA, unknown
L D R1 R2 C henry 2 inductor having inductance L and resistance
R. Determine the values of L and R assuming
Equating the imaginary parts gives: the bridge is balanced. [1.5 H, 10 ]
R1 R2 XC D rR3 XC
from which, resistance,

10.19 Q-meter
R 1 R2
rD ohms 3 The Q-factor for a series L–C–R circuit is the
R3 voltage magnification at resonance, i.e.
voltage across capacitor
Problem 20. For the a.c. bridge shown in Q-factor D
Fig. 10.28 determine the values of the supply voltage
inductance and resistance of the coil when Vc
R1 D R2 D 400 , R3 D 5 k and C D 7.5 µF D (see Chapter 15).
V
The simplified circuit of a Q-meter, used for mea-
From equation (2) above, inductance suring Q-factor, is shown in Fig. 10.29. Current
from a variable frequency oscillator flowing through
L D R1 R2 C D 4004007.5 ð 106 a very low resistance r develops a variable fre-
quency voltage, Vr , which is applied to a series
D 1.2 H L–R–C circuit. The frequency is then varied until
resonance causes voltage Vc to reach a maximum
From equation (3) above, resistance,
value. At resonance Vr and Vc are noted. Then
R 1 R2 400400 Vc Vc
rD D = 32 Z Q-factor D D
R3 5000 Vr Ir
In a practical Q-meter, Vr is maintained constant and
the electronic voltmeter can be calibrated to indicate
From equation (2), the Q-factor directly. If a variable capacitor C is
L used and the oscillator is set to a given frequency,
R2 D then C can be adjusted to give resonance. In this
R1 C way inductance L may be calculated using
and from equation (3), 1
fr D p
R1 2 LC
R3 D R2 2fL
r Since QD ,
R1 L L R
Hence R3 D D then R may be calculated.
r R1 C Cr
TLFeBOOK
(b) Q-factor at resonance D 2fr L/R from which

resistance
2fr L
RD
Q
2400 ð 103 0.396 ð 103
D
100
D 9.95 Z
Figure 10.29
Q-meters operate at various frequencies and Exercise 54 Further problem on the

instruments exist with frequency ranges from 1 kHz Q-meter
to 50 MHz. Errors in measurement can exist with 1 A Q-meter measures the Q-factor of a series L-
Q-meters since the coil has an effective parallel self C-R circuit to be 200 at a resonant frequency
capacitance due to capacitance between turns. The of 250 kHz. If the capacitance of the Q-meter
accuracy of a Q-meter is approximately š5%. capacitor is set to 300 pF determine (a) the
inductance L, and (b) the resistance R of the
Problem 21. When connected to a Q-meter inductor. [(a) 1.351 mH (b) 10.61 ]
an inductor is made to resonate at 400 kHz.
The Q-factor of the circuit is found to be 100
and the capacitance of the Q-meter capacitor
is set to 400 pF. Determine (a) the
inductance, and (b) the resistance of the 10.20 Measurement errors
inductor.
Errors are always introduced when using instru-
ments to measure electrical quantities. The errors
Resonant frequency, fr D 400 kHz D 400 ð 103 Hz,
most likely to occur in measurements are those
Q-factor = 100 and capacitance, C D 400 pF D
due to:
400 ð 1012 F. The circuit diagram of a Q-meter is
shown in Fig. 10.29
(i) the limitations of the instrument;
(a) At resonance, (ii) the operator;
(iii) the instrument disturbing the circuit.
1
fr D p
2 LC (i) Errors in the limitations of the instrument
for a series L–C–R circuit. Hence The calibration accuracy of an instrument
1 depends on the precision with which it is
2fr D p constructed. Every instrument has a margin of
LC
error which is expressed as a percentage of the
from which instruments full scale deflection. For example,
1 industrial grade instruments have an accuracy of
2fr 2 D
LC š2% of f.s.d. Thus if a voltmeter has a f.s.d. of
and inductance, 100 V and it indicates 40 V say, then the actual
voltage may be anywhere between 40š(2% of 100),
1
LD or 40 š 2, i.e. between 38 V and 42 V.
2fr 2 C When an instrument is calibrated, it is compared
1 against a standard instrument and a graph is drawn
D H of ‘error’ against ‘meter deflection’. A typical graph
2 ð 400 ð 103 2 400 ð 1012 is shown in Fig. 10.30 where it is seen that the
D 396 mH or 0.396 mH accuracy varies over the scale length. Thus a meter
TLFeBOOK
with a š2% f.s.d. accuracy would tend to have an

accuracy which is much better than š2% f.s.d. over
much of the range.
Figure 10.31
Voltage, V D IR D 2.5 ð 103 5 ð 103 D 12.5 V.

The maximum possible error is
Figure 10.30 0.4% C 0.5% D 0.9%.
Hence the voltage, V D 12.5 V š 0.9% of 12.5 V
(ii) Errors by the operator 0.9% of 12.5 D 0.9/100 ð 12.5 D 0.1125 V D
It is easy for an operator to misread an instrument. 0.11 V correct to 2 significant figures.
With linear scales the values of the sub-divisions Hence the voltage V may also be expressed
are reasonably easy to determine; non-linear scale as 12.5 ± 0.11 volts (i.e. a voltage lying between
graduations are more difficult to estimate. Also, 12.39 V and 12.61 V).
scales differ from instrument to instrument and some
meters have more than one scale (as with multime- Problem 23. The current I flowing in a
ters) and mistakes in reading indications are easily resistor R is measured by a 0–10 A ammeter
made. When reading a meter scale it should be which gives an indication of 6.25 A. The
viewed from an angle perpendicular to the surface voltage V across the resistor is measured by
of the scale at the location of the pointer; a meter a 0–50 V voltmeter, which gives an
scale should not be viewed ‘at an angle’. indication of 36.5 V. Determine the
(iii) Errors due to the instrument disturbing resistance of the resistor, and its accuracy of
the circuit measurement if both instruments have a limit
Any instrument connected into a circuit will of error of 2% of f.s.d. Neglect any loading
affect that circuit to some extent. Meters require effects of the instruments.
some power to operate, but provided this power
is small compared with the power in the measured Resistance,
circuit, then little error will result. Incorrect posi- V 36.5
tioning of instruments in a circuit can be a source RD D D 5.84
of errors. For example, let a resistance be mea- I 6.25
sured by the voltmeter-ammeter method as shown Voltage error is š2% of 50 V D š1.0 V and
in Fig. 10.31 Assuming ‘perfect’ instruments, the expressed as a percentage of the voltmeter reading
resistance should be given by the voltmeter read- gives
ing divided by the ammeter reading (i.e. R D š1
V/I). However, in Fig. 10.31(a), V/I D R C ra ð 100% D š2.74%
and in Fig. 10.31(b) the current through the amme- 36.5
ter is that through the resistor plus that through Current error is š2% of 10 A D š0.2 A and express-
the voltmeter. Hence the voltmeter reading divided ed as a percentage of the ammeter reading gives
by the ammeter reading will not give the true
value of the resistance R for either method of š0.2
ð 100% D š3.2%
connection. 6.25
Maximum relative error D sum of errors D
Problem 22. The current flowing through a 2.74% C 3.2% D š5.94%. 5.94% of 5.84 D
resistor of 5 k š 0.4% is measured as 0.347 . Hence the resistance of the resistor may
2.5 mA with an accuracy of measurement of be expressed as:
š0.5%. Determine the nominal value of the 5.84 Z ± 5.94% or 5.84 ± 0.35 Z
voltage across the resistor and its accuracy.
(rounding off)
TLFeBOOK
flowing in the resistor and its accuracy of

Problem 24. The arms of a Wheatstone
measurement.
bridge ABCD have the following resistances:
[6.25 mA š 1.3% or 6.25 š 0.08 mA]
AB: R1 D 1000 š 1.0%; BC:
R2 D 100 š 0.5%; CD: unknown resistance 2 The voltage across a resistor is measured by a
Rx ; DA: R3 D 432.5 š 0.2%. Determine 75 V f.s.d. voltmeter which gives an indication
the value of the unknown resistance and its of 52 V. The current flowing in the resistor
accuracy of measurement. is measured by a 20 A f.s.d. ammeter which
gives an indication of 12.5 A. Determine the
resistance of the resistor and its accuracy if
The Wheatstone bridge network is shown in both instruments have an accuracy of š2% of
Fig. 10.32 and at balance: f.s.d. [4.16 š 6.08% or 4.16 š 0.25 ]
R1 Rx D R2 R3 , 3 A 240 V supply is connected across a load
R 2 R3 100432.5 resistance R. Also connected across R is a
i.e. Rx D D D 43.25 voltmeter having a f.s.d. of 300 V and a figure
R1 1000 of merit (i.e. sensitivity) of 8 k /V. Calculate
the power dissipated by the voltmeter and by
the load resistance if (a) R D 100 (b) R D
1 M . Comment on the results obtained.
[(a) 24 mW, 576 W (b) 24 mW, 57.6 mW]
4 A Wheatstone bridge PQRS has the following
arm resistances: PQ, 1 k š 2%; QR, 100 š
0.5%; RS, unknown resistance; SP, 273.6 š
0.1%. Determine the value of the unknown
resistance, and its accuracy of measurement.
[27.36 š 2.6% or 27.36 š 0.71 ]
Figure 10.32
The maximum relative error of Rx is given by the electrical measuring instruments and
sum of the three individual errors, i.e. 1.0%C0.5%C measurements
0.2% D 1.7%. Hence 1 What is the main difference between an ana-
logue and a digital type of measuring instru-
Rx D 43.25 Z ± 1.7% ment?
1.7% of 43.25 D 0.74 (rounding off). Thus Rx 2 Name the three essential devices for all ana-
may also be expressed as logue electrical indicating instruments
3 Complete the following statements:
Rx D 43.25 ± 0.74 Z (a) An ammeter has a . . . . . . resistance and
is connected . . . . . . with the circuit
(b) A voltmeter has a . . . . . . resistance and
Now try the following exercises is connected . . . . . . with the circuit
4 State two advantages and two disadvantages
of a moving coil instrument
Exercise 55 Further problems on 5 What effect does the connection of (a) a
measurement errors shunt (b) a multiplier have on a milliamme-
ter?
1 The p.d. across a resistor is measured as 37.5 V
with an accuracy of š0.5%. The value of the 6 State two advantages and two disadvantages
resistor is 6 k š 0.8%. Determine the current of a moving coil instrument
TLFeBOOK
7 Name two advantages of electronic measur-

ing instruments compared with moving coil Exercise 57 Multi-choice questions on
or moving iron instruments electrical measuring instruments and
8 Briefly explain the principle of operation of measurements (Answers on page 375)
an ohmmeter 1 Which of the following would apply to a
9 Name a type of ohmmeter used for measur- moving coil instrument?
ing (a) low resistance values (b) high resis- (a) An uneven scale, measuring d.c.
tance values (b) An even scale, measuring a.c.
(c) An uneven scale, measuring a.c.
10 What is a multimeter? (d) An even scale, measuring d.c.
11 When may a rectifier instrument be used in 2 In question 1, which would refer to a moving
preference to either a moving coil or moving iron instrument?
iron instrument? 3 In question 1, which would refer to a moving
12 Name five quantities that a c.r.o. is capable coil rectifier instrument?
of measuring 4 Which of the following is needed to extend
13 What is harmonic analysis? the range of a milliammeter to read voltages
of the order of 100 V?
14 What is a feature of waveforms containing (a) a parallel high-value resistance
the fundamental and odd harmonics? (b) a series high-value resistance
(c) a parallel low-value resistance
15 Express the ratio of two powers P1 and P2 (d) a series low-value resistance
in decibel units
5 Fig. 10.33 shows a scale of a multi-range
16 What does a power level unit of dBm indi- ammeter. What is the current indicated when
cate? switched to a 25 A scale?
17 What is meant by a null method of measure- (a) 84 A (b) 5.6 A (c) 14 A (d) 8.4 A
ment?
18 Sketch a Wheatstone bridge circuit used for
measuring an unknown resistance in a d.c.
circuit and state the balance condition
19 How may a d.c. potentiometer be used to
measure p.d.’s
20 Name five types of a.c. bridge used for
measuring unknown inductance, capacitance
or resistance Figure 10.33
21 What is a universal bridge?
A sinusoidal waveform is displayed on a
22 State the name of an a.c. bridge used for c.r.o. screen. The peak-to-peak distance is
measuring inductance 5 cm and the distance between cycles is 4 cm.
23 Briefly describe how the measurement of Q- The ‘variable’ switch is on 100 µs/cm and
factor may be achieved the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 10 V/cm. In ques-
tions 6 to 10, select the correct answer from
24 Why do instrument errors occur when mea- the following:
suring complex waveforms? (a) 25 V (b) 5 V (c) 0.4 ms
25 Define ‘calibration accuracy’ as applied to a (d) 35.4 V (e) 4 ms (f) 50 V
measuring instrument (g) 250 Hz (h) 2.5 V (i) 2.5 kHz
(j) 17.7 V
26 State three main areas where errors are most
likely to occur in measurements 6 Determine the peak-to-peak voltage
7 Determine the periodic time of the waveform
TLFeBOOK
8 Determine the maximum value of the voltage 15 R.m.s. value of waveform P

9 Determine the frequency of the waveform 16 R.m.s. value of waveform Q
10 Determine the r.m.s. value of the waveform 17 Phase displacement of waveform Q relative
to waveform P
Fig. 10.34 shows double-beam c.r.o. wave-
form traces. For the quantities stated in ques- 18 The input and output powers of a system are
tions 11 to 17, select the correct answer from 2 mW and 18 mW respectively. The decibel
the following: power ratio of output power to input power
(a) 30 V (b) 0.2 s (c) 50 V is:
15 250 (a) 9 (b) 9.54 (c) 1.9 (d) 19.08
(d) p (e) 54° leading (f) p V 19 The input and output voltages of a system are
2 2
50 500 µV and 500 mV respectively. The deci-
(g) 15 V (h) 100 µs (i) p V bel voltage ratio of output to input voltage
2 (assuming input resistance equals load resis-
(j) 250 V (k) 10 kHz (l) 75 V tance) is:
3 (a) 1000 (b) 30 (c) 0 (d) 60
(m) 40 µs (n) rads lagging
10 20 The input and output currents of a system are
25 30 3 mA and 18 mA respectively. The decibel
(o) p V (p) 5 Hz (q) p V
2 2 ratio of output to input current (assuming the
75 input and load resistances are equal) is:
(r) 25 kHz (s) p V (a) 15.56 (b) 6 (c) 1.6 (d) 7.78
2
3 21 Which of the following statements is false?
(t) rads leading (a) The Schering bridge is normally used for
10
measuring unknown capacitances
(b) A.C. electronic measuring instruments
can handle a much wider range of fre-
quency than the moving coil instrument
(c) A complex waveform is one which is
non-sinusoidal
(d) A square wave normally contains the
fundamental and even harmonics
22 A voltmeter has a f.s.d. of 100 V, a sensitivity
of 1 k /V and an accuracy of š2% of f.s.d.
When the voltmeter is connected into a cir-
cuit it indicates 50 V. Which of the following
statements is false?
(a) Voltage reading is 50 š 2 V
(b) Voltmeter resistance is 100 k
(c) Voltage reading is 50 V š 2%
Figure 10.34 (d) Voltage reading is 50 V š 4%
23 A potentiometer is used to:
11 Amplitude of waveform P
(a) compare voltages
12 Peak-to-peak value of waveform Q (b) measure power factor
(c) compare currents
13 Periodic time of both waveforms (d) measure phase sequence
14 Frequency of both waveforms
TLFeBOOK
11
Semiconductor diodes
ž classify materials as conductors, semiconductors or insulators

ž appreciate the importance of silicon and germanium
ž understand n-type and p-type materials
ž understand the p-n junction
ž appreciate forward and reverse bias of p-n junctions
ž draw the circuit diagram symbol for a semiconductor diode
ž understand how half wave and full wave rectification is obtained
Insulators:
11.1 Types of materials
Glass ½ 1010 m
Materials may be classified as conductors, Mica ½ 1011 m
semiconductors or insulators. The classification PVC ½ 1013 m
depends on the value of resistivity of the material. Rubber (pure) 1012 to 1014 m
Good conductors are usually metals and have
resistivities in the order of 107 to 108 m. In general, over a limited range of temperatures,
Semiconductors have resistivities in the order the resistance of a conductor increases with temper-
of 103 to 3 ð 103 m. The resistivities of ature increase. The resistance of insulators remains
insulators are in the order of 104 to 1014 m. approximately constant with variation of temper-
Some typical approximate values at normal room ature. The resistance of semiconductor materials
temperatures are: decreases as the temperature increases. For a spec-
imen of each of these materials, having the same
resistance (and thus completely different dimen-
Conductors: sions), at say, 15° C, the variation for a small increase
in temperature to t ° C is as shown in Fig. 11.1
Aluminium 2.7 ð 108 m
Brass (70 Cu/30 Zn) 8 ð 108 m
Copper (pure annealed) 1.7 ð 108 m
Steel (mild) 15 ð 108 m 11.2 Silicon and germanium
The most important semiconductors used in the elec-
Semiconductors: tronics industry are silicon and germanium. As the
temperature of these materials is raised above room
Silicon 2.3 ð 103 m at 27° C temperature, the resistivity is reduced and ultimately
Germanium 0.45 m a point is reached where they effectively become
TLFeBOOK
Conductor
Ge Ge Ge
Insulator
Resistance Ω
Semiconductor
Ge Ge Ge
Ge Ge Ge
15 t
Temperature °C
Free electron
conductors. For this reason, silicon should not oper-
ate at a working temperature in excess of 150° C
to 200° C, depending on its purity, and germanium Ge Ge Ge
should not operate at a working temperature in

excess of 75° C to 90° C, depending on its purity. As
Ge P Ge
the temperature of a semiconductor is reduced below
normal room temperature, the resistivity increases
until, at very low temperatures the semiconductor
Ge Ge Ge
becomes an insulator.
Figure 11.3
11.3 n-type and p-type materials
Adding extremely small amounts of impurities to atom has replaced one of the germanium atoms.
pure semiconductors in a controlled manner is The resulting material is called n-type material, and
called doping. Antimony, arsenic and phosphorus contains free electrons.
are called n-type impurities and form an n-type Indium, aluminium and boron have three valency
electrons and when a semiconductor is doped with
material when any of these impurities are added
one of these substances some of the semiconductor
to silicon or germanium. The amount of impurity
atoms are replaced by impurity atoms. One of the
added usually varies from 1 part impurity in 105 four bonds associated with the semiconductor mate-
parts semiconductor material to 1 part impurity to rial is deficient by one electron and this deficiency
108 parts semiconductor material, depending on the is called a hole.
resistivity required. Indium, aluminium and boron Holes give rise to conduction when a potential
are called p-type impurities and form a p-type mate- difference exists across the semiconductor material
rial when any of these impurities are added to a due to movement of electrons from one hole to
semiconductor. another, as shown in Fig. 11.4. In this figure, an
In semiconductor materials, there are very few
charge carriers per unit volume free to conduct. This is
because the ‘four electron structure’ in the outer shell
of the atoms (called valency electrons), form strong Ge A Ge Ge
covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms, resulting in Hole
B 1 3 4
a tetrahedral structure with the electrons held fairly (missing 2
C Possible
rigidly in place. A two-dimensional diagram depicting electron)
movements
this is shown for germanium in Fig. 11.2 A Ge Ge of electrons
Arsenic, antimony and phosphorus have five
valency electrons and when a semiconductor is
doped with one of these substances, some impurity
atoms are incorporated in the tetrahedral structure. Ge Ge Ge
The ‘fifth’ valency electron is not rigidly bonded
and is free to conduct, the impurity atom donating a
charge carrier. A two-dimensional diagram depicting
this is shown in Fig. 11.3, in which a phosphorus Figure 11.4
TLFeBOOK
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 129
electron moves from A to B, giving the appearance p-type n-type

that the hole moves from B to A. Then electron material material
C moves to A, giving the appearance that the hole (− potential) (+ potential)
moves to C, and so on. The resulting material is
p-type material containing holes.
11.4 The p-n junction

A p-n junction is a piece of semiconductor material
in which part of the material is p-type and part is
n-type. In order to examine the charge situation,
assume that separate blocks of p-type and n-type Depletion
materials are pushed together. Also assume that a layer
Potential
hole is a positive charge carrier and that an electron +
is a negative charge carrier.
At the junction, the donated electrons in the n-
type material, called majority carriers, diffuse into OV
the p-type material (diffusion is from an area of
high density to an area of lower density) and the −
acceptor holes in the p-type material diffuse into the
n-type material as shown by the arrows in Fig. 11.5 Figure 11.6
p-type n-type
material material
11.5 Forward and reverse bias
Holes When, an external voltage is applied to a p-n junc-
(mobile
carriers)
Electron tion making the p-type material positive with respect
(mobile to the n-type material, as shown in Fig. 11.7, the
carriers)
p-n junction is forward biased. The applied voltage
opposes the contact potential, and, in effect, closes
Depletion
layer
p-type n-type
Impurity atoms material material
(fixed)
Figure 11.5
Because the n-type material has lost electrons, it

acquires a positive potential with respect to the
p-type material and thus tends to prevent further
movement of electrons. The p-type material has
gained electrons and becomes negatively charged
with respect to the n-type material and hence tends
to retain holes. Thus after a short while, the move- Contact
ment of electrons and holes stops due to the potential potential
difference across the junction, called the contact
potential. The area in the region of the junction
Applied
becomes depleted of holes and electrons due to voltage
electron-hole recombinations, and is called a deple-
tion layer, as shown in Fig. 11.6 Figure 11.7
TLFeBOOK
the depletion layer. Holes and electrons can now at normal room temperature certain electrons in the
cross the junction and a current flows. covalent bond lattice acquire sufficient energy from
An increase in the applied voltage above that the heat available to leave the lattice, generating
required to narrow the depletion layer (about 0.2 V mobile electrons and holes. This process is called
for germanium and 0.6 V for silicon), results in a electron-hole generation by thermal excitation.
rapid rise in the current flow. Graphs depicting the The electrons in the p-type material and holes in
current-voltage relationship for forward biased p-n the n-type material caused by thermal excitation, are
junctions, for both germanium and silicon, called the called minority carriers and these will be attracted
forward characteristics, are shown in Fig. 11.8 by the applied voltage. Thus, in practice, a small
current of a few microamperes for germanium and
Current less than one microampere for silicon, at normal
(mA)
Germanium
room temperature, flows under reverse bias condi-
40 tions. Typical reverse characteristics are shown in
30
Fig. 11.10 for both germanium and silicon.
20
Silicon Voltage (V)
10
−100 −75 −50 −25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Voltage (V)
Figure 11.8 Silicon −5

Current
Germanium (µA)
When an external voltage is applied to a p-n
−10
junction making the p-type material negative with
respect to the n-type material as in shown in
Fig. 11.9, the p-n junction is reverse biased. The
Figure 11.10
p-type n-type
material material
11.6 Semiconductor diodes
A semiconductor diode is a device having a p-n
junction mounted in a container, suitable for con-
ducting and dissipating the heat generated in oper-
ation and having connecting leads. Its operating
characteristics are as shown in Figs. 11.8 and 11.10.
Two circuit diagram symbols for semiconductor
diodes are in common use and are as shown in
Fig. 11.11. Sometimes the symbols are encircled as
in Fig. 11.13 on page 132.
Contact
potential
Depletion layer
Figure 11.11
Figure 11.9 Problem 1. Explain briefly the terms given

below when they are associated with a p-n
applied voltage is now in the same sense as the junction: (a) conduction in intrinsic
contact potential and opposes the movement of semiconductors (b) majority and minority
holes and electrons due to opening up the depletion carriers, and (c) diffusion
layer. Thus, in theory, no current flows. However
TLFeBOOK
(a) Silicon or germanium with no doping atoms a rectifying property, that is, current passes more
added are called intrinsic semiconductors. At easily in one direction than the other.
room temperature, some of the electrons acquire An n-type material can be considered to be a
sufficient energy for them to break the covalent stationary crystal matrix of fixed positive charges
bond between atoms and become free mobile together with a number of mobile negative charge
electrons. This is called thermal generation of carriers (electrons). The total number of positive and
electron-hole pairs. Electrons generated ther- negative charges are equal. A p-type material can
mally create a gap in the crystal structure called be considered to be a number of stationary nega-
a hole, the atom associated with the hole being tive charges together with mobile positive charge
positively charged, since it has lost an electron. carriers (holes). Again, the total number of positive
This positive charge may attract another elec- and negative charges are equal and the material is
tron released from another atom, creating a hole neither positively nor negatively charged. When the
elsewhere. materials are brought together, some of the mobile
When a potential is applied across the semicon- electrons in the n-type material diffuse into the p-
ductor material, holes drift towards the negative type material. Also, some of the mobile holes in the
terminal (unlike charges attract), and electrons p-type material diffuse into the n-type material.
towards the positive terminal, and hence a small Many of the majority carriers in the region of
current flows. the junction combine with the opposite carriers to
complete covalent bonds and create a region on
(b) When additional mobile electrons are introduced either side of the junction with very few carriers.
by doping a semiconductor material with pen- This region, called the depletion layer, acts as an
tavalent atoms (atoms having five valency elec- insulator and is in the order of 0.5 µm thick. Since
trons), these mobile electrons are called majority the n-type material has lost electrons, it becomes
carriers. The relatively few holes in the n-type positively charged. Also, the p-type material has lost
material produced by intrinsic action are called holes and becomes negatively charged, creating a
minority carriers. potential across the junction, called the barrier or
For p-type materials, the additional holes are contact potential.
introduced by doping with trivalent atoms
(atoms having three valency electrons). The
holes are positive mobile charges and are Problem 3. Sketch the forward and reverse
majority carriers in the p-type material. The characteristics of a silicon p-n junction diode
relatively few mobile electrons in the p-type and describe the shapes of the characteristics
material produced by intrinsic action are called drawn.
minority carriers.
(c) Mobile holes and electrons wander freely within A typical characteristic for a silicon p-n junction
the crystal lattice of a semiconductor material. having a forward bias is shown in Fig. 11.8 and hav-
There are more free electrons in n-type material ing a reverse bias in Fig. 11.10. When the positive
than holes and more holes in p-type material terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
than electrons. Thus, in their random wander- material and the negative terminal to the n-type
ings, on average, holes pass into the n-type material, the diode is forward biased. Due to like
material and electrons into the p-type material. charges repelling, the holes in the p-type material
This process is called diffusion. drift towards the junction. Similarly the electrons
in the n-type material are repelled by the negative
bias voltage and also drift towards the junction. The
Problem 2. Explain briefly why a junction width of the depletion layer and size of the contact
between p-type and n-type materials creates potential are reduced. For applied voltages from 0 to
a contact potential. about 0.6 V, very little current flows. At about 0.6 V,
majority carriers begin to cross the junction in large
numbers and current starts to flow. As the applied
Intrinsic semiconductors have resistive properties, in voltage is raised above 0.6 V, the current increases
that when an applied voltage across the material is exponentially (see Fig. 11.8) When the negative ter-
reversed in polarity, a current of the same magnitude minal of the battery is connected to the p-type
flows in the opposite direction. When a p-n junction material and the positive terminal to the n-type
is formed, the resistive property is replaced by material the diode is reverse biased. The holes in the
TLFeBOOK
p-type material are attracted towards the negative is switched on and current i flows. When P is
terminal and the electrons in the n-type material negative with respect to Q, diode D is switched off.
are attracted towards the positive terminal (unlike Transformer T isolates the equipment from direct
charges attract). This drift increases the magnitude connection with the mains supply and enables the
of both the contact potential and the thickness of the mains voltage to be changed. Two diodes may be
depletion layer, so that only very few majority carri- used as shown in Fig. 11.14 to obtain full wave
ers have sufficient energy to surmount the junction. rectification. A centre-tapped transformer T is used.
The thermally excited minority carriers, however, When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q,
can cross the junction since it is, in effect, forward diode D1 conducts and current flows (shown by the
biased for these carriers. The movement of minority broken line in Fig. 11.14). When S is positive with
carriers results in a small constant current flowing. respect to Q, diode D2 conducts and current flows
As the magnitude of the reverse voltage is increased (shown by the continuous line in Fig. 11.14). The
a point will be reached where a large current sud- current flowing in R is in the same direction for
denly starts to flow. The voltage at which this occurs both half cycles of the input. The output waveform
is called the breakdown voltage. This current is due is thus as shown in Fig. 11.14
to two effects:
(i) the zener effect, resulting from the applied

voltage being sufficient to break some of the
covalent bonds, and
(ii) the avalanche effect, resulting from the charge
carriers moving at sufficient speed to break
covalent bonds by collision.
A zener diode is used for voltage reference purposes

or for voltage stabilisation. Two common circuit
diagram symbols for a zener diode are shown in
Figure 11.14
Fig. 11.12
Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier cir-
cuit, as shown in Fig. 11.15 to obtain full wave rec-
tification. As for the rectifier shown in Fig. 11.14,
Figure 11.12 the current flowing in R is in the same direction
for both half cycles of the input giving the output
waveform shown.
11.7 Rectification
The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and
voltages from alternating currents and voltages is
called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits
is carried out by diodes.
Using a single diode, as shown in Fig. 11.13,
half-wave rectification is obtained. When P is
sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D
Figure 11.15
To smooth the output of the rectifiers described

above, capacitors having a large capacitance may
be connected across the load resistor R. The effect
Figure 11.13 of this is shown on the output in Fig. 11.16
TLFeBOOK
(d) diffusion
(e) minority carrier conduction.
9 Explain briefly the action of a p-n junction

Figure 11.16 diode: (a) on open-circuit, (b) when provided
with a forward bias, and (c) when provided
with a reverse bias. Sketch the characteristic
Now try the following exercises curves for both forward and reverse bias
conditions.
Exercise 58 Further problems on 10 Draw a diagram illustrating the charge sit-

semiconductor diodes uation for an unbiased p-n junction. Explain
the change in the charge situation when com-
1 Explain what you understand by the term pared with that in isolated p-type and n-type
intrinsic semiconductor and how an intrinsic materials. Mark on the diagram the deple-
semiconductor is turned into either a p-type tion layer and the majority carriers in each
or an n-type material. region.
2 Explain what is meant by minority and
majority carriers in an n-type material and 11 Give an explanation of the principle of oper-
state whether the numbers of each of these ation of a p-n junction as a rectifier. Sketch
carriers are affected by temperature. the current-voltage characteristics showing
the approximate values of current and voltage
3 A piece of pure silicon is doped with for a silicon junction diode.
(a) pentavalent impurity and (b) trivalent
impurity. Explain the effect these impurities
have on the form of conduction in silicon.
4 With the aid of simple sketches, explain how
pure germanium can be treated in such a Exercise 59 Short answer problems on
way that conduction is predominantly due to semiconductor diodes
(a) electrons and (b) holes.
1 A good conductor has a resistivity in the
5 Explain the terms given below when used in order of . . . . . . to . . . . . . m
semiconductor terminology:
(a) covalent bond 2 A semiconductor has a resistivity in the order
(b) trivalent impurity of . . . . . . to . . . . . . m
(c) pentavalent impurity 3 An insulator has a resistivity in the order of
(d) electron-hole pair generation. . . . . . . to . . . . . . m
6 Explain briefly why although both p-type 4 Over a limited range, the resistance of an
and n-type materials have resistive properties insulator . . . . . . with increase in temperature.
when separate, they have rectifying proper-
ties when a junction between them exists. 5 Over a limited range, the resistance of a semi-
conductor . . . . . . with increase in tempera-
7 The application of an external voltage to ture.
a junction diode can influence the drift of
holes and electrons. With the aid of diagrams 6 Over a limited range, the resistance of a con-
explain this statement and also how the direc- ductor . . . . . . with increase in temperature.
tion and magnitude of the applied voltage 7 Name two semiconductor materials used in
affects the depletion layer. the electronics industry.
8 State briefly what you understand by the 8 Name two insulators used in the electronics
terms: industry.
(a) reverse bias
(b) forward bias 9 Name two good conductors used in the elec-
(c) contact potential tronics industry.
TLFeBOOK
10 The working temperature of germanium 28 What is a simple method of smoothing the

should not exceed . . . . . .° C to . . . . . .° C, output of a rectifier?
depending on its . . . . . .
11 The working temperature of silicon should
not exceed . . . . . .° C to . . . . . .° C, depending
on its . . . . . .
12 Antimony is called . . . . . . impurity.
semiconductor diodes (Answers on
13 Arsenic has . . . . . . valency electrons. page 375)
14 When phosphorus is introduced into a semi- In questions 1 to 5, select which statements are
conductor material, mobile . . . . . . result. true.
15 Boron is called a . . . . . . impurity.
1 In pure silicon:
16 Indium has . . . . . . valency electrons. (a) the holes are the majority carriers
(b) the electrons are the majority carriers
17 When aluminium is introduced into a semi- (c) the holes and electrons exist in equal
conductor material, mobile . . . . . . result numbers
18 When a p-n junction is formed, the n-type (d) conduction is due to there being more
material acquires a . . . . . . charge due to los- electrons than holes
ing . . . . . .
2 Intrinsic semiconductor materials have:
19 When a p-n junction is formed, the p-type (a) covalent bonds forming a tetrahedral
material acquires a . . . . . . charge due to los- structure
ing . . . . . . (b) pentavalent atoms added
(c) conduction by means of doping
20 To forward bias a p-n junction, the . . . . . . (d) a resistance which increases
terminal of the battery is connected to the with increase of temperature
p-type material
3 Pentavalent impurities:
21 To reverse bias a p-n junction, the positive (a) have three valency electrons
terminal of the battery is connected to the (b) introduce holes when added to a semi-
. . . . . . material conductor material
22 When a germanium p-n junction is forward (c) are introduced by adding aluminium
biased, approximately . . . . . . mV must be atoms to a semiconductor material
applied before an appreciable current starts (d) increase the conduction of a semi-
to flow. conductor material
23 When a silicon p-n junction is forward 4 Free electrons in a p-type material:
biased, approximately . . . . . . mV must be (a) are majority carriers
applied before an appreciable current starts (b) take no part in conduction
to flow. (c) are minority carriers
(d) exist in the same numbers as holes
24 When a p-n junction is reversed biased,
the thickness or width of the depletion 5 When an unbiased p-n junction is formed:
layer . . . . . . (a) the p-side is positive with respect to the
n-side
25 If the thickness or width of a depletion layer (b) a contact potential exists
decreases, then the p-n junction is . . . . . . (c) electrons diffuse from the p-type material
biased. to the n-type material
26 Draw an appropriate circuit diagram suitable (d) conduction is by means of major-
for half-wave rectification ity carriers
27 How may full-wave rectification be achie- In questions 6 to 10, select which statements are
ved? false.
TLFeBOOK
6 (a) The resistance of an insulator remains 9 When a germanium p-n junction diode is
approximately constant with increase of forward biased:
temperature (a) current starts to flow in an apprecia-
(b) The resistivity of a good conductor is ble amount when. the applied voltage is
about 107 to 108 ohm metres about 600 mV
(c) The resistivity of a conductor increases (b) the thickness or width of the depletion
with increase of temperature layer is reduced
(d) The resistance of a semiconductor de- (c) the curve representing the current flow is
creases with increase of temperature exponential
(d) the positive terminal of the battery is
7 Trivalent impurities: connected to the p-type material
(a) have three valeney electrons
(b) introduce holes when added to a semicon- 10 When a silicon p-n junction diode is reverse
ductor material biased:
(c) can be introduced to a semiconductor (a) a constant current flows over a large
material by adding antimony atoms to it range of voltages
(d) increase the conductivity of a semiconduc- (b) current flow is due to electrons in the
tor material when added to it n-type material
(c) current type is due to minority carriers
(d) the magnitude of the reverse current flow
8 Free electrons in an n-type material: is usually less than 1 µA
(a) are majority carriers
(b) diffuse into the p-type material when a p-n 11 A rectifier conducts:
junction is formed (a) direct currents in one direction
(c) as a result of the diffusion process leave (b) alternating currents in both directions
the n-type material positively charged (c) direct currents in both directions
(d) exist in the same numbers as the holes in (d) alternating currents in one direction
the n-type material
TLFeBOOK
12
Transistors

ž understand the structure of a bipolar junction transistor
ž understand transistor action for p-n-p and n-p-n types
ž draw the circuit diagram symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n transistors
ž appreciate common-base, common-emitter and common-collector transistor
connections
ž interpret transistor characteristics
ž appreciate how the transistor is used as an amplifier
ž determine the load line on transistor characteristics
ž estimate current, voltage and power gains from transistor characteristics
ž understand thermal runaway in a transistor
p-type p-type
12.1 The bipolar junction transistor material material
Collector Collector
The bipolar junction transistor consists of three
regions of semiconductor material. One type is
called a p-n-p transistor, in which two regions of
p-type material sandwich a very thin layer of n-type Emitter Emitter
material. A second type is called an n-p-n transistor,
in which two regions of n-type material sandwich a
very thin layer of p-type material. Both of these
Base Base
types of transistors consist of two p-n junctions n-type n-type
placed very close to one another in a back-to-back material material
arrangement on a single piece of semiconductor p-n-p transistor n-p-n transistor
material. Diagrams depicting these two types of
transistors are shown in Fig. 12.1 Figure 12.1
The two p-type material regions of the p-n-p tran-
sistor are called the emitter and collector and the operation is achieved by appropriately biasing the
n-type material is called the base. Similarly, the two two internal p-n junctions. When batteries and
n-type material regions of the n-p-n transistor are resistors are connected to a p-n-p transistor, as
called the emitter and collector and the p-type mate- shown in Fig. 12.2(a) the base-emitter junction is
rial region is called the base, as shown in Fig. 12.1 forward biased and the base-collector junction is
Transistors have three connecting leads and reverse biased.
in operation an electrical input to one pair of Similarly, an n-p-n transistor has its base-emitter
connections, say the emitter and base connections junction forward biased and its base-collector junc-
can control the output from another pair, say the tion reverse biased when the batteries are connected
collector and emitter connections. This type of as shown in Fig. 12.2(b).
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 137
Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector (a) The majority carriers in the emitter p-type mate-
p n p n p n rial are holes
+ − − +
(b) The base-emitter junction is forward biased to
the majority carriers and the holes cross the
junction and appear in the base region
Emitter Load Emitter Load (c) The base region is very thin and is only lightly
resistor resistor resistor resistor doped with electrons so although some electron-
hole pairs are formed, many holes are left in the
base region
(d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased to
+ − + − − + − +
electrons in the base region and holes in the
(a) p-n-p transistor (b) n-p-n transistor collector region, but forward biased to holes in
Figure 12.2 the base region; these holes are attracted by the
negative potential at the collector terminal
For a silicon p-n-p transistor, biased as shown in (e) A large proportion of the holes in the base
Fig. 12.2(a), if the base-emitter junction is consid- region cross the base-collector junction into the
ered on its own, it is forward biased and a current collector region, creating a collector current;
flows. This is depicted in Fig. 12.3(a). For example, conventional current flow is in the direction of
if RE is 1000 , the battery is 4.5 V and the voltage hole movement
drop across the junction is taken as 0.7 V, the cur-
rent flowing is given by 4.50.7/1000 D 3.8 mA. The transistor action is shown diagrammatically
When the base-collector junction is considered on its in Fig. 12.4. For transistors having very thin base
own, as shown in Fig. 12.3(b), it is reverse biased regions, up to 99.5 per cent of the holes leaving the
and the collector current is something less than 1 µA. emitter cross the base collector junction.
Emitter Base Base Collector
Emitter Base Collector
p n n p
p n p
IE IC
Holes
IE IC
0.7 V
RE = 1000 Ω RL IB
Figure 12.4
4.5 V
+ − + − In an n-p-n transistor, connected as shown in

(a) (b) Fig. 12.2(b), transistor action is accounted for as
follows:
Figure 12.3
(a) The majority carriers in the n-type emitter mate-
However, when both external circuits are con- rial are electrons
nected to the transistor, most of the 3.8 mA of cur-
rent flowing in the emitter, which previously flowed (b) The base-emitter junction is forward biased to
from the base connection, now flows out through the these majority carriers and electrons cross the
collector connection due to transistor action. junction and appear in the base region
(c) The base region is very thin and only lightly
doped with holes, so some recombination with
12.2 Transistor action holes occurs but many electrons are left in the
base region
In a p-n-p transistor, connected as shown in
Fig. 12.2(a), transistor action is accounted for as (d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased
follows: to holes in the base region and electrons in
TLFeBOOK
the collector region, but is forward biased to carriers, but a small leakage current, ICBO flows
electrons in the base region; these electrons are from the collector to the base due to thermally
attracted by the positive potential at the collector generated minority carriers (holes in the collector
terminal and elections in the base), being present. The base-
collector junction is forward biased to these minority
(e) A large proportion of the electrons in the base
carriers. If a proportion, ˛, of the electrons passing
region cross the base-collector junction into the
through the base-emitter junction also pass through
collector region, creating a collector current
the base-collector junction then the currents flowing
in an n-p-n transistor are as shown in Fig. 12.6(b).
The transistor action is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 12.5 As stated in Section 12.1, conventional
current flow is taken to be in the direction of hole
flow, that is, in the opposite direction to electron Problem 1. With reference to a p-n-p
flow, hence the directions of the conventional cur- transistor, explain briefly what is meant by
rent flow are as shown in Fig. 12.5 the term transistor action and why a bipolar
junction transistor is so named.
Emitter Base Collector
n p n For the transistor as depicted in Fig. 12.4, the emit-

IE IC ter is relatively heavily doped with acceptor atoms
Electrons
− + (holes). When the emitter terminal is made suffi-
ciently positive with respect to the base, the base-
emitter junction is forward biased to the majority
IB carriers. The majority carriers are holes in the emit-
ter and these drift from the emitter to the base. The
Figure 12.5
base region is relatively lightly doped with donor
atoms (electrons) and although some electron-hole
For a p-n-p transistor, the base-collector junction recombination’s take place, perhaps 0.5 per cent,
is reverse biased for majority carriers. However, a most of the holes entering the base, do not combine
small leakage current, ICBO flows from the base to with electrons.
the collector due to thermally generated minority The base-collector junction is reverse biased to
carriers (electrons in the collector and holes in the electrons in the base region, but forward biased to
base), being present. holes in the base region. Since the base is very thin
The base-collector junction is forward biased to and now is packed with holes, these holes pass the
these minority carriers. If a proportion, ˛, (having a base-emitter junction towards the negative potential
value of up to 0.995 in modern transistors), of the of the collector terminal. The control of current
holes passing into the base from the emitter, pass from emitter to collector is largely independent
through the base-collector junction, then the various of the collector-base voltage and almost wholly
currents flowing in a p-n-p transistor are as shown governed by the emitter-base voltage. The essence
in Fig. 12.6(a). of transistor action is this current control by means
of the base-emitter voltage.
Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector In a p-n-p transistor, holes in the emitter and col-
p n p n p n lector regions are majority carriers, but are minority
IE ∝I E IC IE ∝IE I C carriers when in the base region. Also, thermally
I CBO ICBO generated electrons in the emitter and collector
(1-∝)IE (1-∝)IE
regions are minority carriers as are holes in the base
IB IB
region. However, both majority and minority car-
riers contribute towards the total current flow (see
(a) (b) Fig. 12.6(a)). It is because a transistor makes use of
both types of charge carriers (holes and electrons)
Figure 12.6 that they are called bipolar. The transistor also com-
prises two p-n junctions and for this reason it is a
Similarly, for an n-p-n transistor, the base- junction transistor. Hence the name bipolar junction
collector junction is reversed biased for majority transistor.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 139
(c) common-collector configuration, shown in Fig.

12.3 Transistor symbols 12.8(c)
Symbols are used to represent p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors in circuit diagrams and are as shown in
Fig. 12.7. The arrow head drawn on the emitter of IE e c IC
the symbol is in the direction of conventional emitter
current (hole flow). The potentials marked at the INPUT OUTPUT
b
collector, base and emitter are typical values for a IB
silicon transistor having a potential difference of 6 V
between its collector and its emitter. (a)
IC
(−6 V) IB
OUTPUT
c
INPUT
IE
(−0.6 V) b
e
(b)
(0 V)
IE
p-n-p transistor IB
(6 V) OUTPUT
c INPUT IC
(0.6 V) b e (c)
(0 V) Figure 12.8
n-p-n transistor
These configurations are for an n-p-n transistor. The
Figure 12.7 current flows shown are all reversed for a p-n-p
transistor.
The voltage of 0.6 V across the base and emitter
is that required to reduce the potential barrier and if Problem 2. The basic construction of an
it is raised slightly to, say, 0.62 V, it is likely that the n-p-n transistor makes it appear that the
collector current will double to about 2 mA. Thus a emitter and collector can be interchanged.
small change of voltage between the emitter and the Explain why this is not usually done.
base can give a relatively large change of current in
the emitter circuit; because of this, transistors can
be used as amplifiers (see Section 12.6). In principle, a bipolar junction transistor will work
equally well with either the emitter or collector act-
ing as the emitter. However, the conventional emit-
ter current largely flows from the collector through
12.4 Transistor connections the base to the emitter, hence the emitter region
is far more heavily doped with donor atoms (elec-
There are three ways of connecting a transistor, trons) than the base is with acceptor atoms (holes).
depending on the use to which it is being put. Also, the base-collector junction is normally reverse
The ways are classified by the electrode which is biased and in general, doping density increases the
common to both the input and the output. They are electric field in the junction and so lowers the break-
called: down voltage. Thus, to achieve a high breakdown
voltage, the collector region is relatively lightly
(a) common-base configuration, shown in Fig. doped.
12.8(a) In addition, in most transistors, the method of
production is to diffuse acceptor and donor atoms
(b) common-emitter configuration, shown in Fig. onto the n-type semiconductor material, one after
12.8(b) the other, so that one overrides the other. When this
TLFeBOOK
is done, the doping density in the base region is has little effect on the characteristic. A similar
not uniform but decreases from emitter to collector. characteristic can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor,
This results in increasing the effectiveness of the these having reversed polarities.
transistor. Thus, because of the doping densities in (ii) Output characteristics. The value of the col-
the three regions and the non-uniform density in lector current IC is very largely determined by the
the base, the collector and emitter terminals of a emitter current, IE . For a given value of IE the
transistor should not be interchanged when making collector-base voltage, VCB , can be varied and has
transistor connections. little effect on the value of IC . If VCB is made
slightly negative, the collector no longer attracts
the majority carriers leaving the emitter and IC
12.5 Transistor characteristics falls rapidly to zero. A family of curves for var-
ious values of IE are possible and some of these
The effect of changing one or more of the vari- are shown in Fig. 12.10. Figure 12.10 is called the
ous voltages and currents associated with a transistor output characteristics for an n-p-n transistor having
circuit can be shown graphically and these graphs common-base configuration. Similar characteristics
are called the characteristics of the transistor. As can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these having
there are five variables (collector, base and emit- reversed polarities.
ter currents, and voltages across the collector and
base and emitter and base) and also three configu-
rations, many characteristics are possible. Some of IC
the possible characteristics are given below.
I E = 30 mA
Collector current (mA)
(a) Common-base configuration 30

I E = 20 mA
(i) Input characteristic. With reference to
Fig. 12.8(a), the input to a common-base transistor 20
is the emitter current, IE , and can be varied by
altering the base emitter voltage VEB . The base- I E = 10 mA
emitter junction is essentially a forward biased 10
junction diode, so as VEB is varied, the current
flowing is similar to that for a junction diode,
as shown in Fig. 12.9 for a silicon transistor. VCB
−2 0 2 4 6 8
Figure 12.9 is called the input characteristic for an Collector-base voltage (V)
n-p-n transistor having common-base configuration.
The variation of the collector-base voltage VCB Figure 12.10
−I E (b) Common-emitter configuration
6
(i) Input characteristic. In a common-emitter con-
Emitter current (mA)
figuration (see Fig. 12.8(b)), the base current is now

5 the input current. As VEB is varied, the characteristic
obtained is similar in shape to the input charac-
4 teristic for a common-base configuration shown in
3
Fig. 12.9, but the values of current are far less. With
reference to Fig. 12.6(a), as long as the junctions are
2 biased as described, the three currents IE , IC and
IB keep the ratio 1:˛:1 ˛, whichever configura-
1 tion is adopted. Thus the base current changes are
much smaller than the corresponding emitter cur-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 −VEB rent changes and the input characteristic for an n-p-n
Emitter base voltage (V) transistor is as shown in Fig. 12.11. A similar char-
acteristic can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these
Figure 12.9 having reversed polarities.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 141
IB
Problem 3. With the aid of a circuit
diagram, explain how the input and output
300 characteristics of an n-p-n transistor having a
250
common-base configuration can be obtained.
Base current (µA)
200
A circuit diagram for obtaining the input and output
150 characteristics for an n-p-n transistor connected in
100 common-base configuration is shown in Fig. 12.13.
The input characteristic can be obtained by varying
50 R1 , which varies VEB , and noting the corresponding
values of IE . This is repeated for various values of
VBE
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 VCB . It will be found that the input characteristic is
Base-emitter voltage (V) almost independent of VCB and it is usual to give
only one characteristic, as shown in Fig. 12.9
Figure 12.11
IE IC
A A
(ii) Output characteristics. A family of curves
can be obtained, depending on the value of base +
R1 V R2
current IB and some of these for an n-p-n transistor VEB A I B V VCB −V2
are shown in Fig. 12.12. A similar set of character-
istics can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these − +
having reversed polarities. These characteristics dif-
fer from the common base output characteristics Figure 12.13
in two ways: the collector current reduces to zero
without having to reverse the collector voltage, and To obtain the output characteristics, as shown in
the characteristics slope upwards indicating a lower Fig. 12.10, IE is set to a suitable value by adjusting
output resistance (usually kilohms for a common- R1 . For various values of VCB , set by adjusting R2 ,
emitter configuration compared with megohms for a IC is noted. This procedure is repeated for various
common-base configuration). values of IE . To obtain the full characteristics, the
polarity of battery V2 has to be reversed to reduce
IC to zero. This must be done very carefully or
µA else values of IC will rapidly increase in the reverse
IC 300
IB = direction and burn out the transistor.
µA
50 250
IB =
20 0 µA
40 IB =
150
µA Exercise 61 Further problems on
IB = transistors
30
µA 1 Explain with the aid of sketches, the oper-
100
IB =
20 ation of an n-p-n transistor and also explain
why the collector current is very nearly equal
µA
I B = 50 to the emitter current.
10
2 Explain what is meant by the term ‘transistor
IB = 0 action’.
VCE 3 Describe the basic principle of operation of
0 2 4 6 8 10
a bipolar junction transistor including why
Collector-emitter voltage (V)
majority carriers crossing into the base from
Figure 12.12 the emitter pass to the collector and why the
TLFeBOOK
collector current is almost unaffected by the then flows through a load resistance, a voltage is
collector potential. developed. This voltage can be many times greater
than the input voltage which caused the original
4 For a transistor connected in common- current flow.
emitter configuration, sketch the output
characteristics relating collector current and (a) Common-base amplifier
the collector-emitter voltage, for various
values of base current. Explain the shape of The basic circuit for a transistor is shown in
the characteristics. Fig. 12.14 where an n-p-n transistor is biased with
batteries b1 and b2 . A sinusoidal alternating input
5 Sketch the input characteristic relating emit- signal, ve , is placed in series with the input bias
ter current and the emitter-base voltage for a voltage, and a load resistor, RL , is placed in series
transistor connected in common-base config- with the collector bias voltage. The input sig-
uration, and explain its shape. nal is therefore the sinusoidal current ie resulting
from the application of the sinusoidal voltage ve
6 With the aid of a circuit diagram, explain superimposed on the direct current IE established
how the output characteristics of an n-p-n by the base-emitter voltage VBE .
transistor having common-base configuration
may be obtained and any special precautions
b1 RL
which should be taken.
7 Draw sketches to show the direction of the
flow of leakage current in both n-p-n and b2
ve ~
p-n-p transistors. Explain the effect of leak- I E + ie
age current on a transistor connected in
common-base configuration.
Figure 12.14
8 Using the circuit symbols for transistors show
how (a) common-base, and (b) common- Let the signal voltage ve be 100 mV and the base-
emitter configuration can be achieved. Mark emitter circuit resistance be 50 . Then the emitter
on the symbols the inputs, the outputs, signal current will be 100/50 D 2 mA. Let the load
polarities under normal operating conditions resistance RL D 2.5 k. About 0.99 of the emitter
to give correct biasing and current directions. current will flow in RL . Hence the collector signal
current will be about 0.99 ð 2 D 1.98 mA and the
9 Draw a diagram showing how a transistor signal voltage across the load will be 2500 ð 1.98 ð
can be used in common emitter configura- 103 D 4.95 V. Thus a signal voltage of 100 mV
tion. Mark on the sketch the input, output, at the emitter has produced a voltage of 4950 mV
polarities under normal operating conditions across the load. The voltage amplification or gain
and current directions. is therefore 4950/100 D 49.5 times. This example
10 Sketch the circuit symbols for (a) a p-n-p and illustrates the action of a common-base amplifier
(b) an n-p-n transistor. Mark on the emitter where the input signal is applied between emitter
electrodes the direction of conventional cur- and base and the output is taken from between
rent flow and explain why the current flows collector and base.
in the direction indicated.
(b) Common-emitter amplifier
The basic circuit arrangement of a common-emitter
amplifier is shown in Fig. 12.15. Although two bat-
teries are shown, it is more usual to employ only
12.6 The transistor as an amplifier one to supply all the necessary bias. The input sig-
nal is applied between base and emitter, and the
The amplifying properties of a transistor depend load resistor RL is connected between collector and
upon the fact that current flowing in a low-resistance emitter. Let the base bias battery provide a voltage
circuit is transferred to a high-resistance circuit which causes a base current IB of 0.1 mA to flow.
with negligible change in magnitude. If the current This value of base current determines the mean d.c.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 143
level upon which the a.c. input signal will be super- I C(mA)
imposed. This is the d.c. base current operating
point. I B = 100µA
5 mA Y
mean
RL 1 kΩ + collector
current
5 mA 7V
IB + ib −
0 5 10 15
12 V VCC VCE(V)
VBB Collector 7 V mean collector
voltage voltage
~ variations
Figure 12.17
+ ib
0.1 mA
VCC instead. The simplest way to do this is to
− base d.c. connect a bias resistor RB between the positive
bias I B terminal of the VCC supply and the base as shown in
Fig. 12.18 The resistor must be of such a value that
Figure 12.15 it allows 0.1 mA to flow in the base-emitter diode.
Let the static current gain of the transistor, ˛E ,

be 50. Since 0.1 mA is the steady base current, RB RL
the collector current IC will be ˛E ð IB D 50 ð lB
V CC
0.1 D 5 mA. This current will flow through the
load resistor RL D 1 k, and there will be a steady
voltage drop across RL given by IC RL D 5 ð
103 ð 1000 D 5 V. The voltage at the collector,
Figure 12.18
VCE , will therefore be VCC IC RL D 12 5 D
7 V. This value of VCE is the mean (or quiescent) For a silicon transistor, the voltage drop across the
level about which the output signal voltage will junction for forward bias conditions is about 0.6 V.
swing alternately positive and negative. This is the The voltage across RB must then be 12 0.6 D
collector voltage d.c. operating point. Both of 11.4 V. Hence, the value of RB must be such that
these d.c. operating points can be pin-pointed on IB ð RB D 11.4 V, i.e.
the input and output characteristics of the transistor.
Figure 12.16 shows the IB /VBE characteristic with RB D 11.4/IB D 11.4/0.1ð103 D 114 k.
the operating point X positioned at IB D 0.1 mA, With the inclusion of the 1 k load resistor, RL ,
VBE D 0.75 V, say. a steady 5 mA collector current, and a collector-
emitter voltage of 7 V, the d.c. conditions are estab-
I B(µA) lished.
An alternating input signal (vi ) can now be
200
applied. In order not to disturb the bias condition
X
established at the base, the input must be fed to the
100 base by way of a capacitor C1 . This will permit the
alternating signal to pass to the base but will prevent
the passage of direct current. The reactance of this
0 0.5 1.0 VBE (V) capacitor must be such that it is very small compared
with the input resistance of the transistor. The cir-
Figure 12.16 cuit of the amplifier is now as shown in Fig. 12.19
The a.c. conditions can now be determined.
Figure 12.17 shows the IC /VCE characteristics, When an alternating signal voltage v1 is applied to
with the operating point Y positioned at IC D 5 mA, the base via capacitor C1 the base current ib varies.
VCE D 7 V. It is usual to choose the operating point When the input signal swings positive, the base cur-
Y somewhere near the centre of the graph. rent increases; when the signal swings negative, the
It is possible to remove the bias battery VBB and base current decreases. The base current consists of
obtain base bias from the collector supply battery two components: IB , the static base bias established
TLFeBOOK
lC + i c straight line which can be written in the y D mx C c

form. Transposing VCE D VCC IC RL for IC gives:
RB RL
VCC VCE VCC VCE
lB ic = αe i b + IC D D
C1 RL RL RL
VCC
C2 v0 1 VCC
ib lB + i b − D VCE C
VCE
RL RL
vi ~
1 VCC
i.e. IC D VCE C
RL RL
Figure 12.19 which is of the straight line form y D mx C c; hence
if IC is plotted vertically and VCE horizontally, then
by RB , and ib , the signal current. The current varia- the gradient is given by 1/RL and the vertical
tion ib will in turn vary the collector current, iC . The axis intercept is VCC /RL .
relationship between iC and ib is given by iC D ˛e ib , A family of collector static characteristics drawn
where ˛e is the dynamic current gain of the tran- on such axes is shown in Fig. 12.12 on page 141,
sistor and is not quite the same as the static current and so the line may be superimposed on these as
gain ˛e ; the difference is usually small enough to be shown in Fig. 12.20
insignificant.
The current through the load resistor RL also µA
300
IB =
consists of two components: IC , the static collector IC
current, and iC , the signal current. As ib increases, µA
50 250
so does iC and so does the voltage drop across RL . VCC
A IB =
RL
00 µ
Hence, from the circuit: A

40 IB = 2
−I CR L
V E = V CC
VCE D VCC IC C iC RL LINE C
30 LOAD
µA
The d.c. components of this equation, though nec- I B = 100
essary for the amplifier to operate at all, need not 20
be considered when the a.c. signal conditions are IB = 50 µ A
being examined. Hence, the signal voltage variation 10
IB = 0
relationship is:
B VCE
0 2 4 6 8 10
VCE D ˛e ð ib ð RL D iC RL
Collector-emitter voltage (V)
VCC
the negative sign being added because VCE
decreases when ib increases and vice versa. The Figure 12.20
signal output and input voltages are of opposite
polarity i.e. a phase shift of 180° has occurred. So
that the collector d.c. potential is not passed on to The reason why this line is necessary is because
the following stage, a second capacitor, C2 , is added the static curves relate IC to VCE for a series of
as shown in Fig. 12.19. This removes the direct fixed values of IB . When a signal is applied to the
component but permits the signal voltage vo D iC RL base of the transistor, the base current varies and can
to pass to the output terminals. instantaneously take any of the values between the
extremes shown. Only two points are necessary to
draw the line and these can be found conveniently by
considering extreme conditions. From the equation:
12.7 The load line
VCE D VCC IC RL
The relationship between the collector-emitter volt-
age (VCE ) and collector current (IC ) is given by (i) when IC D 0, VCE D VCC
the equation: VCE D VCC IC RL in terms of the
d.c. conditions. Since VCC and RL are constant in VCC
any given circuit, this represents the equation of a (ii) when VCE D 0, IC D
RL
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 145
on
rsi
cu
ex
I C (mA) ve
s iti
po
12 um Input current
im
ax variation is 0.1 mA
M s peak
10 E mA bia
I B = 0.2
se n
ba io
8 n urs
e a xc
M e
e
6 X tiv
8.75 mA A ga
pk−pk 4 IB = 0.1 m ne
um
im
ax
2 M
=O
F IB
VCE (V)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
8.5 V pk−pk
Figure 12.21
Thus the points A and B respectively are located vary š0.1 mA about the d.c. base bias of 0.1 mA.
on the axes of the IC /VCE characteristics. This line The result is IB changes from 0 mA to 0.2 mA and
is called the load line and it is dependent for its back again to 0 mA during the course of each input
position upon the value of VCC and for its gradient cycle. Hence the operating point moves up and down
upon RL . As the gradient is given by 1/RL , the the load line in phase with the input current and
slope of the line is negative. hence the input voltage. A sinusoidal input cycle is
For every value assigned to RL in a particular shown on Fig. 12.21
circuit there will be a corresponding (and different)
load line. If VCC is maintained constant, all the
possible lines will start at the same point (B) but will 12.8 Current and voltage gains
cut the IC axis at different points A. Increasing RL
will reduce the gradient of the line and vice-versa. The output signal voltage (VCE ) and current (iC )
Quite clearly the collector voltage can never exceed can be obtained by projecting vertically from the
VCC (point B) and equally the collector current can load line on to VCE and IC axes respectively. When
never be greater than that value which would make the input current ib varies sinusoidally as shown in
VCE zero (point A). Fig. 12.21, then VCE varies sinusoidally if the points
Using the circuit example of Fig. 12.15, we have E and F at the extremities of the input variations are
equally spaced on either side of X.
VCE D VCC D 12 V, when IC D 0 The peak-to-peak output voltage is seen to be
VCC 8.5 V, giving an r.m.s. value of 3 V (i.e. 0.707 ð
IC D 8.5/2). The peak-to-peak output current is 8.75 mA,
RL
giving an r.m.s. value of 3.1 mA. From these
12 figures the voltage and current amplifications can
D D 12 mA, when VCE D 0
1000 be obtained.
The dynamic current gain Ai D ˛e as opposed
The load line is drawn on the characteristics shown to the static gain ˛E , is given by:
in Fig. 12.21 which we assume are characteristics
for the transistor used in the circuit of Fig. 12.15 change in collector current
earlier. Notice that the load line passes through the Ai =
operating point X as it should, since every position change in base current
on the line represents a relationship between VCE
and IC for the particular values of VCC and RL This always leads to a different figure from that
given. Suppose that the base current is caused to obtained by the direct division of IC /IB which
TLFeBOOK
assumes that the collector load resistor is zero. From The characteristics are drawn in Fig. 12.22 The load
Fig. 12.21 the peak input current is 0.1 mA and the line equation is VCC D VCE C IC RL which enables
peak output current is 4.375 mA. Hence the extreme points of the line to be calculated.
4.375 ð 103 When IC D 0, VCE D VC D 7.0 V
Ai D D 43.75
0.1 ð 103 VCC 7
and when VCE D 0, IC D D
The voltage gain Av is given by: RL 1200
D 5.83 mA
change in collector voltage
Av =
change in base voltage
I c(mA)
This cannot be calculated from the data available, 6
but if we assume that the base current flows in 70µA
the input resistance, then the base voltage can be 5
determined. The input resistance can be determined 4 50µA
from an input characteristic such as was shown X
3.0 mA
earlier. pk−pk 3
change in VBC 2 30µA

Then Ri D
change in IB 1
and vi D ib RC and vo D iC RL
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
i C RL RL V CE(V)
and Av D D ˛e
Ib Ri Ri 3.6V
pk−pk
For a resistive load, power gain, Ap , is given by
Figure 12.22
Ap = Av × Ai
The load line is shown superimposed on the char-
acteristic curves with the operating point marked X
Problem 4. An n-p-n transistor has the at the intersection of the line and the 50 µA charac-
following characteristics which may be teristic.
assumed to be linear between the values of From the diagram, the output voltage swing is
collector voltage stated. 3.6 V peak-to-peak. The input voltage swing is ib Ri
where ib is the base current swing and Ri is the input
resistance.
Base current Collector current (mA) for Therefore vi D 40 ð 106 ð 1 ð 103 D 40 mV
(µA) collector voltages of peak-to-peak. Hence, voltage gain,
1V 5V output volts 3.6
Av D D D 90
input volts 40 ð 103
30 1.4 1.6
50 3.0 3.5 Note that peak-to-peak values are taken at both input
70 4.6 5.2 and output. There is no need to convert to r.m.s. as
only ratios are involved.
From the diagram, the output current swing is
The transistor is used as a common-emitter 3.0 mA peak-to-peak. The input base current swing
amplifier with load resistor RL D 1.2 k and is 40 µA peak-to-peak. Hence, current gain,
a collector supply of 7 V. The signal input
resistance is 1 k. Estimate the voltage gain output current
Av , the current gain Ai and the power gain Ap Ai D
input current
when an input current of 20 µA peak varies
sinusoidally about a mean bias of 50 µA. 3 ð 103
D D 75
40 ð 106
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 147
For a resistance load RL the power gain, Ap is + Vcc

given by: RL
RB
Ap D voltage gain ð current gain IB
D Av ð Ai D 90 ð 75 D 6750
12.9 Thermal runaway Figure 12.23
When a transistor is used as an amplifier it is neces- Hence the collector current IC D ˛E IB will also fall
sary to ensure that it does not overheat. Overheating and compensate for the original increase.
can arise from causes outside of the transistor itself, A commonly used bias arrangement is shown in
such as the proximity of radiators or hot resistors, or Fig. 12.24. If the total resistance value of resistors
within the transistor as the result of dissipation by R1 and R2 is such that the current flowing through
the passage of current through it. Power dissipated the divider is large compared with the d.c. bias
within the transistor which is given approximately current IB , then the base voltage VBE will remain
by the product IC VCE is wasted power; it contributes substantially constant regardless of variations in
nothing to the signal output power and merely raises collector current. The emitter resistor RE in turn
the temperature of the transistor. Such overheating determines the value of emitter current which flows
can lead to very undesirable results. for a given base voltage at the junction of R1 and R2 .
The increase in the temperature of a transistor will Any increase in IC produces an increase in IE and
give rise to the production of hole electron pairs, a corresponding increase in the voltage drop across
hence an increase in leakage current represented RE . This reduces the forward bias voltage VBE and
by the additional minority carriers. In turn, this leads to a compensating reduction in IC .
leakage current leads to an increase in collector
current and this increases the product IC VCE . The + V cc
whole effect thus becomes self perpetuating and IC
results in thermal runaway. This rapidly leads to R1 RL
the destruction of the transistor.
IB
IE
Problem 5. Explain how thermal runaway VBE
might be prevented in a transistor R2
RE
Two basic methods are available and either or both

may be used in a particular application. Figure 12.24
Method 1 Method 2
One approach is in the circuit design itself. The use A second method concerns some means of keeping
of a single biasing resistor RB as shown earlier in the transistor temperature down by external cooling.
Fig. 12.18 is not particularly good practice. If the For this purpose, a heat sink is employed, as shown
temperature of the transistor increases, the leakage in Fig. 12.25. If the transistor is clipped or bolted to
current also increases. The collector current, collec-
tor voltage and base current are thereby changed, the THICK ALUMINIUM
base current decreasing as IC increases. An alterna- OR COPPER PLATE
tive is shown in Fig. 12.23. Here the resistor RB is
returned, not to the VCC line, but to the collector POWER TRANSISTOR
itself. BOLTED TO THE PLATE
If the collector current increases for any reason,
the collector voltage VCE will fall. Therefore, the
d.c. base current IB will fall, since IB D VCE /RB . Figure 12.25
TLFeBOOK
a large conducting area of aluminium or copper plate 4 A transistor amplifier, supplied from a 9 V bat-
(which may have cooling fins), cooling is achieved tery, requires a d.c. bias current of 100 µA.
by convection and radiation. What value of bias resistor would be con-
Heat sinks are usually blackened to assist radia- nected from base to the VCC line (a) if VCE
tion and are normally used where large power dissi- is ignored (b) if VCE is 0.6 V?
pation’s are involved. With small transistors, heat [(a) 90 k (b) 84 k]
sinks are unnecessary. Silicon transistors particu-
larly have such small leakage currents that thermal 5 The output characteristics of a transistor in
problems rarely arise. common-emitter configuration can be regarded
as straight lines connecting the following
points
IB D 20 µA 50 µA 80 µA
VCE (V) 1.0 8.0 1.0 8.0 1.0 8.0
Exercise 62 Further problems on the IC (mA) 1.2 1.4 3.4 4.2 6.1 8.1
transistor as an amplifier
1 State whether the following statements are true Plot the characteristics and superimpose the
or false: load line for a 1 k load, given that the supply
(a) The purpose of a transistor amplifier is to voltage is 9 V and the d.c. base bias is 50 µA.
increase the frequency of an input signal The signal input resistance is 800 . When a
(b) The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the peak input current of 30 µA varies sinusoidally
output signal amplitude to the input signal about a mean bias of 50 µA, determine (a) the
amplitude quiescent collector current (b) the current gain
(c) The output characteristics of a transistor (c) the voltage gain (d) the power gain
relate the collector current to the base volt- [(a) 4 mA (b) 104 (c) 83 (d) 8632]
age.
(d) The equation of the load line is
VCE D VCC IC RL
(e) If the load resistor value is increased the
load line gradient is reduced
(f) In a common-emitter amplifier, the output Exercise 63 Short answer questions on
voltage is shifted through 180° with refer- transistors
ence to the input voltage
(g) In a common-emitter amplifier, the input 1 In a p-n-p transistor the p-type material
and output currents are in phase regions are called the . . . . . . and . . . . . . , and
(h) If the temperature of a transistor increases, the n-type material region is called the . . . . . .
VBE , IC and ˛E all increase
(i) A heat sink operates by artificially increas- 2 In an n-p-n transistor, the p-type material
ing the surface area of a transistor region is called the . . . . . . and the n-type
(j) The dynamic current gain of a transistor is material regions are called the . . . . . . and the
always greater than the static current ......
[(a) false (b) true
3 In a p-n-p transistor, the base-emitter junc-
(c) false (d) true
tion is . . . . . . biased and the base-collector
(e) true (f) true junction is . . . . . . biased.
(g) true (h) false (VBE decreases)
(i) true (j) true] 4 In an n-p-n transistor, the base-collector junc-
tion is . . . . . . biased and the base-emitter
2 An amplifier has Ai D 40 and Av D 30. What
junction is . . . . . . biased.
is the power gain? [1200]
3 What will be the gradient of a load line for a 5 Majority charge carriers in the emitter of a
load resistor of value 4 k? What unit is the transistor pass into the base region. Most of
gradient measured in? them do not recombine because the base is
[1/4000 siemen] . . . . . . doped.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 149
6 Majority carriers in the emitter region of 1 In normal operation, the junctions of a p-n-p
a transistor pass the base-collector junction transistor are:
because for these carriers it is . . . . . . biased. (a) both forward biased
(b) base-emitter forward biased and base-
7 Conventional current flow is in the direction collector reverse biased
of . . . . . . flow. (c) both reverse biased
(d) base-collector forward biased and base-
8 Leakage current flows from . . . . . . to . . . . . . emitter reverse biased.
in an n-p-n transistor.
2 In normal operation, the junctions of an n-p-n
9 The input characteristic of IE against VEB for transistor are:
a transistor in common-base configuration is (a) both forward biased
similar in shape to that of a . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) base-emitter forward biased and base-
collector reverse biased
10 The output resistance of a transistor con- (c) both reverse biased
nected in common-emitter configuration is (d) base-collector forward biased and base-
. . . . . . than that of a transistor connected in emitter reverse biased
common-base configuration.
3 The current flow across the base-emitter junc-
11 Complete the following statements that refer tion of a p-n-p transistor consists of
to a transistor amplifier: (a) mainly electrons
(a) An increase in base current causes col- (b) equal numbers of holes and electrons
lector current to . . . . . . (c) mainly holes
(b) When base current increases, the voltage (d) the leakage current
drop across the load resistor . . . . . .
(c) Under no-signal conditions the power 4 The current flow across the base-emitter junc-
supplied by the battery to an amplifier tion of an n-p-n transistor consists of
equals the power dissipated in the load (a) mainly electrons
plus the power dissipated in the . . . . . . (b) equal numbers of holes and electrons
(d) The load line has a . . . . . . gradient (c) mainly holes
(e) The gradient of the load line depends (d) the leakage current
upon the value of . . . . . . 5 In normal operation an n-p-n transistor con-
(f) The position of the load line depends nected in common-base configuration has
upon . . . . . . (a) the emitter at a lower potential than the
(g) The current gain of a common-emitter base
amplifier is always greater than . . . . . . (b) the collector at a lower potential than the
(h) The operating point is generally posi- base
tioned at the . . . . . . of the load line (c) the base at a lower potential than the
12 Draw a circuit diagram showing how a tran- emitter
sistor can be used as a common-emitter (d) the collector at a lower potential than the
amplifier. Explain briefly the purpose of all emitter
the components you show in your diagram. 6 In normal operation, a p-n-p transistor con-
nected in common-base configuration has
13 Explain briefly what is meant by ‘thermal (a) the emitter at a lower potential than the
runaway’. base
(b) the collector at a higher potential than the
base
(c) the base at a higher potential than the
emitter
Exercise 64 Multi-choice problems on (d) the collector at a lower potential than the
transistors (Answers on page 375) emitter.
In Problems 1 to 10 select the correct answer 7 If the per unit value of electrons which leave
from those given. the emitter and pass to the collector, ˛, is 0.9
TLFeBOOK
in an n-p-n transistor and the emitter current + V cc

is 4 mA, then
(a) the base current is approximately 4.4 mA R1 RL
(b) the collector current is approximately
3.6 mA V0
Vi
(c) the collector current is approximately
4.4 mA
(d) the base current is approximately 3.6 mA R2 RE
8 The base region of a p-n-p transistor is

(a) very thin and heavily doped with holes
(b) very thin and heavily doped with elec- Figure 12.26
trons
(c) very thin and lightly doped with holes 13 A voltmeter connected across RE reads zero.
(d) very thin and lightly doped with electrons Most probably
(a) the transistor base-emitter junction has
9 The voltage drop across the base-emitter short-circuited
junction of a p-n-p silicon transistor in nor- (b) RL has open-circuited
mal operation is about (c) R2 has short-circuited
(a) 200 mV (b) 600 mV
(c) zero (d) 4.4 V 14 A voltmeter connected across RL reads zero.
Most probably
10 For a p-n-p transistor, (a) the VCC supply battery is flat
(a) the number of majority carriers crossing (b) the base collector junction of the transis-
the base-emitter junction largely depends tor has gone open circuit
on the collector voltage (c) RL has open-circuited
(b) in common-base configuration, the col-
lector current is proportional to the 15 If RE short-circuited:
collector-base voltage (a) the load line would be unaffected
(c) in common-emitter configuration, the (b) the load line would be affected
base current is less than the base current
in common-base configuration In questions 16 to 20, which refer to the
(d) the collector current flow is independent output characteristics shown in Fig. 12.27,
of the emitter current flow for a given select the correct answer from those given
value of collector-base voltage.
In questions 11 to 15, which refer to the I c(mA)
amplifier shown in Fig. 12.26, select the cor-
rect answer from those given 8 80 µ A
11 If RL short-circuited: 6 60 µ A
(a) the amplifier signal output would fall to
zero 40 µ A
4
(b) the collector current would fall to zero P 20 µ A
(c) the transistor would overload 2
0
12 If R2 open-circuited: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 V (V)
(a) the amplifier signal output would fall to CE
zero Figure 12.27

(b) the operating point would be affected and
the signal would distort
(c) the input signal would not be applied to 16 The load line represents a load resistor of
the base (a) 1 k (b) 2 k (c) 3 k (d) 0.5 k
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS 151
17 The no-signal collector dissipation for the 19 The greatest possible peak output voltage
operating point marked P is would then be about
(a) 12 mW (b) 15 mW (a) 5.2 V (b) 6.5 V
(c) 18 mW (d) 21 mW (c) 8.8 V (d) 13 V
20 The power dissipated in the load resistor
18 The greatest permissible peak input current under no-signal conditions is:
would be about (a) 16 mW (b) 18 mW
(a) 30 µA (b) 35 µA (c) 20 mW (d) 22 mW
(c) 60 µA (d) 80 µA
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 3
1 A conductor, 25 cm long is situated at right on 50 ms and the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 2 V/cm.

angles to a magnetic field. Determine the Determine for the waveform (a) the frequency
strength of the magnetic field if a current of 12 A (b) the peak-to-peak voltage (c) the amplitude
in the conductor produces a force on it of 4.5 N. (d) the r.m.s. value. (7)
(3)
2 An electron in a television tube has a charge
of 1.5 ð 1019 C and travels at 3 ð 107 m/s
perpendicular to a field of flux density 20 µT.
Calculate the force exerted on the electron in
the field. (3)
3 A lorry is travelling at 100 km/h. Assuming the
vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field
is 40 µT and the back axle of the lorry is 1.98 m,
find the e.m.f. generated in the axle due to
motion. (5) Figure A3.1
4 An e.m.f. of 2.5 kV is induced in a coil when a

current of 2 A collapses to zero in 5 ms. Calcu- 9 Explain, with a diagram, how semiconductor
late the inductance of the coil. (4) diodes may be used to give full wave rectifi-
cation. (5)
5 Two coils, P and Q, have a mutual inductance
of 100 mH. If a current of 3 A in coil P is 10 The output characteristics of a common-emitter
reversed in 20 ms, determine (a) the average transistor amplifier are given below. Assume that
e.m.f. induced in coil Q, and (b) the flux change the characteristics are linear between the values
linked with coil Q if it wound with 200 turns. of collector voltage stated.
(5)
IB D 10 µA 40 µA 70 µA
6 A moving coil instrument gives a f.s.d. when the
current is 50 mA and has a resistance of 40 . VCE V 1.0 7.0 1.0 7.0 1.0 7.0
Determine the value of resistance required to IC (mA) 0.6 0.7 2.5 2.9 4.6 5.35
enable the instrument to be used (a) as a 0–5 A
ammeter, and (b) as a 0–200 V voltmeter. State Plot the characteristics and superimpose the load
the mode of connection in each case. (6) line for a 1.5 k load resistor and collector sup-
ply voltage of 8 V. The signal input resistance is
7 An amplifier has a gain of 20 dB. Its input power 1.2 k. Determine (a) the voltage gain (b) the
is 5 mW. Calculate its output power. (3)
current gain (c) the power gain when an input
8 A sinusoidal voltage trace displayed on a c.r.o. current of 30 µA peak varies sinusoidally about
is shown in Figure A3.1; the ‘time/cm’ switch is a mean bias of 40 µA (9)
TLFeBOOK
Formulae for basic electrical and
electronic engineering principles
GENERAL: D ε0 εr An 1 1
D ε0 εr CD WD CV2
E d 2
Charge Q D It Force F D ma
Capacitors in parallel C D C1 C C2 C C3 C . . .
W
Work W D Fs Power P D 1 1 1 1
t Capacitors in series D C C C ...
C C1 C2 C3
Energy W D Pt
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS:
V V
Ohm’s law V D IR or I D or R D  NI B
R I BD Fm D NI HD D 0 r
A l H
1
l
Conductance G D Resistance R D mmf l
R a SD D
 0 r A
V2
Power P D VI D I2 R D
R ELECTROMAGNETISM:
Resistance at ° C, R D R0 1 C ˛0 F D Bil sin F D QvB
Terminal p.d. of source, V D E Ir ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
Series circuit R D R1 C R2 C R3 C . . . d dI
E D Blv sin E D N D L
dt dt
1 1 1 1
Parallel network D C C C ... 1 2 N dI1
R R1 R2 R3 WD LI LD E2 D M
2 I dt
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE: MEASUREMENTS:
V Q Q Ia ra V Ira
ED CD Q D It DD Shunt Rs D Multiplier RM D
d V A Is I
TLFeBOOK
P2 R 2 R3
Power in decibels D 10 log Wheatstone bridge RX D
P1 R1
I2
D 20 log
I1 l2
Potentiometer E2 D E1
V2 l1
D 20 log
V1
TLFeBOOK
Section 2
Further Electrical and Electronic
Principles
TLFeBOOK
13
D.C. circuit theory

ž state and use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine unknown currents and voltages in d.c.
circuits
ž understand the superposition theorem and apply it to find currents in d.c. circuits
ž understand general d.c. circuit theory
ž understand Thévenin’s theorem and apply a procedure to determine unknown
currents in d.c. circuits
ž recognize the circuit diagram symbols for ideal voltage and current sources
ž understand Norton’s theorem and apply a procedure to determine unknown currents
in d.c. circuits
ž appreciate and use the equivalence of the Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks
ž state the maximum power transfer theorem and use it to determine maximum power
in a d.c. circuit
junction is equal to the total current flowing

13.1 Introduction away from the junction, i.e. I D 0
The laws which determine the currents and volt- Thus, referring to Fig. 13.1:
age drops in d.c. networks are: (a) Ohm’s law (see
Chapter 2), (b) the laws for resistors in series and I1 C I2 D I3 C I4 C I5
in parallel (see Chapter 5), and (c) Kirchhoff’s laws or I1 C I2 I3 I4 I5 D 0
(see Section 13.2 following). In addition, there are a
number of circuit theorems which have been devel-
oped for solving problems in electrical networks.
These include:
(i) the superposition theorem (see Section 13.3),

(ii) Thévenin’s theorem (see Section 13.5),
(iii) Norton’s theorem (see Section 13.7), and Figure 13.1
(iv) the maximum power transfer theorem (see Sec-
tion 13.8) (b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network,
the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e. prod-
ucts of current and resistance) taken around the
13.2 Kirchhoff’s laws loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in that
loop.
Kirchhoff’s laws state:
Thus, referring to Fig. 13.2:
(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric
circuit the total current flowing towards that E1 E2 D IR1 C IR2 C IR3
TLFeBOOK
(b) Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law and moving

clockwise around the loop of Fig. 13.3(b) start-
ing at point A:
3 C 6 C E 4 D I2 C I2.5
C I1.5 C I1
D I2 C 2.5 C 1.5 C 1
Figure 13.2
i.e. 5 C E D 27, since I D 2 A
(Note that if current flows away from the posi- Hence E D 14 5 D 9 V
tive terminal of a source, that source is consid-
ered by convention to be positive. Thus moving
anticlockwise around the loop of Fig. 13.2, E1 Problem 2. Use Kirchhoff’s laws to
is positive and E2 is negative) determine the currents flowing in each
branch of the network shown in Fig. 13.4
Problem 1. (a) Find the unknown currents
marked in Fig. 13.3(a) (b) Determine the
value of e.m.f. E in Fig. 13.3(b).
Figure 13.4
Procedure
Figure 13.3
1 Use Kirchhoff’s current law and label current
directions on the original circuit diagram. The
(a) Applying Kirchhoff’s current law: directions chosen are arbitrary, but it is usual,
For junction B: 50 D 20 C I1 . as a starting point, to assume that current flows
from the positive terminals of the batteries. This
Hence I1 D 30 A is shown in Fig. 13.5 where the three branch
For junction C: 20 C 15 D I2 . currents are expressed in terms of I1 and I2 only,
since the current through R is (I1 C I2 )
Hence I2 D 35 A
For junction D: I1 D I3 C 120
i.e. 30 D I3 C 120.
Hence I3 D −90 A
(i.e. in the opposite direction to that shown in
Fig. 13.3(a))
For junction E: I4 C I3 D 15
i.e. I4 D 15 90. Figure 13.5
Hence I4 D 105 A
2 Divide the circuit into two loops and apply
For junction F: 120 D I5 C 40.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each. From loop 1 of
Hence I5 D 80 A Fig. 13.5, and moving in a clockwise direction as
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY 159
indicated (the direction chosen does not matter),

gives
E1 D I1 r1 C I1 C I2 R
i.e. 4 D 2I1 C 4I1 C I2 ,
i.e. 6I1 C 4I2 D 4 1
From loop 2 of Fig. 13.5, and moving in an

anticlockwise direction as indicated (once again, Figure 13.6
the choice of direction does not matter; it does not
have to be in the same direction as that chosen
for the first loop), gives:
Problem 3. Determine, using Kirchhoff’s
E2 D I2 r2 C I1 C I2 R laws, each branch current for the network
shown in Fig. 13.7
i.e. 2 D I2 C 4I1 C I2
i.e. 4I1 C 5I2 D 2 2
3 Solve Equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2

2 ð 1 gives: 12I1 C 8I2 D 8 3
3 ð 2 gives: 12I1 C 15I2 D 6 4
3 4 gives: 7I2 D 2

Figure 13.7
hence I2 D 2/7 D 0.286 A
(i.e. I2 is flowing in the opposite direction to that 1 Currents, and their directions are shown labelled
shown in Fig. 13.5) in Fig. 13.8 following Kirchhoff’s current law. It
is usual, although not essential, to follow conven-
tional current flow with current flowing from the
From 1 6I1 C 40.286 D 4 positive terminal of the source
6I1 D 4 C 1.144
5.144
Hence I1 D D 0.857 A
6
Current flowing through resistance R is

I1 C I2 D 0.857 C 0.286
D 0.571 A
Figure 13.8
Note that a third loop is possible, as shown in
Fig. 13.6, giving a third equation which can be
used as a check: 2 The network is divided into two loops as shown
in Fig. 13.8. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
E1 E2 D I1 r1 I2 r2 gives:
4 2 D 2I1 I2
For loop 1:
2 D 2I1 I2
E1 C E2 D I1 R1 C I2 R2
[Check: 2I1 I2 D 20.857 0.286 D 2] i.e. 16 D 0.5I1 C 2I2 1
TLFeBOOK
For loop 2:
E2 D I2 R2 I1 I2 R3
Note that since loop 2 is in the opposite direction
to current I1 I2 , the volt drop across R3 (i.e.
I1 I2 R3 ) is by convention negative.
Thus 12 D 2I2 5I1 I2 Figure 13.10
i.e. 12 D 5I1 C 7I2 2
3 Solving Equations (1) and (2) to find I1 and I2 : Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop 2 and
moving in a anticlockwise direction as shown in
10 ð 1 gives: 160 D 5I1 C 20I2 3 Fig. 13.10 gives:
2C3 gives: 172 D 27I2 0 D 2I1 C 32I2 14I I1
172 However I D 8A
hence I2 D D 6.37 A
27
Hence 0 D 2I1 C 32I2 148 I1
From (1): 16 D 0.5I1 C 26.37
i.e. 16I1 C 32I2 D 112 2
16 26.37
I1 D D 6.52 A Equations (1) and (2) are simultaneous equations
0.5 with two unknowns, I1 and I2 .
Current flowing in R3 D I1 I2 16 ð 1 gives: 208I1 176I2 D 864 3
D 6.52 6.37 D 0.15 A 13 ð 2 gives: 208I1 C 416I2 D 1456 4
4 3 gives: 592I2 D 592
Problem 4. For the bridge network shown
in Fig. 13.9 determine the currents in each of I2 D 1 A
the resistors.
Substituting for I2 in (1) gives:
13I1 11 D 54
65
I1 D D 5A
13
Hence, the current flowing in the 2 resistor
D I1 D 5 A
Figure 13.9 the current flowing in the 14 resistor
D I I1 D 8 5 D 3 A
Let the current in the 2 resistor be I1 , then by
Kirchhoff’s current law, the current in the 14 the current flowing in the 32 resistor
resistor is II1 . Let the current in the 32 resistor
be I2 as shown in Fig. 13.10. Then the current in the D I2 D 1 A
11 resistor is I1 I2 and that in the 3 resistor
is I I1 C I2 . Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law the current flowing in the 11 resistor
to loop 1 and moving in a clockwise direction as
shown in Fig. 13.10 gives: D I1 I2 D 5 1 D 4 A
54 D 2I1 C 11I1 I2 and the current flowing in the 3 resistor

i.e. 13I1 11I2 D 54 1 D I I1 C I2 D 8 5 C 1 D 4 A
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercise 4 Find the current flowing in the 3 resistor for
the network shown in Fig. 13.14(a). Find also
the p.d. across the 10 and 2 resistors.
[2.715 A, 7.410 V, 3.948 V]
Kirchhoff’s laws
1 Find currents I3 , I4 and I6 in Fig. 13.11
[I3 D 2 A, I4 D 1 A, I6 D 3 A]
Figure 13.14
Figure 13.11
5 For the network shown in Fig. 13.14(b) find:

2 For the networks shown in Fig. 13.12, find the (a) the current in the battery, (b) the current in
values of the currents marked. the 300 resistor, (c) the current in the 90
[(a) I1 D 4 A, I2 D 1 A, I3 D 13 A resistor, and (d) the power dissipated in the
(b) I1 D 40 A, I2 D 60 A, I3 D 120 A 150 resistor.
I4 D 100 A, I5 D 80 A] [(a) 60.38 mA (b) 15.10 mA
(c) 45.28 mA (d) 34.20 mW]
6 For the bridge network shown in Fig. 13.14(c),

find the currents I1 to I5
[I1 D 1.26 A, I2 D 0.74 A, I3 D 0.16 A,
I4 D 1.42 A, I5 D 0.59 A]
Figure 13.12
13.3 The superposition theorem

3 Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the current flow-
ing in the 6 resistor of Fig. 13.13 and the
power dissipated in the 4 resistor. The superposition theorem states:
[2.162 A, 42.07 W]
In any network made up of linear resistances and
containing more than one source of e.m.f., the resul-
tant current flowing in any branch is the algebraic
sum of the currents that would flow in that branch
if each source was considered separately, all other
sources being replaced at that time by their respec-
tive internal resistances.
The superposition theorem is demonstrated in the
Figure 13.13 following worked problems
TLFeBOOK

4 4
Problem 5. Figure 13.15 shows a circuit and I3 D I1 D 1.429 D 1.143 A
containing two sources of e.m.f., each with 4C1 5
by current division
their internal resistance. Determine the
current in each branch of the network by 3 Redraw the original circuit with source E1
using the superposition theorem. removed, being replaced by r1 only, as shown
in Fig. 13.17(a)
Figure 13.15
Figure 13.17
Procedure:
1 Redraw the original circuit with source E2 4 Label the currents in each branch and their direc-
removed, being replaced by r2 only, as shown tions as shown in Fig. 13.17(a) and determine
in Fig. 13.16(a) their values.
r1 in parallel with R gives an equivalent resistance
of 2 ð 4/2 C 4 D 8/6 D 1.333
From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 13.17(b)
E2 2
I4 D D D 0.857 A
1.333 C r2 1.333 C 1
From Fig. 13.17(a),

2 2
I5 D I4 D 0.857 D 0.286 A
2C4 6
Figure 13.16
4 4
I6 D I4 D 0.857 D 0.571 A
2C4 6
2 Label the currents in each branch and their direc-
tions as shown in Fig. 13.16(a) and determine 5 Superimpose Fig. 13.17(a) on to Fig. 13.16(a) as
their values. (Note that the choice of current direc- shown in Fig. 13.18
tions depends on the battery polarity, which, by
convention is taken as flowing from the positive
battery terminal as shown)
R in parallel with r2 gives an equivalent resistance
of 4 ð 1/4 C 1 D 0.8
From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 13.16(b),
E1 4
I1 D D
r1 C 0.8 2 C 0.8
D 1.429 A
From Fig. 11.16(a), Figure 13.18

1 1 6 Determine the algebraic sum of the currents flow-
I2 D I1 D 1.429 D 0.286 A
4C1 5 ing in each branch.
TLFeBOOK
Resultant current flowing through source 1, i.e.

I1 I6 D 1.429 0.571
D 0.858 A (discharging)
Resultant current flowing through source 2, i.e.
I4 I3 D 0.857 1.143
D −0.286 A (charging)
Figure 13.21
Resultant current flowing through resistor R, i.e.
I2 C I5 D 0.286 C 0.286
E1 8
D 0.572 A I1 D D D 1.667 A
3 C 1.8 4.8
The resultant currents with their directions are
shown in Fig. 13.19 From Fig 13.21(a),

18 18
I2 D I1 D 1.667 D 1.500 A
2 C 18 20

2 2
and I3 D I1 D 1.667 D 0.167 A
2 C 18 20
3 Removing source E1 gives the circuit of

Fig. 13.22(a) (which is the same as Fig. 13.22(b))
Figure 13.19

Fig. 13.20, find, using the superposition
theorem, (a) the current flowing in and the
p.d. across the 18 resistor, (b) the current
in the 8 V battery and (c) the current in the
3 V battery.
Figure 13.22
4 The current directions are labelled as shown in

Figures 13.22(a) and 13.22(b), I4 flowing from
Figure 13.20 the positive terminal of E2
From Fig. 13.22(c),
1 Removing source E2 gives the circuit of E2 3
I4 D D D 0.656 A
Fig. 13.21(a) 2 C 2.571 4.571
2 The current directions are labelled as shown in From Fig. 13.22(b),
Fig. 13.21(a), I1 flowing from the positive termi-
nal of E1 18 18
I5 D I4 D 0.656 D 0.562 A
From Fig 13.21(b), 3 C 18 21
TLFeBOOK

3 3 2 Use the superposition theorem to find the cur-
I6 D I4 D 0.656 D 0.094 A
3 C 18 21 rent in the 8 resistor of Fig. 13.25
[0.385 A]
5 Superimposing Fig. 13.22(a) on to Fig. 13.21(a)
gives the circuit in Fig. 13.23
Figure 13.25
3 Use the superposition theorem to find the cur-

rent in each branch of the network shown in
Figure 13.23 Fig. 13.26
[10 V battery discharges at 1.429 A
6 (a) Resultant current in the 18 resistor 4 V battery charges at 0.857 A
Current through 10 resistor is 0.572 A]
D I3 I6
D 0.167 0.094 D 0.073 A
P.d. across the 18 resistor
D 0.073 ð 18 D 1.314 V
(b) Resultant current in the 8 V battery
D I1 C I5 D 1.667 C 0.562
Figure 13.26
D 2.229 A (discharging)
(c) Resultant current in the 3 V battery 4 Use the superposition theorem to determine
the current in each branch of the arrangement
D I2 C I4 D 1.500 C 0.656 shown in Fig. 13.27
D 2.156 A (discharging) [24 V battery charges at 1.664 A
52 V battery discharges at 3.280 A
Current in 20 resistor is 1.616 A]

superposition theorem
1 Use the superposition theorem to find currents
I1 , I2 and I3 of Fig. 13.24
[I1 D 2 A, I2 D 3 A, I3 D 5 A]
Figure 13.27
13.4 General d.c. circuit theory

The following points involving d.c. circuit analy-
sis need to be appreciated before proceeding with
Figure 13.24 problems using Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems:
TLFeBOOK
(i) The open-circuit voltage, E, across terminals (iv) The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB
AB in Fig. 13.28 is equal to 10 V, since no in Fig. 13.31(a) is obtained by reducing the
current flows through the 2 resistor and circuit in stages as shown in Figures 13.31(b)
hence no voltage drop occurs. to (d). Hence the equivalent resistance across
AB is 7 .
Figure 13.28
(ii) The open-circuit voltage, E, across terminals

AB in Fig. 13.29(a) is the same as the voltage
across the 6 resistor. The circuit may be
redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.29(b)

6 Figure 13.31
ED 50
6C4
by voltage division in a series circuit, i.e. (v) For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.32(a), the
E D 30 V 3 resistor carries no current and the p.d.
across the 20 resistor is 10 V. Redrawing
the circuit gives Fig. 13.32(b), from which

4
ED ð 10 D 4 V
4C6
(vi) If the 10 V battery in Fig. 13.32(a) is removed
and replaced by a short-circuit, as shown in
Fig. 13.32(c), then the 20 resistor may be
removed. The reason for this is that a short-
circuit has zero resistance, and 20 in parallel
Figure 13.29 with zero ohms gives an equivalent resistance
of 20 ð 0/20 C 0 i.e. 0 . The circuit
(iii) For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.30(a)
representing a practical source supplying
energy, V D E Ir, where E is the battery
e.m.f., V is the battery terminal voltage and
r is the internal resistance of the battery (as
shown in Section 4.6). For the circuit shown
in Fig. 13.30(b),
V D E Ir, i.e. V D E C Ir
TLFeBOOK
is then as shown in Fig. 13.32(d), which is (ix) In the worked problems in Sections 13.5
redrawn in Fig. 13.32(e). From Fig. 13.32(e), and 13.7 following, it may be considered
the equivalent resistance across AB, that Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems have
6ð4 no obvious advantages compared with, say,
rD C 3 D 2.4 C 3 D 5.4 Z Kirchhoff’s laws. However, these theorems
6C4 can be used to analyse part of a circuit
(vii) To find the voltage across AB in Fig. 13.33: and in much more complicated networks the
Since the 20 V supply is across the 5 and principle of replacing the supply by a constant
15 resistors in series then, by voltage divi- voltage source in series with a resistance (or
sion, the voltage drop across AC, impedance) is very useful.

5
VAC D 20 D 5 V
5 C 15
13.5 Thévenin’s theorem
Thévenin’s theorem states:
The current in any branch of a network is that which

would result if an e.m.f. equal to the p.d. across
a break made in the branch, were introduced into
the branch, all other e.m.f.’s being removed and
Figure 13.33 represented by the internal resistances of the sources.
The procedure adopted when using Thévenin’s
Similarly, theorem is summarized below. To determine the
current in any branch of an active network (i.e. one
12
VCB D 20 D 16 V. containing a source of e.m.f.):
12 C 3
VC is at a potential of C20 V. (i) remove the resistance R from that branch,
VA D VC VAC D C20 5 D 15 V
(ii) determine the open-circuit voltage, E, across
and VB D VC VBC D C20 16 D 4 V. the break,
Hence the voltage between AB is VA VB D
15 4 D 11 V and current would flow from (iii) remove each source of e.m.f. and replace them
A to B since A has a higher potential than B. by their internal resistances and then determine
the resistance, r, ‘looking-in’ at the break,
(viii) In Fig. 13.34(a), to find the equivalent
resistance across AB the circuit may be (iv) determine the value of the current from the
redrawn as in Figs. 13.34(b) and (c). From equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13.35, i.e.
Fig. 13.26(c), the equivalent resistance across
E
5 ð 15 12 ð 3 I =
AB D C R+r
5 C 15 12 C 3
D 3.75 C 2.4 D 6.15 Z
TLFeBOOK
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. gives the circuit

Problem 7. Use Thévenin’s theorem to find of Fig. 13.37(b) Resistance,
the current flowing in the 10 resistor for
the circuit shown in Fig 13.36 R 1 R2 2ð8
r D R3 C D5C
R1 C R2 2C8
D 5 C 1.6 D 6.6
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in

Fig. 13.37(c)
E 8 8
Current I D D D
Figure 13.36 RCr 10 C 6.6 16.6
D 0.482 A
Following the above procedure: Hence the current flowing in the 10 resistor
of Fig. 13.36 is 0.482 A.
(i) The 10 resistance is removed from the circuit
as shown in Fig. 13.37(a)
Problem 8. For the network shown in
Fig. 13.38 determine the current in the 0.8
R3 = 5 Ω resistor using Thévenin’s theorem.
10 V A
I1
R1= 2 Ω R2 = 8 Ω
B
(a)
R3 = 5 Ω
A Figure 13.38
r
R1= 2 Ω R2 = 8 Ω
Following the procedure:
B
(b)
(i) The 0.8 resistor is removed from the circuit
I as shown in Fig. 13.39(a).
A
E=8V
R = 10 Ω 5Ω
r = 6.6 Ω 5Ω A
A
B r
12 V
(c) 4Ω E 1Ω 4Ω
1Ω I1
Figure 13.37 B
B
(a) (b)
(ii) There is no current flowing in the 5 resistor I
and current I1 is given by A A
1Ω+5 Ω
10 10 = 6Ω 4 Ω r E =4.8 V
I1 D D D 1A R = 0.8 Ω
r =2.4 Ω
R1 C R2 2C8
B B
P.d. across R2 D I1 R2 D 1 ð 8 D 8 V. Hence (c) (d)
p.d. across AB, i.e. the open-circuit voltage
across the break, E D 8 V Figure 13.39
TLFeBOOK
12 12 A
(ii) Current I1 D D D 1.2 A
1C5C4 10 E1=4 V
E2=2 V E
P.d. across 4 resistor D 4I1 D 41.2 D I1
4.8 V. Hence p.d. across AB, i.e. the open- r1 =2 Ω r2 =1 Ω
circuit voltage across AB, E D 4.8 V B
(a)
shown in Fig. 13.39(b). The equivalent circuit A
of Fig. 13.39(b) is shown in Fig. 13.39(c), from
which, resistance r
r1 =2 Ω r2 =1 Ω
4ð6 24
rD D D 2.4
4C6 10 B
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in (b)
Fig. 13.39(d), from which, current
I
E 4.8 4.8 E =2 23 V A
ID D D
rCR 2.4 C 0.8 3.2
R =4 Ω
D 1.5 A D current in the 0.8 Z resistor r = 32 Ω
B
Problem 9. Use Thévenin’s theorem to (c)
determine the current I flowing in the 4
resistor shown in Fig. 13.40. Find also the Figure 13.41
power dissipated in the 4 resistor.
I
Fig. 13.41(c), from which, current,
E1 = 4 V E2 =2 V R = 4Ω E 2 23 8/3 8
ID D 2
D D
r1 = 2 Ω r2 =1Ω rCR 3
C4 14/3 14
D 0.571 A
Figure 13.40 D current in the 4 Z resistor
Following the procedure: Power dissipated in the 4 resistor,

P D I2 R D 0.5712 4 D 1.304 W
(i) The 4 resistor is removed from the circuit as
shown in Fig. 13.41(a)
E 1 E2 42 2 Problem 10. Determine the current in the
(ii) Current I1 D D D A 5 resistance of the network shown in
r1 C r2 2C1 3 Fig. 13.42 using Thévenin’s theorem. Hence
P.d. across AB, find the currents flowing in the other two
branches.
2 2
E D E1 I1 r1 D 4 2 D 2 V
3 3
r1 = E2 =12 V
(see Section 13.4(iii)). (Alternatively, p.d. 0.5 Ω
across AB, E D E2 C I1 r2 D 2 C 23 1 D 2 23 V) R3 = 5 Ω
r2 = 2 Ω
(iii) Removing the sources of e.m.f. gives the circuit E1 = 4 V
shown in Fig. 13.41(b), from which, resistance
2ð1 2 Figure 13.42
rD D
2C1 3
TLFeBOOK
Following the procedure: 4 0.74 3.26

Hence current, IA D D D 6.52 A
0.5 0.5
(i) The 5 resistance is removed from the circuit Also from Fig. 13.43(d),
V D E2 C IB r2
A i.e. 0.74 D 12 C IB 2
E2 = 12 V A
r1 =
0.5 Ω I1 r1 = r2 =
12 C 0.74 12.74
E r Hence current IB D D D 6.37 A
0.5 Ω 2Ω 2 2
r2 = 2 Ω
E1 = 4 V
B
[Check, from Fig. 13.43(d), IA D IB C I, correct to
B 2 significant figures by Kirchhoff’s current law]
(a) (b)
IA I = 0.148 A Problem 11. Use Thévenin’s theorem to

I determine the current flowing in the 3
A
r1 = 0.5 Ω IB E2 = 12 V
E = 0.8 V resistance of the network shown in
R3 = 5 Ω V R3=5 Ω
Fig. 13.44. The voltage source has negligible
r = 0.4 Ω internal resistance.
E1 = 4 V r2 = 2 Ω
B
(c) (d)
Figure 13.43
12 C 4 16 Figure 13.44
(ii) Current I1 D D D 6.4 A
0.5 C 2 2.5
P.d. across AB, (Note the symbol for an ideal voltage source in
Fig. 13.44 which may be used as an alternative to
E D E1 I1 r1 D 4 6.40.5 D 0.8 V the battery symbol.)
(see Section 13.4(iii)). (Alternatively, E D Following the procedure
E2 C I1 r1 D 12 C 6.42 D 0.8 V)
(i) The 3 resistance is removed from the circuit
(iii) Removing the sources of e.m.f. gives the circuit as shown in Fig. 13.45(a).
shown in Fig. 13.43(b), from which resistance
(ii) The 1 23 resistance now carries no current.
0.5 ð 2 1
rD D D 0.4 P.d. across 10 resistor
0.5 C 2 2.5
10
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in D 24 D 16 V
Fig. 13.43(c), from which, current 10 C 5
E 0.8 0.8 (see Section 13.4(v)). Hence p.d. across AB,
ID D D D 0.148 A E D 16 V.
rCR 0.4 C 5 5.4
D current in the 5 Z resistor (iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. and replac-
ing it by its internal resistance means that
From Fig. 13.43(d), the 20 resistance is short-circuited as shown
in Fig. 13.45(b) since its internal resistance
voltage V D IR3 D 0.1485 D 0.74 V is zero. The 20 resistance may thus be
removed as shown in Fig. 13.45(c) (see Sec-
From Section 13.4(iii), tion 13.4 (vi)).
From Fig. 13.45(c), resistance,
V D E1 IA r1
2 10 ð 5 2 50
i.e. 0.74 D 4 IA 0.5 rD1 C D1 C D 5
3 10 C 5 3 15
TLFeBOOK
123 Ω 5Ω
A
20 Ω
E 10 Ω 24 V 24 V
B
(a)
1 32 Ω 5Ω 1 32 Ω 5Ω
A A
Figure 13.46
r r
10 Ω 20 Ω 10 Ω
B B Following the procedure:

(b) (c)
A I (i) The 32 resistor is removed from the circuit

E = 16 V
R=3Ω (ii) The p.d. between A and C,
r = 5Ω

R1 2
B VAC D E D 54
(d) R1 C R4 2 C 11
Figure 13.45 D 8.31 V
The p.d. between B and C,
Fig. 13.45(d), from which, current, R2 14
VBC D E D 54
E 16 16 R2 C R3 14 C 3
ID D D D 2A
rCR 3C5 8 D 44.47 V
D current in the 3 Z resistance
Hence the p.d. between A and B D
44.47 8.31 D 36.16 V
Problem 12. A Wheatstone Bridge network Point C is at a potential of C54 V. Between
is shown in Fig. 13.46. Calculate the current C and A is a voltage drop of 8.31 V. Hence
flowing in the 32 resistor, and its direction, the voltage at point A is 54 8.31 D 45.69 V.
using Thévenin’s theorem. Assume the Between C and B is a voltage drop of 44.47 V.
source of e.m.f. to have negligible resistance. Hence the voltage at point B is 54 44.47 D
9.53 V. Since the voltage at A is greater than
C C
R1= R2 =14 Ω
2Ω 14 Ω
2Ω
A A B
B
E=
R4= R3 = 3 Ω 11 Ω 3Ω
54 V
11 Ω
D D
(a) (b)
I
2Ω C 14 Ω 2Ω 14 Ω
r=
C 4.163 Ω
A B A B R5 =
D
32 Ω
E=
11 Ω D 3 Ω 11 Ω 3Ω
36.16 V
(c) (d) (e)
Figure 13.47
TLFeBOOK
at B, current must flow in the direction A to B.

(See Section 13.4 (vii))
(iii) Replacing the source of e.m.f. with a short-

circuit (i.e. zero internal resistance) gives the
circuit shown in Fig. 13.47(b). The circuit
Figure 13.49
is redrawn and simplified as shown in
Fig. 13.47(c) and (d), from which the resistance
between terminals A and B, 3 Repeat problems 1 to 4 of Exercise 66, page
2 ð 11 14 ð 3 164, using Thévenin’s theorem.
rD C
2 C 11 14 C 3 4 In the network shown in Fig. 13.50, the battery
has negligible internal resistance. Find, using
22 42 Thévenin’s theorem, the current flowing in the
D C 4 resistor. [0.918 A]
13 17
D 1.692 C 2.471
D 4.163 Z

Fig. 13.47(e), from which, current
Figure 13.50
E
ID
r C R5
5 For the bridge network shown in Fig. 13.51,
36.16 find the current in the 5 resistor, and its
D D 1A
4.163 C 32 direction, by using Thévenin’s theorem.
[0.153 A from B to A]
Hence the current in the 32 Z resistor of Fig.
13.46 is 1 A, flowing from A to B

Thévenin’s theorem
Figure 13.51
1 Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current
flowing in the 14 resistor of the network
shown in Fig. 13.48. Find also the power dis-
sipated in the 14 resistor.
[0.434 A, 2.64 W] 13.6 Constant-current source
A source of electrical energy can be represented by
a source of e.m.f. in series with a resistance. In
Section 13.5, the Thévenin constant-voltage source
consisted of a constant e.m.f. E in series with an
Figure 13.48 internal resistance r. However this is not the only
form of representation. A source of electrical energy
can also be represented by a constant-current source
2 Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current in parallel with a resistance. It may be shown that
flowing in the 6 resistor shown in Fig. 13.49 the two forms are equivalent. An ideal constant-
and the power dissipated in the 4 resistor. voltage generator is one with zero internal resis-
[2.162 A, 42.07 W] tance so that it supplies the same voltage to all
TLFeBOOK
loads. An ideal constant-current generator is one

with infinite internal resistance so that it supplies the Problem 13. Use Norton’s theorem to
same current to all loads. determine the current flowing in the 10
Note the symbol for an ideal current source (BS resistance for the circuit shown in Fig. 13.53
3939, 1985), shown in Fig. 13.52
13.7 Norton’s theorem

Norton’s theorem states:
The current that flows in any branch of a network
is the same as that which would flow in the branch
if it were connected across a source of electrical
energy, the short-circuit current of which is equal to Figure 13.53
the current that would flow in a short-circuit across
the branch, and the internal resistance of which is
Following the above procedure:
equal to the resistance which appears across the
open-circuited branch terminals.
The procedure adopted when using Norton’s the- (i) The branch containing the 10 resistance is
orem is summarized below. To determine the current short-circuited as shown in Fig. 13.54(a)
flowing in a resistance R of a branch AB of an active
network: A
(i) short-circuit branch AB 10 V 10 V

I SC
(ii) determine the short-circuit current ISC flowing 8Ω I SC
in the branch
2Ω 2Ω
(iii) remove all sources of e.m.f. and replace them
by their internal resistance (or, if a current B
(a) (b)
source exists, replace with an open-circuit),
then determine the resistance r, ‘looking-in’ at l A
a break made between A and B I SC = 5A
5Ω
(iv) determine the current I flowing in resistance R
from the Norton equivalent network shown in r = 1.6 Ω
Fig. 13.52, i.e.
10 Ω
r
I = ISC B
r +R
(c)
Figure 13.54
(ii) Fig. 13.54(b) is equivalent to Fig. 13.54(a).

10
Hence ISC D D 5A
2
(iii) If the 10 V source of e.m.f. is removed from
Fig. 13.54(a) the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a
break made between A and B is given by:
2ð8
Figure 13.52 rD D 1.6
2C8
TLFeBOOK

(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in 2
3
Fig. 13.54(c) the current in the 10 resistance, ID 2
4 D 0.571 A,
by current division, is given by: 3 C4

1.6 as obtained previously in problems 2, 5 and
ID 5 D 0.482 A 9 using Kirchhoff’s laws and the theorems of
1.6 C 5 C 10
superposition and Thévenin
as obtained previously in Problem 7 using
Thévenin’s theorem.
Problem 15. Determine the current in the
Problem 14. Use Norton’s theorem to 5 resistance of the network shown in
determine the current I flowing in the 4 Fig. 13.57 using Norton’s theorem. Hence
resistance shown in Fig. 13.55 find the currents flowing in the other two
branches.
Figure 13.55
Figure 13.57
(i) The 4 branch is short-circuited as shown in
Fig. 13.56(a)
(i) The 5 branch is short-circuited as shown in
Fig. 13.58(a)
I1 I
A A
I2
4V I1 I
2V ISC = 4 A A
A
I SC r = 2/3 Ω 4Ω I2
12 V I SC = 2 A r = 0.4 Ω
2Ω 1Ω 0.5 Ω
I SC 5Ω
B B
(a) (b) 4V 2Ω
B B
Figure 13.56
(a) (b)
(ii) From Fig. 13.56(a), Figure 13.58

4 2
ISC D I1 C I2 D 2 C 1 D 4A
(ii) From Fig. 13.58(a),
(iii) If the sources of e.m.f. are removed the resis-
tance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A 4 12
ISC D I1 I2 D D 8 6 D 2A
and B is given by: 0.5 2
2ð1 2 (iii) If each source of e.m.f. is removed the resis-
rD D tance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A
2C1 3
and B is given by:
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.56(b) the current in the 4 resistance 0.5 ð 2
is given by: rD D 0.4
0.5 C 2
TLFeBOOK
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in 24

Fig. 13.58(b) the current in the 5 resistance ISC D D 4.8 A
5
is given by:
(iii) If the 24 V source of e.m.f. is removed the
0.4
ID 2 D 0.148 A, resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between
0.4 C 5 A and B is obtained from Fig. 13.60(c) and its
as obtained previously in problem 10 using equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13.60(d) and is
Thévenin’s theorem. given by:
10 ð 5 50 1
The currents flowing in the other two branches are rD D D3
obtained in the same way as in Problem 10. Hence 10 C 5 15 3
the current flowing from the 4 V source is 6.52 A and
the current flowing from the 12 V source is 6.37 A. (iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.60(e) the current in the 3 resistance
is given by:
Problem 16. Use Norton’s theorem to
determine the current flowing in the 3
3 13
resistance of the network shown in ID 4.8 D 2 A,
Fig. 13.59. The voltage source has negligible 3 13 C 1 23 C 3
internal resistance.
as obtained previously in Problem 11 using
Thévenin’s theorem.
Problem 17. Determine the current flowing

in the 2 resistance in the network shown in
Fig. 13.61
Figure 13.59
(i) The branch containing the 3 resistance is

short-circuited as shown in Fig. 13.60(a)
(ii) From the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13.60 Figure 13.61
(b),
5Ω 5Ω 5Ω
A A A
I SC 10 Ω 20 Ω 24 V I SC 24 V 20 Ω 24 V r 10 Ω 20 Ω
B B B
(a) (b) (c)
5Ω I A
A
ISC = 4.8 A 2
13 Ω
r=
r 10 Ω 3 13 Ω
3Ω
B B
(d) (e)
Figure 13.60
TLFeBOOK
Following the procedure: 3 Determine the current flowing in the 6 resis-

tance of the network shown in Fig. 13.63 by
(i) The 2 resistance branch is short-circuited as using Norton’s theorem. [2.5 mA]
shown in Fig. 13.62(a)
(ii) Fig. 13.62(b) is equivalent to Fig. 13.62(a).
Hence
6
ISC D 15 D 9 A by current division.
6C4
4Ω A 8Ω 4Ω
A
15 A 15 A
Figure 13.63
6Ω 7Ω 6Ω I SC
B
B
(a) (b)
4Ω A 8Ω I
A
I SC = 9 A
13.8 Thévenin and Norton equivalent
6Ω 7Ω 2Ω
networks
r=6Ω
B B The Thévenin and Norton networks shown in
(c) (d) Fig. 13.64 are equivalent to each other. The
Figure 13.62 resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is the same
in each of the networks, i.e. r
(iii) If the 15 A current source is replaced by an
open-circuit then from Fig. 13.62(c) the resis-
tance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A
and B is given by 6 C 4 in parallel with
8 C 7 , i.e.
1015 150
rD D D 6
10 C 15 25
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.62(d) the current in the 2 resistance Figure 13.64
is given by:

6 If terminals AB in Fig. 13.64(a) are short-
I D 9 D 6.75 A circuited, the short-circuit current is given by E/r.
6C2
If terminals AB in Fig. 13.64(b) are short-circuited,
the short-circuit current is ISC . For the circuit shown
Now try the following exercise in Fig. 13.64(a) to be equivalent to the circuit in
Fig. 13.64(b) the same short-circuit current must
flow. Thus ISC D E/r.
Figure 13.65 shows a source of e.m.f. E in series
with a resistance r feeding a load resistance R
Exercise 68 Further problems on Norton’s From Fig. 13.65,
theorem

1 Repeat Problems 1–4 of Exercise 66, page E E/r r E
ID D D
164, by using Norton’s theorem rCR r C R/r rCR r

2 Repeat Problems 1, 2, 4 and 5 of Exercise 67, r
page 171, by using Norton’s theorem i.e. ID ISC
rCR
TLFeBOOK
The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is

2 . Hence the equivalent Norton network is as
shown in Fig. 13.68
Figure 13.65
From Fig. 13.66 it can be seen that, when viewed

from the load, the source appears as a source of cur- Figure 13.68
rent ISC which is divided between r and R connected
in parallel.
Problem 19. Convert the network shown in
Fig. 13.69 to an equivalent Thévenin circuit.
Figure 13.66
Figure 13.69
Thus the two representations shown in Fig. 13.64
are equivalent. The open-circuit voltage E across terminals AB in
Fig. 13.69 is given by:
Problem 18. Convert the circuit shown in
Fig. 13.67 to an equivalent Norton network. E D ISC r D 43 D 12 V.
The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is

3 . Hence the equivalent Thévenin circuit is as
shown in Fig. 13.70
Figure 13.67
If terminals AB in Fig. 13.67 are short-circuited, the

short-circuit current ISC D 10/2 D 5 A Figure 13.70
TLFeBOOK
I flowing is given by
Problem 20. (a) Convert the circuit to the
left of terminals AB in Fig. 13.71 to an 19.2
I D D 6.4 A
equivalent Thévenin circuit by initially 1.2 C 1.8
converting to a Norton equivalent circuit.
(b) Determine the current flowing in the
1.8 resistor. Problem 21. Determine by successive
conversions between Thévenin and Norton
A
equivalent networks a Thévenin equivalent
circuit for terminals AB of Fig. 13.73. Hence
determine the current flowing in the 200
E1 = E2 = 24 V
12 V
resistance.
r1 = 3 Ω 1.8 Ω
r2 = 2 Ω
Figure 13.71
(a) For the branch containing the 12 V source, con- Figure 13.73
verting to a Norton equivalent circuit gives
ISC D 12/3 D 4 A and r1 D 3 . For the branch
containing the 24 V source, converting to a Nor- For the branch containing the 10 V source,
ton equivalent circuit gives ISC2 D 24/2 D 12 A converting to a Norton equivalent network gives
and r2 D 2 . Thus Fig. 13.72(a) shows a net- ISC D 10/2000 D 5 mA and r1 D 2 k
work equivalent to Fig. 13.71 For the branch containing the 6 V source,
converting to a Norton equivalent network gives
A ISC D 6/3000 D 2 mA and r2 D 3 k
ISC1 = ISC2 = Thus the network of Fig. 13.73 converts to
4A 12 A
r2 = 2 Ω
Fig. 13.74(a). Combining the 5 mA and 2 mA
r1 = current sources gives the equivalent network of
3Ω
B
Fig. 13.74(b) where the short-circuit current for the
(a) original two branches considered is 7 mA and the
resistance is 2 ð 3/2 C 3 D 1.2 k
A A Both of the Norton equivalent networks shown in
16 A Fig. 13.74(b) may be converted to Thévenin equiv-
19.2 V
1.2 Ω alent circuits. The open-circuit voltage across CD
1.2 Ω
B B
(b) (c)
Figure 13.72
From Fig. 13.72(a) the total short-circuit current

is 4 C 12 D 16 A and the total resistance
is given by 3 ð 2/3 C 2 D 1.2 Z. Thus
Fig. 13.72(a) simplifies to Fig. 13.72(b). The
open-circuit voltage across AB of Fig. 13.72(b),
E D 161.2 D 19.2 V, and the resistance
‘looking-in’ at AB is 1.2 . Hence the Thévenin
equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 13.72(c).
(b) When the 1.8 resistance is connected between
terminals A and B of Fig. 13.72(c) the current Figure 13.74
TLFeBOOK
is 7 ð 103 1.2 ð 103 D 8.4 V and the resis- 3 (a) Convert the network to the left of terminals
tance ‘looking-in’ at CD is 1.2 k. The open-circuit AB in Fig. 13.77 to an equivalent Thévenin
voltage across EF is 1 ð 103 600 D 0.6 V and circuit by initially converting to a Norton
the resistance ‘looking-in’ at EF is 0.6 k. Thus equivalent network.
Fig. 13.74(b) converts to Fig. 13.74(c). Combining
the two Thévenin circuits gives E D 8.4 0.6 D
7.8 V and the resistance r D 1.2C0.6 k D 1.8 kZ
Thus the Thévenin equivalent circuit for terminals
AB of Fig. 13.73 is as shown in Fig. 13.74(d)
Hence the current I flowing in a 200 resistance
connected between A and B is given by
7.8
ID
1800 C 200
Figure 13.77
7.8
D D 3.9 mA
2000 (b) Determine the current flowing in the 1.8
resistance connected between A and B in
Fig. 13.77
Now try the following exercise [(a) E D 18 V, r D 1.2 (b) 6 A]
4 Determine, by successive conversions between
Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks, a
Exercise 69 Further problems on Thévenin equivalent circuit for terminals AB
Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks of Fig. 13.78. Hence determine the current
1 Convert the circuits shown in Fig. 13.75 to flowing in a 6 resistor connected between
Norton equivalent networks. A and B. [E D 9 13 V, r D 1 , 1 13 A]
[(a) ISC D 25 A, r D 2 (b) ISC D 2 mA,
r D 5 ]
Figure 13.78
Figure 13.75
5 For the network shown in Fig. 13.79, convert
2 Convert the networks shown in Fig. 13.76 to each branch containing a voltage source to
Thévenin equivalent circuits its Norton equivalent and hence determine the
[(a) E D 20 V, r D 4 (b) E D 12 mV, current flowing in the 5 resistance. [1.22 A]
r D 3 ]
Figure 13.79
Figure 13.76
TLFeBOOK
When RL D 1.0 , current I D 6/2.5 C 1.0 D

13.9 Maximum power transfer 1.714 A and P D 1.7142 1.0 D 2.94 W.
theorem With similar calculations the following table is
produced:
The maximum power transfer theorem states:
The power transferred from a supply source to a load
RL 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
is at its maximum when the resistance of the load is
equal to the internal resistance of the source. E
ID 2.4 2.0 1.714 1.5 1.333 1.2
Hence, in Fig. 13.80, when R D r the power r C RL
transferred from the source to the load is a P D I2 RL (W) 0 2.00 2.94 3.38 3.56 3.60
maximum.
RL 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
E
ID 1.091 1.0 0.923 0.857 0.8
r C RL
P D I2 RL (W) 3.57 3.50 3.41 3.31 3.20
A graph of RL against P is shown in Fig. 13.82.

The maximum value of power is 3.60 W which
occurs when RL is 2.5 , i.e. maximum power
occurs when RL D r, which is what the maximum
Figure 13.80 power transfer theorem states.
Problem 22. The circuit diagram of

Fig. 13.81 shows dry cells of source e.m.f.
6 V, and internal resistance 2.5 . If the load
resistance RL is varied from 0 to 5 in
0.5 steps, calculate the power dissipated by
the load in each case. Plot a graph of RL
(horizontally) against power (vertically) and
determine the maximum power dissipated.
Figure 13.82
Problem 23. A d.c. source has an

open-circuit voltage of 30 V and an internal
resistance of 1.5 . State the value of load
resistance that gives maximum power
dissipation and determine the value of this
power.
Figure 13.81
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 13.83. From

When RL D 0, current I D E/r C RL D 6/2.5 D the maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum
2.4 A and power dissipated in RL , P D I2 RL i.e. power dissipation, RL D r D 1.5 Z
P D 2.42 0 D 0 W. From Fig. 13.83, current I D E/r C RL D
When RL D 0.5 , current I D E/r C RL D 30/1.5 C 1.5 D 10 A
6/2.5 C 0.5 D 2 A and P D I2 RL D 22 0.5 D Power P D I2 RL D 102 1.5 D 150 W D
2.00 W. maximum power dissipated
TLFeBOOK
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit supplying

terminals AB is shown in Fig. 13.85(c), from
which,
E
current, I D
r C RL
For maximum power, RL D r D 2.4 Z
Figure 13.83
12
Thus current, I D D 2.5 A
2.4 C 2.4
Problem 24. Find the value of the load
resistor RL shown in Fig. 13.84 that gives Power, P, dissipated in load RL , P D I2 RL D
maximum power dissipation and determine 2.52 2.4 D 15 W.
the value of this power.

maximum power transfer theorem
Figure 13.84 1 A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage of
20 V and an internal resistance of 2 . Deter-
mine the value of the load resistance that gives
Using the procedure for Thévenin’s theorem: maximum power dissipation. Find the value of
this power. [2 , 50 W]
(i) Resistance RL is removed from the circuit as
shown in Fig. 13.85(a) 2 Determine the value of the load resistance
RL shown in Fig. 13.86 that gives maximum
power dissipation and find the value of the
power. [RL D 1.6 , P D 57.6 W]
Figure 13.86
Figure 13.85
(ii) The p.d. across AB is the same as the p.d. d.c. circuit theory
across the 12 resistor. Hence 1 Name two laws and three theorems which may
be used to find unknown currents and p.d.’s in
12
ED 15 D 12 V electrical circuits
12 C 3
2 State Kirchhoff’s current law
of Fig. 13.85(b), from which, resistance, 3 State Kirchhoff’s voltage law
12 ð 3 36 4 State, in your own words, the superposition
rD D D 2.4 theorem
12 C 3 15
TLFeBOOK
5 State, in your own words, Thévenin’s theorem

6 State, in your own words, Norton’s theorem
7 State the maximum power transfer theorem for
a d.c. circuit
Figure 13.89
4 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.90, volt-

Exercise 72 Multi-choice questions on d.c. age V is:
circuit theory (Answers on page 375) (a) 12 V (b) 2 V (c) 10 V (d) 0 V
1 Which of the following statements is true:
For the junction in the network shown in
Fig. 13.87:
(a) I5 I4 D I3 I2 C I1
(b) I1 C I2 C I3 D I4 C I5
(c) I2 C I3 C I5 D I1 C I4
(d) I1 I2 I3 I4 C I5 D 0
Figure 13.90
5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.90, current

I1 is:
Figure 13.87 (a) 2 A (b) 14.4 A
(c) 0.5 A (d) 0 A
2 Which of the following statements is true? 6 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.90, current
For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.88: I2 is:
(a) E1 C E2 C E3 D Ir1 C Ir2 C I3 r3 (a) 2 A (b) 14.4 A
(b) E2 C E3 E1 Ir1 C r2 C r3 D 0 (c) 0.5 A (d) 0 A
(c) Ir1 C r2 C r3 D E1 E2 E3
7 The equivalent resistance across terminals
(d) E2 C E3 E1 D Ir1 C Ir2 C Ir3
AB of Fig. 13.91 is:
(a) 9.31 (b) 7.24
(c) 10.0 (d) 6.75
Figure 13.88
3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.89, the inter- Figure 13.91
nal resistance r is given by:
I VE
(a) (b) 8 With reference to Fig. 13.92, which of the
VE I following statements is correct?
I EV (a) VPQ D 2 V
(c) (d)
EV I (b) VPQ D 15 V
TLFeBOOK
(c) When a load is connected between P and 12 The maximum power transferred by the
Q, current would flow from Q to P source in Fig. 13.95 is:
(d) VPQ D 20 V (a) 5 W (b) 200 W
(c) 40 W (d) 50 W
R
3Ω 11 Ω I
E = 20 V
P Q
15 V
2Ω 4Ω RL
r = 2Ω
S
Figure 13.92
Figure 13.95
9 In Fig. 13.92, if the 15 V battery is replaced

13 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.96, voltage
by a short-circuit, the equivalent resistance
V is:
across terminals PQ is:
(a) 0 V (b) 20 V
(a) 20 (b) 4.20
(c) 4 V (d) 16 V
(c) 4.13 (d) 4.29
10 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.93, max-
imum power transfer from the source is I1 I2
required. For this to be so, which of the fol-
lowing statements is true?
(a) R2 D 10 (b) R2 D 30
(c) R2 D 7.5 (d) R2 D 15 20 V
4Ω V
Source
1Ω
r=
10 Ω
R1=30 Ω R2
Figure 13.96
E=
12 V
14 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.96, current
Figure 13.93 I1 is:
(a) 25 A (b) 4 A
(c) 0 A (d) 20 A
11 The open-circuit voltage E across terminals
XY of Fig. 13.94 is: 15 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.96, current
(a) 0 V (b) 20 V (c) 4 V (d) 16 V I2 is:
(a) 25 A (b) 4 A
(c) 0 A (d) 20 A
16 The current flowing in the branches of a d.c.
circuit may be determined using:
(a) Kirchhoff’s laws
(b) Lenz’s law
(c) Faraday’s laws
Figure 13.94 (d) Fleming’s left-hand rule
TLFeBOOK
14
Alternating voltages and currents
ž appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.

ž describe the principle of operation of an a.c. generator
ž distinguish between unidirectional and alternating waveforms
ž define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a waveform
ž perform calculations involving T D 1/f
ž define instantaneous, peak, mean and r.m.s. values, and form and peak factors for a
sine wave
ž calculate mean and r.m.s. values and form and peak factors for given waveforms
ž understand and perform calculations on the general sinusoidal equation
v D Vm sinωt š
ž understand lagging and leading angles
ž combine two sinusoidal waveforms (a) by plotting graphically, (b) by drawing
phasors to scale and (c) by calculation
14.1 Introduction
Electricity is produced by generators at power sta-
tions and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system)
to industry and for domestic use. It is easier and
cheaper to generate alternating current (a.c.) than
direct current (d.c.) and a.c. is more conveniently
distributed than d.c. since its voltage can be readily
altered using transformers. Whenever d.c. is needed
in preference to a.c., devices called rectifiers are Figure 14.1
used for conversion (see Section 14.7).
An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s
laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses its
14.2 The a.c. generator direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is
shown in Fig. 14.2 In positions (a), (e) and (i) the
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant conductors of the loop are effectively moving along
angular velocity symmetrically between the poles the magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f.
of a magnet system as shown in Fig. 14.1 is induced. In position (c) maximum flux is cut and
TLFeBOOK
Figure 14.3
measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of

Figure 14.2 the electricity supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz
hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g), 1 1

T = or f =
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is f T
again induced. However, using Fleming’s right-hand
rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction
to that in position (c) and is thus shown as E. In
positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and Problem 1. Determine the periodic time for
hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such positions frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
of the coil are considered, in one revolution of the
coil, one cycle of alternating e.m.f. is produced as
1 1
shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c. (a) Periodic time T D D D 0.02 s or 20 ms
generator (i.e. the alternator). f 50
1 1
(b) Periodic time T D D
f 20 000
14.3 Waveforms D 0.00005 s or 50 ms
If values of quantities which vary with time t are

plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is called Problem 2. Determine the frequencies for
a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in periodic times of (a) 4 ms (b) 4 µs.
Fig. 14.3. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional
waveforms, for, although they vary considerably
with time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they 1 1
do not cross the time axis and become negative). (a) Frequency f D D
T 4 ð 103
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating wave-
forms since their quantities are continually changing 1000
D D 250 Hz
in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative). 4
A waveform of the type shown in Fig. 14.3(g) is 1 1 1 000 000
called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform (b) Frequency f D D 6
D
T 4 ð 10 4
of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the
mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form. D 250 000 Hz
One complete series of values is called a cycle or 250 kHz or 0.25 MHz
(i.e. from O to P in Fig. 14.3(g)).
The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is called the period or the Problem 3. An alternating current
periodic time, T, of the waveform. completes 5 cycles in 8 ms. What is its
The number of cycles completed in one second frequency?
is called the frequency, f, of the supply and is
TLFeBOOK
ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 185
Time for 1 cycle D 8/5 ms D 1.6 ms D periodic

time T. For a sine wave:
1 1 1000 average value = 0.637 × maximum value
Frequency f D D D
T 1.6 ð 103 1.6
.i.e. 2=p × maximum value/
10 000
D D 625 Hz
16
The effective value of an alternating current is
Now try the following exercise that current which will produce the same heating
effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective
value is called the root mean square (r.m.s.) value
Exercise 73 Further problems on and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it
frequency and periodic time is assumed to be the rms value. For example, the
1 Determine the periodic time for the following domestic mains supply in Great Britain is 240 V and
frequencies: is assumed to mean ‘240 V rms’. The symbols used
(a) 2.5 Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 40 kHz for r.m.s. values are I, V, E, etc. For a non-sinusoidal
[(a) 0.4 s (b) 10 ms (c) 25 µs] waveform as shown in Fig. 14.4 the r.m.s. value is
given by:
2 Calculate the frequency for the following peri-
odic times:
(a) 5 ms (b) 50 µs (c) 0.2 s i21 C i22 C . . . C i2n
[(a) 200 Hz (b) 20 kHz (c) 5 Hz] ID
n
3 An alternating current completes 4 cycles in
5 ms. What is its frequency? [800 Hz] where n is the number of intervals used.
14.4 A.c. values

Instantaneous values are the values of the alternat-
ing quantities at any instant of time. They are repre-
sented by small letters, i, v, e, etc., (see Fig. 14.3(f)
and (g)).
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called
the peak value or the maximum value or the
crest value or the amplitude of the waveform.
Such values are represented by Vm , Im , Em , etc. Figure 14.4
(see Fig. 14.3(f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value of
e.m.f. is shown in Fig. 14.3(g) and is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values in a For a sine wave:
cycle.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical rms value = 0.707 × maximum value
alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the p
average value measured over a half cycle, (since .i.e. 1= 2 × maximum value/
over a complete cycle the average value is zero).
area under the curve
Average or
D
mean value length of base
r.m.s. value
Form factor =
The area under the curve is found by approxi- average value
mate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-
ordinate rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are
represented by VAV , IAV , EAV , etc. For a sine wave, form factor D 1.11
TLFeBOOK
1 volt second
maximum value D
Peak factor = 10 ð 103 second
r.m.s. value
1000
D D 100 V
For a sine wave, peak factor D 1.41. 10
The values of form and peak factors give an (iii) In Fig. 14.5(a), the first 1/4 cycle is divided
indication of the shape of waveforms. into 4 intervals. Thus

v21 C v22 C v23 C v24
Problem 4. For the periodic waveforms rms value D
4
shown in Fig. 14.5 determine for each:
(i) frequency (ii) average value over half a 252 C752 C1252 C1752
cycle (iii) r.m.s. value (iv) form factor and D
(v) peak factor. 4
D 114.6 V
(Note that the greater the number of inter-
vals chosen, the greater the accuracy of the
result. For example, if twice the number of
ordinates as that chosen above are used, the
r.m.s. value is found to be 115.6 V)
r.m.s. value
(iv) Form factor D
average value
114.6
D D 1.15
100
maximum value
(v) Peak factor D
r.m.s. value
200
D D 1.75
114.6
(b) Rectangular waveform (Fig. 14.5(b)).
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle D 16 ms D
periodic time, T. Hence
Figure 14.5
1 1 1000
frequency, f D D 3
D
(a) Triangular waveform (Fig. 14.5(a)). T 16 ð 10 16
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle D 20 ms D D 62.5 Hz
periodic time, T. Hence
area under curve
1 1 Average value over
frequency f D D (ii) D
T 20 ð 103 half a cycle length of base
1000 10 ð 8 ð 103
D D 50 Hz D
20 8 ð 103
(ii) Area under the triangular waveform for a D 10 A
half-cycle D 12 ð base ð height
i21 C i22 C i23 C i24
D 12 ð 10 ð 103 ð 200 D 1 volt second (iii) The r.m.s. value D
4
area under curve
Average value D 10 A, however many intervals are chosen,
D
of waveform length of base since the waveform is rectangular.
TLFeBOOK
r.m.s. value 10
(iv) Form factor D D D1
average value 10
maximum value 10
(v) Peak factor D D D1
r.m.s. value 10
Problem 5. The following table gives the

corresponding values of current and time for
a half cycle of alternating current.
time t (ms) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

current i (A) 0 7 14 23 40
time t (ms) 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

current i (A) 56 68 76 60 5 0
Assuming the negative half cycle is identical

in shape to the positive half cycle, plot the
waveform and find (a) the frequency of the
supply, (b) the instantaneous values of
current after 1.25 ms and 3.8 ms, (c) the peak
or maximum value, (d) the mean or average
value, and (e) the r.m.s. value of the Figure 14.6
waveform.
0.5 ð 103 351
Hence mean or
The half cycle of alternating current is shown plotted D
average value 5 ð 103
in Fig. 14.6
D 35.1 A
(a) Time for a half cycle D 5 ms; hence the time for

1 cycle, i.e. the periodic time, 32 C 102 C 192 C 302
C 492 C632 C732 C722
T D 10 ms or 0.01 s
C 302 C 22
1 1 (e) R.m.s value D
Frequency, f D D D 100 Hz 10
T 0.01
(b) Instantaneous value of current after 1.25 ms is 19157
D D 43.8 A
19 A, from Fig. 14.6. Instantaneous value of 10
current after 3.8 ms is 70 A, from Fig. 14.6
(c) Peak or maximum value D 76 A Problem 6. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a
area under curve sinusoidal current of maximum value 20 A.
(d) Mean or average value D
length of base
Using the mid-ordinate rule with 10 intervals, For a sine wave,
each of width 0.5 ms gives:
r.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value
area under 3
D 0.5 ð 10 [3 C 10 C 19 C 30 D 0.707 ð 20 D 14.14 A
curve
C 49 C 63 C 73 C 72 C 30 C 2]
(see Fig. 14.6) Problem 7. Determine the peak and mean
values for a 240 V mains supply.
D 0.5 ð 103 351
TLFeBOOK
For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage 2 For the waveforms shown in Fig. 14.7 deter-
V D 0.707 ð Vm . mine for each (i) the frequency (ii) the average
A 240 V mains supply means that 240 V is the r.m.s. value over half a cycle (iii) the r.m.s. value
value, hence (iv) the form factor (v) the peak factor.
[(a) (i) 100 Hz (ii) 2.50 A (iii) 2.88 A
V 240 (iv) 1.15 (v) 1.74
Vm D D D 339.5 V
0.707 0.707 (b) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 20 V (iii) 20 V
D peak value (iv) 1.0 (v) 1.0
(c) (i) 125 Hz (ii) 18 A (iii) 19.56 A
Mean value (iv) 1.09 (v) 1.23
(d) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 25 V (iii) 50 V
VAV D 0.637 Vm D 0.637 ð 339.5 D 216.3 V (iv) 2.0 (v) 2.0]
Problem 8. A supply voltage has a mean

value of 150 V. Determine its maximum
value and its r.m.s. value.
For a sine wave, mean value D 0.637 ð maximum

value. Hence
mean value 150
maximum value D D
0.637 0.637
D 235.5 V
R.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value

D 0.707 ð 235.5 D 166.5 V
Figure 14.7
3 An alternating voltage is triangular in shape,

Exercise 74 Further problems on a.c. rising at a constant rate to a maximum of
values of waveforms 300 V in 8 ms and then falling to zero at a
1 An alternating current varies with time over constant rate in 4 ms. The negative half cycle
half a cycle as follows: is identical in shape to the positive half cycle.
Calculate (a) the mean voltage over half a
cycle, and (b) the r.m.s. voltage
Current (A) 0 0.7 2.0 4.2 8.4 [(a) 150 V (b) 170 V]
time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 4 An alternating e.m.f. varies with time over half
a cycle as follows:
Current (A) 8.2 2.5 1.0 0.4 0.2 0
time (ms) 5 6 7 8 9 10
E.m.f. (V) 0 45 80 155
time (ms) 0 1.5 3.0 4.5
The negative half cycle is similar. Plot the
curve and determine: E.m.f. (V) 215 320 210 95
(a) the frequency (b) the instantaneous values time (ms) 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5
at 3.4 ms and 5.8 ms (c) its mean value and
E.m.f. (V) 0
(d) its r.m.s. value
time (ms) 12.0
[(a) 50 Hz (b) 5.5 A, 3.4 A (c) 2.8 A (d) 4.0 A]
TLFeBOOK
The negative half cycle is identical in shape If all such vertical components are projected on to
to the positive half cycle. Plot the waveform a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine
and determine (a) the periodic time and fre- curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity
quency (b) the instantaneous value of voltage which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as
at 3.75 ms (c) the times when the voltage is a phasor.
125 V (d) the mean value, and (e) the r.m.s. A sine curve may not always start at 0° . To
value show this a periodic function is represented by
[(a) 24 ms, 41.67 Hz (b) 115 V y D sinωt š , where is the phase (or angle) dif-
(c) 4 ms and 10.1 ms (d) 142 V ference compared with y D sin ωt. In Fig. 14.9(a),
(e) 171 V] y2 D sinωt C starts radians earlier than
5 Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve y1 D sin ωt and is thus said to lead y1 by radians.
of maximum value 300 V [212.1 V] Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in Fig. 14.9(b) at the
time when t D 0.
6 Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V
mains supply [282.9 V, 180.2 V]
7 Plot a sine wave of peak value 10.0 A. Show
that the average value of the waveform is
6.37 A over half a cycle, and that the r.m.s.
value is 7.07 A
8 A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
120 V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values.
[84.8 V, 76.4 V]
9 A sinusoidal current has a mean value of
15.0 A. Determine its maximum and r.m.s.
values. [23.55 A, 16.65 A]
Figure 14.9
In Fig. 14.9(c), y4 D sinωt starts radians

14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal later than y3 D sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by
waveform radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Fig. 14.9(d)
at the time when t D 0.
Given the general sinusoidal voltage,
In Fig. 14.8, 0A represents a vector that is free to v = V m sin.wt ± f/, then
rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity
of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor. (i) Amplitude or maximum value D Vm
After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned (ii) Peak to peak value D 2 Vm
through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed (iii) Angular velocity D ω rad/s
perpendicular to 0A as shown, then (iv) Periodic time, T D 2/ω seconds
(v) Frequency, f D ω/2 Hz (since ω D 2f)
BC (vi) D angle of lag or lead (compared with
sin ωt D i.e. BC D 0B sin ωt v D Vm sin ωt)
0B
Problem 9. An alternating voltage is given

by v D 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find (a) the
r.m.s. voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the
instantaneous value of voltage when
t D 4 ms.
(a) The general expression for an alternating voltage

Figure 14.8 is v D Vm sinωt š . Comparing
TLFeBOOK
v D 282.8 sin 314 t with this general expression 180°

gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V. Hence the 0.25 rads D 0.25 ð D 14.32°

r.m.s. voltage D 0.707 ð maximum value
Hence phase angle D 14.32° lagging
D 0.707 ð 282.8 D 200 V
(b) Angular velocity, ω D 314 rad/s, i.e. 2f D Problem 11. An alternating voltage, v, has
314. Hence frequency, a periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak value of
314 40 V. When time t is zero, v D 20 V.
fD D 50 Hz Express the instantaneous voltage in the form
2 v D Vm sinωt š .
(c) When t D 4 ms,
Amplitude, Vm D 40 V.
v D 282.8 sin314 ð 4 ð 103 2
Periodic time T D hence angular velocity,
D 282.8 sin1.256 D 268.9 V ω
2 2
ωD D D 200 rad/s.
180° T 0.01
Note that 1.256 radians D 1.256 ð v D Vm sinωt C thus becomes

D 71.96° v D 40 sin200t C volts.
Hence v D 282.8 sin 71.96° D 268.9 V, as When time t D 0, v D 20 V
above. i.e. 20 D 40 sin
so that sin D 20/40 D 0.5
Problem 10. An alternating voltage is given Hence D sin1 0.5 D 30°
by v D 75 sin200t 0.25 volts. Find

(a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, D 30 ð rads D rads
(c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time, 180 6

(e) the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in p
degrees and minutes) relative to 75 sin 200t. Thus v = 40 sin 200pt − V
6
Comparing v D 75 sin200t 0.25 with the gen- Problem 12. The current in an a.c. circuit at
eral expression v D Vm sinωt š gives: any time t seconds is given by:
i D 120 sin100t C 0.36 amperes. Find:
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the
(a) Amplitude, or peak value D 75 V frequency and phase angle relative to
(b) Peak-to-peak value D 2 ð 75 D 150 V 120 sin 100t (b) the value of the current
when t D 0 (c) the value of the current when
(c) The r.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value t D 8 ms (d) the time when the current first
reaches 60 A, and (e) the time when the
D 0.707 ð 75 D 53 V current is first a maximum.
(d) Angular velocity, ω D 200 rad/s. Hence peri- (a) Peak value D 120 A
odic time,
2
Periodic time T D
2 2 1 ω
TD D D D 0.01 s or 10 ms
ω 200 100 2
D since ω D 100
1 1 100
(e) Frequency, f D D D 100 Hz
T 0.01 1
D D 0.02 s or 20 ms
50
(f) Phase angle, D 0.25 radians lagging
1 1
75 sin 200t Frequency, f D D D 50 Hz
T 0.02
TLFeBOOK
Phase angle D 0.36 rads (in degrees) of the following alternating quan-
tities:
180°
D 0.36 ð D 20.63° leading (a) v D 90 sin 400t volts
[90 V, 63.63 V, 5 ms, 200 Hz, 0° ]
(b) When t D 0, (b) i D 50 sin100t C 0.30 amperes
[50 A, 35.35 A, 0.02 s, 50 Hz, 17.19° lead]
i D 120 sin0 C 0.36 (c) e D 200 sin628.4 t 0.41 volts
[200 V, 141.4 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 23.49°
D 120 sin 20.63° D 42.3 A lag]
(c) When t D 8 ms, 3 A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30 A
and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t D 0,
8 the current is zero. Express the instantaneous
i D 120 sin 100 C 0.36
103 current i in the form i D Im sin ωt
[i D 30 sin 120t]
D 120 sin 2.8733D 120 sin 164.63°
D 31.8 A 4 An alternating voltage v has a periodic time
of 20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V.
(d) When i D 60 A, 60 D 120 sin100t C 0.36 When time t D 0, v D 75 volts. Deduce
thus 60/120 D sin100t C 0.36 so that a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one
100t C 0.36 D sin1 0.5 D 30° cycle of the voltage showing important points.
D /6 rads D 0.5236 rads. Hence time, [v D 200 sin100t 0.384 ]
0.5236 0.36 5 The voltage in an alternating current circuit at

tD D 0.521 ms any time t seconds is given by v D 60 sin 40t
100 volts. Find the first time when the voltage is
(e) When the current is a maximum, i D 120 A. (a) 20 V (b) 30 V
[(a) 8.496 ms (b) 91.63 ms]
Thus 120 D 120 sin100t C 0.36
6 The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c.
1 D sin100t C 0.36 circuit at any time t seconds is given by
100t C 0.36 D sin1 1 D 90° v D 100 sin50t 0.523 V. Find:
(a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the periodic
D /2 rads time, the frequency and the phase angle
(b) the voltage when t D 0
D 1.5708 rads.
(c) the voltage when t D 8 ms
1.5708 0.36 (d) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
Hence time, tD D 3.85 ms
100 is 60 V
(e) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
is 40 V
Now try the following exercise (f) the first time when the voltage is a maxi-
mum.
Sketch the curve for one cycle showing
relevant points. [(a) 200 V, 0.04 s, 25 Hz,
29.97° lagging (b) 49.95 V (c) 66.96 V
v = Vm sin.wt ± f/
(d) 7.426 ms, 19.23 ms (e) 25.95 ms, 40.71 ms
1 An alternating voltage is represented by v D (f) 13.33 ms]
20 sin 157.1 t volts. Find (a) the maximum
value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time.
(d) What is the angular velocity of the phasor
representing this waveform?
[(a) 20 V (b) 25 Hz 14.6 Combination of waveforms
(c) 0.04 s (d) 157.1 rads/s]
2 Find the peak value, the r.m.s. value, the peri- The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two
odic time, the frequency and the phase angle sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:
TLFeBOOK
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically The resultant waveform leads the curve i1 D
(see worked Problems 13 and 16), or 20 sin ωt by 19° i.e. 19 ð /180 rads D 0.332 rads
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calcula- i1 C i2 is given by:
tion (see worked Problems 14 and 15)
iR = i1 + i2 = 26.5 sin.wt + 0.332/ A
Problem 13. The instantaneous values of
two alternating currents are given by Problem 14. Two alternating voltages are
i1 D 20 sin ωt amperes and represented by v1 D 50 sin ωt volts and
i2 D 10 sinωt C /3 amperes. By plotting v2 D 100 sinωt /6 V. Draw the phasor
i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same diagram and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal
scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at expression to represent v1 C v2 .
intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for
i 1 C i2 .
Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time
t D 0. Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units
i1 D 20 sin ωt and i2 D 10 sinωt C /3 are shown long and v2 is drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by
plotted in Fig. 14.10. Ordinates of i1 and i2 are /6 rads, i.e. 30° . This is shown in Fig. 14.11(a)
added at, say, 15° intervals (a pair of dividers are where 0 is the point of rotation of the phasors.
useful for this). For example,
at 30° , i1 C i2 D 10 C 10 D 20 A
at 60° , i1 C i2 D 17.3 C 8.7 D 26 A
at 150° , i1 C i2 D 10 C 5 D 5 A, and so on.
Figure 14.11
Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent

v1 C v2 :
(i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. oa of

Fig. 14.11(b)
(ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle,
i.e. ab of Fig. 14.11(b)
(iii) The resultant vR D v1 C v2 is given by the
length ob and its phase angle may be measured
with respect to v1
Figure 14.10
Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the
The resultant waveform for i1 C i2 is shown by the resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram,
broken line in Fig. 14.10. It has the same period, as shown in Fig. 14.11(c).
and hence frequency, as i1 and i2 . The amplitude or From the drawing, by measurement, vR D 145 V
peak value is 26.5 A and angle D 20° lagging v1 .
TLFeBOOK
A more accurate solution is obtained by calcu- from which iR D 26.46 A

lation, using the cosine and sine rules. Using the
cosine rule on triangle 0ab of Fig. 14.11(b) gives: By the sine rule:
v2R D v21 C v22 2v1 v2 cos 150° 10 26.46

D
sin sin 120°
D 502 C 1002 250 100 cos 150°
D 2500 C 10000 8660 from which D 19.10° i.e. 0.333 rads
p
vR D 21160 D 145.5 V Hence, by calculation,
iR = 26.46 sin.wt + 0.333/ A

Using the sine rule,
100 145.5 Problem 16. Two alternating voltages are

D
sin sin 150° given by v1 D 120 sin ωt volts and
v2 D 200 sinωt /4 volts. Obtain
100 sin 150° sinusoidal expressions for v1 v2 (a) by
from which sin D
145.5 plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of
D 0.3436 phasors.
and D sin1 0.3436 D 20.096° D 0.35 radians, (a) v1 D 120 sin ωt and v2 D 200 sinωt /4 are
and lags v1 . Hence
shown plotted in Fig. 14.13 Care must be taken
when subtracting values of ordinates especially
vR D v1 C v2 D 145.5 sin.wt − 0.35/ V when at least one of the ordinates is negative.
For example
Problem 15. Find a sinusoidal expression at 30° , v1 v2 D 60 52 D 112 V

for i1 C i2 of Problem 13, (b) by drawing at 60° , v1 v2 D 104 52 D 52 V
phasors, (b) by calculation. at 150° , v1 v2 D 60 193 D 133 V and
so on.
(a) The relative positions of i1 and i2 at time t D 0

are shown as phasors in Fig. 14.12(a). The pha-
sor diagram in Fig. 14.12(b) shows the resultant
iR , and iR is measured as 26 A and angle as
19° or 0.33 rads leading i1 .
Hence, by drawing, iR = 26 sin.wt + 0.33/ A
Figure 14.12
(b) From Fig. 14.12(b), by the cosine rule:
i2R D 202 C 102 220 10 cos 120° Figure 14.13
TLFeBOOK
The resultant waveform, vR D v1 v2 , is shown from which, 0 D tan1 6.6013

by the broken line in Fig. 14.13 The maximum
value of vR is 143 V and the waveform is seen D 81.39°
to lead v1 by 99° (i.e. 1.73 radians) and D 98.61° or 1.721 radians
Hence, by drawing,
Hence, by resolution of phasors,
vR = v1 − v2 = 143 sin.wt + 1.73/volts
vR = v1 − v2 = 143.0 sin.wt + 1.721/ volts
(b) The relative positions of v1 and v2 are shown at
time t D 0 as phasors in Fig. 14.14(a). Since
the resultant of v1 v2 is required, v2 is Now try the following exercise
drawn in the opposite direction to Cv2 and is
shown by the broken line in Fig. 14.14(a). The Exercise 76 Further problems on the
phasor diagram with the resultant is shown in combination of periodic functions
Fig. 14.14(b) where v2 is added phasorially
to v1 . 1 The instantaneous values of two alternating
voltages are given by v1 D 5 sin ωt and v2 D
8 sinωt /6 . By plotting v1 and v2 on the
same axes, using the same scale, over one
cycle, obtain expressions for
(a) v1 C v2 and (b) v1 v2
[(a) v1 C v2 D 12.58 sinωt 0.325 V
(b) v1 v2 D 4.44 sinωt C 2.02 V]
2 Repeat Problem 1 using resolution of phasors
3 Construct a phasor diagram to represent i1 C i2
where i1 D 12 sin ωt and
i2 D 15 sinωt C /3 . By measurement, or
by calculation, find a sinusoidal expression to
represent i1 C i2
[23.43 sinωt C 0.588 ]
Determine, either by plotting graphs and
adding ordinates at intervals, or by calculation,
the following periodic functions in the form
v D Vm sinωt š
4 10 sin ωt C 4 sinωt C /4
Figure 14.14 [13.14 sinωt C 0.217 ]
5 80 sinωt C /3 C 50 sinωt /6
By resolution: [94.34 sinωt C 0.489 ]
Sum of horizontal components of v1 and v2 D 6 100 sin ωt 70 sinωt /3
120 cos 0° 200 cos 45° D 21.42 [88.88 sinωt C 0.751 ]
Sum of vertical components of v1 and v2 D
120 sin 0° C 200 sin 45° D 141.4
From Fig. 14.14(c), resultant 14.7 Rectification

vR D 21.42 2 C 141.4 2 The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and
D 143.0 voltages from alternating currents and voltages is
141.4 called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits
and tan 0 D is carried out by devices called diodes. Half and full-
21.42 wave rectifiers are explained in Chapter 11, Sec-
D tan 6.6013 tion 11.7, page 132
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercises (a) a maximum value

(b) a peak value
(c) an instantaneous value
Exercise 77 Short answer questions on (d) an r.m.s. value
alternating voltages and currents
2 An alternating current completes 100 cycles
1 Briefly explain the principle of operation of in 0.1 s. Its frequency is:
the simple alternator (a) 20 Hz (b) 100 Hz
2 What is meant by (a) waveform (b) cycle (c) 0.002 Hz (d) 1 kHz
3 What is the difference between an alternating 3 In Fig. 14.15, at the instant shown, the gen-
and a unidirectional waveform? erated e.m.f. will be:
(a) zero
4 The time to complete one cycle of a wave- (b) an r.m.s. value
form is called the . . . . . . (c) an average value
(d) a maximum value
5 What is frequency? Name its unit
6 The mains supply voltage has a special shape
of waveform called a . . . . . .
7 Define peak value
8 What is meant by the r.m.s. value?
9 The domestic mains electricity voltage in
Great Britain is . . . . . .
10 What is the mean value of a sinusoidal alter-
nating e.m.f. which has a maximum value of Figure 14.15
100 V?
11 The effective value of a sinusoidal waveform 4 The supply of electrical energy for a con-
is . . . . . . ð maximum value sumer is usually by a.c. because:
12 What is a phasor quantity? (a) transmission and distribution are more
easily effected
13 Complete the statement: (b) it is most suitable for variable speed
Form factor D . . . . . . ł . . . . . ., and for a sine motors
wave, form factor D . . . . . . (c) the volt drop in cables is minimal
14 Complete the statement: (d) cable power losses are negligible
Peak factor D . . . . . . ł . . . . . ., and for a sine 5 Which of the following statements is false?
wave, peak factor D . . . . . . (a) It is cheaper to use a.c. than d.c.
15 A sinusoidal current is given by i D (b) Distribution of a.c. is more convenient
Im sinωt š ˛ . What do the symbols Im , ω than with d.c. since voltages may be
and ˛ represent? readily altered using transformers
(c) An alternator is an a.c. generator
16 How is switching obtained when converting (d) A rectifier changes d.c. to a.c.
a.c. to d.c.?
6 An alternating voltage of maximum value
100 V is applied to a lamp. Which of the
following direct voltages, if applied to the
lamp, would cause the lamp to light with the
Exercise 78 Multi-choice questions on same brilliance?
alternating voltages and currents (Answers (a) 100 V (b) 63.7 V
on page 375) (c) 70.7 V (d) 141.4 V
1 The value of an alternating current at any 7 The value normally stated when referring to
given instant is: alternating currents and voltages is the:
TLFeBOOK
(a) instantaneous value 10 An alternating voltage is given by v D

(b) r.m.s. value 100 sin50t 0.30 V.
(c) average value Which of the following statements is true?
(d) peak value (a) The r.m.s. voltage is 100 V
(b) The periodic time is 20 ms
8 State which of the following is false. For a (c) The frequency is 25 Hz
sine wave: (d) The voltage is leading v D 100 sin 50t
(a) the peak factor is 1.414 by 0.30 radians
(b) the r.m.s. value is 0.707 ð peak value
(c) the average value is 0.637 ð r.m.s. value 11 The number of complete cycles of an alter-
(d) the form factor is 1.11 nating current occurring in one second is
known as:
9 An a.c. supply is 70.7 V, 50 Hz. Which of the (a) the maximum value of the alternating
following statements is false? current
(a) The periodic time is 20 ms (b) the frequency of the alternating current
(b) The peak value of the voltage is 70.7 V (c) the peak value of the alternating current
(c) The r.m.s. value of the voltage is 70.7 V (d) the r.m.s. or effective value
(d) The peak value of the voltage is 100 V
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 4
This assignment covers the material contained in chapters 13 and 14.
1 Find the current flowing in the 5 resis- Find also the current flowing in each of the other
tor of the circuit shown in Fig. A4.1 using two branches of the circuit. (27)
(a) Kirchhoff’s laws, (b) the Superposition the- 2 A d.c. voltage source has an internal resistance
orem, (c) Thévenin’s theorem, (d) Norton’s of 2 and an open circuit voltage of 24 V. State
theorem. the value of load resistance that gives maximum
Demonstrate that the same answer results from power dissipation and determine the value of this
each method. power. (5)
3 A sinusoidal voltage has a mean value of 3.0 A.
Determine it’s maximum and r.m.s. values. (4)
4 The instantaneous value of current in an a.c.
circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i D
50 sin100t 0.45 mA. Determine
(a) the peak to peak current, the periodic time, the
frequency and the phase angle (in degrees)
(b) the current when t D 0
(c) the current when t D 8 ms
(d) the first time when the voltage is a maximum.
Sketch the current for one cycle showing relevant
Figure A4.1 points. (14)
TLFeBOOK
15
Single-phase series a.c. circuits
ž draw phasor diagrams and current and voltage waveforms for (a) purely resistive
(b) purely inductive and (c) purely capacitive a.c. circuits
ž perform calculations involving XL D 2fL and XC D 1/2fC
ž draw circuit diagrams, phasor diagrams and voltage and impedance triangles
for R–L, R–C and R –L –C series a.c. circuits and perform calculations using
Pythagoras’ theorem, trigonometric ratios and Z D V/I
ž understand resonance
ž derive the formula for resonant frequency and use it in calculations
ž understand Q-factor and perform calculations using

VL or VC ωr L 1 1 L
or or or
V R ωr CR R C
ž understand bandwidth and half-power points
ž perform calculations involving f2 f1 D fr /Q
ž understand selectivity and typical values of Q-factor
ž appreciate that power P in an a.c. circuit is given by P D VI cos or I2R R and
perform calculations using these formulae
ž understand true, apparent and reactive power and power factor and perform calcu-
lations involving these quantities
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the

15.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit flow of alternating current is called the inductive
reactance, XL
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and
applied voltage VR are in phase. See Fig. 15.1
VL
XL = = 2pfL Z
IL
15.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is
the applied voltage VL by 90° (i.e. /2 rads). See the inductance, in henry’s. XL is proportional to f
Fig. 15.2 as shown in Fig. 15.3
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS 199
(a) Inductive reactance,

XL D 2fL
D 25040 ð 103 D 12.57 Z
V 240
Current, I D D D 19.09 A
XL 12.57
(b) Inductive reactance,
Figure 15.1 XL D 2100040 ð 103 D 251.3 Z
V 100
Current, I D D D 0.398 A
XL 251.3
15.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit
In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC

Figure 15.2 leads the applied voltage VC by 90° (i.e. /2 rads).
See Fig. 15.4
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the

Problem 1. (a) Calculate the reactance of a flow of alternating current is called the capacitive
coil of inductance 0.32 H when it is reactance, XC
connected to a 50 Hz supply. (b) A coil has a
reactance of 124 in a circuit with a supply
of frequency 5 kHz. Determine the VC 1
XC = = Z
inductance of the coil. IC 2pfC
(a) Inductive reactance, where C is the capacitance in farads.

XL D 2fL D 2500.32 D 100.5 Z XC varies with frequency f as shown in Fig. 15.5
(b) Since XL D 2fL, inductance
XL 124
LD D H D 3.95 mH
2f 25000
Problem 2. A coil has an inductance of

40 mH and negligible resistance. Calculate its
inductive reactance and the resulting current
if connected to (a) a 240 V, 50 Hz supply,
and (b) a 100 V, 1 kHz supply.
Figure 15.5
TLFeBOOK
Problem 3. Determine the capacitive V

Current ID
reactance of a capacitor of 10 µF when XC
connected to a circuit of frequency (a) 50 Hz V
(b) 20 kHz D
1
(a) Capacitive reactance 2fC
1 D 2fCV
XC D
2fC D 25023 ð 106 240
1
D D 1.73 A
25010 ð 106
106
D D 318.3 Z
25010
1
(b) XC D
2fC
1 Exercise 79 Further problems on purely
D 3
inductive and capacitive a.c. circuits
220 ð 10 10 ð 106
1 Calculate the reactance of a coil of
106 inductance 0.2 H when it is connected to (a) a
D
220 ð 103 10 50 Hz, (b) a 600 Hz and (c) a 40 kHz supply.
D 0.796 Z [(a) 62.83 (b) 754 (c) 50.27 k]
Hence as the frequency is increased from 50 Hz to 2 A coil has a reactance of 120 in a circuit
20 kHz, XC decreases from 318.3 to 0.796 (see with a supply frequency of 4 kHz. Calculate
Fig. 15.5) the inductance of the coil. [4.77 mH]
3 A supply of 240 V, 50 Hz is connected across
Problem 4. A capacitor has a reactance of a pure inductance and the resulting current is
40 when operated on a 50 Hz supply. 1.2 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil.
Determine the value of its capacitance. [0.637 H]
Since 4 An e.m.f. of 200 V at a frequency of 2 kHz is
applied to a coil of pure inductance 50 mH.
1
XC D , Determine (a) the reactance of the coil, and
2fC (b) the current flowing in the coil.
capacitance [(a) 628 (b) 0.318 A]
1 5 A 120 mH inductor has a 50 mA, 1 kHz alter-

CD nating current flowing through it. Find the
2fXC p.d. across the inductor. [37.7 V]
1
D F 6 Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capac-
25040 itor of 20 µF when connected to an a.c. circuit
106 of frequency (a) 20 Hz, (b) 500 Hz, (c) 4 kHz
D µF [(a) 397.9 (b) 15.92 (c) 1.989 ]
25040
D 79.58 mF 7 A capacitor has a reactance of 80 when
connected to a 50 Hz supply. Calculate the
value of its capacitance. [39.79 µF]
Problem 5. Calculate the current taken by a
23 µF capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 8 Calculate the current taken by a 10 µF
50 Hz supply. capacitor when connected to a 200 V,
100 Hz supply. [1.257 A]
TLFeBOOK

9 A capacitor has a capacitive reactance of
400 when connected to a 100 V, 25 Hz For the R–L circuit: Z D R2 C X2L
supply. Determine its capacitance and the XL
current taken from the supply. tan D ,
[15.92 µF, 0.25 A] R
XL
10 Two similar capacitors are connected in par- sin D
allel to a 200 V, 1 kHz supply. Find the value Z
of each capacitor if the circuit current is R
0.628 A. [0.25 µF] and cos D
Z
Problem 6. In a series R–L circuit the p.d.

across the resistance R is 12 V and the p.d.
across the inductance L is 5 V. Find the
15.4 R–L series a.c. circuit supply voltage and the phase angle between
current and voltage.
In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resis-
tance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum From the voltage triangle of Fig. 15.6, supply
of VR and VL (see Fig. 15.6), and thus the current I voltage
lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying between
0° and 90° (depending on the values of VR and VL ), V D 122 C 52
shown as angle . In any a.c. series circuit the cur-
rent is common to each component and is thus taken i.e. V D 13 V
as the reference phasor. (Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not
the arithmetic sum of the p.d’s across components.
It is, in fact, the phasor sum)
VL 5
tan D D ,
VR 12
from which, circuit phase angle

Figure 15.6 5
D tan 1
D 22.62° lagging
12
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 15.6, the ‘volt-
age triangle’ is derived. (‘Lagging’ infers that the current is ‘behind’ the
For the R–L circuit: voltage, since phasors revolve anticlockwise)

V D V2R C V2L (by Pythagoras’ theorem) Problem 7. A coil has a resistance of 4
and an inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate
and (a) the reactance, (b) the impedance, and
(c) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz
VL supply. Determine also the phase angle
tan D (by trigonometric ratios) between the supply voltage and current.
VR
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to R D 4 , L D 9.55 mH D 9.55 ð 103 H,
current I is called the impedance, Z, i.e. f D 50 Hz and V D 240 V
V (a) Inductive reactance,
Z = Z
I
XL D 2fL
If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. 15.6 is D 2509.55 ð 103
divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’
is derived. D 3Z
TLFeBOOK
(b) Impedance, known voltage, and then to repeat the process with
p an a.c. supply.
Z D R2 C X2L D 42 C 32 D 5 Z
(c) Current, Problem 9. A coil of inductance 318.3 mH
and negligible resistance is connected in
V 240 series with a 200 resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz
ID D D 48 A supply. Calculate (a) the inductive reactance
Z 5
of the coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit,
The circuit and phasor diagrams and the voltage and (c) the current in the circuit, (d) the p.d.
impedance triangles are as shown in Fig. 15.6 across each component, and (e) the circuit
XL phase angle.
Since tan D ,
R
L D 318.3 mH D 0.3183 H, R D 200 ,
1XL
D tan V D 240 V and f D 50 Hz.
R The circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 15.6
3
D tan1 (a) Inductive reactance
4
°
D 36.87 lagging XL D 2fL D 2500.3183 D 100 Z
(b) Impedance
Problem 8. A coil takes a current of 2 A
from a 12 V d.c. supply. When connected to Z D R2 C X2L
a 240 V, 50 Hz supply the current is 20 A. p
D 2002 C 1002 D 223.6 Z
Calculate the resistance, impedance,
inductive reactance and inductance of (c) Current
the coil. V 240
ID D D 1.073 A
Z 223.6
Resistance (d) The p.d. across the coil,
d.c. voltage 12 VL D IXL D 1.073 ð 100 D 107.3 V
RD D D 6
d.c. current 2 The p.d. across the resistor,
Impedance VR D IR D 1.073 ð 200 D 214.6 V
p
a.c. voltage 240 [Check: V2R C V2L D 214.62 C 107.32
ZD D D 12
a.c. current 20 D 240 V, the supply voltage]
Since (e) From the impedance triangle, angle

1 XL 1 100
Z D R2 C X2L , D tan D tan
R 200
inductive reactance, Hence the phase angle f = 26.57° lagging.

XL D Z2 R2 D 122 62 D 10.39 Problem 10. A coil consists of a resistance
of 100 and an inductance of 200 mH. If an
Since XL D 2fL, inductance, alternating voltage, v, given by
v D 200 sin 500 t volts is applied across the
XL 10.39
LD D D 33.1 mH coil, calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
2f 250 (b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d. across the
resistance, (d) the p.d. across the inductance
This problem indicates a simple method for finding and (e) the phase angle between voltage and
the inductance of a coil, i.e. firstly to measure the current.
current when the coil is connected to a d.c. supply of
TLFeBOOK
Since v D 200 sin 500 t volts then Vm D 200 V and

ω D 2f D 500 rad/s
Hence r.m.s. voltage
V D 0.707 ð 200 D 141.4 V
Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL Figure 15.7
3
D ωL D 500 ð 200 ð 10 D 100
Inductive reactance
(a) Impedance
XL D 2fL
Z D R2 C X2L
p D 25 ð 103 1.273 ð 103
D 1002 C 1002 D 141.4 Z D 40
(b) Current
Impedance,
V 141.4
ID D D 1A
Z 141.4 Z D R2 C X2L D 302 C 402 D 50
(c) P.d. across the resistance
VR D IR D 1 ð 100 D 100 V Supply voltage
P.d. across the inductance V D IZ D 0.2050 D 10 V

VL D IXL D 1 ð 100 D 100 V Voltage across the 1.273 mH inductance,
(d) Phase angle between voltage and current is
given by: VL D IXL D 0.240 D 8 V
XL The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.7(b)
tan D (Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not
R
the arithmetic sum of the p.d.’s across components
from which,
but the phasor sum)
1 100
D tan ,
100
Problem 12. A coil of inductance 159.2 mH
p
hence f = 45° or rads and resistance 20 is connected in series
4 with a 60 resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Determine (a) the impedance of the
Problem 11. A pure inductance of circuit, (b) the current in the circuit, (c) the
1.273 mH is connected in series with a pure circuit phase angle, (d) the p.d. across the
resistance of 30 . If the frequency of the 60 resistor and (e) the p.d. across the coil.
sinusoidal supply is 5 kHz and the p.d. across (f) Draw the circuit phasor diagram showing
the 30 resistor is 6 V, determine the value all voltages.
of the supply voltage and the voltage across
the 1.273 mH inductance. Draw the phasor
diagram. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 15.8(a). When
impedance’s are connected in series the individual
resistance’s may be added to give the total circuit
The circuit is shown in Fig. 15.7(a) resistance. The equivalent circuit is thus shown in
Fig. 15.8(b).
Supply voltage, V D IZ Inductive reactance XL D 2fL
VR 6
Current I D D D 0.20 A D 250159.2 ð 103 D 50 .
R 30
TLFeBOOK
2 A coil of inductance 80 mH and resistance

60 is connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz sup-
ply. Calculate the circuit impedance and the
current taken from the supply. Find also the
phase angle between the current and the sup-
ply voltage.
[78.27 , 2.555 A, 39.95° lagging]
Figure 15.8
3 An alternating voltage given by
v D 100 sin 240 t volts is applied across a coil
(a) Circuit impedance, Z D R2 C X2L of resistance 32 and inductance 100 mH.
p Determine (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the
D 802 C 502 D 94.34 Z current flowing, (c) the p.d. across the resis-
V 240 tance, and (d) the p.d. across the inductance.
(b) Circuit current, I D D D 2.544 A. [(a) 40 (b) 1.77 A (c) 56.64 V (d) 42.48 V]
Z 94.34
(c) Circuit phase angle D tan1 XL /R D 4 A coil takes a current of 5 A from a 20 V
tan1 50/80 D 32° lagging d.c. supply. When connected to a 200 V,
50 Hz a.c. supply the current is 25 A. Cal-
From Fig. 15.8(a): culate the (a) resistance, (b) impedance and
(d) VR D IR D 2.54460 D 152.6 V (c) inductance of the coil.
[(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 22.05 mH]
(e) VCOIL D IZCOIL , where ZCOIL D RC2 C X2L D
p 5 A resistor and an inductor of negligible resis-
202 C502 D 53.85 . tance are connected in series to an a.c. supply.
Hence VCOIL D 2.544 53.85 D 137.0 V The p.d. across the resistor is 18 V and the
p.d. across the inductor is 24 V. Calculate the
(f) For the phasor diagram, shown in Fig. 15.9,
supply voltage and the phase angle between
VL D IXL D 2.54450 D 127.2 V.
voltage and current. [30 V, 53.13° lagging]
VRCOIL D IRC D 2.54420 D 50.88 V
6 A coil of inductance 636.6 mH and negligible
The 240 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of resistance is connected in series with a 100
VCOIL and VR as shown in the phasor diagram in resistor to a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
Fig. 15.9 (a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the
impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the
circuit, (d) the p.d. across each component,
and (e) the circuit phase angle.
[(a) 200 (b) 223.6 (c) 1.118 A
(d) 223.6 V, 111.8 V (e) 63.43° lagging]
Figure 15.9
15.5 R–C series a.c. circuit

In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and
resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor
Exercise 80 Further problems on R–L a.c. sum of VR and VC (see Fig. 15.10) and thus the
series circuits current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values
1 Determine the impedance of a coil which has of VR and VC ), shown as angle ˛.
a resistance of 12 and a reactance of 16 From the phasor diagram of Fig. 15.10, the ‘volt-
[20 ] age triangle’ is derived.
TLFeBOOK
Phase angle between the supply voltage and

current, ˛ D tan1 XC /R hence

70.74
˛ D tan1 D 70.54° leading
25
(‘Leading’ infers that the current is ‘ahead’ of the

voltage, since phasors revolve anticlockwise)
Problem 14. A capacitor C is connected in

Figure 15.10 series with a 40 resistor across a supply of
frequency 60 Hz. A current of 3 A flows and
For the R –C circuit: the circuit impedance is 50 . Calculate
(a) the value of capacitance, C, (b) the
V D V2R C V2C by Pythagoras’ theorem supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between
the supply voltage and current, (d) the p.d.
and across the resistor, and (e) the p.d. across the
VC capacitor. Draw the phasor diagram.
tan ˛ D by trigonometric ratios
VR
As stated in Section 15.4, in an a.c. circuit, the
ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the (a) Impedance Z D R2 C X2C
impedance Z, i.e. Z D V/I p p
If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. 15.10 is Hence XC D Z2 R2 D 502 402 D 30
divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ 1
is derived. XC D hence,
2fC
For the R –C circuit: Z D R2 C X2C
1 1
XC XC R CD D F D 88.42 mF
tan ˛ D , sin ˛ D and cos ˛ D 2fXC 26030
R Z Z
(b) Since Z D V/I then V D IZ D 350
Problem 13. A resistor of 25 is D 150 V
connected in series with a capacitor of 45 µF. (c) Phase angle, ˛ D tan1 XC /R D tan1 30/40
Calculate (a) the impedance, and (b) the D 36.87° leading.
current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
Find also the phase angle between the supply (d) P.d. across resistor, VR D IR D 340
voltage and the current. D 120 V
(e) P.d. across capacitor, VC D IXC D 330
R D 25 , C D 45 µF D 45 ð 106 F, D 90 V
V D 240 V and f D 50 Hz. The circuit diagram is
as shown in Fig. 15.10 The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.11, where
Capacitive reactance, the supply voltage V is the phasor sum of VR
1 and VC .
XC D
2fC
1
D D 70.74
25045 ð 106

(a) Impedance Z D R2 C X2C D 252 C 70.742
D 75.03 Z
(b) Current I D V/Z D 240/75.03 D 3.20 A Figure 15.11
TLFeBOOK
Exercise 81 Further problems on R–C

a.c. circuits
1 A voltage of 35 V is applied across a C–R
series circuit. If the voltage across the resistor
is 21 V, find the voltage across the capacitor.
[28 V]
2 A resistance of 50 is connected in series
with a capacitance of 20 µF. If a supply
of 200 V, 100 Hz is connected across the
arrangement find (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the current flowing, and (c) the phase angle Figure 15.12
between voltage and current.
[(a) 93.98 (b) 2.128 A (c) 57.86° leading] When XC > XL (Fig. 15.12(c)):
3 A 24.87 µF capacitor and a 30 resistor are
connected in series across a 150 V supply. If Z D R2 C XC XL 2
the current flowing is 3 A find (a) the fre- XC XL
quency of the supply, (b) the p.d. across the and tan ˛ D
R
resistor and (c) the p.d. across the capacitor.
[(a) 160 Hz (b) 90 V (c) 120 V] When XL D XC (Fig. 15.12(d)), the applied volt-
age V and the current I are in phase. This effect is
4 An alternating voltage v D 250 sin 800 t volts
called series resonance (see Section 15.7).
is applied across a series circuit containing a
30 resistor and 50 µF capacitor. Calculate
(a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current Problem 15. A coil of resistance 5 and
flowing, (c) the p.d. across the resistor, inductance 120 mH in series with a 100 µF
(d) the p.d. across the capacitor, and (e) the capacitor, is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz
phase angle between voltage and current supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing,
[(a) 39.05 (b) 4.527 A (c) 135.8 V (b) the phase difference between the supply
(d) 113.2 V (e) 39.81° ] voltage and current, (c) the voltage across the
5 A 400 resistor is connected in series with coil and (d) the voltage across the capacitor.
a 2358 pF capacitor across a 12 V a.c. supply.
Determine the supply frequency if the current The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 15.13
flowing in the circuit is 24 mA [225 kHz]
XL D 2fL
D 250120 ð 103 D 37.70 Z
15.6 R–L–C series a.c. circuit 1
XC D
2fC
In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R,
inductance L and capacitance C, the applied volt- 1
age V is the phasor sum of VR , VL and VC (see D D 31.83 Z
250100 ð 106
Fig. 15.12). VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced
by 180° , and there are three phasor diagrams pos- Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive.
sible – each depending on the relative values of VL
and VC . XL XC D 37.70 31.83 D 5.87
When XL > XC (Fig. 15.12(b)):
Impedance

Z D R2 C XL XC 2
Z D R2 C XL XC 2
XL XC
and tan D D 52 C 5.872 D 7.71
R
TLFeBOOK
Figure 15.13
V 300
(a) Current I D D D 38.91 A
Z 7.71
(b) Phase angle

XL XC
D tan1
R

5.87
D tan1 D 49.58°
5
(c) Impedance of coil

Figure 15.14
ZCOIL D R2 C X2L
p
D 52 C 37.72 D 38.03
Voltage across coil
VCOIL D IZCOIL
D 38.9138.03 D 1480 V
Phase angle of coil
XL
D tan1
R
1 37.7
D tan D 82.45° lagging
5
(d) Voltage across capacitor
VC D IXC D 38.9131.83 D 1239 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.14. The sup- Figure 15.15
ply voltage V is the phasor sum of VCOIL and VC .
Series connected impedances Problem 16. The following three

impedances are connected in series across a
For series-connected impedances the total circuit 40 V, 20 kHz supply: (i) a resistance of 8 ,
impedance can be represented as a single L –C–R (ii) a coil of inductance 130 µH and 5
circuit by combining all values of resistance resistance, and (iii) a 10 resistor in series
together, all values of inductance together and all with a 0.25 µF capacitor. Calculate (a) the
values of capacitance together, (remembering that circuit current, (b) the circuit phase angle and
for series connected capacitors (c) the voltage drop across each impedance.

1 1 1
D C C ...
C C1 C2
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 15.16(a). Since
For example, the circuit of Fig. 15.15(a) show- the total circuit resistance is 8 C 5 C 10, i.e. 23 , an
ing three impedances has an equivalent circuit of equivalent circuit diagram may be drawn as shown
Fig. 15.15(b). in Fig. 15.16(b).
TLFeBOOK
Problem 17. Determine the p.d.’s V1 and

V2 for the circuit shown in Fig. 15.17 if the
frequency of the supply is 5 kHz. Draw the
phasor diagram and hence determine the
supply voltage V and the circuit phase angle.
Figure 15.16
XL D 2fL Figure 15.17
D 220 ð 103 130 ð 106 D 16.34 For impedance Z1 : R1 D 4 and
Capacitive reactance, XL D 2fL

D 25 ð 103 0.286 ð 103
1 1
XC D D 3 D 8.985
2fC 220 ð 10 0.25 ð 106
D 31.83 V1 D IZ1 D I R2 C X2L

Since XC > XL , the circuit is capacitive (see phasor D 5 42 C 8.9852 D 49.18 V
diagram in Fig. 15.12(c)).
XL 8.985
Phase angle 1 D tan1 D tan1
XC XL D 31.83 16.34 D 15.49 R 4
D 66.0° lagging
(a) Circuit
p impedance, Z D R2 C XC XL 2 D
For impedance Z2 : R2 D 8 and
232 C 15.492 D 27.73
Circuit current, I D V/Z D 40/27.73 D 1.442 A 1 1
XC D D
2fC 25 ð 103 1.273 ð 106
From Fig. 15.12(c), circuit phase angle
D 25.0
1 XC XL
D tan
R V2 D IZ2 D I R2 C X2C D 5 82 C 25.02
i.e. D 131.2 V.

15.49 XC
D arctan1 D 33.96° leading Phase angle 2 D tan1
23 R

(b) From Fig. 15.16(a), 1 25.0
D tan
V1 D IR1 D 1.4428 D 11.54 V 8
p D 72.26° leading
V2 D IZ2 D I 52 C 16.342
D 1.44217.09 D 24.64 V The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.18
p The phasor sum of V1 and V2 gives the
V3 D IZ3 D I 102 C 31.832 supply voltage V of 100 V at a phase angle of
D 1.44233.36 D 48.11 V 53.13° leading. These values may be determined by
drawing or by calculation – either by resolving into
The 40 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of V1 , horizontal and vertical components or by the cosine
V2 and V3 and sine rules.
TLFeBOOK
Figure 15.19
15.7 Series resonance

Figure 15.18
As stated in Section 15.6, for an R–L–C series
circuit, when XL = XC (Fig. 15.12(d)), the applied
voltage V and the current I are in phase. This effect
Now try the following exercise is called series resonance. At resonance:
(i) VL = VC
Exercise 82 Further problems on R–L–C (ii) Z D R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance
a.c. circuits
possible in an L–C–R circuit)
1 A 40 µF capacitor in series with a coil of (iii) I D V/R (i.e. the maximum current possible in
resistance 8 and inductance 80 mH is con- an L–C–R circuit)
nected to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flow- (iv) Since XL D XC , then 2fr L D 1/2fr C from
ing, (c) the phase angle between voltage and which,
current, (d) the voltage across the coil, and 1
(e) the voltage across the capacitor. f2r D
22 LC
[(a) 13.18 (b) 15.17 A (c) 52.63°
(d) 772.1 V (e) 603.6 V] and
2 Three impedances are connected in series 1
across a 100 V, 2 kHz supply. The impedances fr = Hz
comprise: 2p LC
(i) an inductance of 0.45 mH and 2 resis-
tance, where fr is the resonant frequency.
(ii) an inductance of 570 µH and 5 resis- (v) The series resonant circuit is often described as
tance, and an acceptor circuit since it has its minimum
(iii) a capacitor of capacitance 10 µF and impedance, and thus maximum current, at the
resistance 3 resonant frequency.
Assuming no mutual inductive effects between
the two inductances calculate (a) the circuit (vi) Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z
impedance, (b) the circuit current, (c) the cir- against frequency are shown in Fig. 15.20
cuit phase angle and (d) the voltage across
each impedance. Draw the phasor diagram.
[(a) 11.12 (b) 8.99 A (c) 25.92° lagging
(d) 53.92 V, 78.53 V, 76.46 V]
3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.19 determine
the voltages V1 and V2 if the supply frequency
is 1 kHz. Draw the phasor diagram and hence
determine the supply voltage V and the circuit
phase angle.
[V1 D 26.0 V, V2 D 67.05 V,
V D 50 V, 53.13° leading] Figure 15.20
TLFeBOOK
1
Problem 18. A coil having a resistance of D F
10 and an inductance of 125 mH is 2 ð 200 ð 103 2 50 ð 106
connected in series with a 60 µF capacitor 106 106
across a 120 V supply. At what frequency D µF
42 1010 50
does resonance occur? Find the current
flowing at the resonant frequency. D 0.0127 mF or 12.7 nF
Resonant frequency,
1
15.8 Q-factor
fr D Hz
2 LC At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and
1 XC , it is possible for VL and VC to have voltages
D many times greater than the supply voltage (see
125 60 Fig. 15.12(d), page 206)
2
103 106
1
D Voltage magnification at resonance
125 ð 6
2 voltage across L (or C /
108 =
supply voltage V
1
D p
1256
2 This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit
104
(as a resonator or tuning device) and is called the
104 Q-factor. Hence
D p D 58.12 Hz
2 1256
VL IXL
Q-factor D D
At resonance, XL D XC and impedance Z D R. V IR
Hence current, I D V/R D 120/10 D 12 A
XL 2pfr L
D D
R R
Problem 19. The current at resonance in a
series L –C–R circuit is 100 µA. If the Alternatively,
applied voltage is 2 mV at a frequency of
200 kHz, and the circuit inductance is 50 µH, VC IXC
find (a) the circuit resistance, and (b) the Q-factor D D
V IR
circuit capacitance.
XC 1
D D
R 2pfr CR
(a) I D 100 µA D 100 ð 106 A and V D 2 mV D
2 ð 103 V. At resonance, impedance Z D At resonance
resistance R. Hence
1
V 2 ð 103 2 ð 106 fr D
RD D D D 20 Z 2 LC
I 100 ð 106 100 ð 103
(b) At resonance XL D XC i.e. 1
i.e. 2fr D
1 LC
2fL D
2fC
Hence
Hence capacitance

1 2fr L 1 L 1 L
CD Q-factor D D D
2f2 L R LC R R C
TLFeBOOK
At resonance,
Problem 20. A coil of inductance 80 mH

and negligible resistance is connected in 1 L 1 60 ð 103
series with a capacitance of 0.25 µF and a Q-factor D D
resistor of resistance 12.5 across a 100 V, R C 2 30 ð 106
variable frequency supply. Determine (a) the
resonant frequency, and (b) the current at 1 60 ð 106
D
resonance. How many times greater than the 2 30 ð 103
supply voltage is the voltage across the
reactance’s at resonance? 1p
D 2000 D 22.36
2
(a) Resonant frequency

Problem 22. A coil of negligible resistance
1 and inductance 100 mH is connected in series
fr D
80 0.25 with a capacitance of 2 µF and a resistance of
2 10 across a 50 V, variable frequency
103 106 supply. Determine (a) the resonant frequency,
(b) the current at resonance, (c) the voltages
1 104 across the coil and the capacitor at
D D p
80.25 2 2 resonance, and (d) the Q-factor of the circuit.
2
108
D 1125.4 Hz or 1.1254 kHz (a) Resonant frequency,
(b) Current at resonance I D V/R D 100/12.5 D 8 A 1 1
fr D D

Voltage across inductance, at resonance, 2 LC 100 2
2
103 106
VL D IXL D I2fL
1 1
D 821125.480 ð 103 D D p
20 2 20
D 4525.5 V 2 104
108
(Also, voltage across capacitor, 104
D p D 355.9 Hz
2 20
I
VC D IXC D (b) Current at resonance I D V/R D 50/10 D 5 A
2fC
(c) Voltage across coil at resonance,
8
D VL D IXL D I2fr L
21125.40.25 ð 106
D 4525.5 V D 52 ð 355.9 ð 100 ð 103 D 1118 V
Voltage across capacitance at resonance,
Voltage magnification at resonance D VL /V or I
VC /V D 4525.5/100 D 45.255 i.e. at resonance, VC D IXC D
the voltage across the reactance’s are 45.255 times 2fr C
greater than the supply voltage. Hence the Q-factor 5
of the circuit is 45.255 D D 1118 V
2355.92 ð 106
(d) Q-factor (i.e. voltage magnification at resonance)
Problem 21. A series circuit comprises a VL VC
coil of resistance 2 and inductance 60 mH, D or
and a 30 µF capacitor. Determine the V V
Q-factor of the circuit at resonance. 1118
D D 22.36
50
TLFeBOOK
Q-factor may also have been determined by

15.9 Bandwidth and selectivity
2fr L 1 1 L
or or Fig. 15.21 shows how current I varies with fre-
R 2fr CR R C
quency in an R –L –C series circuit. At the resonant
frequency fr , current is a maximum value, shown as
Now try the following exercise Ir . Also shown are the points A and B where the cur-
rent is 0.707 of the maximum value at frequencies
f1 and f2 . The power delivered to the circuit is I2 R.
At I D 0.707 Ir , the power is 0.707 Ir 2 R D 0.5 I2r R,
Exercise 83 Further problems on series i.e. half the power that occurs at frequency fr .
resonance and Q-factor The points corresponding to f1 and f2 are called
the half-power points. The distance between these
1 Find the resonant frequency of a series a.c. cir- points, i.e. f2 f1 , is called the bandwidth.
cuit consisting of a coil of resistance 10 and
inductance 50 mH and capacitance 0.05 µF.
Find also the current flowing at resonance if
the supply voltage is 100 V.
[3.183 kHz, 10 A]
2 The current at resonance in a series L –C–R
circuit is 0.2 mA. If the applied voltage is
250 mV at a frequency of 100 kHz and the
circuit capacitance is 0.04 µF, find the circuit
resistance and inductance.
[1.25 k, 63.3 µH]
3 A coil of resistance 25 and inductance
100 mH is connected in series with a capac- Figure 15.21
itance of 0.12 µF across a 200 V, variable
frequency supply. Calculate (a) the resonant
It may be shown that
frequency, (b) the current at resonance and
(c) the factor by which the voltage across the
reactance is greater than the supply voltage. fr
[(a) 1.453 kHz (b) 8 A (c) 36.52] Q=
.f 2 − f 1 /
4 A coil of 0.5 H inductance and 8 resistance
is connected in series with a capacitor across fr
a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. If the current is in or .f 2 − f 1 / =
phase with the supply voltage, determine the Q
capacitance of the capacitor and the p.d. across
its terminals. [20.26 µF, 3.928 kV]
Problem 23. A filter in the form of a series
5 Calculate the inductance which must be con- L –R–C circuit is designed to operate at a
nected in series with a 1000 pF capacitor to resonant frequency of 5 kHz. Included within
give a resonant frequency of 400 kHz. the filter is a 20 mH inductance and 10
[0.158 mH] resistance. Determine the bandwidth of the
filter.
6 A series circuit comprises a coil of resis-
tance 20 and inductance 2 mH and a 500 pF
capacitor. Determine the Q-factor of the cir- Q-factor at resonance is given by:
cuit at resonance. If the supply voltage is
1.5 V, what is the voltage across the capacitor? ωr L 2 ð 500020 ð 103
[100, 150 V] Qr D D
R 10
D 62.83
TLFeBOOK
Since Qr D fr /f2 f1 , bandwidth,

fr 5000
f2 f1 D D D 79.6 Hz
Q 62.83
Selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond more

readily to signals of a particular frequency to which
it is tuned than to signals of other frequencies. The Figure 15.23
response becomes progressively weaker as the fre-
quency departs from the resonant frequency. The
higher the Q-factor, the narrower the bandwidth and and hence average power, depends on the value of
the more selective is the circuit. Circuits having angle .
high Q-factors (say, in the order of 100 to 300) For an R–L, R –C or R–L –C series a.c. circuit,
are therefore useful in communications engineering. the average power P is given by:
A high Q-factor in a series power circuit has dis-
advantages in that it can lead to dangerously high P = VI cos f watts
voltages across the insulation and may result in elec-
trical breakdown.
or P = I 2 R watts
15.10 Power in a.c. circuits (V and I being r.m.s. values)

In Figures 15.22(a)–(c), the value of power at any
instant is given by the product of the voltage and Problem 24. An instantaneous current,
current at that instant, i.e. the instantaneous power, i D 250 sin ωt mA flows through a pure
p D vi, as shown by the broken lines. resistance of 5 k. Find the power dissipated
in the resistor.
(a) For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the
average power dissipated, P, is given by:
P = VI = I 2 R = V 2 =R watts (V and I being Power dissipated, P D I2 R where I is the r.m.s.
rms values) See Fig. 15.22(a) value of current. If i D 250 sin ωt mA, then Im D
(b) For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average 0.250 A and r.m.s. current, I D 0.707 ð 0.250 A.
power is zero. See Fig. 15.22(b) Hence power P D 0.707 ð 0.2502 5000 D
156.2 watts.
(c) For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average
power is zero. See Fig. 15.22(c)
Problem 25. A series circuit of resistance
Figure 15.23 shows current and voltage wave- 60 and inductance 75 mH is connected to a
forms for an R –L circuit where the current lags the 110 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate the power
voltage by angle . The waveform for power (where dissipated.
p D vi) is shown by the broken line, and its shape,
Figure 15.22
TLFeBOOK
Inductive reactance, XL D 2fL R

3 i.e. p.f. = cos f = (from Fig. 15.6)
D 26075 ð 10 Z
D 28.27

Impedance, Z D R2 C X2L

D 602 C 28.272
D 66.33
Current, I D V/Z D 110/66.33 D 1.658 A.
To calculate power dissipation in an a.c. circuit
two formulae may be used:
Figure 15.24
(i) P D I2 R D 1.6582 60 D 165 W
or The relationships stated above are also true when
R 60 current I leads voltage V.
(ii) P D VI cos where cos D D
Z 66.33
D 0.9046.
Problem 26. A pure inductance is
connected to a 150 V, 50 Hz supply, and the
Hence P D 1101.6580.9046 D 165 W apparent power of the circuit is 300 VA. Find
the value of the inductance.
15.11 Power triangle and power factor
Figure 15.24(a) shows a phasor diagram in which Apparent power S D VI. Hence current I D S/V D
the current I lags the applied voltage V by angle . 300/150 D 2 A. Inductive reactance XL D V/I D
The horizontal component of V is V cos and the 150/2 D 75 . Since XL D 2fL,
vertical component of V is V sin . If each of the
voltage phasors is multiplied by I, Fig. 15.24(b) is XL 75
inductance L D D D 0.239 H
obtained and is known as the ‘power triangle’. 2f 250
Apparent power, Problem 27. A transformer has a rated

output of 200 kVA at a power factor of 0.8.
S = VI voltamperes (VA) Determine the rated power output and the
True or active power, corresponding reactive power.
P = VI cos f watts (W)

Reactive power, VI D 200 kVA D 200 ð 103 and p.f. D 0.8 D cos .
Power output, P D VI cos D 200 ð 103 0.8 D
Q = VI sin f reactive 160 kW.
voltamperes (var) Reactive power, Q D VI sin . If cos D 0.8,
then D cos1 0.8 D 36.87° . Hence sin D
True power P sin 36.87° D 0.6. Hence reactive power, Q D
Power factor =
Apparent power S 200 ð 103 0.6 D 120 kvar.
For sinusoidal voltages and currents, Problem 28. A load takes 90 kW at a power
factor of 0.5 lagging. Calculate the apparent
P VI cos power and the reactive power.
power factor D D
S VI
TLFeBOOK
True power P D 90 kW D VI cos and (c) Power P D I2 R hence resistance,

power factor D 0.5 D cos .
P 100
P 90 RD 2
D 2 D 25 Z
Apparent power, S D VI D D D 180 kVA I 2
cos 0.5
V 100
(d) Impedance Z D D D 50 Z
Angle D cos1 0.5 D 60° hence sin D sin 60° D I 2
0.866. p
Hence reactive power, Q D VI sin D 180 ð (e) Capacitive
p reactance, XC D Z2 R2 D
103 ð 0.866 D 156 kvar. 2 2
50 25 D 43.30 . XC D 1/2fC. Hence
Problem 29. The power taken by an 1 1

capacitance, C D D F
inductive circuit when connected to a 120 V, 2fXC 26043.30
50 Hz supply is 400 W and the current is 8 A. D 61.26 mF
Calculate (a) the resistance, (b) the
impedance, (c) the reactance, (d) the power
factor, and (e) the phase angle between Now try the following exercises
voltage and current.
Exercise 84 Further problems on power in
P 400 a.c. circuits
(a) Power P D I2 R hence R D 2
D 2 D 6.25 Z.
I 8
1 A voltage v D 200 sin ωt volts is applied
V 120 across a pure resistance of 1.5 k. Find the
(b) Impedance Z D D D 15 Z.
I 8 power dissipated in the resistor. [13.33 W]
p
(c) Since Z D R2 C X2L , then XL D Z2 R2 D 2 A 50 µF capacitor is connected to a 100 V,
p 200 Hz supply. Determine the true power and
152 6.252 D 13.64 Z the apparent power. [0, 628.3 VA]
true power VI cos 3 A motor takes a current of 10 A when
(d) Power factor D D supplied from a 250 V a.c. supply. Assuming
apparent power VI a power factor of 0.75 lagging find the power
400 consumed. Find also the cost of running the
D D 0.4167 motor for 1 week continuously if 1 kWh of
1208
electricity costs 7.20 p [1875 W, £22.68]
(e) p.f. D cos D 0.4167 hence phase angle,
4 A motor takes a current of 12 A when
D cos1 0.4167 D 65.37° lagging supplied from a 240 V a.c. supply. Assuming
a power factor of 0.75 lagging, find the power
Problem 30. A circuit consisting of a consumed. [2.16 kW]
resistor in series with a capacitor takes 100
watts at a power factor of 0.5 from a 100 V, 5 A transformer has a rated output of 100 kVA
60 Hz supply. Find (a) the current flowing, at a power factor of 0.6. Determine the rated
(b) the phase angle, (c) the resistance, (d) the power output and the corresponding reactive
impedance, and (e) the capacitance. power. [60 kW, 80 kvar]
6 A substation is supplying 200 kVA and
true power 150 kvar. Calculate the corresponding power
(a) Power factor D , i.e. 0.5 D and power factor. [132 kW, 0.66]
apparent power
100 7 A load takes 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8
hence current, lagging. Calculate the apparent power and the
100 ð I
reactive power. [62.5 kVA, 37.5 kvar]
100
I D D 2A 8 A coil of resistance 400 and inductance
0.5100
0.20 H is connected to a 75 V, 400 Hz supply.
(b) Power factor D 0.5 D cos hence phase angle, Calculate the power dissipated in the coil.
D cos1 0.5 D 60° leading [5.452 W]
TLFeBOOK
9 An 80 resistor and a 6 µF capacitor are 2 Draw phasor diagrams to represent (a) a

connected in series across a 150 V, 200 Hz purely resistive a.c. circuit (b) a purely
supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance, inductive a.c. circuit (c) a purely capacitive
(b) the current flowing and (c) the power a.c. circuit
dissipated in the circuit.
[(a) 154.9 (b) 0.968 A (c) 75 W] 3 What is inductive reactance? State the sym-
bol and formula for determining inductive
10 The power taken by a series circuit reactance
containing resistance and inductance is 4 What is capacitive reactance? State the sym-
240 W when connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz bol and formula for determining capacitive
supply. If the current flowing is 2 A find the reactance
values of the resistance and inductance.
[60 , 255 mH] 5 Draw phasor diagrams to represent (a) a
coil (having both inductance and resistance),
11 The power taken by a C–R series circuit, and (b) a series capacitive circuit containing
when connected to a 105 V, 2.5 kHz supply, resistance
is 0.9 kW and the current is 15 A. Calculate
(a) the resistance, (b) the impedance, (c) the 6 What does ‘impedance’ mean when referring
reactance, (d) the capacitance, (e) the power to an a.c. circuit ?
factor, and (f) the phase angle between
7 Draw an impedance triangle for an R –L cir-
voltage and current.
cuit. Derive from the triangle an expression
[(a) 4 (b) 7 (c) 5.745 (d) 11.08 µF
for (a) impedance, and (b) phase angle
(e) 0.571 (f) 55.18° leading]
8 Draw an impedance triangle for an R –C cir-
12 A circuit consisting of a resistor in series with cuit. From the triangle derive an expression
an inductance takes 210 W at a power factor for (a) impedance, and (b) phase angle
of 0.6 from a 50 V, 100 Hz supply. Find
(a) the current flowing, (b) the circuit phase 9 What is series resonance ?
angle, (c) the resistance, (d) the impedance
and (e) the inductance. 10 Derive a formula for resonant frequency fr
[(a) 7 A (b) 53.13° lagging (c) 4.286 in terms of L and C
(d) 7.143 (e) 9.095 mH] 11 What does the Q-factor in a series circuit
mean ?
13 A 200 V, 60 Hz supply is applied to a
capacitive circuit. The current flowing is 2 A 12 State three formulae used to calculate the Q-
and the power dissipated is 150 W. Calculate factor of a series circuit at resonance
the values of the resistance and capacitance.
[37.5 , 28.61 µF] 13 State an advantage of a high Q-factor in a
series high-frequency circuit
14 State a disadvantage of a high Q-factor in a
series power circuit
Exercise 85 Short answer questions on 15 State two formulae which may be used to
single-phase a.c. circuits calculate power in an a.c. circuit
1 Complete the following statements: 16 Show graphically that for a purely inductive
(a) In a purely resistive a.c. circuit the or purely capacitive a.c. circuit the average
current is . . . . . . with the voltage power is zero
(b) In a purely inductive a.c. circuit the 17 Define ‘power factor’
current . . . . . . the voltage by . . . . . .
degrees 18 Define (a) apparent power (b) reactive power
(c) In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit the
current . . . . . . the voltage by . . . . . . 19 Define (a) bandwidth (b) selectivity
degrees
TLFeBOOK
10 The impedance of a coil, which has a

Exercise 86 Multi-choice questions on resistance of X ohms and an inductance of
single-phase a.c. circuits (Answers on Y henrys, connected across a supply of
page 376) frequency K Hz, is
1 An inductance of 10 mH connected across (a) 2 KY (b) X

CY
p
2
(c) X C Y 2 (d) X2 C2KY2
a 100 V, 50 Hz supply has an inductive
reactance of
(a) 10 (b) 1000 11 In question 10, the phase angle between the
current and the applied voltage is given by
(c) (d) H
Y 2KY
2 When the frequency of an a.c. circuit (a) tan1 (b) tan1
containing resistance and inductance is X X
increased, the current X 2KY
(c) tan1 (d) tan
(a) decreases (b) increases 2KY X
(c) stays the same
12 When a capacitor is connected to an a.c.
3 In question 2, the phase angle of the circuit supply the current
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) stays the same (a) leads the voltage by 180°
(b) is in phase with the voltage
4 When the frequency of an a.c. circuit (c) leads the voltage by /2 rad
containing resistance and capacitance is (d) lags the voltage by 90°
decreased, the current
(a) decreases (b) increases 13 When the frequency of an a.c. circuit
(c) stays the same containing resistance and capacitance is
increased the impedance
5 In question 4, the phase angle of the circuit (a) increases (b) decreases
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) stays the same (c) stays the same
6 A capacitor of 1 µF is connected to a
14 In an R –L –C series a.c. circuit a current
50 Hz supply. The capacitive reactance is
10 10 of 5 A flows when the supply voltage is
(a) 50 M (b) k (c) 4 (d) 100 V. The phase angle between current
10 and voltage is 60° lagging. Which of the
7 In a series a.c. circuit the voltage across following statements is false?
a pure inductance is 12 V and the voltage (a) The circuit is effectively inductive
across a pure resistance is 5 V. The supply (b) The apparent power is 500 VA
voltage is (c) The equivalent circuit reactance is 20
(a) 13 V (b) 17 V (c) 7 V (d) 2.4 V (d) The true power is 250 W
8 Inductive reactance results in a current that 15 A series a.c. circuit comprising a coil of
(a) leads the voltage by 90° inductance 100 mH and resistance 1 and a
(b) is in phase with the voltage 10 µF capacitor is connected across a 10 V
(c) leads the voltage by rad supply. At resonance the p.d. across the
(d) lags the voltage by /2 rad capacitor is
(a) 10 kV (b) 1 kV (c) 100 V (d) 10 V
9 Which of the following statements is false ?
(a) Impedance is at a minimum at resonance 16 The amplitude of the current I flowing in the
in an a.c. circuit circuit of Fig. 15.25 is:
(b) The product of r.m.s. current and voltage (a) 21 A (b) 16.8 A
gives the apparent power in an a.c. circuit (c) 28 A (d) 12 A
(c) Current is at a maximum at resonance in
an a.c. circuit 17 If the supply frequency is increased at
resonance in a series R –L –C circuit and the
Apparent power
(d) gives power factor values of L, C and R are constant, the circuit
True power will become:
TLFeBOOK
I
4Ω 400 mH
10 µF
R=4Ω
84 V
V = 10 V
XL = 3 Ω
Figure 15.26
(a) 50 (b) 100

Figure 15.25 (c) 5 ð 104 (d) 40
19 A series R–L –C circuit has a resistance
(a) capacitive (b) resistive of 8 , an inductance of 100 mH and a
(c) inductive (d) resonant capacitance of 5 µF. If the current flowing is
2 A, the impedance at resonance is:
18 For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.26, the value (a) 160 (b) 16 (c) 8 m (d) 8
of Q-factor is:
TLFeBOOK
16
Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits
ž calculate unknown currents, impedances and circuit phase angle from phasor
diagrams for (a) R –L (b) R–C (c) L –C (d) LR–C parallel a.c. circuits
ž state the condition for parallel resonance in an LR–C circuit
ž derive the resonant frequency equation for an LR–C parallel a.c. circuit
ž determine the current and dynamic resistance at resonance in an LR–C parallel
circuit
ž understand and calculate Q-factor in an LR–C parallel circuit
ž understand how power factor may be improved
the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the

16.1 Introduction inductance, IL , lags the supply voltage by 90° . The
In parallel circuits, such as those shown in Figs. 16.1 supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and
and 16.2, the voltage is common to each branch of thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an
the network and is thus taken as the reference phasor angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the
when drawing phasor diagrams. values of IR and IL ), shown as angle in the phasor
diagram.
For any parallel a.c. circuit:
True or active power, P D VI cos watts (W)
or P D I2R R watts
Apparent power, S D VI voltamperes (VA)
Reactive power, Q D VI sin reactive
voltamperes (var) Figure 16.1
true power P
Power factor D D D cos From the phasor diagram: I D I2R C I2L (by
apparent power S
Pythagoras’ theorem) where
(These formulae are the same as for series a.c. V V
circuits as used in Chapter 15). IR D and IL D
R XL
IL IL IR
tan D , sin D and cos D
16.2 R –L parallel a.c. circuit IR I I
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resis- (by trigonometric ratios)
tance R and inductance L shown in Fig. 16.1, the V
current flowing in the resistance, IR , is in-phase with Circuit impedance, Z D
I
TLFeBOOK
Problem 1. A 20 resistor is connected in branch, (b) the circuit current, (c) the circuit
parallel with an inductance of 2.387 mH phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, (e) the
across a 60 V, 1 kHz supply. Calculate power consumed, and (f) the circuit power
(a) the current in each branch, (b) the supply factor.
current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the [(a) IR D 3.67 A, IL D 2.92 A (b) 4.69 A
circuit impedance, and (e) the power (c) 38.51° lagging (d) 23.45
consumed. (e) 404 W (f) 0.783 lagging]
2 A 40 resistance is connected in parallel with
The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in a coil of inductance L and negligible resistance
Fig. 16.1 across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply and the supply
current is found to be 8 A. Draw a phasor
(a) Current flowing in the resistor,
diagram to scale and determine the inductance
V 60 of the coil. [102 mH]
IR D D D 3A
R 20
Current flowing in the inductance,
V V
IL D D 16.3 R –C parallel a.c. circuit
XL 2fL
60 In the two branch parallel circuit containing resis-
D D 4A
210002.387 ð 103 tance R and capacitance C shown in Fig. 16.2, IR is
(b) From the phasor diagram, supply current, in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current
flowing in the capacitor, IC , leads V by 90° . The
p supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC and
I D I2R C I2L D 32 C 42 D 5 A thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an
(c) Circuit phase angle, angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the
values of IR and IC ), shown as angle ˛ in the phasor
IL 4 diagram.
f D tan1 D tan1 D 53.13° lagging
IR 3
(d) Circuit impedance,
V 60
Z D D D 12 Z
I 5
(e) Power consumed
P D VI cos D 605cos 53.13° Figure 16.2

D 180 W
(Alternatively, power consumed, P D I2R R D
From the phasor diagram: I D I2R C I2C , (by
32 20 D 180 W)
Pythagoras’ theorem) where
Now try the following exercise V V

IR D and IC D
R XC
IC IC IR
Exercise 87 Further problems on R–L tan ˛ D , sin ˛ D and cos ˛ D
parallel a.c. circuits IR I I
(by trigonometric ratios)
1 A 30 resistor is connected in parallel with
a pure inductance of 3 mH across a 110 V, V
2 kHz supply. Calculate (a) the current in each Circuit impedance, Z D
I
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS 221
Problem 2. A 30 µF capacitor is connected Problem 3. A capacitor C is connected in

in parallel with an 80 resistor across a parallel with a resistor R across a 120 V,
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the 200 Hz supply. The supply current is 2 A at a
current in each branch, (b) the supply power factor of 0.6 leading. Determine the
current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the values of C and R
circuit impedance, (e) the power dissipated,
and (f) the apparent power
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.3(a).
The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in IC C

Fig. 16.2 IC I=2A
(a) Current in resistor, IR R
V 240 I = 2A 53.13°
IR D D D 3A
R 80 V = 120 V IR V = 120 V
200 Hz
Current in capacitor,
Figure 16.3
V V
IC D D D 2fCV
XC 1
Power factor D cos D 0.6 leading, hence
2fC D cos1 0.6 D 53.13° leading.
D 25030 ð 106 240 D 2.262 A From the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 16.3(b),
(b) Supply current, IR D I cos 53.13° D 20.6

p D 1.2 A
I D I2R C I2C D 32 C 2.2622 and IC D I sin 53.13° D 20.8
D 3.757 A D 1.6 A
(c) Circuit phase angle,
(Alternatively, IR and IC can be measured from the
IC 2.262 scaled phasor diagram).
a D tan1 D tan1 From the circuit diagram,
IR 3
D 37.02° leading V
IR D from which
R
V
RD
V 240 IR
Z D D D 63.88 Z
I 3.757 120
D D 100 Z
(e) True or active power dissipated, 1.2
V
P D VI cos ˛ D 2403.757 cos 37.02° and IC D
XC
D 720 W D 2fCV from which
(Alternatively, true power IC
CD
PD I2R R 2
D 3 80 D 720 W) 2fV
1.6
(f) Apparent power, D
2200120
S D VI D 2403.757 D 901.7 VA D 10.61 mF
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercise (i) IL > IC (giving a supply current, I D IL IC
lagging V by 90° )
(ii) IC > IL (giving a supply current, I D IC IL
Exercise 88 Further problems on R–C leading V by 90° )
parallel a.c. circuits
(iii) IL D IC (giving a supply current, I D 0).
1 A 1500 nF capacitor is connected in parallel
with a 16 resistor across a 10 V, 10 kHz The latter condition is not possible in practice due
supply. Calculate (a) the current in each to circuit resistance inevitably being present (as in
branch, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit the circuit described in Section 16.5).
phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, (e) the For the L –C parallel circuit,
power consumed, (f) the apparent power, and V V
(g) the circuit power factor. Draw the phasor IL D , IC D ,
diagram. XL XC
[(a) IR D 0.625 A, IC D 0.943 A (b) 1.13 A I D phasor difference between IL and IC , and
(c) 56.46° leading (d) 8.85 (e) 6.25 W
(f) 11.3 VA (g) 0.55 leading] V
ZD
I
2 A capacitor C is connected in parallel with a
resistance R across a 60 V, 100 Hz supply. The Problem 4. A pure inductance of 120 mH is
supply current is 0.6 A at a power factor of 0.8 connected in parallel with a 25 µF capacitor
leading. Calculate the value of R and C and the network is connected to a 100 V,
[R D 125 , C D 9.55 µF] 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the branch
currents, (b) the supply current and its phase
angle, (c) the circuit impedance, and (d) the
power consumed.
16.4 L–C parallel circuit The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in
In the two branch parallel circuit containing Fig. 16.4
inductance L and capacitance C shown in Fig. 16.4,
IL lags V by 90° and IC leads V by 90° (a) Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL D 250120 ð 103

D 37.70
Capacitive reactance,
1 1
XC D D
2fC 25025 ð 106
D 127.3
Current flowing in inductance,
V 100
IL D D D 2.653 A
XL 37.70
Current flowing in capacitor,
V 100
IC D D D 0.786 A
XC 127.3
Figure 16.4 (b) IL and IC are anti-phase, hence supply current,
I D IL IC D 2.653 0.786 D 1.867 A

Theoretically there are three phasor diagrams
possible – each depending on the relative values of and the current lags the supply voltage V
IL and IC : by 90° (see Fig. 16.4(i))
TLFeBOOK
(c) Circuit impedance,

Exercise 89 Further problems on L–C
V 100 parallel a.c. circuits
Z D D D 53.56 Z
I 1.867
1 An inductance of 80 mH is connected in
(d) Power consumed, parallel with a capacitance of 10 µF across a
60 V, 100 Hz supply. Determine (a) the branch
P D VI cos D 1001.867 cos 90° D 0 W currents, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit
phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance and
Problem 5. Repeat Problem 4 for the (e) the power consumed
condition when the frequency is changed to [(a) IC D 0.377 A, IL D 1.194 A (b) 0.817 A
150 Hz (c) 90° lagging (d) 73.44 (e) 0 W]
(a) Inductive reactance, 2 Repeat problem 5 for a supply frequency

of 200 Hz
XL D 2150120 ð 103 D 113.1 [(a) IC D 0.754 A, IL D 0.597 A (b) 0.157 A
(c) 90° leading (d) 382.2 (e) 0 W]
Capacitive reactance,
1
XC D D 42.44
215025 ð 106
Current flowing in inductance,
16.5 LR –C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch circuit containing capacitance C
V 100
IL D D D 0.884 A in parallel with inductance L and resistance R in
XL 113.1 series (such as a coil) shown in Fig. 16.5(a), the
Current flowing in capacitor, phasor diagram for the LR branch alone is shown in
Fig. 16.5(b) and the phasor diagram for the C branch
V 100 is shown alone in Fig. 16.5(c). Rotating each and
IC D D D 2.356 A
XC 42.44 superimposing on one another gives the complete
(b) Supply current, phasor diagram shown in Fig. 16.5(d)
I D IC IL D 2.356 0.884 D 1.472 A

leading V by 90° (see Fig. 16.4(ii))
(c) Circuit impedance,
V 100
Z D D D 67.93 Z
I 1.472
(d) Power consumed,
P D VI cos D 0 W (since D 90°
From problems 4 and 5:

(i) When XL < XC then IL > IC and I lags V
by 90°
(ii) When XL > XC then IL < IC and I leads V Figure 16.5
by 90°
(iii) In a parallel circuit containing no resistance the The current ILR of Fig. 16.5(d) may be resolved
power consumed is zero into horizontal and vertical components. The
horizontal component, shown as op is ILR cos 1 and
the vertical component, shown as pq is ILR sin 1 .
Now try the following exercise There are three possible conditions for this circuit:
TLFeBOOK
(i) IC > ILR sin 1 (giving a supply current I Z1 IC = 2.262 A

leading V by angle –as shown in Fig. 16.5(e))
R = 40 Ω L = 159.2 mH
(ii) ILR sin > IC (giving I lagging V by angle V = 240 V
ILR IC C = 30 µF f
–as shown in Fig. 16.5(f))
(iii) IC D ILR sin 1 (this is called parallel I 51.34°
resonance, see Section 16.6)
V = 240V, 50 Hz
There are two methods of finding the phasor (a) (b) I LR = 3.748 A
sum of currents ILR and IC in Fig. 16.5(e) and
(f). These are: (i) by a scaled phasor diagram, or Figure 16.6
(ii) by resolving each current into their ‘in-phase’
(i.e. horizontal) and ‘quadrature’ (i.e. vertical) (a) For the coil, inductive reactance XL D 2fL D
components, as demonstrated in problems 6 and 7.
250159.2 ð 103 D 50 .
With reference to the phasor diagrams
of Fig. 16.5:
Impedance of LR branch, ZLR D R2 C X2L . Impedance Z1 D R2 C X2L
Current, p
D 402 C 502
V V
ILR D and IC D D 64.03
ZLR XC
Current in coil,
Supply current
V 240
I D phasor sum of ILR and IC (by drawing) ILR D D D 3.748 A
Z1 64.03
D ILR cos 1 2 C ILR sin 1 ¾ IC 2 Branch phase angle
(by calculation)
XL 50
1 D tan1 D tan1
where ¾ means ‘the difference between’. R 40
V D tan1 1.25 D 51.34° lagging
Circuit impedance Z D
I
(see phasor diagram in Fig. 16.6(b))
VL XL
tan 1 D D , (b) Capacitive reactance,
VR R
XL R 1 1
sin 1 D and cos 1 D XC D D
ZLR ZLR 2fC 25030 ð 106
ILR sin 1 ¾ IC ILR cos 1 D 106.1
tan D and cos D
ILR cos 1 I Current in capacitor,
V 240
Problem 6. A coil of inductance 159.2 mH IC D D
and resistance 40 is connected in parallel XC 106.1
with a 30 µF capacitor across a 240 V, 50 Hz D 2.262 A leading the supply
supply. Calculate (a) the current in the coil
and its phase angle, (b) the current in the voltage by 90°
capacitor and its phase angle, (c) the supply (see phasor diagram of Fig. 16.6(b)).
current and its phase angle, (d) the circuit
impedance, (e) the power consumed, (f) the (c) The supply current I is the phasor sum of
apparent power, and (g) the reactive power. ILR and IC . This may be obtained by drawing
Draw the phasor diagram. the phasor diagram to scale and measuring the
current I and its phase angle relative to V.
(Current I will always be the diagonal of the
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.6(a). parallelogram formed as in Fig. 16.6(b)).
TLFeBOOK
Alternatively the current ILR and IC may be (f) Apparent power,

resolved into their horizontal (or ‘in-phase’) and
vertical (or ‘quadrature’) components. The hor- S D VI D 2402.434 D 584.2 VA
izontal component of ILR is: ILR cos 51.34° D (g) Reactive power,
3.748 cos 51.34° D 2.341 A.
The horizontal component of IC is Q D VI sin D 2402.434sin 15.86°
D 159.6 var
IC cos 90° D 0
Thus the total horizontal component,
Problem 7. A coil of inductance 0.12 H and
resistance 3 k is connected in parallel with
IH D 2.341 A
a 0.02 µF capacitor and is supplied at 40 V at
The vertical component of ILR a frequency of 5 kHz. Determine (a) the
current in the coil, and (b) the current in the
D ILR sin 51.34° D 3.748 sin 51.34° capacitor. (c) Draw to scale the phasor
diagram and measure the supply current and
D 2.927 A its phase angle; check the answer by
The vertical component of IC calculation. Determine (d) the circuit
impedance and (e) the power consumed.
D IC sin 90° D 2.262 sin 90° D 2.262 A
Thus the total vertical component, The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.8(a).
IV D 2.927 C 2.262 D −0.665 A

IC = 25.13 mA
IH and IV are shown in Fig. 16.7, from which, R = 3 kΩ L = 0.12 H
I
I D 2.3412 C 0.6652 D 2.434 A ILR C = 0.02 µF
0.665 IC
Angle D tan1 D 15.86° lagging I
2.341
V = 40 V
Hence the supply current I = 2.434 A V = 40V, 5 kHz 51.49°
I LR = 8.30mA
lagging V by 15.86°
Figure 16.8
I H = 2.341 A
f (a) Inductive reactance,
I V = 0.665 A
I XL D 2fL D 250000.12 D 3770
Impedance of coil,
Figure 16.7
p
Z1 D R2 C XL D 30002 C 37702
D 4818
V 240 Current in coil,
ZD D D 98.60 Z
I 2.434 V 40
(e) Power consumed, ILR D D D 8.30 mA
Z1 4818
P D VI cos D 2402.434 cos 15.86° Branch phase angle
D 562 W XL 3770
D tan1 D tan1
(Alternatively, P D I2R R
D I2LR R (in this case) R 3000
D 3.7482 40 D 562 W) °
D 51.49 lagging
TLFeBOOK
(b) Capacitive reactance, 15 µF capacitor across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply.

Calculate (a) the current in the coil, (b) the
1 1 current in the capacitor, (c) the supply current
XC D D
2fC 250000.02 ð 106 and its phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance,
D 1592 (e) the power consumed, (f) the apparent
power and (g) the reactive power. Draw the
Capacitor current, phasor diagram.
[(a) 1.715 A (b) 0.943 A (c) 1.028 A at 30.90°
V 40 lagging (d) 194.6 (e) 176.5 W
IC D D
XC 1592 (f) 205.6 VA (g) 105.6 var]
D 25.13 mA leading V by 90° 2. A 25 nF capacitor is connected in parallel with
(c) Currents ILR and IC are shown in the phasor a coil of resistance 2 k and inductance 0.20 H
diagram of Fig. 16.8(b). The parallelogram is across a 100 V, 4 kHz supply. Determine
completed as shown and the supply current (a) the current in the coil, (b) the current in
is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram. the capacitor, (c) the supply current and its
The current I is measured as 19.3 mA leading phase angle (by drawing a phasor diagram to
voltage V by 74.5° . By calculation, scale, and also by calculation), (d) the circuit
impedance, and (e) the power consumed
[(a) 18.48 mA (b) 62.83 mA
I D ILR cos 51.49° 2 C IC ILR sin 51.49° 2 (c) 46.17 mA at 81.48° leading
D 19.34 mA (d) 2.166 k (e) 0.683 W]
and

IC ILR sin 51.5°
D tan 1
D 74.50°
ILR cos 51.5° 16.6 Parallel resonance and Q-factor
Parallel resonance
V 40
ZD D D 2.068 kZ Resonance occurs in the two branch network
I 19.34 ð 103 containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance
(e) Power consumed, L and resistance R in series (see Fig. 16.5(a)) when
the quadrature (i.e. vertical) component of current
P D VI cos ILR is equal to IC . At this condition the supply
D 4019.34 ð 103 cos 74.50° current I is in-phase with the supply voltage V.
D 206.7 mW
Resonant frequency
(Alternatively, P D I2R R When the quadrature component of ILR is equal to
D I2LR R IC then: IC D ILR sin 1 (see Fig. 16.9). Hence

D 8.30 ð 103 2 3000 V V XL
D (from Section 16.5)
D 206.7 mW) XC ZLR ZLR
from which,
1 L
Z2LR D XL XC D 2fr L D
2fr C C
Exercise 90 Further problems on LR–C 1
parallel a.c. circuit Hence
2
1 A coil of resistance 60 and inductance L L
318.4 mH is connected in parallel with a R2 C X2L D and R2 C X2L D
C C
TLFeBOOK
Dynamic resistance
Since the current at resonance is in-phase with
the voltage the impedance of the circuit acts
as a resistance. This resistance is known as the
dynamic resistance, RD (or sometimes, the dynamic
impedance).
From equation (2), impedance at resonance
V V
D D
Ir VRC
L
Figure 16.9
L
D
L RC
Thus 2fr L2 D R2 and
C i.e. dynamic resistance,

L
2fr L D R2 L
C RD = ohms
RC
1 L
and fr D R2
2L C
Rejector circuit
1 L R2
D The parallel resonant circuit is often described as
2 L 2 C L 2 a rejector circuit since it presents its maximum
impedance at the resonant frequency and the resul-
i.e. parallel resonant frequency, tant current is a minimum.

1 1 R2 Q-factor
fr = − 2
2p LC L Currents higher than the supply current can circu-
late within the parallel branches of a parallel res-
onant circuit, the current leaving the capacitor and
1 establishing the magnetic field of the inductor, this
(When R is negligible, then fr D p , which
2 LC then collapsing and recharging the capacitor, and so
is the same as for series resonance) on. The Q-factor of a parallel resonant circuit is
the ratio of the current circulating in the parallel
Current at resonance branches of the circuit to the supply current, i.e. the
current magnification.
Current at resonance,
Q-factor at resonance D current magnification
Ir D ILR cos 1 (from Fig. 16.9)
circulating current
V R D
D (from Section 16.5) supply current
ZLR ZLR
IC ILR sin 1
VR D D
D 2 Ir Ir
ZLR
ILR sin 1
D
However, from equation (1), Z2LR D L/C hence ILR cos 1
sin 1
VR VRC D D tan 1
Ir D D 2 cos 1
L/C L
XL
The current is at a minimum at resonance. D
R
TLFeBOOK
(b) Current circulating in L and C at resonance,

2pfr L
i.e. Q-factor at resonance =
R V V
ICIRC D D D 2fr CV
XC 1
(which is the same as for a series circuit). 2fr C
Note that in a parallel circuit the Q-factor Hence
is a measure of current magnification, whereas
in a series circuit it is a measure of voltage ICIRC D 264.9740 ð 106 50
magnification.
At mains frequencies the Q-factor of a parallel D 0.816 A
circuit is usually low, typically less than 10, but (Alternatively,
in radio-frequency circuits the Q-factor can be
very high. V V 50
ICIRC D D D
XL 2fr L 264.970.15
Problem 8. A pure inductance of 150 mH is D 0.817 A
connected in parallel with a 40 µF capacitor
across a 50 V, variable frequency supply.
Determine (a) the resonant frequency of the Problem 9. A coil of inductance 0.20 H and
circuit and (b) the current circulating in the resistance 60 is connected in parallel with
capacitor and inductance at resonance. a 20 µF capacitor across a 20 V, variable
frequency supply. Calculate (a) the resonant
frequency, (b) the dynamic resistance, (c) the
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.10 current at resonance and (d) the circuit
Q-factor at resonance.
(a) Parallel resonant frequency,

1 1 R2
fr D 2
2 LC L

1 1 602
D
Figure 16.10 2 0.2020 ð 106 0.202
1 p 1 p
(a) Parallel resonant frequency, D 2 50 000 90 000 D 1 60 000
2 2
1
1 1 R2 D 400 D 63.66 Hz
fr D 2 2
2 LC L (b) Dynamic resistance,
However, resistance R D 0, hence,
L 0.20
RD D D D 166.7 Z
1 1 RC 6020 ð 106
fr D
2 LC (c) Current at resonance,

1 1 V 20
D Ir D D D 0.12 A
2 150 ð 10 40 ð 106
3
RD 166.7

1 107 103 1 (d) Circuit Q-factor at resonance
D D
2 154 2 6 2fr L 263.660.20
D D D 1.33
D 64.97 Hz R 60
TLFeBOOK
Alternatively, Q-factor at resonance 106

D µF
0.110.51 ð 108
D current magnification (for a parallel circuit)
D 0.009515 mF or 9.515 nF
IC
D (b) Dynamic resistance,
Ir
V V
Ic D D D 2fr CV L 100 ð 103
XC 1 RD D D
CR 9.515 ð 109 800
2fr C
D 13.14 kZ
D 263.6620 ð 106 20 D 0.16 A
(c) Supply current at resonance,
Hence Q-factor D IC /Ir D 0.16/0.12 D 1.33,
as obtained above. V 12
Ir D D D 0.913 mA
RD 13.14 ð 103
Problem 10. A coil of inductance 100 mH
and resistance 800 is connected in parallel (d) Q-factor at resonance
with a variable capacitor across a 12 V,
5 kHz supply. Determine for the condition 2fr L 25000100 ð 103
when the supply current is a minimum: D D D 3.93
R 800
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor, (b) the
dynamic resistance, (c) the supply current, Alternatively, Q-factor at resonance
and (d) the Q-factor
IC V/XC 2fr CV
D D D
Ir Ir Ir
(a) The supply current is a minimum when the
parallel circuit is at resonance and resonant 250009.515 ð 109 12
frequency, D D 3.93
0.913 ð 103

1 1 R2
fr D 2 Now try the following exercise
2 LC L
Transposing for C gives:
Exercise 91 Further problems on parallel
1 R2 resonance and Q-factor
2fr 2 D 2
LC L
1 A 0.15 µF capacitor and a pure inductance
2 R2 1 of 0.01 H are connected in parallel across a
2fr C 2 D 10 V, variable frequency supply. Determine
L LC
(a) the resonant frequency of the circuit, and
1 (b) the current circulating in the capacitor and
and C D
inductance. [(a) 4.11 kHz (b) 38.73 mA]
R2
L 2fr 2 C 2
L 2 A 30 µF capacitor is connected in parallel
with a coil of inductance 50 mH and unknown
When L D 100 mH, R D 800 and resistance R across a 120 V, 50 Hz supply. If
fr D 5000 Hz, the circuit has an overall power factor of 1 find
(a) the value of R, (b) the current in the coil,
1 and (c) the supply current.
CD
8002 [(a) 37.7 (b) 2.94 A (c) 2.714 A]

100 ð 103 250002 C
100ð103 2 3 A coil of resistance 25 and inductance
1 150 mH is connected in parallel with a 10 µF
D F capacitor across a 60 V, variable frequency
0.1f2 108 C 0.64108 g
TLFeBOOK
supply. Calculate (a) the resonant frequency, IC

(b) the dynamic resistance, (c) the current at Inductive load
resonance and (d) the Q-factor at resonance. ILR R L
[(a) 127.2 Hz (b) 600 (c) 0.10 A (d) 4.80]
f2 I V
f1
4 A coil having resistance R and inductance IC C
80 mH is connected in parallel with a IC
I
5 nF capacitor across a 25 V, 3 kHz supply.
Determine for the condition when the current V
ILR
is a minimum, (a) the resistance R of the
(a) (b)
coil, (b) the dynamic resistance, (c) the supply
current, and (d) the Q-factor. Figure 16.11
[(a) 3.705 k (b) 4.318 k
(c) 5.79 mA (d) 0.41]
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.12(a).
5 A coil of resistance 1.5 k and 0.25 H induc-
tance is connected in parallel with a vari- (a) A power factor of 0.6 lagging means that
able capacitance across a 10 V, 8 kHz supply. cos D 0.6 i.e.
Calculate (a) the capacitance of the capacitor
when the supply current is a minimum, (b) the D cos1 0.6 D 53.13°
dynamic resistance, and (c) the supply current.
[(a) 1561 pF (b) 106.8 k (c) 93.66 µA] Hence IM lags V by 53.13° as shown in
Fig. 16.12(b).
If the power factor is to be improved to unity
then the phase difference between supply cur-
rent I and voltage V needs to be 0° , i.e. I is
in phase with V as shown in Fig. 16.12(c). For
16.7 Power factor improvement this to be so, IC must equal the length ab, such
that the phasor sum of IM and IC is I.
For a particular power supplied, a high power fac- ab D IM sin 53.13° D 500.8 D 40 A
tor reduces the current flowing in a supply system
Hence the capacitor current Ic must be 40 A
and therefore reduces the cost of cables, switch-
for the power factor to be unity.
gear, transformers and generators. Supply authorities
use tariffs which encourage electricity consumers to (b) Supply current I D IM cos 53.13° D 500.6 D
operate at a reasonably high power factor. Indus- 30 A.
trial loads such as a.c. motors are essentially induc-
tive (R–L) and may have a low power factor. One
V = 240 V
method of improving (or correcting) the power fac- M
tor of an inductive load is to connect a static capac- I M = 50 A IC C
53.13°
itor C in parallel with the load (see Fig. 16.11(a)).
The supply current is reduced from ILR to I, the pha- I
IM = 50 A
sor sum of ILR and IC , and the circuit power factor
V = 240 V, 50 Hz
improves from cos 1 to cos 2 (see Fig. 16.11(b)).
(a) (b)
IC
Problem 11. A single-phase motor takes I

a V
50 A at a power factor of 0.6 lagging from a 53.13°
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the

current taken by a capacitor connected in b
parallel with the motor to correct the power IM = 50 A
factor to unity, and (b) the value of the
(c)
supply current after power factor correction.
Figure 16.12
TLFeBOOK
Problem 12. A 400 V alternator is

supplying a load of 42 kW at a power factor
of 0.7 lagging. Calculate (a) the kVA loading
and (b) the current taken from the alternator.
(c) If the power factor is now raised to unity
find the new kVA loading.
(a) Power D VI cos D VI (power factor)

power 42 ð 103
Hence VI D D D 60 kVA
p.f. 0.7
(b) VI D 60000 VA
60000 60000 Figure 16.13
hence I D D D 150 A
V 400
(b) When a capacitor C is connected in parallel
(c) The kVA loading remains at 60 kVA irrespective with the motor a current IC flows which leads
of changes in power factor. V by 90° . The phasor sum of IM and IC
gives the supply current I, and has to be such
as to change the circuit power factor to 0.95
Problem 13. A motor has an output of lagging, i.e. a phase angle of cos1 0.95 or
4.8 kW, an efficiency of 80% and a power 18.19° lagging, as shown in Fig. 16.13(c). The
factor of 0.625 lagging when operated from a horizontal component of IM (shown as oa)
240 V, 50 Hz supply. It is required to
improve the power factor to 0.95 lagging by D IM cos 51.32°
connecting a capacitor in parallel with the
motor. Determine (a) the current taken by the D 40 cos 51.32° D 25 A
motor, (b) the supply current after power The horizontal component of I (also given by
factor correction, (c) the current taken by the oa)
capacitor, (d) the capacitance of the
capacitor, and (e) the kvar rating of the D I cos 18.19°
capacitor.
D 0.95 I
Equating the horizontal components gives:
power output 25 D 0.95 I. Hence the supply current after p.f.
(a) Efficiency D
power input correction,
80 4800 25
hence D I D D 26.32 A
100 power input 0.95
4800 (c) The vertical component of IM (shown as ab)
and power input D D 6000 W
0.8
D IM sin 51.32°
Hence, 6000 D VIM cos D 240IM 0.625,
since cos D p.f. D 0.625. Thus current taken D 40 sin 51.32° D 31.22 A
by the motor, The vertical component of I (shown as ac)
6000 D I sin 18.19°

IM D D 40 A
2400.625 D 26.32 sin 18.19° D 8.22 A
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.13(a). The magnitude of the capacitor current IC
The phase angle between IM and V is given by: (shown as bc) is given by
D cos1 0.625 D 51.32° , hence the phasor
diagram is as shown in Fig. 16.16(b). ab ac i.e. IC D 31.22 8.22 D 23 A
TLFeBOOK
V V The vertical component of the currents

(d) Current IC D D D 2fCV
XC 1
D 10 sin 0° C 12 sin 36.87° C 8 sin 45.57°
2fC
from which D 0 C 7.2 C 5.713 D 12.91 A
From Fig.
p 16.14(b), total current,
IC 23 IL D 25.22 C 12.912 D 28.31 A at a phase
C D D F D 305 mF
2fV 250240 angle of D tan1 12.91/25.2 i.e. 27.13°
(e) kvar rating of the capacitor lagging.
(b) Power factor
VIC 24023
D D D 5.52 kvar
1000 1000 D cos D cos 27.13° D 0.890 lagging
In this problem the supply current has been reduced (c) Total power,
from 40 A to 26.32 A without altering the current or
power taken by the motor. This means that the size P D VIL cos D 25028.310.890
of generating plant and the cross-sectional area of D 6.3 kW
conductors supplying both the factory and the motor
can be less – with an obvious saving in cost. (d) To improve the power factor, a capacitor is con-
nected in parallel with the loads. The capac-
itor takes a current IC such that the supply
Problem 14. A 250 V, 50 Hz single-phase current falls from 28.31 A to I, lagging V by
supply feeds the following loads
cos1 0.975, i.e. 12.84° . The phasor diagram is
(i) incandescent lamps taking a current of
shown in Fig. 16.15
10 A at unity power factor, (ii) fluorescent
lamps taking 8 A at a power factor of oa D 28.31 cos 27.13° D I cos 12.84°
0.7 lagging, (iii) a 3 kVA motor operating at
full load and at a power factor of 0.8 lagging 28.31 cos 27.13°
hence I D D 25.84 A
and (iv) a static capacitor. Determine, for the cos 12.84°
lamps and motor, (a) the total current, (b) the Current IC D bc D ab ac
overall power factor and (c) the total power.
(d) Find the value of the static capacitor to D 28.31 sin 27.13° 25.84 sin 12.84°
improve the overall power factor to 0.975 D 12.91 5.742 D 7.168 A
lagging.
V V
IC D D D 2fCV
A phasor diagram is constructed as shown in XC 1
Fig. 16.14(a), where 8 A is lagging voltage V by 2fc
cos1 0.7, i.e. 45.57° , and the motor current is
3000/250, i.e. 12 A lagging V by cos1 0.8,
i.e. 36.87°
Figure 16.15
Hence capacitance
Figure 16.14
IC 7.168
CD D F D 91.27 mF
(a) The horizontal component of the currents 2fV 250250
D 10 cos 0° C 12 cos 36.87° C 8 cos 45.57° Thus to improve the power factor from 0.890 to
0.975 lagging a 91.27 µF capacitor is connected
D 10 C 9.6 C 5.6 D 25.2 A in parallel with the loads.
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercises in parallel with the loads to improve the overall
power factor to 0.98 lagging.
[21.74 A, 0.966 lagging, 21.68 µF]
factor improvement
1 A 415 V alternator is supplying a load of
55 kW at a power factor of 0.65 lagging. Cal- Exercise 93 Short answer questions on
culate (a) the kVA loading and (b) the current single-phase parallel a.c. circuits
taken from the alternator. (c) If the power fac- 1 Draw a phasor diagram for a two-branch
tor is now raised to unity find the new kVA parallel circuit containing capacitance C in
loading. one branch and resistance R in the other,
[(a) 84.6 kVA (b) 203.9 A (c) 84.6 kVA] connected across a supply voltage V
2 A single phase motor takes 30 A at a power 2 Draw a phasor diagram for a two-branch
factor of 0.65 lagging from a 240 V, 50 Hz parallel circuit containing inductance L and
supply. Determine (a) the current taken by the resistance R in one branch and capacitance
capacitor connected in parallel to correct the C in the other, connected across a supply
power factor to unity, and (b) the value of the voltage V
supply current after power factor correction. 3 Draw a phasor diagram for a two-branch
[(a) 22.80 A (b) 19.5 A] parallel circuit containing inductance L in one
branch and capacitance C in the other for
3 A motor has an output of 6 kW, an efficiency the condition in which inductive reactance is
of 75% and a power factor of 0.64 lagging greater than capacitive reactance
when operated from a 250 V, 60 Hz supply.
It is required to raise the power factor to 4 State two methods of determining the phasor
0.925 lagging by connecting a capacitor in sum of two currents
parallel with the motor. Determine (a) the cur-
5 State two formulae which may be used to
rent taken by the motor, (b) the supply current
calculate power in a parallel circuit
after power factor correction, (c) the current
taken by the capacitor, (d) the capacitance of 6 State the condition for resonance for a two-
the capacitor and (e) the kvar rating of the branch circuit containing capacitance C in
capacitor. parallel with a coil of inductance L and
[(a) 50 A (b) 34.59 A (c) 25.28 A resistance R
(d) 268.2 µF (e) 6.32 kvar]
7 Develop a formula for the resonant frequency
4 A supply of 250 V, 80 Hz is connected across in an LR–C parallel circuit, in terms of
an inductive load and the power consumed resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C
is 2 kW, when the supply current is 10 A. 8 What does Q-factor of a parallel cir-
Determine the resistance and inductance of the cuit mean?
circuit. What value of capacitance connected
in parallel with the load is needed to improve 9 Develop a formula for the current at reso-
the overall power factor to unity? nance in an LR–C parallel circuit in terms
[R D 20 , L D 29.84 mH, C D 47.75 µF] of resistance R, inductance L, capacitance C
and supply voltage V
5 A 200 V, 50 Hz single-phase supply feeds the
following loads: (i) fluorescent lamps taking a 10 What is dynamic resistance? State a formula
current of 8 A at a power factor of 0.9 leading, for dynamic resistance
(ii) incandescent lamps taking a current of 11 Explain a simple method of improving the
6 A at unity power factor, (iii) a motor taking power factor of an inductive circuit
a current of 12 A at a power factor of 0.65
lagging. Determine the total current taken from 12 Why is it advantageous to improve power
the supply and the overall power factor. Find factor?
also the value of a static capacitor connected
TLFeBOOK
10 The following statements, taken correct to 2

Exercise 94 Multi-choice questions on significant figures, refer to the circuit shown
single-phase parallel a.c. circuits (Answers in Fig. 16.16. Which are false?
on page 376) R = 3Ω XL = 4Ω
A two-branch parallel circuit containing a 10 I LR XC = 12.5Ω

IC
resistance in one branch and a 100 µF capacitor
in the other, has a 120 V, 2/3 kHz supply
connected across it. Determine the quantities I
stated in questions 1 to 8, selecting the correct 5
V = 250V, kHz
answer from the following list: 2p
(a) 24 A (b) 6
Figure 16.16
(c) 7.5 k (d) 12 A
3
(e) tan1 4
leading (f) 0.8 leading
4
(a) The impedance of the R –L branch is 5
(g) 7.5 (h) tan1 3 leading (b) ILR D 50 A
(i) 16 A (j) tan1 35 lagging (c) IC D 20 A
(d) L D 0.80 H
(k) 1.44 kW (l) 0.6 leading (e) C D 16 µF
(m) 12.5 (n) 2.4 kW (f) The ‘in-phase’ component of the supply
4 current is 30 A
(o) tan1 lagging (p) 0.6 lagging
3 (g) The ‘quadrature’ component of the sup-
(q) 0.8 lagging (r) 1.92 kW ply current is 40 A
(s) 20 A (h) I D 36 A
(i) Circuit phase angle D 33° 41’ leading
(j) Circuit impedance D 6.9
1 The current flowing in the resistance (k) Circuit power factor D 0.83 lagging
2 The capacitive reactance of the capacitor (l) Power consumed D 9.0 kW
3 The current flowing in the capacitor 11 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The supply current is a minimum at res-
4 The supply current onance in a parallel circuit
(b) The Q-factor at resonance in a parallel
5 The supply phase angle circuit is the voltage magnification
6 The circuit impedance (c) Improving power factor reduces the cur-
rent flowing through a system
7 The power consumed by the circuit (d) The circuit impedance is a maximum at
resonance in a parallel circuit
8 The power factor of the circuit
12 An LR–C parallel circuit has the following
9 A two-branch parallel circuit consists of component values: R D 10 , L D 10 mH,
a 15 mH inductance in one branch and a C D 10 µF and V D 100 V. Which of the
50 µF capacitor in the other across a 120 V, following statements is false?
1/ kHz supply. The supply current is: (a) The resonant frequency fr is 1.5/ kHz
(b) The current at resonance is 1 A
(a) 8 A leading by rad (c) The dynamic resistance is 100
2
(d) The circuit Q-factor at resonance is 30
(b) 16 A lagging by 90°
13 The magnitude of the impedance of the cir-
(c) 8 A lagging by 90° cuit shown in Fig. 16.17 is:
(a) 7 (b) 5
(d) 16 A leading by rad (c) 2.4 (d) 1.71
2
TLFeBOOK
(a) 17 A (b) 7 A
(c) 15 A (d) 23 A
Figure 16.17
14 In the circuit shown in Fig. 16.18, the mag- Figure 16.18

nitude of the supply current I is:
TLFeBOOK
17
Filter networks
ž appreciate the purpose of a filter network

ž understand basic types of filter sections, i.e. low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and
band-stop filters
ž define cut-off frequency, two-port networks and characteristic impedance
ž design low- and high-pass filter sections given nominal impedance and cut-off
frequency
ž determine the values of components comprising a band-pass filter given cut-off
frequencies
ž appreciate the difference between ideal and practical filter characteristics
control equipment. The bandwidths of filters used

17.1 Introduction in communications systems vary from a fraction
of a hertz to many megahertz, depending on the
Attenuation is a reduction or loss in the magnitude application.
of a voltage or current due to its transmission over
a line. There are four basic types of filter sections:
A filter is a network designed to pass signals hav- (a) low-pass
ing frequencies within certain bands (called pass-
(b) high-pass
bands) with little attenuation, but greatly attenuates
(c) band-pass
signals within other bands (called attenuation bands
(d) band-stop
or stopbands).
A filter is frequency sensitive and is thus com-
posed of reactive elements. Since certain frequencies
are to be passed with minimal loss, ideally the induc- 17.2 Two-port networks and
tors and capacitors need to be pure components since characteristic impedance
the presence of resistance results in some attenuation
at all frequencies. Networks in which electrical energy is fed in at
Between the pass band of a filter, where ideally one pair of terminals and taken out at a second
the attenuation is zero, and the attenuation band, pair of terminals are called two-port networks.
where ideally the attenuation is infinite, is the cut- The network between the input port and the output
off frequency, this being the frequency at which the port is a transmission network for which a known
attenuation changes from zero to some finite value. relationship exists between the input and output
A filter network containing no source of power currents and voltages.
is termed passive, and one containing one or more Figure 17.1(a) shows a T-network, which is
power sources is known as an active filter network. termed symmetrical if ZA D ZB , and Figure 17.1(b)
Filters are used for a variety of purposes in shows a p-network which is symmetrical if
nearly every type of electronic communications and ZE D ZF .
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS 237
A B according to the load impedance across the out-

put terminals. For any passive two-port network it
is found that a particular value of load impedance
can always be found which will produce an input
C impedance having the same value as the load
impedance. This is called the iterative impedance
for an asymmetrical network and its value depends
on which pair of terminals is taken to be the input
and which the output (there are thus two values of
D
iterative impedance, one for each direction).
For a symmetrical network there is only one value
for the iterative impedance and this is called the
characteristic impedance Z0 of the symmetrical
E F two-port network.
17.3 Low-pass filters

Figure 17.1 Figure 17.3 shows simple unbalanced T- and -
section filters using series inductors and shunt capac-
If ZA 6D ZB in Figure 17.1(a) and ZE 6D ZF itors. If either section is connected into a network
in Figure 17.1(b), the sections are termed asym- and a continuously increasing frequency is applied,
metrical. Both networks shown have one com- each would have a frequency-attenuation charac-
mon terminal, which may be earthed, and are teristic as shown in Figure 17.4. This is an ideal
therefore said to be unbalanced. The balanced form characteristic and assumes pure reactive elements.
of the T-network is shown in Figure 17.2(a) and All frequencies are seen to be passed from zero
the balanced form of the -network is shown in up to a certain value without attenuation, this value
Figure 17.2(b). being shown as fc , the cut-off frequency; all values
of frequency above fc are attenuated. It is for this
A B reason that the networks shown in Figures 17.3(a)
and (b) are known as low-pass filters.
A B
(a) (b)
Figure 17.3
D
Attenuation
E F
Attenuation
Pass-band band
Figure 17.2
0 Frequency
The input impedance of a network is the ratio fC
of voltage to current at the input terminals. With a
two-port network the input impedance often varies Figure 17.4
TLFeBOOK
L L
2 2
Figure 17.5 R0
C R0
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a low-

pass filter is shown in Figure 17.5.
Summarising, a low-pass filter is one designed (a)
to pass signals at frequencies below a specified
L
cut-off frequency.
In practise, the characteristic curve of a low-pass
prototype filter section looks more like that shown
in Figure 17.6. The characteristic may be improved R0 R0
somewhat closer to the ideal by connecting two or C C
2 2
more identical sections in cascade. This produces
a much sharper cut-off characteristic, although the
attenuation in the pass band is increased a little. (b)
Figure 17.7
Attenuation
may be shown that the cut-off frequency, fc , for

each section is the same, and is given by:
1
fc = p 1
p LC
0 fC Frequency
When the frequency is very low, the character-
Pass-band Attenuation istic impedance is purely resistive. This value of
band characteristic impedance is known as the design
impedance or the nominal impedance of the sec-
Figure 17.6 tion and is often given the symbol R0 , where
When rectifiers are used to produce the d.c. sup-

plies of electronic systems, a large ripple introduces L
R0 = 2
undesirable noise and may even mask the effect C
of the signal voltage. Low-pass filters are added to
smooth the output voltage waveform, this being one
of the most common applications of filters in elec-
trical circuits. Problem 1. Determine the cut-off frequency
Filters are employed to isolate various sections and the nominal impedance for the low-pass
of a complete system and thus to prevent undesired T-connected section shown in Figure 17.8.
interactions. For example, the insertion of low-pass
decoupling filters between each of several amplifier 100 mH 100 mH
stages and a common power supply reduces interac-
tion due to the common power supply impedance.
0.2 µF
Cut-off frequency and nominal impedance
calculations
A low-pass symmetrical T-network and a low-pass Figure 17.8
symmetrical -network are shown in Figure 17.7. It
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS 239
Comparing Figure 17.8 with the low-pass section of From equation (2), nominal impedance,
Figure 17.7(a), shows that:
L L 0.4
D 100 mH, R0 D D D 31.62 kZ
2 C 400 ð 1012
i.e. inductance, L D 200 mH D 0.2 H,
and capacitance C D 0.2 µF D 0.2 ð 106 F.
To determine values of L and C given R0 and fc
From equation (1), cut-off frequency,
If the values of the nominal impedance R0 and the
1
fc D p cut-off frequency fc are known for a low-pass T-
LC or -section, it is possible to determine the values
1 103 of inductance and capacitance required to form the
D D section. It may be shown that:
0.2 ð 0.2 ð 106 0.2
i.e. fc = 1592 Hz or 1.592 kHz 1
capacitance C = 3
pR 0 fc
From equation (2), nominal impedance,

L 0.2 R0
R0 D D and inductance L = 4
C 0.2 ð 106 pfc
D 1000 Z or 1 kZ
Problem 3. A filter section is to have a

Problem 2. Determine the cut-off frequency characteristic impedance at zero frequency of
and the nominal impedance for the low-pass 600 and a cut-off frequency of 5 MHz.
-connected section shown in Figure 17.9. Design (a) a low-pass T-section filter, and
(b) a low-pass -section filter to meet these
0.4 H requirements.
The characteristic impedance at zero frequency is

200 pF 200 pF the nominal impedance R0 , i.e. R0 D 600 ; cut-off
frequency fc D 5 MHz D 5 ð 106 Hz.
From equation (3), capacitance,
Figure 17.9
1 1
CD D F
Comparing Figure 17.9 with the low-pass section of R0 fc 6005 ð 106
Figure 17.7(b), shows that: D 1.06 ð 1010 F D 106 pF
C
D 200 pF, From equation (4), inductance,
2
i.e. capacitance, C D 400 pF D 400 ð 1012 F, R0 600
LD D H
and inductance L D 0.4 H. fc 5 ð 106
From equation (1), cut-off frequency, D 3.82 ð 105 D 38.2 µH
1
fc D p (a) A low-pass T-section filter is shown in
LC Figure 17.10(a), where the series arm induc-
1 106 L
D D p tances are each (see Figure 17.7(a)), i.e.
0.4 ð 400 ð 1012 160 2
38.2
i.e. fc = 25.16 kHz D 19.1 µH
2
TLFeBOOK
19.1 µH 19.1 µH 38.2 µH
106 pF
53 pF 53 pF
(a) (b)
Figure 17.10
(b) A low-pass -section filter is shown in low-pass T-section filter, and (b) a low-pass
Figure 17.10(b), where the shunt arm capac- -section filter to meet these requirements.
C [(a) Each series arm 79.6 mH,
itances are each (see Figure 17.7(b)), i.e. shunt arm 0.637 µF
2
106 (b) Series arm 159 mH, each
D 53 pF shunt arm 0.318 µF]
2
3. Determine the value of capacitance required
in the shunt arm of a low-pass T-section if
Now try the following exercise the inductance in each of the series arms is
40 mH and the cut-off frequency of the filter
is 2.5 kHz. [0.203 µF]
Exercise 95 Further problems on low-pass
filter sections 4. The nominal impedance of a low-pass -
section filter is 600 . If the capacitance in
1. Determine the cut-off frequency and the nom- each of the shunt arms is 0.1 µF determine the
inal impedance of each of the low-pass filter inductance in the series arm. [72 mH]
sections shown in Figure 17.11.
[(a) 1592 Hz; 5 k (b) 9545 Hz; 600 ]
0.5 H 0.5 H 17.4 High-pass filters

Figure 17.12 shows simple unbalanced T- and -
section filters using series capacitors and shunt
0.04 µF inductors. If either section is connected into a
network and a continuously increasing frequency is
applied, each would have a frequency-attenuation
(a)
characteristic as shown in Figure 17.13.
20 mH
27.8 nF 27.8 nF
(b) (a) (b)
Once again this is an ideal characteristic assuming

2. A filter section is to have a characteristic pure reactive elements. All frequencies below the
impedance at zero frequency of 500 and cut-off frequency fc are seen to be attenuated and
a cut-off frequency of 1 kHz. Design (a) a all frequencies above fc are passed without loss.
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS 241
Attenuation
Attenuation
Attenuation
band Pass-band
0 Frequency
fC fC
0 Frequency
Figure 17.13 Attenuation Pass-band

band
It is for this reason that the networks shown in Figure 17.15

Figures 17.12(a) and (b) are known as high-pass
filters. Cut-off frequency and nominal impedance
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a high- calculations
pass filter is shown in Figure 17.14.
A high-pass symmetrical T-network and a high-pass
symmetrical -network are shown in Figure 17.16.
It may be shown that the cut-off frequency, fc , for
each section is the same, and is given by:
1
Figure 17.14 fc = p 5
4p LC
Summarising, a high-pass filter is one designed

to pass signals at frequencies above a specified
2C 2C
cut-off frequency.
The characteristic shown in Figures 17.13 is ideal
in that it is assumed that there is no attenuation
at all in the pass-bands and infinite attenuation in
R0
the attenuation band. Both of these conditions are L R0
impossible to achieve in practice. Due to resistance,
mainly in the inductive elements the attenuation in
the pass-band will not be zero, and in a practical
filter section the attenuation in the attenuation band (a)
will have a finite value. In addition to the resistive
loss there is often an added loss due to mismatching.
Ideally when a filter is inserted into a network C
it is matched to the impedance of that network.
However the characteristic impedance of a filter
section will vary with frequency and the termination
of the section may be an impedance that does not R0
2L 2L R0
vary with frequency in the same way.
Figure 17.13 showed an ideal high-pass filter sec-
tion characteristic of attenuation against frequency.
In practise, the characteristic curve of a high-pass (b)
prototype filter section would look more like that
shown in Figure 17.15. Figure 17.16
TLFeBOOK
When the frequency is very high, the characteristic

impedance is purely resistive. This value of charac- Problem 5. Determine the cut-off frequency
teristic impedance is then the nominal impedance and the nominal impedance for the high-pass
of the section and is given by: -connected section shown in Figure 17.18.
4000 pF

L
R0 = 6
C
200 µH 200 µH
Problem 4. Determine the cut-off frequency

and the nominal impedance for the high-pass Figure 17.18
T-connected section shown in Figure 17.17.
0.2 µF 0.2 µF
Comparing Figure 17.18 with the high-pass section
of Figure 17.16(b), shows that:
2L D 200 µH,
100 mH i.e. inductance, L D 100 µH D 104 H,
and capacitance, C D 4000 pF D 4 ð 109 F.
From equation (5), cut-off frequency,

Figure 17.17
1
fc D p
4 LC
Comparing Figure 17.17 with the high-pass section 1
of Figure 17.16(a), shows that: D D 1.26 ð 105
4 9
4 10 ð 4 ð 10
2C D 0.2 µF, i.e. fc = 126 kHz
i.e. capacitance, C D 0.1 µF D 0.1 ð 106 , From equation (6), nominal impedance,
and inductance, L D 100 mH D 0.1 H.
L 104
R0 D D
From equation (5), cut-off frequency, C 4 ð 109

105
1 D D 158 Z
fc D p 4
4 LC
1 103
D D
4 0.1 ð 0.1 ð 106 40.1 To determine values of L and C given R0 and fc
i.e. fc = 796 Hz If the values of the nominal impedance R0 and the
cut-off frequency fc are known for a high-pass T-
From equation (6), nominal impedance, or -section, it is possible to determine the values
of inductance and capacitance required to form the
section. It may be shown that:
L 0.1
R0 D D
C 0.1 ð 106 1
capacitance C = 7
D 1000 Z or 1 kZ 4pR0 fc
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS 243
(a) A high-pass T-section filter is shown

R0 in Figure 17.19(a), where the series arm
and inductance L = 8
4pfc capacitances are each 2C (see Figure
17.16(a)), i.e. 2 ð 5.305 D 10.61 nF
Problem 6. A filter section is required to (b) A high-pass -section filter is shown in

pass all frequencies above 25 kHz and to Figure 17.19(b), where the shunt arm induc-
have a nominal impedance of 600 . Design
tances are each 2L (see Figure 17.6(b)), i.e.
(a) a high-pass T-section filter, and (b) a
high-pass -section filter to meet these 2 ð 1.91 D 3.82 mH.
requirements.
3
Cut-off frequency fc D 25 kHz D 25 ð 10 Hz, and
nominal impedance, R0 D 600 .
From equation (7), capacitance, high-pass filter sections
1 1 1. Determine the cut-off frequency and the nom-
CD D F inal impedance of each of the high-pass filter
4R0 fc 460025 ð 103
sections shown in Figure 17.20.
1012 [(a) 22.51 kHz; 14.14 k
D pF (b) 281.3 Hz; 1414 ]
460025 ð 103
D 5305 pF or 5.305 nF 500 pF 500 pF
From equation (8), inductance,

R0 600
LD D 50 mH
4fc 425 ð 103
D 0.00191 H D 1.91 mH
(a)
10.61 nF 10.61 nF
0.2 µF
1.91 mH 800 mH 800 mH
(b)
(a)
Figure 17.20
5.305 nF
2. A filter section is required to pass all fre-
quencies above 4 kHz and to have a nominal
impedance 750 . Design (a) an appropriate
high-pass T section filter, and (b) an appro-
3.82 mH 3.82 mH
priate high-pass -section filter to meet these
requirements.
[(a) Each series arm D 53.1 nF,
shunt arm D 14.92 mH
(b)
(b) Series arm D 26.5 nF, each
Figure 17.19 shunt arm D 29.84 mH]
TLFeBOOK
3. The inductance in each of the shunt arms of High-pass
Attenuation
a high-pass -section filter is 50 mH. If the characteristic
Low-pass
nominal impedance of the section is 600 , characteristic
determine the value of the capacitance in the
series arm. [69.44 nF]
4. Determine the value of inductance required
in the shunt arm of a high-pass T-section
filter if in each series arm it contains a 0.5 µF
capacitor. The cut-off frequency of the filter
section is 1500 Hz. [11.26 mH] 0 f cH f cL Frequency
Attenuation Pass-band Attenuation

band band
Figure 17.23
17.5 Band-pass filters
A band-pass filter is one designed to pass signals where a precisely defined bandwidth must be main-
with frequencies between two specified cut-off tained for good performance.
frequencies. The characteristic of an ideal band-pass
filter is shown in Figure 17.21. Problem 7. A band-pass filter is comprised
of a low-pass T-section filter having a cut-off
frequency of 15 kHz, connected in series
Attenuation
with a high-pass T-section filter having a

Attenuation Attenuation cut-off frequency of 10 kHz. The terminating
band Pass-band band impedance of the filter is 600 . Determine
the values of the components comprising the
composite filter.
For the low-pass T-section filter:

0 f cH f cL Frequency
fCL D 15 000 Hz
Figure 17.21
Such a filter may be formed by cascading a
high-pass and a low-pass filter. fCH is the cut-off 1 1
CD D
frequency of the high-pass filter and fCL is the cut- R0 fc 60015 000
off frequency of the low-pass filter. As can be seen,
for a band-pass filter fCL > fCH , the pass-band D 35.4 ð 109 D 35.4 nF
being given by the difference between these values.
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a band- From equation (4), inductance,
pass filter is shown in Figure 17.22. R0 600
LD D
fc 15 000
D 0.01273 H D 12.73 mH
Thus, from Figure 17.7(a), the series arm induc-

Figure 17.22 L
tances are each , i.e.
A typical practical characteristic for a band-pass 2
filter is shown in Figure 17.23. 12.73
Crystal and ceramic devices are used exten- D 6.37 mH,
2
sively as band-pass filters. They are common in
the intermediate-frequency amplifiers of v.h.f. radios and the shunt arm capacitance is 35.4 nF.
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS 245
26.6 nF 26.6 nF
6.37 mH 6.37 mH
35.4 nF 600 Ω
4.77 mH
Figure 17.24
For the high-pass T-section filter: [Low-pass T-section: each

series arm 4.77 mH, shunt arm 26.53 nF
fCH D 10 000 Hz High-pass T-section: each
series arm 33.16 nF, shunt arm 5.97 mH]
2. A band-pass filter is comprised of a low-pass
1 1 -section filter having a cut-off frequency of
CD D 50 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
4R0 fc 460010 000 -section filter having a cut-off frequency of
D 1.33 ð 108 D 13.3 nF 40 kHz. The terminating impedance of the
filter is 620 . Determine the values of the
components comprising the composite filter.
From equation (8), inductance, [Low-pass -section: series arm 3.95 mH,
each shunt arm 5.13 nF
R0 600 High-pass -section: series arm 3.21 nF,
LD D
4fc 410 000 each shunt arm 2.47 mH]
D 4.77 ð 103 D 4.77 mH.
Thus, from Figure 17.16(a), the series arm capaci-

tances are each 2C, 17.6 Band-stop filters
i.e. 2 ð 13.3 D 26.6 nF,
A band-stop filter is one designed to pass signals
with all frequencies except those between two
and the shunt arm inductance is 4.77 mH. The com- specified cut-off frequencies. The characteristic of
posite, band-pass filter is shown in Figure 17.24. an ideal band-stop filter is shown in Figure 17.25.
The attenuation against frequency characteristic
will be similar to Figure 17.23 where fCH D 10 kHz
and fCL D 15 kHz.
Attenuation
Now try the following exercise Pass-band Stop-band Pass-band

band-pass filters
1. A band-pass filter is comprised of a low-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency of 0 f cL f cH Frequency
20 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency Figure 17.25
of 8 kHz. The terminating impedance of the
filter is 600 . Determine the values of the Such a filter may be formed by connecting a high-
components comprising the composite filter. pass and a low-pass filter in parallel. As can be seen,
TLFeBOOK
for a band-stop filter fCH > fCL , the stop-band 4. Define characteristic impedance for a two-
being given by the difference between these values. port network.
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a band- 5. A network designed to pass signals at fre-
stop filter is shown in Figure 17.26. quencies below a specified cut-off frequency
is called a . . . . . . filter.
6. A network designed to pass signals with all
frequencies except those between two spec-
ified cut-off frequencies is called a . . . . . .
filter.
Figure 17.26
7. A network designed to pass signals with
frequencies between two specified cut-off
A typical practical characteristic for a band-stop frequencies is called a . . . . . . filter.
filter is shown in Figure 17.27. 8. A network designed to pass signals at fre-
quencies above a specified cut-off frequency
is called a . . . . . . filter.
Attenuation
9. State one application of a low-pass filter.

10. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical atten-
uation/frequency characteristic for a low-
Low-pass High-pass
characteristic characteristic
pass filter.
uation/frequency characteristic for a high-
pass filter.
uation/frequency characteristic for a band-
0 f cL f cH pass filter.
14. State one application of a band-pass filter.
Pass-band Stop-band Pass-band 13. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical atten-
uation/frequency characteristic for a band-
Figure 17.27 stop filter.
15. State one application of a band-stop filter.
Sometimes, as in the case of interference from
50 Hz power lines in an audio system, the exact fre-
quency of a spurious noise signal is known. Usually
such interference is from an odd harmonic of 50 Hz, Exercise 99 Multi-choice questions on
for example, 250 Hz. A sharply tuned band-stop fil- filters (Answers on page 376)
ter, designed to attenuate the 250 Hz noise signal, is
used to minimise the effect of the output. A high- 1. A network designed to pass signals with
pass filter with cut-off frequency greater than 250 Hz all frequencies except those between two
would also remove the interference, but some of specified cut-off frequencies is called a:
the lower frequency components of the audio signal (a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter
would be lost as well. (c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter
Filter design can be a complicated area. For more,
see Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology. 2. A network designed to pass signals at fre-
quencies above a specified cut-off frequency
is called a:
Now try the following exercise (a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter
(c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter
Exercise 98 Short answer questions on 3. A network designed to pass signals at fre-
filters quencies below a specified cut-off frequency
is called a:
1. Define a filter.
2. Define the cut-off frequency for a filter. (a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter
3. Define a two-port network. (c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS 247
4. A network designed to pass signals with (d) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF in
frequencies between two specified cut-off shunt arm
frequencies is called a:
9. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
(a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter section has capacitances of 400 nF in each of
(c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter its series arms and an inductance of 200 mH
in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the
5. A low-pass T-connected symmetrical filter filter is:
section has an inductance of 200 mH in each
of its series arms and a capacitance of 0.5 µF (a) 1592 Hz (b) 1125 Hz
in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the (c) 281 Hz (d) 398 Hz
filter is:
10. A high-pass -connected symmetrical filter
(a) 1007 Hz (b) 251.6 Hz section has a capacitance of 5000 pF in its
(c) 711.8 Hz (d) 177.9 Hz series arm and inductances of 500 µH in each
of its shunt arms. The cut-off frequency of
6. A low-pass -connected symmetrical filter the filter is:
section has an inductance of 200 mH in its
series arm and capacitances of 400 pF in (a) 201.3 kHz (b) 71.18 kHz
each of its shunt arms. The cut-off frequency (c) 50.33 kHz (d) 284.7 kHz
of the filter is:
The following refers to questions 11 and 12.
(a) 25.16 kHz (b) 6.29 kHz
A filter section is required to pass all fre-
(c) 17.79 kHz (d) 35.59 kHz quencies above 50 kHz and to have a nominal
impedance of 650 .
The following refers to questions 7 and 8.
11. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
A filter section is to have a nominal impedance section is comprised of:
of 620 and a cut-off frequency of 2 MHz.
(a) Each series arm 2.45 nF, shunt arm
7. A low-pass T-connected symmetrical filter 1.03 mH
section is comprised of: (b) Each series arm 4.90 nF, shunt arm
(a) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF in 2.08 mH
shunt arm (c) Each series arm 2.45 nF, shunt arm
(b) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF in 2.08 mH
shunt arm (d) Each series arm 4.90 nF, shunt arm
(c) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF in 1.03 mH
shunt arm 12. A high-pass -connected symmetrical filter
(d) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF in section is comprised of:
shunt arm
(a) Series arm 4.90 nF, and each shunt arm
8. A low-pass -connected symmetrical filter 1.04 mH
section is comprised of: (b) Series arm 4.90 nF, and each shunt arm
(a) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF in 2.07 mH
shunt arm (c) Series arm 2.45 nF, and each shunt arm
(b) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF in 2.07 mH
shunt arm (d) Series arm 2.45 nF, and each shunt arm
(c) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF in 1.04 mH
shunt arm
TLFeBOOK
18
D.C. transients
ž understand the term ‘transient’

ž describe the transient response of capacitor and resistor voltages, and current in a
series C–R d.c. circuit
ž define the term ‘time constant’
ž calculate time constant in a C–R circuit
ž draw transient growth and decay curves for a C–R circuit
ž use equations vC D V1 et/ , vR D Vet/ and i D Iet/ for a C–R circuit
ž describe the transient response when discharging a capacitor
ž describe the transient response of inductor and resistor voltages, and current in a
series L –R d.c. circuit
ž calculate time constant in an L –R circuit
ž draw transient growth and decay curves for an L –R circuit
ž use equations vL D Vet/ , vR D V1 et/ and i D I1 et/
ž describe the transient response for current decay in an L –R circuit
ž understand the switching of inductive circuits
ž describe the effects of time constant on a rectangular waveform via integrator and
differentiator circuits
18.1 Introduction 18.2 Charging a capacitor
When a d.c. voltage is applied to a capacitor C and (a) The circuit diagram for a series connected C–R
resistor R connected in series, there is a short period circuit is shown in Fig. 18.1 When switch S is
of time immediately after the voltage is connected, closed then by Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
during which the current flowing in the circuit and V D vC C vR 1
voltages across C and R are changing.
Similarly, when a d.c. voltage is connected to (b) The battery voltage V is constant. The capacitor
a circuit having inductance L connected in series voltage vC is given by q/C, where q is the charge
with resistance R, there is a short period of time on the capacitor. The voltage drop across R is
immediately after the voltage is connected, during given by iR, where i is the current flowing in
which the current flowing in the circuit and the the circuit. Hence at all times:
voltages across L and R are changing. q
These changing values are called transients. V D C iR 2
C
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS 249
Figure 18.1
At the instant of closing S, (initial circuit con-

dition), assuming there is no initial charge on
the capacitor, q0 is zero, hence vCo is zero. Thus
from Equation (1), V D 0 C vRo , i.e. vRo D V.
This shows that the resistance to current is solely
due to R, and the initial current flowing, i0 D I D
V/R
(c) A short time later at time t1 seconds after clos- Figure 18.2
ing S, the capacitor is partly charged to, say,
q1 coulombs because current has been flowing.
The voltage vC1 is now q1 /C volts. If the cur- 18.3 Time constant for a C–R circuit
rent flowing is i1 amperes, then the voltage drop
across R has fallen to i1 R volts. Thus, Equa- (a) If a constant d.c. voltage is applied to a series
tion (2) is now V D q1 /C C i1 R connected C–R circuit, a transient curve of
capacitor voltage vC is as shown in Fig. 18.2(a).
(d) A short time later still, say at time t2 seconds
after closing the switch, the charge has increased (b) With reference to Fig. 18.3, let the constant
to q2 coulombs and vC has increased to q2 /C voltage supply be replaced by a variable voltage
volts. Since V D vC C vR and V is a constant, supply at time t1 seconds. Let the voltage be
then vR decreases to i2 R, Thus vC is increasing varied so that the current flowing in the circuit
and i and vR are decreasing as time increases. is constant.
(e) Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S, (i.e. at

the final or steady state condition), the capacitor
is fully charged to, say, Q coulombs, current no
longer flows, i.e. i D 0, and hence vR D iR D 0.
It follows from Equation (1) that vC D V.
(f) Curves showing the changes in vC , vR and i with
time are shown in Fig. 18.2
The curve showing the variation of vC with
time is called an exponential growth curve and
the graph is called the ‘capacitor voltage/time’
characteristic. The curves showing the variation Figure 18.3
of vR and i with time are called exponential
decay curves, and the graphs are called ‘resistor (c) Since the current flowing is a constant, the curve
voltage/time’ and ‘current/time’ characteristics will follow a tangent, AB, drawn to the curve at
respectively. (The name‘exponential’ shows that point A.
the shape can be expressed mathematically by an
exponential mathematical equation, as shown in (d) Let the capacitor voltage vC reach its final value
Section 18.4). of V at time t2 seconds.
TLFeBOOK
(e) The time corresponding to t2 t1 seconds is

called the time constant of the circuit, denoted growth of capacitor voltage,
by the Greek letter ‘tau’, . The value of the
time constant is CR seconds, i.e. for a series vC = V .1 − e−t =CR / = V .1 − e−t =t /
connected C–R circuit, decay of resistor voltage,
time constant t = CR seconds vR = V e−t =CR = V e−t =t and
Since the variable voltage mentioned in para- decay of resistor voltage,
graph (b) above can be applied at any instant i = I e−t =CR = I e−t =t
during the transient change, it may be applied
at t D 0, i.e. at the instant of connecting the cir-
cuit to the supply. If this is done, then the time
constant of the circuit may be defined as: ‘the Problem 1. A 15 µF uncharged capacitor is
time taken for a transient to reach its final state connected in series with a 47 k resistor
if the initial rate of change is maintained’. across a 120 V, d.c. supply. Use the
tangential graphical method to draw the
capacitor voltage/time characteristic of the
circuit. From the characteristic, determine the
18.4 Transient curves for a C–R capacitor voltage at a time equal to one time
circuit constant after being connected to the supply,
and also two seconds after being connected
There are two main methods of drawing transient to the supply. Also, find the time for the
curves graphically, these being: capacitor voltage to reach one half of its
steady state value.
(a) the tangent method – this method is shown in
Problem 1 To construct an exponential curve, the time constant
(b) the initial slope and three point method, which of the circuit and steady state value need to be
is shown in Problem 2, and is based on the determined.
following properties of a transient exponential Time constant D CR D 15 µF ð 47 k
curve:
D 15 ð 106 ð 47 ð 103
(i) for a growth curve, the value of a transient
at a time equal to one time constant is 0.632 D 0.705 s
of its steady state value (usually taken as Steady state value of vC D V, i.e. vC D 120 V.
63 per cent of the steady state value), at a With reference to Fig. 18.4, the scale of the hor-
time equal to two and a half time constants izontal axis is drawn so that it spans at least five
is 0.918 of its steady state value (usually time constants, i.e. 5 ð 0.705 or about 3.5 seconds.
taken as 92 per cent of its steady state value) The scale of the vertical axis spans the change in
and at a time equal to five time constants is
equal to its steady state value, t
(ii) for a decay curve, the value of a transient at t
VC t
t
a time equal to one time constant is 0.368 t
E CF K B
Capacitor voltage (v)
of its initial value (usually taken as 37 per A

cent of its initial value), at a time equal to 100
J
two and a half time constants is 0.082 of its 80 I
initial value (usually taken as 8 per cent of
60 H
its initial value) and at a time equal to five
time constants is equal to zero. 40 G
20 D
The transient curves shown in Fig. 18.2 have math- t
0 1 2 3 4 5
ematical equations, obtained by solving the differen- Time (s)
tial equations representing the circuit. The equations
of the curves are: Figure 18.4
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS 251
the capacitor voltage, that is, from 0 to 120 V. A To draw the transient curves, the time constant of
broken line AB is drawn corresponding to the final the circuit and steady state values are needed.
value of vC .
Point C is measured along AB so that AC is Time constant, D CR
equal to 1, i.e. AC D 0.705 s. Straight line OC is D 4 ð 106 ð 220 ð 103
drawn. Assuming that about five intermediate points
are needed to draw the curve accurately, a point D D 0.88 s
is selected on OC corresponding to a vC value of
about 20 V. DE is drawn vertically. EF is made to Initially, capacitor voltage vC D vR D 24 V,
correspond to 1, i.e. EF D 0.705 s. A straight line
is drawn joining DF. This procedure of V 24
iD D
R 220 ð 103
(a) drawing a vertical line through point selected,
D 0.109 mA
(b) at the steady-state value, drawing a horizontal
line corresponding to 1, and Finally, vC D vR D i D 0.
(c) joining the first and last points,
is repeated for vC values of 40, 60, 80 and 100 V, (a) The exponential decay of capacitor voltage is
giving points G, H, I and J. from 24 V to 0 V in a time equal to five time
The capacitor voltage effectively reaches its constants, i.e. 5 ð 0.88 D 4.4 s. With reference
steady-state value of 120 V after a time equal to to Fig. 18.5, to construct the decay curve:
five time constants, shown as point K. Drawing a (i) the horizontal scale is made so that it spans
smooth curve through points O, D, G, H, I, J and at least five time constants, i.e. 4.4 s,
K gives the exponential growth curve of capacitor (ii) the vertical scale is made to span the
voltage. change in capacitor voltage, i.e. 0 to 24 V,
From the graph, the value of capacitor voltage at (iii) point A corresponds to the initial capacitor
a time equal to the time constant is about 75 V. It voltage, i.e. 24 V,
is a characteristic of all exponential growth curves, (iv) OB is made equal to one time constant and
that after a time equal to one time constant, the line AB is drawn; this gives the initial slope
value of the transient is 0.632 of its steady-state of the transient,
value. In this problem, 0.632 ð 120 D 75.84 V. Also (v) the value of the transient after a time equal
from the graph, when t is two seconds, vC is about to one time constant is 0.368 of the initial
115 Volts. [This value may be checked using the
equation vC D V1 et/ , where V D 120 V,
D 0.705 s and t D 2 s. This calculation gives
vC D 112.97 V].
The time for vC to rise to one half of its final
value, i.e. 60 V, can be determined from the graph
and is about 0.5 s. [This value may be checked using
vC D V1et/ where V D 120 V, vC D 60 V and
D 0.705 s, giving t D 0.489 s].
Problem 2. A 4 µF capacitor is charged to

24 V and then discharged through a 220 k
resistor. Use the ‘initial slope and three
point’ method to draw: (a) the
capacitor voltage/time characteristic, (b) the
resistor voltage/time characteristic and
(c) the current/time characteristic, for the
transients which occur. From the
characteristics determine the value of
capacitor voltage, resistor voltage and current
1.5 s after discharge has started.
Figure 18.5
TLFeBOOK
value, i.e. 0.368 ð 24 D 8.83 V; a vertical

line is drawn through B and distance BC is Problem 3. A 20 µF capacitor is connected
made equal to 8.83 V, in series with a 50 k resistor and the circuit
(vi) the value of the transient after a time equal is connected to a 20 V, d.c. supply.
to two and a half time constants is 0.082 of Determine: (a) the initial value of the current
the initial value, i.e. 0.082 ð 24 D 1.97 V, flowing, (b) the time constant of the circuit,
shown as point D in Fig. 18.5, (c) the value of the current one second after
(vii) the transient effectively dies away to zero connection, (d) the value of the capacitor
after a time equal to five time constants, i.e. voltage two seconds after connection, and
4.4 s, giving point E. (e) the time after connection when the
resistor voltage is 15 V.
The smooth curve drawn through points A, C,
D and E represents the decay transient. At 1.5 s
after decay has started, vC ³ 4.4 V. Parts (c), (d) and (e) may be determined graphically,
[This may be checked using vC D Vet/ , as shown in Problems 1 and 2 or by calculation as
where V D 24, t D 1.5 and D 0.88, giving shown below.
vC D 4.36 V]
V D 20 V, C D 20 µF D 20 ð 106 F,
(b) The voltage drop across the resistor is equal R D 50 k D 50 ð 103 V
to the capacitor voltage when a capacitor is
discharging through a resistor, thus the resistor
voltage/time characteristic is identical to that (a) The initial value of the current flowing is
shown in Fig. 18.5 Since vR D vC , then at 1.5 V 20
seconds after decay has started, vR ³ 4.4 V (see ID D D 0.4 mA
R 50 ð 103
(vii) above).
(b) From Section 18.3 the time constant,
(c) The current/time characteristic is constructed
in the same way as the capacitor voltage/time D CR D 20 ð 106 50 ð 103 D 1 s
characteristic, shown in part (a), and is as shown
in Fig. 18.6 The values are: (c) Current, i D Iet/ and working in mA units,
point A: initial value of current D 0.109 mA i D 0.4e1/1 D 0.4 ð 0.368 D 0.147 mA
point C: at 1 , i D 0.368 ð 0.109 D 0.040 mA
point D: at 2.5 , i D 0.082 ð 0.109 D 0.009 mA (d) Capacitor voltage,
point E: at 5 , i D 0
Hence the current transient is as shown. At a vC D V1 et/ D 201 e2/1
time of 1.5 s, the value of current, from the D 201 0.135 D 20 ð 0.865
characteristic is 0.02 mA
[This may be checked using i D Iet/ where D 18.3 V
I D 0.109, t D 1.5 and D 0.88, giving (e) Resistor voltage, vR D Vet/
i D 0.0198 mA or 19.8 µA] Thus 15 D 20et/1 , 15/20 D et from which
et D 20/15 D 4/3
Taking natural logarithms of each side of the
equation gives
4
t D ln D ln 1.3333 i.e. time, t = 0.288 s
3
Problem 4. A circuit consists of a resistor

connected in series with a 0.5 µF capacitor
and has a time constant of 12 ms. Determine:
(a) the value of the resistor, and (b) the
capacitor voltage, 7 ms after connecting the
circuit to a 10 V supply.
Figure 18.6
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS 253
(a) The time constant D CR, hence

RD
C
12 ð 103
D
0.5 ð 106
D 24 ð 103 D 24 kZ
(b) The equation for the growth of capacitor voltage

is: vC D V1 et/
Since D 12 ms D 12 ð 103 s, V D 10 V and
t D 7 ms D 7 ð 103 s, then
3
/12ð103
vC D 101 e7ð10
0.583
D 101 e
D 101 0.558 D 4.42 V
Alternatively, the value of vC when t is 7 ms

Figure 18.8
may be determined using the growth character-
istic as shown in Problem 1.
decay of voltage,
18.5 Discharging a capacitor vC = vR = V e.−t =CR / = V e.−t =t/
When a capacitor is charged (i.e. with the switch decay of current, i = I e.−t =CR / = I e.−t =t/
in position A in Fig. 18.7), and the switch is then
moved to position B, the electrons stored in the
capacitor keep the current flowing for a short time. When a capacitor has been disconnected from the
Initially, at the instant of moving from A to B, the supply it may still be charged and it may retain this
current flow is such that the capacitor voltage vC is charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions
balanced by an equal and opposite voltage vR D iR. must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is auto-
Since initially vC D vR D V, then i D I D V/R. matically discharged after the supply is switched off.
During the transient decay, by applying Kirchhoff’s This is done by connecting a high value resistor
voltage law to Fig. 18.7, vC D vR . across the capacitor terminals.
Finally the transients decay exponentially to zero,
i.e. vC D vR D 0. The transient curves representing
the voltages and current are as shown in Fig. 18.8 Problem 5. A capacitor is charged to 100 V
The equations representing the transient curves and then discharged through a 50 k resistor.
during the discharge period of a series connected If the time constant of the circuit is 0.8 s.
C–R circuit are: Determine: (a) the value of the capacitor,
(b) the time for the capacitor voltage to fall
to 20 V, (c) the current flowing when the
capacitor has been discharging for 0.5 s, and
(d) the voltage drop across the resistor when
the capacitor has been discharging for one
second.
Parts (b), (c) and (d) of this problem may be solved

Figure 18.7 graphically as shown in Problems 1 and 2 or by
TLFeBOOK
calculation as shown below.

V D 100 V, D 0.8 s, R D 50 k D 50 ð 103 Exercise 100 Further problems on
transients in series connected C–R circuits
(a) Since time constant, D CR, capacitance,
1 An uncharged capacitor of 0.2 µF is connected
0.8 to a 100 V, d.c. supply through a resistor of
CD D D 16 mF
R 50 ð 103 100 k. Determine, either graphically or by
(b) Since vC D Vet/ then 20 D 100et/0.8 from calculation the capacitor voltage 10 ms after
the voltage has been applied [39.35 V]
which 1/5 D et/0.8
Thus et/0.8 D 5 and taking natural logarithms 2 A circuit consists of an uncharged capacitor
of each side, gives t/0.8 D ln 5 and time, connected in series with a 50 k resistor and
t D 0.8 ln 5 D 1.29 s. has a time constant of 15 ms. Determine either
(c) i D Iet/ where the initial current flowing, graphically or by calculation (a) the capaci-
tance of the capacitor and (b) the voltage drop
V 100 across the resistor 5 ms after connecting the
ID D D 2 mA
R 50 ð 103 circuit to a 20 V, d.c. supply.
Working in mA units, [(a) 0.3 µF (b) 14.33 V]
3 A 10 µF capacitor is charged to 120 V and
i D Iet/ D 2e0.5/0.8 then discharged through a 1.5 M resistor.
D 2e0.625 D 2 ð 0.535 D 1.07 mA Determine either graphically or by calculation
the capacitor voltage 2 s after discharging has
(d) vR D vC D Vet/ D 100e1/0.8 commenced. Also find how long it takes for
the voltage to fall to 25 V [105.0 V, 23.53 s]
D 100e1.25 D 100 ð 0.287 D 28.7 V
4 A capacitor is connected in series with a
Problem 6. A 0.1 µF capacitor is charged to voltmeter of resistance 750 k and a battery.
200 V before being connected across a 4 k When the voltmeter reading is steady the bat-
resistor. Determine (a) the initial discharge tery is replaced with a shorting link. If it
current, (b) the time constant of the circuit, takes 17 s for the voltmeter reading to fall to
and (c) the minimum time required for the two-thirds of its original value, determine the
voltage across the capacitor to fall to less capacitance of the capacitor. [55.9 µF]
than 2 V.
5 When a 3 µF charged capacitor is connected to
a resistor, the voltage falls by 70 per cent in
(a) Initial discharge current, 3.9 s. Determine the value of the resistor.
V 200 [1.08 M]
iD D D 0.05 A or 50 mA
R 4 ð 103 6 A 50 µF uncharged capacitor is connected in
(b) Time constant D CR D 0.1 ð 106 ð 4 ð 103 series with a 1 k resistor and the circuit is
switched to a 100 V, d.c. supply. Determine:
D 0.0004 s or 0.4 ms
(a) the initial current flowing in the circuit,
(c) The minimum time for the capacitor voltage to (b) the time constant,
fall to less than 2 V, i.e. less than 2/200 or 1 (c) the value of current when t is 50 ms and
per cent of the initial value is given by 5. (d) the voltage across the resistor 60 ms after
5 D 5 ð 0.4 D 2 ms closing the switch.
[(a) 0.1 A (b) 50 ms
(c) 36.8 mA (d) 30.1 V]
In a d.c. circuit, a capacitor blocks the current
except during the times that there are changes in the 7 An uncharged 5 µF capacitor is connected in
supply voltage. series with a 30 k resistor across a 110 V,
d.c. supply. Determine the time constant of
the circuit and the initial charging current. Use
Now try the following exercise a graphical method to draw the current/time
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS 255
characteristic of the circuit and hence deter- di

VDL C iR 4
mine the current flowing 120 ms after connect- dt
ing to the supply. (c) At the instant of closing the switch, the rate of
[150 ms, 3.67 mA, 1.65 mA] change of current is such that it induces an e.m.f.
8 An uncharged 80 µF capacitor is connected in in the inductance which is equal and opposite
series with a 1 k resistor and is switched to V, hence V D vL C 0, i.e. vL D V. From
across a 110 V supply. Determine the time Equation (3), because vL D V, then vR D 0 and
constant of the circuit and the initial value i D 0.
of current flowing. Derive graphically the cur- (d) A short time later at time t1 seconds after closing
rent/time characteristic for the transient condi- S, current i1 is flowing, since there is a rate of
tion and hence determine the value of current change of current initially, resulting in a voltage
flowing after (a) 40 ms and (b) 80 ms drop of i1 R across the resistor. Since V (which
[80 ms, 0.11 A (a) 66.7 mA (b) 40.5 mA] is constant) D vL C vR the induced e.m.f. is
reduced, and Equation (4) becomes:
9 A resistor of 0.5 M is connected in series
with a 20 µF capacitor and the capacitor is di1
charged to 200 V. The battery is replaced VDL C i1 R
dt1
instantaneously by a conducting link. Draw
a graph showing the variation of capacitor (e) A short time later still, say at time t2 seconds
voltage with time over a period of at least 6 after closing the switch, the current flowing is i2 ,
time constants. Determine from the graph the and the voltage drop across the resistor increases
approximate time for the capacitor voltage to to i2 R. Since vR increases, vL decreases.
fall to 75 V [9.8 s] (f) Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S, the
current flow is entirely limited by R, the rate of
change of current is zero and hence vL is zero.
Thus V D iR. Under these conditions, steady
state current flows, usually signified by I. Thus,
18.6 Current growth in an L–R circuit I D V/R, vR D IR and vL D 0 at steady state
conditions.
(a) The circuit diagram for a series connected L –R
(g) Curves showing the changes in vL , vR and i with
circuit is shown in Fig. 18.9 When switch S is
time are shown in Fig. 18.10 and indicate that
closed, then by Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
V D vL C vR 3
Figure 18.9
(b) The battery voltage V is constant. The voltage

across the inductance is the induced voltage, i.e.
change of current di
vL D L ð DL
change of time dt
The voltage drop across R, vR is given by iR.
Hence, at all times: Figure 18.10
TLFeBOOK
vL is a maximum value initially (i.e. equal to V), Before the current/time characteristic can be drawn,
decaying exponentially to zero, whereas vR and the time constant and steady-state value of the
i grow exponentially from zero to their steady current have to be calculated.
state values of V and I D V/R respectively. Time constant,
L 10 ð 103
D D D 5 ms
18.7 Time constant for an L–R circuit R 20
With reference to Section 18.3, the time constant of Final value of current,
a series connected L –R circuit is defined in the same
way as the time constant for a series connected C–R V 60
ID D D 3A
circuit. Its value is given by: R 20
L The method used to construct the characteristic is

time constant, t = seconds the same as that used in Problem 2
R
(a) The scales should span at least five time
constants (horizontally), i.e. 25 ms, and 3 A
18.8 Transient curves for an L–R (vertically)
circuit (b) With reference to Fig. 18.11, the initial slope is
obtained by making AB equal to 1 time constant,
Transient curves representing the induced volt- (i.e. 5 ms), and joining OB.
age/time, resistor voltage/time and current/time
characteristics may be drawn graphically, as out-
lined in Section 18.4 A method of construction is
shown in Problem 7.
Each of the transient curves shown in Fig. 18.10
have mathematical equations, and these are:
decay of induced voltage,

vL = V e.−Rt =L/ = V e.−t =t/
growth of resistor voltage,
vR = V .1 − e−Rt =L / = V .1 − e−t =t /
growth of current flow, Figure 18.11
i = I .1 − e−Rt =L / = I .1 − e−t =t /
(c) At a time of 1 time constant, CD is 0.632 ð I D
0.632 ð 3 D 1.896 A.
At a time of 2.5 time constants, EF is 0.918ðI D
The application of these equations is shown in 0.918 ð 3 D 2.754 A.
Problem 9. At a time of 5 time constants, GH is I D 3 A.
Problem 7. A relay has an inductance of (d) A smooth curve is drawn through points 0,
100 mH and a resistance of 20 . It is D, F and H and this curve is the current/time
connected to a 60 V, d.c. supply. Use the characteristic.
‘initial slope and three point’ method to draw
the current/time characteristic and hence From the characteristic, when t D 2, i ³ 2.6 A.
determine the value of current flowing at a [This may be checked by calculation using i D
time equal to two time constants and the I1 et/ , where I D 3 and t D 2, giving
time for the current to grow to 1.5 A. i D 2.59 A]. Also, when the current is 1.5 A, the
corresponding time is about 3.6 ms. [Again, this may
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS 257
be checked by calculation, using i D I1 et/ (c) The induced e.m.f., vL is given by vL D Vet/ .
where i D 1.5, I D 3 and D 5 ms, giving The d.c. voltage V is 120 V, t is 0.1 s and is
t D 3.466 ms]. 0.2 s, hence
vL D 120e0.1/0.2 D 120e0.5
Problem 8. A coil of inductance 0.04 H and
resistance 10 is connected to a 120 V, d.c. D 120 ð 0.6065 D 72.78 V
supply. Determine (a) the final value of (d) When the current is 85 per cent of its final value,
current, (b) the time constant of the circuit,
(c) the value of current after a time equal to i D 0.85 I. Also, i D I1 et/ , thus
the time constant from the instant the supply
voltage is connected, (d) the expected time 0.85I D I1 et/
for the current to rise to within 1 per cent of 0.85 D 1 et/
its final value.
D 0.2, hence
V 120 0.85 D 1 et/0.2
(a) Final steady current, I D D D 12 A
R 10
et/0.2 D 1 0.85 D 0.15
(b) Time constant of the circuit,
1
L 0.004 et/0.2 D D 6.6P
D D D 0.004 s or 4 ms 0.15
R 10 Taking natural logarithms of each side of this
(c) In the time s the current rises to 63.2 per cent equation gives:
of its final value of 12 A, i.e. in 4 ms the current
rises to 0.632 ð 12 D 7.58 A. ln et/0.2 D ln 6.6P
(d) The expected time for the current to rise to and by the laws of logarithms
within 1 per cent of its final value is given by
t
5 s, i.e. 5 ð 4 D 20 ms. ln e D ln 6.6P
0.2
Problem 9. The winding of an ln e D 1, hence time t D 0.2 ln 6.6P D 0.379 s

electromagnet has an inductance of 3 H and a (e) The current at any instant is given by i D
resistance of 15 . When it is connected to a I1 et/ . When I D 8, t D 0.3 and D 0.2,
120 V, d.c. supply, calculate: (a) the steady then
state value of current flowing in the winding,
(b) the time constant of the circuit, (c) the i D 81 e0.3/0.2 D 81 e1.5
value of the induced e.m.f. after 0.1 s, (d) the
time for the current to rise to 85 per cent of D 81 0.2231 D 8 ð 0.7769 D 6.215 A
its final value, and (e) the value of the
current after 0.3 s.
18.9 Current decay in an L–R circuit
(a) The steady state value of current, When a series connected L –R circuit is connected
V 120 to a d.c. supply as shown with S in position A of
I D D D 8A
R 15
(b) The time constant of the circuit,
L 3
D D D 0.2 s
R 15
Parts (c), (d) and (e) of this problem may
be determined by drawing the transients
graphically, as shown in Problem 7 or by
calculation as shown below. Figure 18.12
TLFeBOOK
Fig. 18.12, a current I D V/R flows after a short

time, creating a magnetic field  / I associated
with the inductor. When S is moved to position B,
the current value decreases, causing a decrease in the
strength of the magnetic field. Flux linkages occur,
generating a voltage vL , equal to Ldi/dt. By Lenz’s
law, this voltage keeps current i flowing in the
circuit, its value being limited by R. Thus vL D vR .
The current decays exponentially to zero and since
vR is proportional to the current flowing, vR decays
exponentially to zero. Since vL D vR , vL also decays
exponentially to zero. The curves representing these Figure 18.13
transients are similar to those shown in Fig. 18.8
The equations representing the decay transient
curves are: (iv) Repeat the procedure given in (iii) for current
values of, say, 4 A, 2 A and 1 A, giving points
F, G and H
decay of voltages,
(v) Point J is at five time constants, when the value
vL = vR = V e.−Rt =L/ = V e.−t =t/ of current is zero.
decay of current, i = I e.−Rt =L/ = I e.−t =t/ (vi) Join points A, C, F, G, H and J with a
smooth curve. This curve is the current/time
characteristic.
(a) From the current/time characteristic, when
Problem 10. The field winding of a 110 V, t D 3 s, i D 1.3 A [This may be checked by
d.c. motor has a resistance of 15 and a P
calculation using i D Iet/ , where I D 7.3,
time constant of 2 s. Determine the t D 3 and D 2, giving i D 1.64 A] The
inductance and use the tangential method to discrepancy between the two results is due
draw the current/time characteristic when the to relatively few values, such as C, F, G
supply is removed and replaced by a shorting and H, being taken.
link. From the characteristic determine (b) From the characteristic, when i D 5 A,
(a) the current flowing in the winding 3 s t = 0.70 s [This may be checked by
after being shorted-out and (b) the time for calculation using i D Iet/ , where i D 5,
the current to decay to 5 A. P D 2, giving t D 0.766 s]. Again,
I D 7.3,
the discrepancy between the graphical and
calculated values is due to relatively few
Since the time constant, D L/R, L D R i.e. values such as C, F, G and H being taken.
inductance L D 15 ð 2 D 30 H
The current/time characteristic is constructed in a
similar way to that used in Problem 1
Problem 11. A coil having an inductance of
6 H and a resistance of R is connected in
(i) The scales should span at least five time series with a resistor of 10 to a 120 V, d.c.
constants horizontally, i.e. 10 s, and I D V/R D supply. The time constant of the circuit is
110/15 D 7.3P A vertically 300 ms. When steady-state conditions have
been reached, the supply is replaced
(ii) With reference to Fig. 18.13, the initial slope instantaneously by a short-circuit. Determine:
is obtained by making OB equal to 1 time (a) the resistance of the coil, (b) the current
constant, (i.e. 2 s), and joining AB flowing in the circuit one second after the
shorting link has been placed in the circuit,
(iii) At, say, i D 6 A, let C be the point on AB and (c) the time taken for the current to fall
corresponding to a current of 6 A. Make DE to 10 per cent of its initial value.
equal to 1 time constant, (i.e. 2 s), and join CE
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS 259
(a) The time constant, The time constant,

circuit inductance L
D D L 0.2
total circuit resistance R C 10 D D D 0.2 ms
R 1000
L 6 The steady-state current
Thus R D 10 D 10 D 10 Z
0.3
V 24
Parts (b) and (c) may be determined graphically ID D D 24 mA
as shown in Problems 7 and 10 or by calculation R 1000
as shown below. (a) The transient current,
(b) The steady-state current,
i D I1 et/ and t D 1.
V 120
ID D D 6A Working in mA units gives,
R 10 C 10
The transient current after 1 second,
i D 241 e1/ D 241 e1
i D Iet/ D 6e1/0.3
D 241 0.368 D 15.17 mA
3.3P
Thus i D 6e D 6 ð 0.03567 (b) The voltage drop across the inductor,
D 0.214 A vL D Vet/
(c) 10 per cent of the initial value of the current is When t D 2, vL D 24e2/ D 24e2
10/100 ð 6, i.e. 0.6 A Using the equation
D 3.248 V
t/
i D Ie gives (c) The voltage drop across the resistor,
0.6 D 6e t/0.3 vR D V1 et/
0.6
i.e. D et/0.3 When t D 3, vR D 241 e3/
6
6 D 241 e3
or et/0.3 D D 10
0.6 D 22.81 V
Taking natural logarithms of each side of this
equation gives: Now try the following exercise
t
D ln 10
0.3
from which, time, t = 0.3 ln 10 = 0.691 s transients in series L–R circuits
1 A coil has an inductance of 1.2 H and a resis-
Problem 12. An inductor has a negligible tance of 40 and is connected to a 200 V,
resistance and an inductance of 200 mH and d.c. supply. Draw the current/time characteris-
is connected in series with a 1 k resistor to tic and hence determine the approximate value
a 24 V, d.c. supply. Determine the time of the current flowing 60 ms after connecting
constant of the circuit and the steady-state the coil to the supply. [4.3 A]
value of the current flowing in the circuit.
Find (a) the current flowing in the circuit at a 2 A 25 V d.c. supply is connected to a coil
time equal to one time constant, (b) the of inductance 1 H and resistance 5 . Use
voltage drop across the inductor at a time a graphical method to draw the exponential
equal to two time constants and (c) the growth curve of current and hence determine
voltage drop across the resistor after a time the approximate value of the current flowing
equal to three time constants. 100 ms after being connected to the supply.
[2 A]
TLFeBOOK
3 An inductor has a resistance of 20 and dissipated as heat in RD and R and arcing at the
an inductance of 4 H. It is connected to a switch contacts is avoided.
50 V d.c. supply. By drawing the appropriate
characteristic find (a) the approximate value of
current flowing after 0.1 s and (b) the time for 18.11 The effects of time constant on a
the current to grow to 1.5 A
[(a) 1 A (b) 0.18 s]
rectangular waveform
4 The field winding of a 200 V d.c. machine Integrator circuit
has a resistance of 20 and an inductance of
By varying the value of either C or R in a series
500 mH. Calculate:
connected C–R circuit, the time constant D CR,
(a) the time constant of the field winding,
of a circuit can be varied. If a rectangular waveform
(b) the value of current flow one time constant
varying from CE to E is applied to a C–R circuit
after being connected to the supply, and
as shown in Fig. 18.15, output waveforms of the
(c) the current flowing 50 ms after the supply
capacitor voltage have various shapes, depending
has been switched on
on the value of R. When R is small, D CR is
[(a) 25 ms (b) 6.32 A (c) 8.65 A]
small and an output waveform such as that shown
in Fig. 18.16(a) is obtained. As the value of R is
increased, the waveform changes to that shown in
Fig. 18.16(b). When R is large, the waveform is
as shown in Fig. 18.16(c), the circuit then being
described as an integrator circuit.
18.10 Switching inductive circuits
Energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor

exists because a current provides the magnetic field.
When the d.c. supply is switched off the current
falls rapidly, the magnetic field collapses causing
a large induced e.m.f. which will either cause an
arc across the switch contacts or will break down Figure 18.15
the insulation between adjacent turns of the coil.
The high induced e.m.f. acts in a direction which
tends to keep the current flowing, i.e. in the same
direction as the applied voltage. The energy from
the magnetic field will thus be aided by the supply
voltage in maintaining an arc, which could cause
severe damage to the switch. To reduce the induced
e.m.f. when the supply switch is opened, a discharge
resistor RD is connected in parallel with the inductor
as shown in Fig. 18.14 The magnetic field energy is
Figure 18.16
Differentiator circuit
If a rectangular waveform varying from CE to
Figure 18.14 E is applied to a series connected C–R circuit
TLFeBOOK
Section 3
Electrical Power Technology
TLFeBOOK
20
Three-phase systems
ž describe a single-phase supply

ž describe a three-phase supply

ž understand a star connection, and recognize that IL D Ip and VL D 3 Vp
ž draw a complete phasor diagram for a balanced, star connected load

ž understand a delta connection, and recognize that VL D Vp and IL D 3 Ip
ž draw a phasor diagram for a balanced, delta connected load
p
ž calculate power in three-phase systems using P D 3 VL IL cos
ž appreciate how power is measured in a three-phase system, by the one, two and
three-wattmeter methods
ž compare star and delta connections
ž appreciate the advantages of three-phase systems
The voltage induced by a single coil when rotated

20.1 Introduction in a uniform magnetic field is shown in Fig. 20.1
and is known as a single-phase voltage. Most con-
Generation, transmission and distribution of electric- sumers are fed by means of a single-phase a.c.
ity via the National Grid system is accomplished by supply. Two wires are used, one called the live con-
three-phase alternating currents. ductor (usually coloured red) and the other is called
the neutral conductor (usually coloured black). The
neutral is usually connected via protective gear to
ω earth, the earth wire being coloured green. The stan-
R dard voltage for a single-phase a.c. supply is 240 V.
The majority of single-phase supplies are obtained
N S by connection to a three-phase supply (see Fig. 20.5,
R1 page 289).
Induced eR
EMF
e
0 90° 180° 270° 360°
20.2 Three-phase supply
ωt
A three-phase supply is generated when three coils
are placed 120° apart and the whole rotated in a
Figure 20.1 uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig. 20.2(a). The
TLFeBOOK
ω
R 120°
Y1 B1
N S (a)
B Y
120° R1
Induced eR eY eB
EMF
e (b) Figure 20.3
0 90° 180° 270° 360°
120° 120° 120° connected to a load and the outlets from the
loads are joined together at N to form what is
Figure 20.2
termed the neutral point or the star point.
result is three independent supplies of equal voltages (ii) The voltages, VR , VY and VB are called phase
which are each displaced by 120° from each other voltages or line to neutral voltages. Phase volt-
as shown in Fig. 20.2(b). ages are generally denoted by Vp .
(iii) The voltages, VRY , VYB and VBR are called
(i) The convention adopted to identify each of the line voltages.
phase voltages is: R-red, Y-yellow, and B-blue,
as shown in Fig. 20.2 (iv) From Fig. 20.3 it can be seen that the phase
currents (generally denoted by Ip ) are equal to
(ii) The phase-sequence is given by the sequence their respective line currents IR , IY and IB , i.e.
in which the conductors pass the point initially for a star connection:
taken by the red conductor. The national stan-
dard phase sequence is R, Y, B. IL = Ip
A three-phase a.c. supply is carried by three con-
ductors, called ‘lines’ which are coloured red, yel- (v) For a balanced system:
low and blue. The currents in these conductors are
known as line currents IL and the p.d.’s between IR D IY D IB , VR D VY D VB
them are known as line voltages VL . A fourth con-
ductor, called the neutral (coloured black, and con- VRY D VYB D VBR , ZR D ZY D ZB
nected through protective devices to earth) is often and the current in the neutral conductor,
used with a three-phase supply. IN D 0 When a star-connected system is bal-
If the three-phase windings shown in Fig. 20.2 anced, then the neutral conductor is unneces-
are kept independent then six wires are needed to sary and is often omitted.
connect a supply source (such as a generator) to a (vi) The line voltage, VRY , shown in Fig. 20.4(a)
load (such as motor). To reduce the number of wires is given by VRY D VR VY (VY is neg-
it is usual to interconnect the three phases. There are ative since it is in the opposite direction to
two ways in which this can be done, these being: VRY ). In the phasor diagram of Fig. 20.4(b),
(a) a star connection, and (b) a delta, or mesh,

connection. Sources of three-phase supplies, VRY
VR
i.e. alternators, are usually connected in VRY
N VR
star, whereas three-phase transformer windings,
motors and other loads may be connected either VY 30°
in star or delta. −VY
120°
(a)
120°
VY
20.3 Star connection VB
(b)
(i) A star-connected load is shown in Fig. 20.3
where the three line conductors are each Figure 20.4
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 289
p
phasor VY is reversed (shown by the broken (a) For a star connection, VL pD 3 Vp . p
Hence
line) and then added phasorially to VR (i.e. phase voltage, Vp D VL / 3 D 415/ 3 D
VRY D VR C VY ). By p trigonometry, or by 239.6 V or 240 V, correct to 3 significant figures.
measurement, VRY D 3 VR , i.e. for a bal-
anced star connection: (b) Phase current, Ip D Vp /Rp D 240/30 D 8 A
(c) For a star connection, Ip D IL hence the line
p current, IL D 8 A
VL = 3 Vp
Problem 2. A star-connected load consists
of three identical coils each of resistance
(See Problem 3 following for a complete pha-
30
and inductance 127.3 mH. If the line
sor diagram of a star-connected system). current is 5.08 A, calculate the line voltage if
the supply frequency is 50 Hz.
(vii) The star connection of the three phases of
a supply, together with a neutral conductor,
allows the use of two voltages – the phase Inductive reactance
voltage and the line voltage. A 4-wire system
XL D 2fL D 250127.3 ð 103 D 40
is also used when the load is not balanced.

The standard electricity supply to consumers Impedance of each phase
in Great Britain is 415/240 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase,
4-wire alternating current, and a diagram of
Zp D R2 C X2L D 302 C 402 D 50
connections is shown in Fig. 20.5

For a star connection
Problem 1. Three loads, each of resistance Vp
IL D Ip D
30
, are connected in star to a 415 V, Zp
3-phase supply. Determine (a) the system
phase voltage, (b) the phase current and Hence phase voltage,
(c) the line current.
Vp D Ip Zp D 5.0850 D 254 V
Line voltage
A ‘415 V, 3-phase supply’ means that 415 V is the p p
line voltage, VL VL D 3 Vp D 3254 D 440 V
Figure 20.5
TLFeBOOK
Problem 3. A balanced, three-wire,

star-connected, 3-phase load has a phase
voltage of 240 V, a line current of 5 A and a
lagging power factor of 0.966. Draw the
complete phasor diagram.
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 20.6.
Figure 20.7
p
(a) For a star-connected system VL D 3 Vp , hence
VL 415
Vp D p D p D 240 V
3 3
Since current I D power P/voltage V for a
resistive load then
PR 24 000
IR D D D 100 A
VR 240
PY 18 000
IY D D D 75 A
VY 240
PB 12 000
and IB D D D 50 A
Figure 20.6 VB 240
Procedure to construct the phasor diagram: (b) The three line currents are shown in the phasor
diagram of Fig. 20.8 Since each load is resistive
(i) Draw VR D VY D VB D 240 V and spaced the currents are in phase with the phase voltages
120° apart. (Note that VR is shown vertically and are hence mutually displaced by 120° . The
upwards – this however is immaterial for it current in the neutral conductor is given by
may be drawn in any direction). IN D IR C IY C IB phasorially.
(ii) Power factor D cos D 0.966 lagging. Hence
the load phase angle is given by cos1 0.966, Figure 20.9 shows the three line currents added
i.e. 15° lagging. Hence IR D IY D IB D 5 A, phasorially. oa represents IR in magnitude and direc-
lagging VR , VY and VB respectively by 15° . tion. From the nose of oa, ab is drawn representing
IY in magnitude and direction. From the nose of ab,
(iii) VRY D VR VY (phasorially). Hence VY
is reversed and added phasorially
p to VR . By
measurement, VRY D 415 V (i.e. 3ð240) and
leads VR by 30° . Similarly, VYB D VY VB
and VBR D VB VR
Problem 4. A 415 V, 3-phase, 4 wire,

star-connected system supplies three resistive
loads as shown in Fig. 20.7 Determine
(a) the current in each line and (b) the
current in the neutral conductor.
Figure 20.8
TLFeBOOK
20 kW and 25 kW in the red, yellow and

blue phases respectively. Determine the cur-
rent flowing in each of the four conductors.
[IR D 64.95 A, IY D 86.60 A,
IB D 108.25 A, IN D 37.50 A]
20.4 Delta connection

Figure 20.9
(i) A delta (or mesh) connected load is shown
bc is drawn representing IB in magnitude and direc- in Fig. 20.10 where the end of one load is
tion. oc represents the resultant, IN By measurement, connected to the start of the next load.
IN D 43 A. (ii) From Fig. 20.10, it can be seen that the line
Alternatively, by calculation, considering IR at voltages VRY , VYB and VBR are the respective
90° , IB at 210° and IY at 330° : Total horizontal phase voltages, i.e. for a delta connection:
component D 100 cos 90° C75 cos 330° C50 cos 210°
D 21.65. Total vertical component D 100 sin 90° C
75 sin 330 ° ° VL = Vp
p C 50 sin 210 D 37.50. Hence magnitude
of IN D 21.65 C 37.502 D 43.3 A
2
Exercise 108 Further problems on star

connections
1 Three loads, each of resistance 50
are con-
nected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Figure 20.10
Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase
current and (c) the line current. (iii) Using Kirchhoff’s current law in Fig. 20.10,
[(a) 231 V (b) 4.62 A (c) 4.62 A] IR D IRY IBR D IRY CIBR From the phasor
2 A star-connected load consists of three iden- diagram shown in Fig. 20.11,
pby trigonometry
tical coils, each of inductance 159.2 mH and or by measurement, IR D 3 IRY , i.e. for a
resistance 50
. If the supply frequency is delta connection:
50 Hz and the line current is 3 A determine
(a) the phase voltage and (b) the line voltage. p
IL = 3 Ip
[(a) 212 V (b) 367 V]
3 Three identical capacitors are connected in star
to a 400 V, 50 Hz 3-phase supply. If the line
current is 12 A determine the capacitance of
each of the capacitors. [165.4 µF]
4 Three coils each having resistance 6
and
inductance L H are connected in star to a
415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. If the line cur-
rent is 30 A, find the value of L.
[16.78 mH]
5 A 400 V, 3-phase, 4 wire, star-connected sys-
tem supplies three resistive loads of 15 kW, Figure 20.11
TLFeBOOK
p
(i) For a star connection: ILDIp and VLD 3 Vp .
Problem 5. Three identical coils each of
resistance 30
and inductance 127.3 mH are (a) A 415 V, 3-phase supply means that the line
connected in delta to a 440 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase voltage, VL D 415 V
supply. Determine (a) the phase current, and
(b) the line current. Phase voltage,
VL 415
Vp D p D p D 240 V
Phase impedance, Zp D 50
(from Problem 2) and 3 3
for a delta connection, Vp D VL .
(b) Impedance per phase,
(a) Phase current, p
Vp VL 440 Zp D R2 C X2L D 32 C 42 D 5
Ip D D D D 8.8 A
Zp Zp 50
Phase current,
(b) For a delta connection,
p p
IL D 3 Ip D 38.8 D 15.24 A Ip D Vp /Zp D 240/5 D 48 A
Thus when the load is connected in delta, three times Line current,
the line current is taken from the supply than is taken
if connected in star. IL D Ip D 48 A
(ii) For apdelta connection: VL D Vp and
Problem 6. Three identical capacitors are IL D 3 Ip .
connected in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase
supply. If the line current is 15 A, determine (a) Line voltage, VL D 415 V
the capacitance of each of the capacitors. Phase voltage, Vp D VL D 415 V
p (b) Phase current,
For a delta connection IL D 3 Ip . Hence phase
current, Vp 415
Ip D D D 83 A
Zp 5
IL 15
Ip D p D p D 8.66 A
3 3 Line current,
p p
Capacitive reactance per phase, IL D 3 Ip D 383 D 144 A
Vp VL
XC D D
Ip Ip
(since for a delta connection VL D Vp ). Hence
415
XC D D 47.92
Exercise 109 Further problems on delta
8.66
connections
XC D 1/2fC, from which capacitance,
1 Three loads, each of resistance 50
are con-
1 2 nected in delta to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
CD D F D 66.43 mF
2fXC 25047.92 Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase
current and (c) the line current.
[(a) 400 V (b) 8 A (c) 13.86 A]
Problem 7. Three coils each having
resistance 3
and inductive reactance 4
2 Three inductive loads each of resistance 75
are connected (i) in star and (ii) in delta to a and inductance 318.4 mH are connected in
415 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for each delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. Deter-
connection (a) the line and phase voltages mine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase cur-
and (b) the phase and line currents. rent, and (c) the line current
[(a) 415 V (b) 3.32 A (c) 5.75 A]
TLFeBOOK
3 Three identical capacitors are connected in Hence for either a star or a delta balanced connection
delta to a 400 V, 50 Hz 3-phase supply. If the the total power P is given by:
line current is 12 A determine the capacitance
of each of the capacitors. [55.13 µF]
4 Three coils each having resistance 6
and p
inductance L H are connected in delta, to a P= 3 VL IL cos f watts
415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. If the line cur- or P = 3Ip2 Rp watts
rent is 30 A, find the value of L
[73.84 mH]
5 A 3-phase, star-connected alternator delivers
a line current of 65 A to a balanced delta- Total volt-amperes
connected load at a line voltage of 380 V.
Calculate (a) the phase voltage of the alterna- p
tor, (b) the alternator phase current and (c) the S = 3 VL IL volt-amperes
load phase current.
[(a) 219.4 V (b) 65 A (c) 37.53 A]
6 Three 24 µF capacitors are connected in star Problem 8. Three 12
resistors are
across a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. What connected in star to a 415 V, 3-phase supply.
value of capacitance must be connected in Determine the total power dissipated by the
delta in order to take the same line current? resistors.
[8 µF]
p
Power dissipated, P D 3 VL IL cos or P D 3I2p Rp
Line voltage, VL D 415 V and phase voltage
20.5 Power in three-phase systems 415

Vp D p D 240 V
3
The power dissipated in a three-phase load is given
by the sum of the power dissipated in each phase. (since the resistors are star-connected). Phase cur-
If a load is balanced then the total power P is given rent,
by: P D 3 ð power consumed by one phase.
The power consumed in one phase D I2p Rp or Vp Vp 240
Vp Ip cos (where is the phase angle between Vp Ip D D D D 20 A
Zp Rp 12
and Ip ).
For a star connection, For a star connection
VL
Vp D p and Ip D IL IL D Ip D 20 A
3
hence For a purely resistive load, the power
VL p
P D 3 p IL cos D 3 VL IL cos factor D cos D 1
3
Hence power
For a delta connection,
p p
IL PD 3 VL IL cos D 3415201
Vp D VL and Ip D p
3 D 14.4 kW
hence
or power
IL p
P D 3VL p cos D 3 VL IL cos
3 P D 3I2p Rp D 3202 12 D 14.4 kW
TLFeBOOK
(Alternatively,
Problem 9. The input power to a 3-phase
a.c. motor is measured as 5 kW. If the P D 3I2p Rp D 314.502 10 D 6.3 kW
voltage and current to the motor are 400 V
and 8.6 A respectively, determine the power (b) Delta connection
factor of the system.
VL D Vp D 415 V,
Power P D 5000 W, Zp D 16.55

, cos D 0.6042
line voltage VL D 400 V, lagging (from above).
line current, IL D 8.6 A and Phase current,
p
power, P D 3 VL IL cos Ip D Vp /Zp D 415/16.55 D 25.08 A.
Hence Line current,
P p p
power factor D cos D p IL D 3 Ip D 325.08 D 43.44 A.
3 VL IL
5000 Power dissipated,
Dp D 0.839
34008.6 p
PD 3 VL IL cos
p
Problem 10. Three identical coils, each of D 341543.440.6042 D 18.87 kW
resistance 10
and inductance 42 mH are
connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to a (Alternatively,
415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. Determine the P D 3I2p Rp D 325.082 10 D 18.87 kW/
total power dissipated in each case.
Hence loads connected in delta dissipate three times
(a) Star connection the power than when connected in star, and also take
a line current three times greater.
XL D 2fL D 25042 ð 103 D 13.19
.
Problem 11. A 415 V, 3-phase a.c. motor
Phase impedance, has a power output of 12.75 kW and operates
p at a power factor of 0.77 lagging and with an
Zp D R2 C X2L D 102 C 13.192 D 16.55
. efficiency of 85 per cent. If the motor is
Line voltage, delta-connected, determine (a) the power
input, (b) the line current and (c) the phase
VL D 415 V current.
and phase voltage,
p p (a) Efficiency D power output/power input. Hence
VP D VL / 3 D 415/ 3 D 240 V.
85/100 D 12 750/power input from which,
Phase current,
Ip D Vp /Zp D 240/16.55 D 14.50 A. 12 750 ð 100
power input D
Line current, 85
D 15 000 W or 15 kW
IL D Ip D 14.50 A.
p
Power factor D cos D Rp /Zp D 10/16.55 D (b) Power, P D 3 VL IL cos , hence line current,
0.6042 lagging.
Power dissipated, P
IL D p
p p 34150.77
P D 3 VL IL cos D 341514.500.6042 15 000
Dp D 27.10 A
D 6.3 kW 34150.77
TLFeBOOK
p
(c) For a delta connection, IL D 3 Ip , hence (i) One-wattmeter method for a balanced load
phase current, Wattmeter connections for both star and delta
are shown in Fig. 20.12
IL 27.10
Ip D p D p D 15.65 A
3 3

in three-phase systems
1. Determine the total power dissipated by three
20
resistors when connected (a) in star and
(b) in delta to a 440 V, 3-phase supply. Figure 20.12
[(a) 9.68 kW (b) 29.04 kW]
2. Determine the power dissipated in the circuit
of Problem 2, Exercise 103, page 279. Total
= 3 × wattmeter reading
[1.35 kW] power
3. A balanced delta-connected load has a line
voltage of 400 V, a line current of 8 A and a (ii) Two-wattmeter method for balanced or
lagging power factor of 0.94. Draw a com- unbalanced loads
plete phasor diagram of the load. What is the A connection diagram for this method is
total power dissipated by the load? [5.21 kW] shown in Fig. 20.13 for a star-connected load.
Similar connections are made for a delta-
4. Three inductive loads, each of resistance 4
connected load.
and reactance 9
are connected in delta.
When connected to a 3-phase supply the loads
consume 1.2 kW. Calculate (a) the power fac- Total power = sum of wattmeter readings
tor of the load, (b) the phase current, (c) the
line current and (d) the supply voltage = P1 + P2
[(a) 0.406 (b) 10 A (c) 17.32 A (d) 98.49 V]
5. The input voltage, current and power to a
motor is measured as 415 V, 16.4 A and 6 kW
respectively. Determine the power factor of
the system. [0.509]
6. A 440 V, 3-phase a.c. motor has a power
output of 11.25 kW and operates at a power
factor of 0.8 lagging and with an efficiency
of 84 per cent. If the motor is delta connected
determine (a) the power input, (b) the line
current and (c) the phase current
[(a) 13.39 kW (b) 21.96 A (c) 12.68 A]
Figure 20.13
The power factor may be determined from:

20.6 Measurement of power in
three-phase systems
p P1 − P2
tan f = 3
Power in three-phase loads may be measured by the P1 + P2
following methods:
TLFeBOOK
(see Problems 12 and 15 to 18). Total instantaneous power, p D eR iR C eY iY C

eB iB and in any 3-phase system iR CiY CiB D 0;
It is possible, depending on the load power fac- hence iB D iR iY Thus,
tor, for one wattmeter to have to be ‘reversed’
to obtain a reading. In this case it is taken as a
negative reading (see Problem 17). p D eR iR C eY iY C eB iR iY
(iii) Three-wattmeter method for a three-phase, D eR eB iR C eY eB iY

4-wire system for balanced and unbalanced
loads (see Fig. 20.14). However, eR eB is the p.d. across wattmeter
1 in Fig. 20.15 and eY eB ) is the p.d. across
Total power = P1 + P2 + P3 wattmeter 2 Hence total instantaneous power,
p D (wattmeter 1 reading)
C (wattmeter 2 reading)
D p1 + p2
The moving systems of the wattmeters are
unable to follow the variations which take place
at normal frequencies and they indicate the mean
power taken over a cycle. Hence the total power,
P = P1 + P2 for balanced or unbalanced loads.
(b) The phasor diagram for the two-wattmeter

Figure 20.14 method for a balanced load having a lagging
current is shown in Fig. 20.16, where VRB D
VR VB and VYB D VY VB (phasorially).
Problem 12. (a) Show that the total power
in a 3-phase, 3-wire system using the (c) Wattmeter 1 reads VRB IR cos30° D P1 .
two-wattmeter method of measurement is
given by the sum of the wattmeter readings. Wattmeter 2 reads VYB IY cos30° C D P2 .
Draw a connection diagram. (b) Draw a
phasor diagram for the two-wattmeter
method for a balanced load. (c) Use the
phasor diagram of part (b) to derive a
formula from which the power factor of a
3-phase system may be determined using
only the wattmeter readings.
(a) A connection diagram for the two-wattmeter

method of a power measurement is shown in
Fig. 20.15 for a star-connected load.
Figure 20.16
P1 VRB IR cos30° cos30°

D D
P2 °
VYB IY cos30 C cos30° C
since IR D IY and VRB D VYB for a balanced

load. Hence
P1 cos 30° cos C sin 30° sin
D
P2 cos 30° cos sin 30° sin
(from compound angle formulae, see ‘Engineer-
Figure 20.15 ing Mathematics’).
TLFeBOOK
Dividing throughout by cos 30° cos gives: (a) Considering the load:
Phase current, Ip D Vp /Zp .
P1 1 C tan 30° tan Vp D VL for a delta connection,
D
P2 1 tan 30° tan
hence Vp D 400 V.
1C p1 tan
3 Phase impedance,
D ,
1 p1tan p
3 Zp D Rp2 C X2L D 302 C 402 D 50
.

sin
since D tan Hence Ip D Vp /Zp D 400/50 D 8 A.
cos
For a delta-connection, line current,
p p
Cross-multiplying gives: IL D 3 Ip D 38 D 13.86 A.
Hence 13.86 A is the current supplied by the
P1 P2 alternator.
P1 p tan D P2 C p tan
3 3 (b) Alternator output power is equal to the power
Hence dissipated by the load i.e.
tan p
P1 P2 D P1 C P2 p P D 3 VL IL cos ,
3
where cos D Rp /Zp D 30/50 D 0.6.
from which p
Hence P D 3 40013.860.6
p P1 − P2
tan f D 3 D 5.76 kW.
P1 + P2
Alternator output kVA,
, cos and thus power factor can be deter- p p
mined from this formula. S D 3 VL IL D 340013.86
D 9.60 kVA.
Problem 13. A 400 V, 3-phase star
connected alternator supplies a delta- Problem 14. Each phase of a
connected load, each phase of which has a delta-connected load comprises a resistance
resistance of 30
and inductive reactance of 30
and an 80 µF capacitor in series. The
40
. Calculate (a) the current supplied by load is connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase
the alternator and (b) the output power and supply. Calculate (a) the phase current,
the kVA of the alternator, neglecting losses (b) the line current, (c) the total power
in the line between the alternator and load. dissipated and (d) the kVA rating of the load.
Draw the complete phasor diagram for the
load.
A circuit diagram of the alternator and load is shown
in Fig. 20.17
(a) Capacitive reactance,
1 1
XC D D D 39.79
2fC 25080 ð 106
Phase impedance,
p
Zp D Rp2 C X2c D 302 C 39.792 D 49.83
.
Power factor D cos D Rp /Zp

Figure 20.17 D 30/49.83 D 0.602
TLFeBOOK
Hence D cos1 0.602 D 52.99° leading. (a) Total input power,

P D P1 C P2 D 8 C 4 D 12 kW
Phase current,
p P1 P2 p 8 4
Ip D Vp /Zp and Vp D VL (b) tan D 3 D 3
P1 C P2 8C4
for a delta connection. Hence p p
4 1 1
Ip D 400/49.83 D 8.027 A D 3 D 3 Dp
12 3 3
p 1
(b) Line current,pIL D 3 Ip for a delta-connection. Hence D tan1 p D 30°
Hence IL D 38.027 D 13.90 A 3
Power factor D cos D cos 30° D 0.866
(c) Total power dissipated,
p Problem 16. Two wattmeters connected to
PD 3 VL IL cos a 3-phase motor indicate the total power
p
D 340013.900.602 D 5.797 kW input to be 12 kW. The power factor is 0.6.
Determine the readings of each wattmeter.
(d) Total kVA,
p p
S D 3 VL IL D 340013.90 D 9.630 kVA If the two wattmeters indicate P1 and P2 respectively
then
The phasor diagram for the load is shown in
Fig. 20.18 P1 C P2 D 12 kW 1

p P1 P2
tan D 3
P1 C P2
and power factor D 0.6 D cos . Angle D
cos1 0.6 D 53.13° and tan 53.13° D 1.3333. Hence
p P1 P2
1.3333 D 3 ,
12
from which,
121.3333
P1 P2 D p
3
i.e. P1 P2 D 9.237 kW (2)
Adding Equations (1) and (2) gives:
2P1 D 21.237
21.237
i.e. P1 D
2
D 10.62 kW
Hence wattmeter 1 reads 10.62 kW
From Equation (1), wattmeter 2 reads
.12 −10.62/ = 1.38 kW
Figure 20.18
Problem 17. Two wattmeters indicate
Problem 15. Two wattmeters are connected 10 kW and 3 kW respectively when
to measure the input power to a balanced connected to measure the input power to a
3-phase load by the two-wattmeter method. 3-phase balanced load, the reverse switch
If the instrument readings are 8 kW and being operated on the meter indicating the
4 kW, determine (a) the total power input 3 kW reading. Determine (a) the input power
and (b) the load power factor. and (b) the load power factor.
TLFeBOOK
Since the reversing switch on the wattmeter had to 10 7661

be operated the 3 kW reading is taken as 3 kW P1 P2 D p D 6216 W (2)
3
(a) Total input power, Adding Equations (1) and (2) gives:
P D P1 C P2 D 10 C 3 D 7 kW 2P1 D 10 766 C 6216 D 16 982 W

p P1 P2 p 10 3 Hence P1 D 8491 W
(b) tan D 3 D 3
P1 C P2 10 C 3 From Equation (1), P2 D 10 766 8491 D
p 13 2275 W.
D 3 D 3.2167
7 When the coils are star-connected the
wattmeter readings are thus 8.491 kW and
Angle D tan1 3.2167 D 72.73° 2.275 kW
p
Power factor D cos D cos 72.73° D 0.297 (b) Delta connection: VL D Vp and IL D 3 Ip .
Vp 415
Problem 18. Three similar coils, each Phase current, Ip D D D 36.69 A.
having a resistance of 8
and an inductive ZP 11.31
reactance of 8
are connected (a) in star and Total power,
(b) in delta, across a 415 V, 3-phase supply.
Calculate for each connection the readings on P D 3I2p Rp D 336.692 8 D 32 310 W
each of two wattmeters connected to measure
the power by the two-wattmeter method. Hence P1 C P2 D 32 310 W (3)
p
p p P1 P2 3P1 P2
(a) Star connection: VL D 3 Vp and IL D Ip . tan D 3 thus 1 D .
P1 C P2 32 310
VL 415 from which,
Phase voltage, Vp D p D p
3 3
32 310
and phase impedance, P1 P2 D p D 18 650 W (4)
3
p
Zp D Rp2 C X2L D 82 C 82 D 11.31
Adding Equations (3) and (4) gives:
Hence phase current, 2P1 D 50 960 from which P1 D 25 480 W.
415 From Equation (3), P2 D 32 310 25 480 D
p
Vp 3 6830 W
Ip D D D 21.18 A
Zp 11.31 When the coils are delta-connected the
Total power, wattmeter readings are thus 25.48 kW and
6.83 kW
P D 3I2p Rp D 321.182 8 D 10 766 W
If wattmeter readings are P1 and P2 then:
P1 C P2 D 10 766 (1)
Since Rp D 8
and XL D 8
, then phase angle
D 45° (from impedance triangle). Exercise 111 Further problems on the
measurement of power in 3-phase circuits

p P1 P2
tan D 3 1 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the
P1 C P2 input power to a balanced three-phase load.
p If the wattmeter readings are 9.3 kW and
3P1 P2 5.4 kW determine (a) the total output power,
hence tan 45° D
10 766 and (b) the load power factor
from which [(a) 14.7 kW (b) 0.909]
TLFeBOOK
2 8 kW is found by the two-wattmeter method (since power D 3I2p Rp ), hence the line current
to be the power input to a 3-phase motor. in the delta-connected system is greater than the
Determine the reading of each wattmeter if the line current in the corresponding star-connected
power factor of the system is 0.85 system. To achieve the same phase current in
[5.431 kW, 2.569 kW] a star-connected system as in a delta-connected
3 When the two-wattmeter method is used to system,
p the line voltage in the star system is
measure the input power of a balanced load, 3 times the line voltage in the delta system.
the readings on the wattmeters are 7.5 kW and Thus for a given power transfer, a delta system
2.5 kW, the connections to one of the coils is associated with larger line currents (and thus
on the meter reading 2.5 kW having to be larger conductor cross-sectional area) and a star
reversed. Determine (a) the total input power, system is associated with a larger line voltage
and (b) the load power factor (and thus greater insulation).
[(a) 5 kW (b) 0.277]
4 Three similar coils, each having a resistance
of 4.0
and an inductive reactance of 3.46
are connected (a) in star and (b) in delta 20.8 Advantages of three-phase
across a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for systems
each connection the readings on each of two
wattmeters connected to measure the power by Advantages of three-phase systems over single-
the two-wattmeter method. phase supplies include:
[(a) 17.15 kW, 5.73 kW
(b) 51.46 kW, 17.18 kW] (i) For a given amount of power transmitted
5 A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a through a system, the three-phase system
delta connected load, each phase of which has requires conductors with a smaller cross-
a resistance of 15
and inductive reactance sectional area. This means a saving of copper
20
. If the line voltage is 400 V, calculate (or aluminium) and thus the original installation
(a) the current supplied by the alternator and costs are less.
(b) the output power and kVA rating of the
alternator, neglecting any losses in the line (ii) Two voltages are available (see Section 20.3
between the alternator and the load. (vii))
[(a) 27.71 A (b) 11.52 kW, 19.2 kVA]
(iii) Three-phase motors are very robust, relatively
6 Each phase of a delta-connected load cheap, generally smaller, have self-starting
comprises a resistance of 40
and a properties, provide a steadier output and require
40 µF capacitor in series. Determine, when little maintenance compared with single-phase
connected to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply motors.
(a) the phase current, (b) the line current,
(c) the total power dissipated, and (d) the kVA
rating of the load Now try the following exercises
[(a) 4.66 A (b) 8.07 A
(c) 2.605 kW (d) 5.80 kVA]
three-phase systems
1 Explain briefly how a three-phase supply is
20.7 Comparison of star and delta generated
connections 2 State the national standard phase sequence
for a three-phase supply
(i) Loads connected in delta dissipate three times
more power than when connected in star to the 3 State the two ways in which phases of a
same supply. three-phase supply can be interconnected to
(ii) For the same power, the phase currents must reduce the number of conductors used com-
be the same for both delta and star connections pared with three single-phase systems
TLFeBOOK
4 State the relationships between line and phase (a) For the same power, loads connected in
currents and line and phase voltages for a delta have a higher line voltage and a
star-connected system smaller line current than loads connected
in star
5 When may the neutral conductor of a star- (b) When using the two-wattmeter method
connected system be omitted? of power measurement the power factor
6 State the relationships between line and phase is unity when the wattmeter readings are
currents and line and phase voltages for a the same
delta-connected system (c) A.c. may be distributed using a single-
phase system with two wires, a three-
7 What is the standard electricity supply to phase system with three wires or a
domestic consumers in Great Britain? three-phase system with four wires
8 State two formulae for determining the power (d) The national standard phase sequence for
dissipated in the load of a three-phase bal- a three-phase supply is R, Y, B
anced system
Three loads, each of resistance 16
and induc-
9 By what methods may power be measured in tive reactance 12
are connected in delta to a
a three-phase system? 400 V, 3-phase supply. Determine the quantities
10 State a formula from which power factor may stated in questions 7 to 12, selecting the correct
be determined for a balanced system when answer from the following list:
p p
using the two-wattmeter method of power (a) 4
(b) 3400 V (c) 36.4 kW
measurement p
(d) 20 A (e) 6.4 kW (f) 320 A
11 Loads connected in star dissipate . . . . . . the
power dissipated when connected in delta and 20 400
(g) 20
(h) p V (i) p V
fed from the same supply 3 3
12 Name three advantages of three-phase sys- (j) 19.2 kW (k) 100 A (l) 400 V
tems over single-phase systems (m) 28
7 Phase impedance
Exercise 113 Multi-choice questions on 8 Line voltage

three-phase systems (Answers on page 376) 9 Phase voltage
Three loads, each of 10
resistance, are con-
10 Phase current
nected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Deter-
mine the quantities stated in questions 1 to 5, 11 Line current
selecting answers from the following list:
40 p 400 12 Total power dissipated in the load
(a) p A (b) 316 kW (c) p V
3 3 13 The phase voltage of a delta-connected three-
p p phase system with balanced loads is 240 V.
(d) 340 A (e) 3400 V (f) 16 kW The line voltage is:
(g) 400 V (h) 48 kW (i) 40 A (a) 720 V (b) 440 V (c) 340 V (d) 240 V
1 Line voltage 14 A 4-wire three-phase star-connected system

has a line current of 10 A. The phase cur-
2 Phase voltage rent is:
(a) 40 A (b) 10 A (c) 20 A (d) 30 A
3 Phase current
15 The line voltage of a 4-wire three-phase star-
4 Line current connected system is 11 kV. The phase volt-
age is:
5 Total power dissipated in the load
(a) 19.05 kV (b) 11 kV
6 Which of the following statements is false? (c) 6.35 kV (d) 7.78 kV
TLFeBOOK
16 In the two-wattmeter method of measurement 17 The phase voltage of a 4-wire three-phase

power in a balanced three-phase system read- star-connected system is 110 V. The line volt-
ings of P1 and P2 watts are obtained. The age is:
power factor may be determined from: (a) 440 V

p P1 C P2 p P1 P2 (b) 330 V
(a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 191 V
P1 P2 P1 C P2
(d) 110 V
P1 P2 P1 C P2
(c) p (d) p
3P1 C P2 3P1 P2
TLFeBOOK
21
Transformers
ž understand the principle of operation of a transformer

ž understand the term ‘rating’ of a transformer
ž use V1 /V2 D N1 /N2 D I2 /I1 in calculations on transformers
ž construct a transformer no-load phasor diagram and calculate magnetising and core
loss components of the no-load current
ž state the e.m.f. equation for a transformer E D 4.44 fm N and use it in calculations
ž construct a transformer on-load phasor diagram for an inductive circuit assuming
the volt drop in the windings is negligible
ž describe transformer construction
ž derive the equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary of
a transformer
ž understand voltage regulation
ž describe losses in transformers and calculate efficiency
ž appreciate the concept of resistance matching and how it may be achieved
ž perform calculations using R1 D
N1 /N2 2 RL
ž describe an auto transformer, its advantages/disadvantages and uses
ž describe an isolating transformer, stating uses
ž describe a three-phase transformer
ž describe current and voltage transformers
Losses in transformers are generally low and thus

21.1 Introduction efficiency is high. Being static they have a long life
and are very stable.
A transformer is a device which uses the phe- Transformers range in size from the miniature
nomenon of mutual induction (see Chapter 9) to units used in electronic applications to the large
change the values of alternating voltages and cur- power transformers used in power stations; the prin-
rents. In fact, one of the main advantages of a.c. ciple of operation is the same for each.
transmission and distribution is the ease with which A transformer is represented in Fig. 21.1(a) as
an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased consisting of two electrical circuits linked by a
by transformers. common ferromagnetic core. One coil is termed the
TLFeBOOK
Figure 21.1
primary winding which is connected to the supply transformer, the primary and secondary ampere-
of electricity, and the other the secondary winding, turns are equal
which may be connected to a load. A circuit diagram
symbol for a transformer is shown in Fig. 21.1(b) V1 I2
Thus D
2
V2 I1
Combining equations (1) and (2) gives:
21.2 Transformer principle of
operation
V1 N1 I2
When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alter- = =
3
V2 N2 I1
nating voltage V1 is applied to the primary wind-
ing, a small current – called the no-load current
I0 – flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in the The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the
core. This alternating flux links with both primary volt-amperes that it can transform without overheat-
and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.’s of ing. With reference to Fig. 21.1(a), the transformer
E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction. rating is either V1 I1 or V2 I2 , where I2 is the full-load
The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given secondary current.
by E D N
d/dt volts, where d dt is the rate
of change of flux. In an ideal transformer, the rate Problem 1. A transformer has 500 primary
of change of flux is the same for both primary turns and 3000 secondary turns. If the
and secondary and thus E1 /N1 D E2 /N2 i.e. the primary voltage is 240 V, determine the
induced e.m.f. per turn is constant. secondary voltage, assuming an ideal
Assuming no losses, E1 D V1 and E2 D V2 transformer.
V1 V2 V1 N1 For an ideal transformer, voltage ratio D turns ratio

Hence D or D
1 i.e.
N1 N2 V2 N2
V1 N1 240 500
V1 /V2 is called the voltage ratio and

N1 /N2 D hence D
the turns ratio, or the ‘transformation ratio’ of V2 N2 V2 3000
the transformer. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is Thus secondary voltage
less than V1 and the device is termed a step-down
transformer. If N2 is greater then N1 then V2 is
240
3000
greater than V1 and the device is termed a step-up V2 D D 1440 V or 1.44 kV
transformer. 500
When a load is connected across the secondary
winding, a current I2 flows. In an ideal transformer Problem 2. An ideal transformer with a
losses are neglected and a transformer is considered turns ratio of 2:7 is fed from a 240 V supply.
to be 100 per cent efficient. Hence input power D Determine its output voltage.
output power, or V1 I1 D V2 I2 i.e. in an ideal
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 305
A turns ratio of 2:7 means that the transformer

has 2 turns on the primary for every 7 turns on Problem 5. A 12 resistor is connected
the secondary (i.e. a step-up transformer); thus across the secondary winding of an ideal
N1 /N2 D
2/7. transformer whose secondary voltage is
For an ideal transformer,
N1 /N2 D
V1 /V2 120 V. Determine the primary voltage if the
hence
2/7 D
240/V2 Thus the secondary voltage supply current is 4 A.

240
7 Secondary current I2 D
V2 /R2 D
120/12 D
V2 D D 840 V 10 A.
2

V1 /V2 D
I2 /I1 , from which the primary
voltage
Problem 3. An ideal transformer has a
I2 10
turns ratio of 8:1 and the primary current is V1 D V2 D 120 D 300 volts
3 A when it is supplied at 240 V. Calculate I1 4
the secondary voltage and current.
Problem 6. A 5 kVA single-phase
transformer has a turns ratio of 10 : 1 and is
A turns ratio of 8:1 means
N1 /N2 D
1/8 i.e. a fed from a 2.5 kV supply. Neglecting losses,
step-down transformer. determine (a) the full-load secondary current,
(b) the minimum load resistance which can
N1 V1 be connected across the secondary winding
D or secondary voltage to give full load kVA, (c) the primary current
N2 V2
at full load kVA.
N1 1
V2 D V1 D 240 D 30 volts (a) N1 /N2 D 10/1 and V1 D 2.5 kV D 2500 V.
N2 8
N1 V1
N1 I2 Since D , secondary voltage
Also, D hence secondary current N2 V2
N2 I1
N2 1
V2 D V1 D 2500 D 250 V
N1 8 N1 10
I2 D I1 D3 D 24 A The transformer rating in volt-amperes D V2 I2
N2 1
(at full load) i.e. 5000 D 250I2
Hence full load secondary current I2 D
Problem 4. An ideal transformer, connected
5000/250 D 20 A.
to a 240 V mains, supplies a 12 V, 150 W (b) Minimum value of load resistance,
lamp. Calculate the transformer turns ratio
V2 250
and the current taken from the supply. RL D D D 12.5 Z.
V1 20

N1 I2
V1 D 240 V, V2 D 12 V, I2 D
P/V2 D (c) D from which primary current
150/12 D 12.5 A. N2 I1

N1 1
N1 V1 240 I1 D I2 D 20 D 2A
Turns ratio D D D D 20 N2 10
N2 V2 12

V1 I2 Now try the following exercise
D , from which,
V2 I1

V2 12 Exercise 114 Further problems on the
I1 D I2 D 12.5
V1 240 transformer principle of operation
Hence current taken from the supply, 1 A transformer has 600 primary turns
connected to a 1.5 kV supply. Determine the
12.5 number of secondary turns for a 240 V output
I1 D D 0.625 A voltage, assuming no losses. [96]
20
TLFeBOOK
2 An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 2:9 21.3 Transformer no-load phasor
is fed from a 220 V supply. Determine its
output voltage. [990 V] diagram
3 A transformer has 800 primary turns and The core flux is common to both primary and
2000 secondary turns. If the primary voltage secondary windings in a transformer and is thus
is 160 V, determine the secondary voltage taken as the reference phasor in a phasor diagram.
assuming an ideal transformer. [400 V] On no-load the primary winding takes a small no-
load current I0 and since, with losses neglected, the
4 An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 3:8 primary winding is a pure inductor, this current lags
is fed from a 240 V supply. Determine its the applied voltage V1 by 90° . In the phasor diagram
output voltage. [640 V] assuming no losses, shown in Fig. 21.2(a), current
I0 produces the flux and is drawn in phase with
5 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of the flux. The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is in phase
12:1 and is supplied at 192 V. Calculate the opposition to V1 (by Lenz’s law) and is shown 180°
secondary voltage. [16 V] out of phase with V1 and equal in magnitude. The
secondary induced e.m.f. is shown for a 2:1 turns
6 A transformer primary winding connected ratio transformer.
across a 415 V supply has 750 turns. A no-load phasor diagram for a practical trans-
Determine how many turns must be wound former is shown in Fig. 21.2(b). If current flows
on the secondary side if an output of 1.66 kV then losses will occur. When losses are considered
is required. [3000 turns] then the no-load current I0 is the phasor sum of
two components – (i) IM , the magnetising compo-
7 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 12:1 nent, in phase with the flux, and (ii) IC , the core
and is supplied at 180 V when the primary loss component (supplying the hysteresis and eddy
current is 4 A. Calculate the secondary current losses). From Fig.21.2(b):
voltage and current. [15 V, 48 A]
2
No-load current, I0 D IM C IC2 where
8 A step-down transformer having a turns ratio IM D I0 sin f0 and IC D I0 cosf0 .
of 20:1 has a primary voltage of 4 kV and Power factor on no-load D cos 0 D
IC /I0 .
a load of 10 kW. Neglecting losses, calculate The total core losses (i.e. iron losses)
the value of the secondary current. [50 A] D V1 I0 cos 0
9 A transformer has a primary to secondary
turns ratio of 1:15. Calculate the primary Problem 7. A 2400 V/400 V single-phase
voltage necessary to supply a 240 V load. If transformer takes a no-load current of 0.5 A
the load current is 3 A determine the primary and the core loss is 400 W. Determine the
current. Neglect any losses. [16 V, 45 A] values of the magnetising and core loss
components of the no-load current. Draw to
10 A 10 kVA, single-phase transformer has a
scale the no-load phasor diagram for the
turns ratio of 12:1 and is supplied from a
transformer.
2.4 kV supply. Neglecting losses, determine
(a) the full load secondary current, (b) the
minimum value of load resistance which can V1 D 2400V, V2 D 400V and I0 D 0.5 A Core loss
be connected across the secondary winding (i.e. iron loss) D 400 D V1 I0 cos 0 .
without the kVA rating being exceeded, and i.e. 400 D
2400
0.5 cos 0
(c) the primary current.
[(a) 50 A (b) 4 (c) 4.17 A] 400
Hence cos 0 D D 0.3333

2400
0.5
11 A 20 resistance is connected across the
secondary winding of a single-phase power 0 D cos1 0.3333 D 70.53°
transformer whose secondary voltage is The no-load phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 21.3
150 V. Calculate the primary voltage and Magnetising component,
the turns ratio if the supply current is 5 A, IM D I0 sin 0 D 0.5 sin 70.53° D 0.471 A.
neglecting losses. [225 V, 3:2] Core loss component, IC D I0 cos 0 D 0.5 cos 70.53°
D 0.167 A
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 307
Figure 21.2
(b) Power factor at no load,
IC 0.3
cos 0 D D D 0.375
I0 0.8
(c) From the right-angled triangle in Fig. 21.2(b)

and using Pythagoras’ theorem, I20 D I2C C I2M
from which, magnetising current,
p
IM D I20 I2C D 0.82 0.32 D 0.74 A

no-load phasor diagram
Figure 21.3
1 A 500 V/100 V, single-phase transformer takes
a full load primary current of 4 A. Neglecting
losses, determine (a) the full load secondary
Problem 8. A transformer takes a current of current, and (b) the rating of the transformer.
0.8 A when its primary is connected to a 240 [(a) 20 A (b) 2 kVA]
volt, 50 Hz supply, the secondary being on
open circuit. If the power absorbed is 2 A 3300 V/440 V, single-phase transformer
72 watts, determine (a) the iron loss current, takes a no-load current of 0.8 A and the
(b) the power factor on no-load, and (c) the iron loss is 500 W. Draw the no-load phasor
magnetising current. diagram and determine the values of the
magnetising and core loss components of the
no-load current.
I0 D 0.8 A and V D 240 V [0.786 A, 0.152 A]
(a) Power absorbed D total core loss D 72 D 3 A transformer takes a current of 1 A when
V1 I0 cos 0 . Hence 72 D 240I0 cos 0 and iron its primary is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz
loss current, Ic D I0 cos 0 D 72/240 D 0.30 A supply, the secondary being on open-circuit.
TLFeBOOK
If the power absorbed is 120 watts, calculate

Problem 9. A 100 kVA, 4000 V/200 V,
(a) the iron loss current, (b) the power factor
50 Hz single-phase transformer has 100
on no-load, and (c) the magnetising current.
secondary turns. Determine (a) the primary
[(a) 0.4 A (b) 0.4 (c) 0.92 A]
and secondary current, (b) the number of
primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of
the flux.
21.4 E.m.f. equation of a transformer

V1 D 4000 V, V2 D 200 V, f D 50 Hz, N2 D 100
The magnetic flux  set up in the core of a trans- turns
former when an alternating voltage is applied to its
primary winding is also alternating and is sinusoidal.
Let m be the maximum value of the flux and f (a) Transformer rating D V1 I1 D V2 I2 D 1 00 000 VA
be the frequency of the supply. The time for 1 cycle Hence primary current,
of the alternating flux is the periodic time T, where
T D
1/fseconds 1 00 000 1 00 000
The flux rises sinusoidally from zero to its max- I1 D D D 25 A
imum value in (1/4) cycle, and the time for (1/4) V1 4 000
cycle is
1/4f seconds. Hence the average rate of
change of flux D
m /
1/4f D 4 fm Wb/s, and and secondary current,
since 1 Wb/s D 1 volt, the average e.m.f. induced in
each turn D 4 fm volts. As the flux  varies sinu- 1 00 000 1 00 000
soidally, then a sinusoidal e.m.f. will be induced in I2 D D D 500 A
each turn of both primary and secondary windings. V 2 200
For a sine wave,
V1 N1
r.m.s. value (b) From equation (3), D from which, pri-
form factor D V2 N2
average value mary turns,
D 1.11 (see Chapter 14)
V1 4000
Hence r.m.s. value D form factor ð average value D N1 D
N2 D
100 D 2000 turns
V2 200
1.11 ð average value Thus r.m.s. e.m.f. induced in
each turn
(c) From equation (5), E2 D 4.44 fm N2 from
D 1.11 ð 4 fm volts which, maximum flux,
D 4.44 fm volts
E
8m D
Therefore, r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in primary, 4.44 fN2
200
E1 = 4.44 f 8m N1 volts
4 D (assuming E2 D V2

4.44
50
100
and r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in secondary, D 9.01 × 10−3 Wb or 9.01 mWb
[Alternatively, equation (4) could have been used,

E2 = 4.44 f 8m N2 volts
5 where
Dividing equation (4) by equation (5) gives:

E1 D 4.44 fm N1 from which,
E1 N1 4000
D , 8m D (assuming E1 D V1
E2 N2
4.44
50
2000
as previously obtained in Section 21.2 D 9.01 mWb as above]
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 309
Problem 10. A single-phase, 50 Hz Problem 12. A 4500 V/225 V, 50 Hz

transformer has 25 primary turns and 300 single-phase transformer is to have an
secondary turns. The cross-sectional area of approximate e.m.f. per turn of 15 V and
the core is 300 cm2 . When the primary operate with a maximum flux of 1.4 T.
winding is connected to a 250 V supply, Calculate (a) the number of primary and
determine (a) the maximum value of the flux secondary turns and (b) the cross-sectional
density in the core, and (b) the voltage area of the core.
induced in the secondary winding.
(a) From equation (4), E1 E2

(a) E.m.f. per turn D D D 15
e.m.f. E1 D 4.44 fm N1 volts N1 N2
i.e. 250 D 4.44
50m (25) from which, maxi-
mum flux density, E1 4500
Hence primary turns, N1 D D D 300
250 15 15
m D Wb D 0.04505 Wb

4.44
50
25 E2 255
and secondary turns, N2 D D D 15
However, m D Bm ðA, where Bm D maximum 15 15
flux density in the core and A D cross-sectional
area of the core (see Chapter 7). Hence (b) E.m.f. E1 D 4.44 fm N1 from which,
Bm ð 300 ð 104 D 0.04505 from which,
E1 4500
m D D 0.0676 Wb
0.04505 4.44fN1
4.44
50
300
maximum flux density, Bm D
300 ð 104
Now flux, m D Bm ð A, where A is the cross-
D 1.50 T
sectional area of the core,
V1 N1 N2
(b) D from which, V2 D V1 i.e.
V2 N2 N1 m 0.0676
voltage induced in the secondary winding, hence area, A D D
Bm 1.4

300 D 0.0483 m2 or 483 cm2
V2 D
250 D 3000 V or 3 kV
25
Problem 11. A single-phase 500 V/100 V,
50 Hz transformer has a maximum core flux
density of 1.5 T and an effective core
cross-sectional area of 50 cm2 . Determine the Exercise 116 Further problems on the
number of primary and secondary turns. transformer e.m.f. equation
1 A 60 kVA, 1600 V/100 V, 50 Hz, single-phase
The e.m.f. equation for a transformer is E D transformer has 50 secondary windings. Cal-
4.44 fm N and maximum flux, m D B ð A D culate (a) the primary and secondary current,
1.5
50 ð 104 D 75 ð 104 Wb (b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the
Since E1 D 4.44 fm N1 then primary turns, maximum value of the flux
[(a) 37.5 A, 600 A (b) 800 (c) 9.0 mWb]
E1 500
N1 D D 2 A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 40 pri-
4.44 fm
4.44
50
75 ð 104
mary turns and 520 secondary turns. The
D 300 turns cross-sectional area of the core is 270 cm2 .
Since E2 D 4.4 fm N2 then secondary turns, When the primary winding is connected to a
E2 100 300 volt supply, determine (a) the maximum
N2 D D value of flux density in the core, and (b) the
4.44 fm
4.44
50
75 ð 104 voltage induced in the secondary winding
D 60 turns [(a) 1.25 T (b) 3.90 kV]
TLFeBOOK
3 A single-phase 800 V/100 V, 50 Hz trans- However this does not happen since reduction of the
former has a maximum core flux density of core flux reduces E1 , hence a reflected increase in
1.294 T and an effective cross-sectional area primary current I01 occurs which provides a restoring
of 60 cm2 . Calculate the number of turns on m.m.f. Hence at all loads, primary and secondary
the primary and secondary windings. m.m.f.’s are equal, but in opposition, and the core
[464, 58] flux remains constant. I01 is sometimes called the
‘balancing’ current and is equal, but in the opposite
4 A 3.3 kV/110 V, 50 Hz, single-phase trans- direction, to current I2 as shown in Fig. 21.4. I0 ,
former is to have an approximate e.m.f. per shown at a phase angle 0 to V1 , is the no-load
turn of 22 V and operate with a maximum current of the transformer (see Section 21.3)
flux of 1.25 T. Calculate (a) the number of The phasor sum of I01 and I0 gives the supply
primary and secondary turns, and (b) the cross- current I1 and the phase angle between V1 and I1 is
sectional area of the core shown as 1
[(a) 150, 5 (b) 792.8 cm2 ]
Problem 13. A single-phase transformer has

2000 turns on the primary and 800 turns on
the secondary. Its no-load current is 5 A at a
power factor of 0.20 lagging. Assuming the
21.5 Transformer on-load phasor volt drop in the windings is negligible,
diagram determine the primary current and power
factor when the secondary current is 100 A at
If the voltage drop in the windings of a transformer a power factor of 0.85 lagging.
are assumed negligible, then the terminal voltage V2
is the same as the induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary.
Similarly, V1 D E1 . Assuming an equal number Let I01 be the component of the primary current
of turns on primary and secondary windings, then which provides the restoring m.m.f. Then
E1 D E2 , and let the load have a lagging phase
angle 2 I01 N1 D I2 N2
i.e. I01
2000 D
100
800

100
800
from which, I01 D
2000
D 40 A
If the power factor of the secondary is 0.85, then

cos 2 D 0.85, from which, 2 D cos1 0.85 D 31.8°
If the power factor on no-load is 0.20, then
cos 0 D 0.2 and 0 D cos1 0.2 D 78.5°
In the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 21.5, I2 D
100 A is shown at an angle of D 31.8° to V2 and
I01 D 40 A is shown in anti-phase to I2
The no-load current I0 D 5 A is shown at an angle
of 0 D 78.5° to V1 . Current I1 is the phasor sum
of I01 and I0 , and by drawing to scale, I1 D 44 A
and angle 1 D 37° .
Figure 21.4 By calculation,
I1 cos 1 D 0a C 0b
In the phasor diagram of Fig. 21.4, current I2
lags V2 by angle 2 . When a load is connected D I0 cos 0 C I01 cos 2
across the secondary winding a current I2 flows D
5
0.2 C
40
0.85
in the secondary winding. The resulting secondary
e.m.f. acts so as to tend to reduce the core flux. D 35.0 A
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 311
Fig. 21.6. The low and high voltage windings

are wound as shown to reduce leakage flux.
Figure 21.5
and I1 sin 1 D 0c C 0d
D I0 sin 0 C I01 sin 2
Figure 21.6
D
5 sin 78.5° C
40 sin 31.8°
D 25.98 A (ii) For power transformers, rated possibly at
p several MVA and operating at a frequency of
Hence the magnitude of I1 D 35.02
C 25.982
D 50 Hz in Great Britain, the core material used
43.59 A and tan 1 D
25.98/35.0 from which, is usually laminated silicon steel or stalloy,

f1 D tan1
25.98/35.0 D 36.59° Hence the the laminations reducing eddy currents and
power factor of the primary D cos 1 D cos 36.59° D the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a
0.80 minimum.
Large power transformers are used in the
Now try the following exercise main distribution system and in industrial
supply circuits. Small power transformers have
many applications, examples including welding
Exercise 117 A further problem on the and rectifier supplies, domestic bell circuits,
transformer on-load imported washing machines, and so on.
1 A single-phase transformer has 2400 turns on (iii) For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers, rated
the primary and 600 turns on the secondary. from a few mVA to no more than 20 VA, and
Its no-load current is 4 A at a power factor of operating at frequencies up to about 15 kHz, the
0.25 lagging. Assuming the volt drop in the small core is also made of laminated silicon
windings is negligible, calculate the primary steel. A typical application of a.f. transformers
current and power factor when the secondary is in an audio amplifier system.
current is 80 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
[23.26 A, 0.73] (iv) Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operat-
ing in the MHz frequency region have either
an air core, a ferrite core or a dust core. Ferrite
is a ceramic material having magnetic proper-
ties similar to silicon steel, but having a high
21.6 Transformer construction resistivity. Dust cores consist of fine particles
of carbonyl iron or permalloy (i.e. nickel and
(i) There are broadly two types of single-phase iron), each particle of which is insulated from
double-wound transformer constructions – the its neighbour. Applications of r.f. transformers
core type and the shell type, as shown in are found in radio and television receivers.
TLFeBOOK
(v) Transformer windings are usually of enamel- the transformer. Resistance R2 in Fig. 21.8 can be
insulated copper or aluminium. replaced by inserting an additional resistance R20 in
the primary circuit such that the power absorbed in
(vi) Cooling is achieved by air in small transform- R20 when carrying the primary current is equal to that
ers and oil in large transformers. in R2 due to the secondary current, i.e.
I21 R20 D I22 R2
2 2
21.7 Equivalent circuit of a 0 I2 V1
transformer from which, R2 D R2 D R2
I1 V2
Figure 21.7 shows an equivalent circuit of a trans- Then the total equivalent resistance in the primary
former. R1 and R2 represent the resistances of the circuit Re is equal to the primary and secondary
primary and secondary windings and X1 and X2 rep- resistances of the actual transformer.
resent the reactances of the primary and secondary Hence Re D R1 C R20
windings, due to leakage flux.
The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy cur- 2
V1
rents are allowed for by resistance R which takes a i.e. Re = R1 + R2
6
current IC , the core loss component of the primary V2
current. Reactance X takes the magnetising compo-
nent Im . In a simplified equivalent circuit shown in By similar reasoning, the equivalent reactance in the
Fig. 21.8, R and X are omitted since the no-load primary circuit is given by Xe D X1 C X02
current I0 is normally only about 3–5 per cent of
the full load primary current. 2
V1
It is often convenient to assume that all of the i.e. Xe = X1 + X2
7
resistance and reactance as being on one side of V2
Figure 21.7
Figure 21.8
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 313
The equivalent impedance Ze of the primary and (b) From equation (7), equivalent reactance,
secondary windings referred to the primary is 2
V1
given by Xe D X1 C X2
V2

Ze = Re2 + Xe2
8 600 2
i.e. Xe D 1.0 C 0.04 D 1.64 Z
150
If e is the phase angle between I1 and the volt drop (c) From equation (8), equivalent impedance,
I1 Ze then p
Ze D Re2 C X2e D 0.412 C 1.642 D 1.69 Z
Re (d) From equation (9),
cos fe =
9
Ze Re 0.41
cos e D D
Ze 1.69
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is 0.41
shown in Fig. 21.9 Hence fe D cos1 D 75.96°
1.69
Problem 14. A transformer has 600 primary

turns and 150 secondary turns. The primary Now try the following exercise
and secondary resistances are 0.25 and
0.01 respectively and the corresponding
leakage reactances are 1.0 and 0.04 Exercise 118 A further problem on the
respectively. Determine (a) the equivalent equivalent circuit of a transformer
resistance referred to the primary winding, 1 A transformer has 1200 primary turns and 200
(b) the equivalent reactance referred to the secondary turns. The primary and secondary
primary winding, (c) the equivalent resistance’s are 0.2 and 0.02 respectively
impedance referred to the primary winding, and the corresponding leakage reactance’s
and (d) the phase angle of the impedance. are 1.2 and 0.05 respectively. Calculate
(a) the equivalent resistance, reactance and
(a) From equation (6), equivalent resistance impedance referred to the primary winding,
and (b) the phase angle of the impedance.
2 [(a) 0.92 , 3.0 , 3.14 (b) 72.95° ]
V1
Re D R1 C R2
V2

600 2
i.e. Re D 0.25 C 0.01
150 21.8 Regulation of a transformer
N1 V1 When the secondary of a transformer is loaded,
D 0.41 Z since D the secondary terminal voltage, V2 , falls. As the
N2 V2
Figure 21.9
TLFeBOOK
power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases. i.e. 6 D 240 V2

This is called the regulation of the transformer
and it is usually expressed as a percentage of from which, load voltage, V2 D 2406 D 234 volts
the secondary no-load voltage, E2 . For full-load
conditions:

E2 − V2
Regulation = × 100%
10
E2
regulation
The fall in voltage, (E2 V2 ), is caused by the 1 A 6 kVA, 100 V/500 V, single-phase trans-
resistance and reactance of the windings. Typical former has a secondary terminal voltage of
values of voltage regulation are about 3% in small 487.5 volts when loaded. Determine the reg-
transformers and about 1% in large transformers. ulation of the transformer. [2.5%]
2 A transformer has an open circuit voltage
Problem 15. A 5 kVA, 200 V/400 V, of 110 volts. A tap-changing device operates
single-phase transformer has a secondary when the regulation falls below 3%. Calculate
terminal voltage of 387.6 volts when loaded. the load voltage at which the tap-changer oper-
Determine the regulation of the transformer. ates.
[106.7 volts]
From equation (10):
 
No load secondary voltage
 terminal voltage on load  21.9 Transformer losses and efficiency
regulation D  100%
no load secondary voltage There are broadly two sources of losses in trans-
formers on load, these being copper losses and iron
400 387.6 losses.
D ð 100%
400 (a) Copper losses are variable and result in a heat-

12.4 ing of the conductors, due to the fact that they
D ð 100% possess resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary
400
and secondary winding resistances then the total
D 3.1% copper loss is I21 R1 C I22 R2
(b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of
Problem 16. The open circuit voltage of a frequency and flux density and are of two
transformer is 240 V. A tap changing device types – hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
is set to operate when the percentage (i) Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as
regulation drops below 2.5%. Determine the a result of the internal molecular structure
load voltage at which the mechanism reversals which occur as the magnetic flux
operates. alternates. The loss is proportional to the
area of the hysteresis loop and thus low loss
  nickel iron alloys are used for the core since
No load secondary voltage their hysteresis loops have small areas.(See
 terminal voltage on load  Chapters 7)
Regulation D  100%
no load secondary voltage
(ii) Eddy current loss is the heating of the
core due to e.m.f.’s being induced not only
in the transformer windings but also in the
240 V2
Hence 2.5 D ð 100% core. These induced e.m.f.’s set up circulat-
240 ing currents, called eddy currents. Owing to

2.5
240 the low resistance of the core, eddy currents
∴ D 240 V2 can be quite considerable and can cause a
100
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 315
large power loss and excessive heating of the Half full-load power output D
1/2
200
0.85
core. Eddy current losses can be reduced by D 85 kW.
increasing the resistivity of the core mate- Copper loss (or I2 R loss) is proportional to cur-
rial or, more usually, by laminating the core rent squared. Hence the copper loss at half full-load
(i.e. splitting it into layers or leaves) when 2
is: 12
1500 D 375 W
very thin layers of insulating material can Iron loss D 1000 W (constant)
be inserted between each pair of laminations. Total losses D 375C1000 D 1375 W or 1.375 kW.
This increases the resistance of the eddy cur- Input power at half full-load
rent path, and reduces the value of the eddy D output power at half full-load C losses
current. D 85 C 1.375 D 86.375 kW. Hence
Transformer efficiency,
losses
output power input power - losses efficiency D 1
D D input power
input power input power
1.375
D 1
losses 86.375
i.e. h=1−
11
input power D 1 0.01592
D 0.9841 or 98.41%
and is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not
uncommon for power transformers to have efficien-
cies of between 95% and 98% Problem 19. A 400 kVA transformer has
Output power D V2 I2 cos 2 . a primary winding resistance of 0.5 and
Total losses D copper loss C iron losses, a secondary winding resistance of 0.001 .
and input power D output power C losses The iron loss is 2.5 kW and the primary and
secondary voltages are 5 kV and 320 V respec-
Problem 17. A 200 kVA rated transformer tively. If the power factor of the load is 0.85,
has a full-load copper loss of 1.5 kW and an determine the efficiency of the transformer
iron loss of 1 kW. Determine the transformer (a) on full load, and (b) on half load.
efficiency at full load and 0.85 power factor.
(a) Rating D 400 kVA D V1 I1 D V2 I2 . Hence
output power primary current,
Efficiency, D
input power
400 ð 103 400 ð 103
input power losses I1 D D D 80 A
D V1 5000
input power
and secondary current,
losses
D1
input power 400 ð 103 400 ð 103
I2 D D D 1250 A
Full-load output power D VI cos D
200
0.85 V2 320
D 170 kW. Total copper loss D I21 R1 C I22 R2 , (where
Total losses D 1.5 C 1.0 D 2.5 kW R1 D 0.5 and R2 D 0.001
Input power D output power C losses
D 170 C 2.5 D 172.5 kW.
D
802
0.5 C
12502
0.001
2.5
Hence efficiency D 1 D 1 0.01449 D 3200 C 1562.5 D 4762.5 watts
172.5
On full load, total loss D copper lossCiron loss
D 0.9855 or 98.55%
D 4762.5 C 2500 D 7262.5 W D 7.2625 kW
Problem 18. Determine the efficiency of
the transformer in Problem 17 at half Total output power on full load
full-load and 0.85 power factor.
D V2 I2 cos 2 D
400 ð 103
0.85 D 340 kW
TLFeBOOK
Input power D output power C losses (b) Total loss at maximum efficiency
D 340 kW C 7.2625 kW D 347.2625 kW
D 2 ð 2.5 D 5 kW

losses Output power D 395.5 kVA ð p.f.
Efficiency, D 1 ð 100%
input power
D 395.5 ð 0.75 D 296.625 kW
7.2625
D 1 ð 100% Input power D output power C losses
347.2625
D 296.625 C 5 D 301.625 kW
D 97.91%
Maximum efficiency,
(b) Since the copper loss varies as the square of the
current, then total copper loss on half load losses
2 D 1 ð 100%
D 4762.5 ð 12 D 1190.625 W. Hence total input power
loss on half load D 1190.625 C 2500 D
5
3690.625 W or 3.691 kW. D 1 ð 100% D 98.34%
Output power on half full load D 12
340 301.625
D 170 kW.
Input power on half full load
D output power C losses Now try the following exercise
D 170 kW C 3.691 kW
Exercise 120 Further problems on losses
D 173.691 kW and efficiency
Hence efficiency at half full load, 1 A single-phase transformer has a voltage ratio
of 6:1 and the h.v. winding is supplied at
losses 540 V. The secondary winding provides a full
D 1 ð 100%
input power load current of 30 A at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Neglecting losses, find (a) the rating
3.691 of the transformer, (b) the power supplied to
D 1 ð 100% D 97.87%
173.691 the load, (c) the primary current
[(a) 2.7 kVA (b) 2.16 kW (c) 5 A]
2 A single-phase transformer is rated at 40 kVA.
Maximum efficiency The transformer has full-load copper losses of
It may be shown that the efficiency of a transformer 800 W and iron losses of 500 W. Determine
is a maximum when the variable copper loss (i.e. the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.8
I21 R1 C I22 R2 ) is equal to the constant iron losses. power factor [96.10%]
3 Determine the efficiency of the transformer
Problem 20. A 500 kVA transformer has a in problem 2 at half full-load and 0.8 power
full load copper loss of 4 kW and an iron factor [95.81%]
loss of 2.5 kW. Determine (a) the output kVA 4 A 100 kVA, 2000 V/400 V, 50 Hz, single-phase
at which the efficiency of the transformer is a transformer has an iron loss of 600 W and a
maximum, and (b) the maximum efficiency, full-load copper loss of 1600 W. Calculate its
assuming the power factor of the load is 0.75 efficiency for a load of 60 kW at 0.8 power
factor. [97.56%]
(a) Let x be the fraction of full load kVA at which 5 Determine the efficiency of a 15 kVA trans-
the efficiency is a maximum. The correspond- former for the following conditions:
ing total copper loss D
4 kW
x 2 . At maxi- (i) full-load, unity power factor
mum efficiency, copper loss D iron loss. Hence (ii) 0.8 full-load, unity power factor
4x 2 D 2
p 2.5 from which x D 2.5/4 and
(iii) half full-load, 0.8 power factor
x D 2.5/4 D 0.791. Assume that iron losses are 200 W and the full-
Hence the output kVA at maximum load copper loss is 300 W
efficiency D 0.791 ð 500 D 395.5 kVA. [(a) 96.77% (ii) 96.84% (iii) 95.62%]
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 317
6 A 300 kVA transformer has a primary wind-

ing resistance of 0.4 and a secondary
winding resistance of 0.0015 . The iron
loss is 2 kW and the primary and secondary
voltages are 4 kV and 200 V respectively. If
the power factor of the load is 0.78, determine
the efficiency of the transformer (a) on full
load, and (b) on half load.
[(a) 96.84% (b) 97.17%] Figure 21.10
7 A 250 kVA transformer has a full load copper
loss of 3 kW and an iron loss of 2 kW. Calcu- Thus the equivalent input resistance R1 of the
late (a) the output kVA at which the efficiency transformer is given by:
of the transformer is a maximum, and (b) the
maximum efficiency, assuming the power fac- N1
tor of the load is 0.80 V2
V1 N2
[(a) 204.1 kVA (b) 97.61%] R1 D D
I1 N2
I2
N1
2 2
N1 V2 N1
21.10 Resistance matching D D RL
N2 I2 N2
Varying a load resistance to be equal, or almost
equal, to the source internal resistance is called 2
matching. Examples where resistance matching is N1
i.e. R1 = RL
important include coupling an aerial to a transmitter N2
or receiver, or in coupling a loudspeaker to an
amplifier, where coupling transformers may be used Hence by varying the value of the turns ratio,
to give maximum power transfer. the equivalent input resistance of a transformer can
With d.c. generators or secondary cells, the inter- be ‘matched’ to the internal resistance of a load to
nal resistance is usually very small. In such cases, achieve maximum power transfer.
if an attempt is made to make the load resistance as
small as the source internal resistance, overloading
of the source results. Problem 21. A transformer having a turns
A method of achieving maximum power trans- ratio of 4:1 supplies a load of resistance
fer between a source and a load (see section 13.9, 100 . Determine the equivalent input
page 179), is to adjust the value of the load resis- resistance of the transformer.
tance to ‘match’ the source internal resistance. A
transformer may be used as a resistance matching From above, the equivalent input resistance,
device by connecting it between the load and the

source. N1 2
The reason why a transformer can be used for this R1 D RL
N2
is shown below. With reference to Fig. 21.10: 2
4
V2 V1 D
100 D 1600 Z
RL D and R1 D 1
I2 I1
For an ideal transformer, Problem 22. The output stage of an
amplifier has an output resistance of 112 .
N1 Calculate the optimum turns ratio of a
V1 D V2
N2 transformer which would match a load
resistance of 7 to the output resistance of
N2
and I1 D I2 the amplifier.
N1
TLFeBOOK
Figure 21.12
Figure 21.11
(a) Turns ratio

The circuit is shown in Fig. 21.11 N1 V1 220 1
The equivalent input resistance, R1 of the trans- D D D
N2 V2 1760 8
former needs to be 112 for maximum power
transfer. Equivalent input resistance of the transformer.
2 2
2 N1 1
N1 R1 D RL D
1.28 ð 103 D 20
R1 D RL N2 8
N2
2 Total input resistance,
N1 R1 112
Hence D D D 16 RIN D R C R1 D 2 C 20 D 22
N2 RL 7
N1 p Primary current,
i.e. D 16 D 4
N2 V1 220
I1 D D D 10 A
RIN 22
Hence the optimum turns ratio is 4:1
(b) For an ideal transformer
V1 I2
Problem 23. Determine the optimum value D
of load resistance for maximum power V2 I1
transfer if the load is connected to an from which,
amplifier of output resistance 150 through
V1 220
a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1 I2 D I1 D 10 D 1.25 A
V2 1760
The equivalent input resistance R1 of the transformer Power dissipated in load resistor RL ,
needs to be 150 for maximum power transfer. P D I22 RL D
1.252
1.28 ð 103
2
N1 D 2000 watts or 2 kW
R1 D RL
N2
2
N2 Problem 25. An a.c. source of 24 V and
from which, RL D R1
N1 internal resistance 15 k is matched to a
1 2 load by a 25:1 ideal transformer. Determine
D 150 5 D 6 Z (a) the value of the load resistance and
(b) the power dissipated in the load.
Problem 24. A single-phase, 220 V/1760 V
ideal transformer is supplied from a 220 V The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.13
source through a cable of resistance 2 . If
the load across the secondary winding is (a) For maximum power transfer R1 needs to be
1.28 k determine (a) the primary current equal to 15 k.
flowing and (b) the power dissipated in the 2
load resistor. N1
R1 D RL
N2
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.12 from which, load resistance,
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 319
(b) the power dissipated in the load resistance.

[(a) 30 A (b) 4.5 kW]
5 A load of resistance 768 is to be matched
to an amplifier which has an effective output
resistance of 12 . Determine the turns ratio
of the coupling transformer. [1:8]
6 An a.c. source of 20 V and internal resistance
Figure 21.13 20 k is matched to a load by a 16:1 single-
2 2 phase transformer. Determine (a) the value of
N2 1 the load resistance and (b) the power dissi-
RL D R1 D
15 000 D 24 Z pated in the load.
N1 25
[(a) 78.13 (b) 5 mW]
(b) The total input resistance when the source is
connected to the matching transformer is RIN C
R1 i.e. 15 k C 15 k D 30 k.
Primary current, 21.11 Auto transformers
V 24 An auto transformer is a transformer which has
I1 D D D 0.8 mA part of its winding common to the primary and
30000 30000
secondary circuits. Fig. 21.14(a) shows the circuit
N1 /N2 D I2 /I1 from which, I2 D I1
N1 /N2 D for a double-wound transformer and Fig. 21.14(b)

0.8 ð 103
25/1 D 20 ð 103 A. that for an auto transformer. The latter shows that
Power dissipated in the load RL , the secondary is actually part of the primary, the
current in the secondary being (I2 I1 ). Since
P D I22 RL D
20 ð 103 2
24 the current is less in this section, the cross-sectional
area of the winding can be reduced, which reduces
D 9600 ð 106 W D 9.6 mW the amount of material necessary.

resistance matching
1 A transformer having a turns ratio of
8:1 supplies a load of resistance 50 . Figure 21.14
Determine the equivalent input resistance of
the transformer. [3.2 k] Figure 21.15 shows the circuit diagram symbol
2 What ratio of transformer is required to make for an auto transformer.
a load of resistance 30 appear to have a
resistance of 270 ? [3:1]
3 Determine the optimum value of load
resistance for maximum power transfer if the Figure 21.15
load is connected to an amplifier of output
resistance 147 through a transformer with Problem 26. A single-phase auto
a turns ratio of 7:2 [12 ] transformer has a voltage ratio 320 V:250 V
4 A single-phase, 240 V/2880 V ideal trans- and supplies a load of 20 kVA at 250 V.
former is supplied from a 240 V source Assuming an ideal transformer, determine
through a cable of resistance 3 . If the the current in each section of the winding.
load across the secondary winding is 720
determine (a) the primary current flowing and Rating D 20 kVA D V1 I1 D V2 I2 .
TLFeBOOK
Hence primary current, 2N1 I1 2N2 I1

D
20 ð 103 20 ð 103 2N1 I1 2N1 I1
I1 D D D 62.5 A N2
V1 320 D1
N1
and secondary current,
If
N2 /N1 D x then
20 ð 103 20 ð 103
I2 D D D 80 A
V2 250
Hence current in common part of the winding (volume of copper in an auto transformer)
D 80 62.5 D 17.5 A = .1 − x / (volume of copper in a double-
The current flowing in each section of the wound transformer) .12/
transformer is shown in Fig. 21.16
If, say, x D
4/5 then (volume of copper in auto
transformer)
(volume of copper in a
D 1 45
double-wound transformer)
1
D 5
(volume in double-wound transformer)
i.e. a saving of 80%.

Similarly, if x D
1/4, the saving is 25 per cent,
Figure 21.16
and so on. The closer N2 is to N1 , the greater the
saving in copper.
Saving of copper in an auto transformer

For the same output and voltage ratio, the auto Problem 27. Determine the saving in the
transformer requires less copper than an ordinary volume of copper used in an auto transformer
double-wound transformer. This is explained below. compared with a double-wound transformer
The volume, and hence weight, of copper required for (a) a 200 V:150 V transformer, and (b) a
in a winding is proportional to the number of turns 500 V:100 V transformer.
and to the cross-sectional area of the wire. In turn
this is proportional to the current to be carried, i.e.
volume of copper is proportional to NI. (a) For a 200 V:150 V transformer,
Volume of copper in an auto transformer V2 150
xD D D 0.75
/
N1 N2 I1 C N2
I2 I1 V1 200
see Fig. 21.14(b) Hence from equation (12), (volume of copper in
auto transformer)
/ N1 I1 N2 I1 C N2 I2 N2 I1
(volume of copper in
/ N1 I1 C N2 I2 2N2 I1 D
1 0.75
/ 2N1 I1 2N2 I1 (since N2 I2 D N1 I1 (volume of copper in
D
0.25
Volume of copper in a double-wound transformer double-wound transformer)
/ N1 I1 C N2 I2 / 2N1 I1 (of copper in a

D 25%
(again, since N2 I2 D N1 I1 ). Hence Hence the saving is 75%
volume of copper in (b) For a 500 V:100 V transformer,
an auto transformer 2N1 I1 2N2 I1
D V2 100
volume of copper in a 2N1 I1 xD D D 0.2
double-wound transformer V1 500
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 321
Hence, (volume of copper in auto transformer) for interconnecting systems that are operating at
approximately the same voltage.
(volume of copper in
D
1 0.2
D
0.8 (volume in double-wound transformer) 21.12 Isolating transformers
D 80% of copper in a double-wound transformer Transformers not only enable current or voltage
Hence the saving is 20%. to be transformed to some different magnitude
but provide a means of isolating electrically one
part of a circuit from another when there is
Now try the following exercise no electrical connection between primary and
secondary windings. An isolating transformer is
a 1:1 ratio transformer with several important
applications, including bathroom shaver-sockets,
Exercise 122 Further problems on the portable electric tools, model railways, and so on.
auto-transformer
1 A single-phase auto transformer has a volt-
age ratio of 480 V:300 V and supplies a load 21.13 Three-phase transformers
of 30 kVA at 300 V. Assuming an ideal trans-
former, calculate the current in each section of Three-phase double-wound transformers are mainly
the winding. used in power transmission and are usually of the
[I1 D 62.5 A, I2 D 100 A, (I2 I1 D 37.5 A] core type. They basically consist of three pairs
of single-phase windings mounted on one core, as
2 Calculate the saving in the volume of shown in Fig. 21.17, which gives a considerable
copper used in an auto transformer compared saving in the amount of iron used. The primary and
with a double-wound transformer for (a) secondary windings in Fig. 21.17 are wound on top
a 300 V:240 V transformer, and (b) a of each other in the form of concentric cylinders,
400 V:100 V transformer [(a) 80% (b) 25%] similar to that shown in Fig. 21.6(a). The windings
may be with the primary delta-connected and the
secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-star or
Advantages of auto transformers delta-delta, depending on its use.
A delta-connection is shown in Fig. 21.18(a) and
The advantages of auto transformers over double-
a star-connection in Fig. 21.18(b).
wound transformers include:
1 a saving in cost since less copper is needed (see Problem 28. A three-phase transformer has
above) 500 primary turns and 50 secondary turns. If
2 less volume, hence less weight the supply voltage is 2.4 kV find the
3 a higher efficiency, resulting from lower I2 R secondary line voltage on no-load when the
losses windings are connected (a) star-delta, (b)
delta-star.
4 a continuously variable output voltage is achiev-
able if a sliding contact is used p
(a) For a star-connection, VL D 3 Vp (see Chap-
5 a smaller percentage voltage regulation.
ter 20). Primary phase voltage,
Disadvantages of auto transformers VL1 2400
Vp D p D p D 1385.64 volts.
The primary and secondary windings are not electri- 3 3
cally separate, hence if an open-circuit occurs in the For a delta-connection, VL D Vp . N1 /N2 D
secondary winding the full primary voltage appears V1 /V2 from which, secondary phase voltage,
across the secondary.

N2 50
Uses of auto transformers Vp2 D Vp1 D
1385.64
Auto transformers are used for reducing the voltage N1 500
when starting induction motors (see Chapter 23) and D 138.6 volts
TLFeBOOK
Figure 21.17
Figure 21.18
(b) For a delta-connection, VL D Vp hence, primary

phase voltage Vp1 D 2.4 kV D 2400 volts.
Secondary phase voltage, Exercise 123 A further problem on the
three-phase transformer
N2 50
Vp2 D Vp1 D
2400 D 240 volts 1 A three-phase transformer has 600 primary
N1 500
p turns and 150 secondary turns. If the supply
For a star-connection, VL Dp 3 Vp hence, the voltage is 1.5 kV determine the secondary line
secondary line voltage, VL2 D 3
240 voltage on no-load when the windings are
D 416 volts. connected (a) delta-star (b) star-delta
[(a) 649.5 V (b) 216.5 V]
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 323
of ammeters giving full-scale deflections of 1 A, 2 A

21.14 Current transformers or 5 A.
For measuring currents in excess of about 100 A For very large currents the transformer core can
a current transformer is normally used. With a be mounted around the conductor or bus-bar. Thus
d.c. moving-coil ammeter the current required to the primary then has just one turn.
give full scale deflection is very small – typically It is very important to short-circuit the secondary
a few milliamperes. When larger currents are to be winding before removing the ammeter. This is
measured a shunt resistor is added to the circuit (see because if current is flowing in the primary,
Chapter 10). However, even with shunt resistors dangerously high voltages could be induced in the
added it is not possible to measure very large secondary should it be open-circuited.
currents. When a.c. is being measured a shunt cannot Current transformer circuit diagram symbols are
be used since the proportion of the current which shown in Fig. 21.20
flows in the meter will depend on its impedance,
which varies with frequency.
In a double-wound transformer:
I1 N2
D
I2 N1
Figure 21.20
from which,

N2 Problem 29. A current transformer has a
secondary current I2 = I1
N1 single turn on the primary winding and a
secondary winding of 60 turns. The
In current transformers the primary usually consists secondary winding is connected to an
of one or two turns whilst the secondary can have ammeter with a resistance of 0.15 . The
several hundred turns. A typical arrangement is resistance of the secondary winding is
shown in Fig. 21.19 0.25 . If the current in the primary winding
is 300 A, determine (a) the reading on the
ammeter, (b) the potential difference across
the ammeter and (c) the total load (in VA) on
the secondary.
(a) Reading on the ammeter,

N1 1
I2 D I1 D 300 D 5 A.
N2 60
(b) P.d. across the ammeter D I2 RA , (where RA is the
ammeter resistance D
5
0.15 D 0.75 volts.
(c) Total resistance of secondary circuit D
Figure 21.19 0.15 C 0.25 D 0.40 .
Induced e.m.f. in secondary D
5
0.40 D 2.0 V.
If, for example, the primary has 2 turns and the Total load on secondary D
2.0
5 D 10 VA.
secondary 200 turns, then if the primary current is
500 A,
N2 2
secondary current, I2 D I1 D
500
N1 200
Exercise 124 A further problem on the
D 5A current transformer
Current transformers isolate the ammeter from the 1 A current transformer has two turns on the
main circuit and allow the use of a standard range primary winding and a secondary winding of
TLFeBOOK
260 turns. The secondary winding is connected Now try the following exercises
to an ammeter with a resistance of 0.2 .
The resistance of the secondary winding is
0.3 . If the current in the primary winding Exercise 125 Short answer questions on
is 650 A, determine (a) the reading on the transformers
ammeter, (b) the potential difference across 1 What is a transformer?
the ammeter, and (c) the total load in VA on
the secondary [(a) 5 A (b) 1 V (c) 7.5 VA] 2 Explain briefly how a voltage is induced in
the secondary winding of a transformer
3 Draw the circuit diagram symbol for a
transformer
21.15 Voltage transformers 4 State the relationship between turns and volt-
age ratios for a transformer
For measuring voltages in excess of about 500 V it 5 How is a transformer rated?
is often safer to use a voltage transformer. These
are normal double-wound transformers with a large 6 Briefly describe the principle of operation of
number of turns on the primary, which is connected a transformer
to a high voltage supply, and a small number of turns 7 Draw a phasor diagram for an ideal trans-
on the secondary. A typical arrangement is shown former on no-load
in Fig. 21.21
8 State the e.m.f. equation for a transformer
9 Draw an on-load phasor diagram for an ideal
transformer with an inductive load
10 Name two types of transformer construction
11 What core material is normally used for
power transformers
12 Name three core materials used in r.f. trans-
formers
13 State a typical application for (a) a.f. trans-
formers (b) r.f. transformers
Figure 21.21 14 How is cooling achieved in transformers?
15 State the expressions for equivalent resis-
Since tance and reactance of a transformer, referred
to the primary
V1 N1
D 16 Define regulation of a transformer
V2 N2
the secondary voltage, 17 Name two sources of loss in a transformer
V1 N2 18 What is hysteresis loss? How is it minimised

V2 D in a transformer?
V1
19 What are eddy currents? How may they be
Thus if the arrangement in Fig. 21.21 has 4000 reduced in transformers?
primary turns and 20 secondary turns then for a
voltage of 22 kV on the primary, the voltage on the 20 How is efficiency of a transformer calcu-
secondary, lated?

N2 20 21 What is the condition for maximum effi-
V2 D V1 D
22 000 D 110 volts ciency of a transformer?
N1 4000
22 What does ‘resistance matching’ mean?
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS 325
23 State a practical application where matching 1.7A

would be used
24 Derive a formula for the equivalent resistance
of a transformer having a turns ratio of
N1 : N2 and load resistance RL
3.3 A
25 What is an auto transformer? V1 p
26 State three advantages and one disadvantage

of an auto transformer compared with a V2
double-wound transformer
27 In what applications are auto transformers Q
used?
Figure 21.22
28 What is an isolating transformer? Give two
applications
4 A 440 V/110 V transformer has 1000 turns on
29 Describe briefly the construction of a three- the primary winding. The number of turns on
phase transformer the secondary is:
30 For what reason are current transformers (a) 550 (b) 250 (c) 4000 (d) 25
used? 5 An advantage of an auto-transformer is that:
31 Describe how a current transformer operates (a) it gives a high step-up ratio
(b) iron losses are reduced
32 For what reason are voltage transformers (c) copper loss is reduced
used? (d) it reduces capacitance between turns
33 Describe how a voltage transformer operates 6 A 1 kV/250 V transformer has 500 turns on
the secondary winding. The number of turns
on the primary is:
(a) 2000 (b) 125 (c) 1000 (d) 250
Exercise 126 Multi-choice questions on 7 The core of a transformer is laminated to:
transformers (Answers on page 376) (a) limit hysteresis loss
(b) reduce the inductance of the windings
1 The e.m.f. equation of a transformer of (c) reduce the effects of eddy current loss
secondary turns N2 , magnetic flux density (d) prevent eddy currents from occurring
Bm , magnetic area of core a, and operating
at frequency f is given by: 8 The power input to a mains transformer is
(a) E2 D 4.44N2 Bm af volts 200 W. If the primary current is 2.5 A, the
secondary voltage is 2 V and assuming no
N2 Bm f losses in the transformer, the turns ratio is:
(b) E2 D 4.44 volts (a) 40:1 step down (b) 40:1 step up
a
(c) 80:1 step down (d) 80:1 step up
N2 Bm f
(c) E2 D volts 9 A transformer has 800 primary turns and 100
a
secondary turns. To obtain 40 V from the
(d) E2 D 1.11N2 Bm a f volts secondary winding the voltage applied to the
2 In the auto-transformer shown in Fig. 21.22, primary winding must be:
the current in section PQ is: (a) 5 V (b) 320 V
(a) 3.3 A (b) 1.7 A (c) 5 A (d) 1.6 A (c) 2.5 V (d) 20 V
3 A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of A 100 kVA, 250 V/10 kV, single-phase trans-
10. If the output current is 5 A, the input former has a full-load copper loss of 800 W
current is: and an iron loss of 500 W. The primary wind-
(a) 50 A (b) 5 A (c) 2.5 A (d) 0.5 A ing contains 120 turns. For the statements in
TLFeBOOK
questions 10 to 16, select the correct answer (d) In transformers, eddy current loss is
from the following list: reduced by laminating the core
(a) 81.3 kW (b) 800 W (c) 97.32% 18 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 1:5
(d) 80 kW (e) 3 (f) 4800 and is supplied at 200 V when the primary
(g) 1.3 kW (h) 98.40% (i) 100 kW current is 3 A. Which of the following state-
(j) 98.28% (k) 200 W (l) 101.3 kW ments is false?
(m) 96.38% (n) 400 W (a) The turns ratio indicates a step-up trans-
former
10 The total full-load losses
(b) The secondary voltage is 40 V
11 The full-load output power at 0.8 power factor (c) The secondary current is 15 A
(d) The transformer rating is 0.6 kVA
12 The full-load input power at 0.8 power factor (e) The secondary voltage is 1 kV
13 The full-load efficiency at 0.8 power factor (f) The secondary current is 0.6 A
14 The half full-load copper loss 19 Iron losses in a transformer are due to:
(a) eddy currents only
15 The transformer efficiency at half full-load, (b) flux leakage
0.8 power factor (c) both eddy current and hysteresis losses
16 The number of secondary winding turns (d) the resistance of the primary and secondary
windings
(a) In an ideal transformer, the volts per turn 20 A load is to be matched to an amplifier
are constant for a given value of primary having an effective internal resistance of 10
voltage via a coupling transformer having a turns
(b) In a single-phase transformer, the hystere- ratio of 1:10. The value of the load resistance
sis loss is proportional to frequency for maximum power transfer is:
(c) A transformer whose secondary current is (a) 100 (b) 1 k
greater than the primary current is a step- (c) 100 m (d) 1 m
up transformer
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 6
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 20 and 21.
1 Three identical coils each of resistance 40 and number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum
inductive reactance 30 are connected (i) in star, value of flux. (9)
and (ii) in delta to a 400 V, three-phase supply.
Calculate for each connection (a) the line and 5 Determine the regulation of an 8 kVA, 100 V/
phase voltages, (b) the phase and line currents, 200 V, single phase transformer when its
and (c) the total power dissipated. (12) secondary terminal voltage is 194 V when loaded.
(3)
2 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the 6 A 500 kVA rated transformer has a full-load cop-
input power to a balanced three-phase load by per loss of 4 kW and an iron loss of 3 kW. Deter-
the two-wattmeter method. If the instrument read- mine the transformer efficiency (a) at full load
ings are 10 kW and 6 kW, determine (a) the total and 0.80 power factor, and (b) at half full load
power input, and (b) the load power factor. (5) and 0.80 power factor. (10)
7 Determine the optimum value of load resistance
3 An ideal transformer connected to a 250 V mains, for maximum power transfer if the load is con-
supplies a 25 V, 200 W lamp. Calculate the trans- nected to an amplifier of output resistance 288
former turns ratio and the current taken from the through a transformer with a turns ratio 6:1 (3)
supply. (5) 8 A single-phase auto transformer has a voltage
ratio of 250 V:200 V and supplies a load of
4 A 200 kVA, 8000 V/320 V, 50 Hz single phase 15 kVA at 200 V. Assuming an ideal transformer,
transformer has 120 secondary turns. Determine determine the current in each section of
(a) the primary and secondary currents, (b) the the winding. (3)
TLFeBOOK
22
D.C. machines
ž distinguish between the function of a motor and a generator

ž describe the action of a commutator
ž describe the construction of a d.c. machine
ž distinguish between wave and lap windings
ž understand shunt, series and compound windings of d.c. machines
ž understand armature reaction
ž calculate generated e.m.f. in an armature winding using E D 2pnZ/c
ž describe types of d.c. generator and their characteristics
ž calculate generated e.m.f. for a generator using E D V C Ia Ra
ž state typical applications of d.c. generators
ž list d.c. machine losses and calculate efficiency
ž calculate back e.m.f. for a d.c. motor using E D V Ia Ra
ž calculate the torque of a d.c. motor using T D EIa /2n and T D pZIa /c
ž describe types of d.c. motor and their characteristics
ž state typical applications of d.c. motors
ž describe a d.c. motor starter
ž describe methods of speed control of d.c. motors
ž list types of enclosure for d.c. motors
The principle of operation of a motor is explained

22.1 Introduction in Section 8.4, page 89. When the input to an elec-
trical machine is mechanical energy, (seen as, say,
When the input to an electrical machine is electrical a diesel motor, coupled to the machine by a shaft),
energy, (seen as applying a voltage to the electrical and the output is electrical energy, (seen as a volt-
terminals of the machine), and the output is mechan- age appearing at the electrical terminals of the
ical energy, (seen as a rotating shaft), the machine machine), the machine is called a generator. Thus,
is called an electric motor. Thus an electric motor a generator converts mechanical energy to electrical
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. energy.
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 329
The principle of operation of a generator is the other acting vertically upwards due to the cur-
explained in Section 9.2, page 94. rent flowing from E to F (from Fleming’s left hand
rule). If the loop is free to rotate, then when it has
rotated through 180° , the conductors are as shown
in Fig. 22.1(b) For rotation to continue in the same
22.2 The action of a commutator direction, it is necessary for the current flow to be as
shown in Fig. 22.1(b), i.e. from D to C and from F to
In an electric motor, conductors rotate in a uniform E. This apparent reversal in the direction of current
magnetic field. A single-loop conductor mounted flow is achieved by a process called commutation.
between permanent magnets is shown in Fig. 22.1. With reference to Fig. 22.2(a), when a direct volt-
age is applied at A and B, then as the single-loop
A voltage is applied at points A and B in Fig. 22.1(a)
conductor rotates, current flow will always be away
from the commutator for the part of the conductor
adjacent to the N-pole and towards the commutator
for the part of the conductor adjacent to the S-pole.
Thus the forces act to give continuous rotation in an
anti-clockwise direction. The arrangement shown in
Fig. 22.2(a) is called a ‘two-segment’ commutator
and the voltage is applied to the rotating segments by
stationary brushes, (usually carbon blocks), which
slide on the commutator material, (usually copper),
when rotation takes place.
In practice, there are many conductors on the
rotating part of a d.c. machine and these are attached
to many commutator segments. A schematic dia-
gram of a multi-segment commutator is shown in
Fig. 22.2(b)
Poor commutation results in sparking at the trail-
ing edge of the brushes. This can be improved by
using interpoles (situated between each pair of main
poles), high resistance brushes, or using brushes
spanning several commutator segments.
Figure 22.1
A force, F, acts on the loop due to the interac- 22.3 D.C. machine construction
tion of the magnetic field of the permanent magnets
and the magnetic field created by the current flow- The basic parts of any d.c. machine are shown in
ing in the loop. This force is proportional to the flux Fig. 22.3, and comprise:
density, B, the current flowing, I, and the effective
length of the conductor, l, i.e. F D BIl. The force (a) a stationary part called the stator having,
is made up of two parts, one acting vertically down- (i) a steel ring called the yoke, to which are
wards due to the current flowing from C to D and attached
Figure 22.2
TLFeBOOK
Figure 22.3
Figure 22.4
(ii) the magnetic poles, around which are the
(iii) field windings, i.e. many turns of a con- Depending on whether the electrical machine is
ductor wound round the pole core; current series wound, shunt wound or compound wound,
passing through this conductor creates an it behaves differently when a load is applied. The
electromagnet, (rather than the permanent behaviour of a d.c. machine under various conditions
magnets shown in Fig. 22.1 and 22.2), is shown by means of graphs, called characteristic
curves or just characteristics. The characteristics
(b) a rotating part called the armature mounted in
shown in the following sections are theoretical, since
bearings housed in the stator and having,
they neglect the effects of armature reaction.
(iv) a laminated cylinder of iron or steel called
Armature reaction is the effect that the magnetic
the core, on which teeth are cut to house
field produced by the armature current has on the
the
magnetic field produced by the field system. In a
(v) armature winding, i.e. a single or multi-
generator, armature reaction results in a reduced
loop conductor system, and
output voltage, and in a motor, armature reaction
(vi) the commutator, (see Section 22.2)
results in increased speed.
A way of overcoming the effect of armature
Armature windings can be divided into two reaction is to fit compensating windings, located in
groups, depending on how the wires are joined to slots in the pole face.
the commutator. These are called wave windings
and lap windings.
(a) In wave windings there are two paths in parallel 22.5 E.m.f. generated in an armature
irrespective of the number of poles, each path winding
supplying half the total current output. Wave
wound generators produce high voltage, low
current outputs. Let Z D number of armature conductors,
 D useful flux per pole, in webers,
(b) In lap windings there are as many paths in
parallel as the machine has poles. The total p D number of pairs of poles
current output divides equally between them. and n D armature speed in rev/s
Lap wound generators produce high current, low
voltage output. The e.m.f. generated by the armature is equal to the
e.m.f. generated by one of the parallel paths. Each
conductor passes 2p poles per revolution and thus
cuts 2p webers of magnetic flux per revolution.
22.4 Shunt, series and compound Hence flux cut by one conductor per second D
windings 2pn Wb and so the average e.m.f. E generated
per conductor is given by:
When the field winding of a d.c. machine is con-
nected in parallel with the armature, as shown in E D 2pn volts
Fig. 22.4(a), the machine is said to be shunt wound. (since 1 volt D 1 Weber per second
If the field winding is connected in series with
the armature, as shown in Fig. 22.4(b), then the Let c D number of parallel paths
machine is said to be series wound. A compound through the winding between
wound machine has a combination of series and
shunt windings. positive and negative brushes
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 331
c D 2 for a wave winding Generated e.m.f.

c D 2p for a lap winding 2pnZ 2pnZ
ED D D nZ
c 2p
The number of conductors in series in each path D
Z/c Rearranging gives, speed,
The total e.m.f. between
E 240
brushes D (average e.m.f./conductor) nD D
Z 30 ð 103 800
(number of conductors in series D 10 rev=s or 600 rev=min
per path
D 2pnZ/c Problem 3. An 8-pole, lap-wound armature
has 1200 conductors and a flux per pole of
0.03 Wb. Determine the e.m.f. generated
2p 8nZ when running at 500 rev/min.
i.e. generated e.m.f. E = volts 1
c
Generated e.m.f.,
Since Z, p and c are constant for a given machine,
then E / n. However 2n is the angular velocity 2pnZ
ω in radians per second, hence the generated e.m.f. ED
c
is proportional to  and ω,
2pnZ
D for a lap-wound machine,
i.e. generated e.m.f. E ∝ 8w 2 2p
i.e. E D nZ

500
Problem 1. An 8-pole, wave-connected D 0.03 1200
60
armature has 600 conductors and is driven at
625 rev/min. If the flux per pole is 20 mWb, D 300 volts
determine the generated e.m.f.
Problem 4. Determine the generated e.m.f.
Z D 600, c D 2 (for a wave winding), p D 4 pairs, in Problem 3 if the armature is wave-wound.
n D 625/60 rev/s and  D 20 ð 103 Wb.
Generated e.m.f. Generated e.m.f.
2pnZ 2pnZ
ED ED
c c

3 625 2pnZ
2420 ð 10 600 D since c D 2 for wave-wound
60 2
D
2 D pnZ D 4nZ
D 500 volts D 4300 from Problem 3
D 1200 volts
Problem 2. A 4-pole generator has a
lap-wound armature with 50 slots with 16
conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole Problem 5. A d.c. shunt-wound generator
is 30 mWb. Determine the speed at which the running at constant speed generates a voltage
machine must be driven to generate an e.m.f. of 150 V at a certain value of field current.
of 240 V. Determine the change in the generated
voltage when the field current is reduced by
20 per cent, assuming the flux is proportional
E D 240 V, c D 2 p (for a lap winding), Z D to the field current.
50 ð 16 D 800 and  D 30 ð 103 Wb.
TLFeBOOK
The generated e.m.f. E of a generator is proportional Hence the increase in flux per pole needs to be
to ω, i.e. is proportional to n, where  is the 87.5 per cent
flux and n is the speed of rotation. It follows that
E D kn, where k is a constant.
At speed n1 and flux 1 , E1 D k1 n1
At speed n2 and flux 2 , E2 D k2 n2
Thus, by division: generator e.m.f.
E1 k1 n1 1 n1 1 A 4-pole, wave-connected armature of a d.c.

D D machine has 750 conductors and is driven
E2 k2 n2 2 n2 at 720 rev/min. If the useful flux per pole is
15 mWb, determine the generated e.m.f.
The initial conditions are E1 D 150 V,  D 1
[270 volts]
and n D n1 . When the flux is reduced by 20 per
cent, the new value of flux is 80/100 or 0.8 of the 2 A 6-pole generator has a lap-wound armature
initial value, i.e. 2 D 0.81 . Since the generator with 40 slots with 20 conductors per slot. The
is running at constant speed, n2 D n1 . flux per pole is 25 mWb. Calculate the speed at
which the machine must be driven to generate
E1 1 n1 1 n1 1 an e.m.f. of 300 V [15 rev/s or 900 rev/min]
Thus D D D
E2 2 n2 0.81 n2 0.8
3 A 4-pole armature of a d.c. machine has 1000
that is, E2 D 150 ð 0.8 D 120 V conductors and a flux per pole of 20 mWb.
Determine the e.m.f. generated when running
Thus, a reduction of 20 per cent in the value of at 600 rev/min when the armature is (a) wave-
the flux reduces the generated voltage to 120 V at wound (b) lap-wound.
constant speed. [(a) 400 volts (b) 200 volts]
4 A d.c. generator running at 25 rev/s generates
Problem 6. A d.c. generator running at an e.m.f. of 150 V. Determine the percentage
30 rev/s generates an e.m.f. of 200 V. increase in the flux per pole required to gen-
Determine the percentage increase in the flux erate 180 V at 20 rev/s [50%]
per pole required to generate 250 V at
20 rev/s. 5 Determine the terminal voltage of a generator
which develops an e.m.f. of 240 V and has an
armature current of 50 A on load. Assume the
From Equation (2), generated e.m.f., E / ω and armature resistance is 40 m [238 volts]
since ω D 2n, E / n
Let E1 D 200 V, n1 D 30 rev/s
and flux per pole at this speed be 1 22.6 D.C. generators

Let E2 D 250 V, n2 D 20 rev/s D.C. generators are classified according to the
method of their field excitation. These group-
and flux per pole at this speed be 2 ings are:
E1 1 n1
Since E / n then D (i) Separately-excited generators, where the field
E2 2 n2 winding is connected to a source of supply other
200 1 30 than the armature of its own machine.
Hence D
250 2 20 (ii) Self-excited generators, where the field wind-
1 30250 ing receives its supply from the armature of its
from which, 2 D own machine, and which are sub-divided into
20200 (a) shunt, (b) series, and (c) compound wound
D 1.8751 generators.
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 333
(b) Generated e.m.f.,

22.7 Types of d.c. generator and their
characteristics E D V C I a Ra from Equation 3
D 480 C 81 D 480 C 8 D 488 volts
(a) Separately-excited generator
A typical separately-excited generator circuit is Problem 9. A separately-excited generator
shown in Fig. 22.5 develops a no-load e.m.f. of 150 V at an
When a load is connected across the armature armature speed of 20 rev/s and a flux per
terminals, a load current Ia will flow. The terminal pole of 0.10 Wb. Determine the generated
voltage V will fall from its open-circuit e.m.f. E due e.m.f. when (a) the speed increases to
to a volt drop caused by current flowing through the 25 rev/s and the pole flux remains
armature resistance, shown as Ra unchanged, (b) the speed remains at 20 rev/s
and the pole flux is decreased to 0.08 Wb,
i.e. terminal voltage, V = E − Ia Ra and (c) the speed increases to 24 rev/s and
the pole flux is decreased to 0.07 Wb.
or generated e.m.f., E = V + Ia Ra 3
(a) From Section 22.5, generated e.m.f. E / n
E1 1 N1
from which, D
E2 2 N2
150 0.1020
Hence D
E2 0.125
1500.1025
from which, E2 D
0.1020
D 187.5 volts
150 0.1020
(b) D
Figure 22.5 E3 0.0820
1500.0820
Problem 7. Determine the terminal voltage from which, e.m.f., E3 D
0.1020
of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of
200 V and has an armature current of 30 A D 120 volts
on load. Assume the armature resistance is
150 0.1020
0.30 . (c) D
E4 0.0724
With reference to Fig. 22.5, terminal voltage, 1500.0724
from which, e.m.f., E4 D
V D E Ia Ra 0.1020
D 200 300.30 D 126 volts
D 200 9
D 191 volts Characteristics
The two principal generator characteristics are
Problem 8. A generator is connected to a the generated voltage/field current characteristics,
60 load and a current of 8 A flows. If the called the open-circuit characteristic and the
armature resistance is 1 determine (a) the terminal voltage/load current characteristic, called
terminal voltage, and (b) the generated e.m.f. the load characteristic. A typical separately-excited
generator open-circuit characteristic is shown in
(a) Terminal voltage, V D Ia RL D 860 D Fig. 22.6(a) and a typical load characteristic is
480 volts shown in Fig. 22.6(b)
TLFeBOOK
(a) The circuit is as shown in Fig. 22.8

20 000 watts
Load current, I D D 100 A
200 volts
Volt drop in the cables to the load D IR D
100100 ð 103 D 10 V. Hence terminal
voltage, V D 200 C 10 D 210 volts.
Figure 22.6
A separately-excited generator is used only in

special cases, such as when a wide variation in
terminal p.d. is required, or when exact control of
the field current is necessary. Its disadvantage lies
in requiring a separate source of direct current.
(b) Shunt wound generator

Figure 22.8
In a shunt wound generator the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature as shown (b) Armature current Ia D If C I
in Fig. 22.7 The field winding has a relatively high V 210
resistance and therefore the current carried is only a Field current, If D D D 4.2 A
Rf 50
fraction of the armature current.
Hence Ia D If C I D 4.2 C 100 D 104.2 A
Generated e.m.f. E D V C Ia Ra
D 210 C104.240ð103
D 210 C 4.168
D 214.17 volts
Figure 22.7 Characteristics

The generated e.m.f., E, is proportional to ω,
For the circuit shown in Fig. 22.7, (see Section 22.5), hence at constant speed, since
terminal voltage, V D E Ia Ra ω D 2n, E / . Also the flux  is proportional
to field current If until magnetic saturation of the
or generated e.m.f., E D V C Ia Ra iron circuit of the generator occurs. Hence the open
circuit characteristic is as shown in Fig. 22.9(a).
Ia D If C I from Kirchhoff’s current law, where
Ia D armature current, If D field current D V/Rf
and I D load current
Problem 10. A shunt generator supplies a

20 kW load at 200 V through cables of
resistance, R D 100 m. If the field winding
resistance, Rf D 50 and the armature
resistance, Ra D 40 m, determine (a) the
terminal voltage, and (b) the e.m.f. generated
in the armature.
Figure 22.9
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 335
As the load current on a generator having constant

field current and running at constant speed increases,
the value of armature current increases, hence the
armature volt drop, Ia Ra increases. The generated
voltage E is larger than the terminal voltage V
and the voltage equation for the armature circuit is
V D E Ia Ra . Since E is constant, V decreases
with increasing load. The load characteristic is as
shown in Fig. 22.9(b). In practice, the fall in voltage
is about 10 per cent between no-load and full-load
for many d.c. shunt-wound generators. Figure 22.11
The shunt-wound generator is the type most used
in practice, but the load current must be limited to In a series-wound generator, the field winding is
a value that is well below the maximum value. This in series with the armature and it is not possible to
then avoids excessive variation of the terminal volt- have a value of field current when the terminals are
age. Typical applications are with battery charging open circuited, thus it is not possible to obtain an
and motor car generators. open-circuit characteristic.
Series-wound generators are rarely used in prac-
tise, but can be used as a ‘booster’ on d.c. transmis-
sion lines.
(c) Series-wound generator
In the series-wound generator the field winding is
connected in series with the armature as shown in (d) Compound-wound generator
Fig. 22.10
In the compound-wound generator two methods of
connection are used, both having a mixture of shunt
and series windings, designed to combine the advan-
tages of each. Fig. 22.12(a) shows what is termed a
long-shunt compound generator, and Fig. 22.12(b)
shows a short-shunt compound generator. The lat-
ter is the most generally used form of d.c. generator.
Figure 22.10
Characteristic
The load characteristic is the terminal volt-
age/current characteristic. The generated e.m.f. E, is
proportional to ω and at constant speed ωD 2n Figure 22.12
is a constant. Thus E is proportional to . For values
of current below magnetic saturation of the yoke, Problem 11. A short-shunt compound
poles, air gaps and armature core, the flux  is pro- generator supplies 80 A at 200 V. If the field
portional to the current, hence E / I. For values of resistance, Rf D 40 , the series resistance,
current above those required for magnetic saturation, RSe D 0.02 and the armature resistance,
the generated e.m.f. is approximately constant. The Ra D 0.04 , determine the e.m.f. generated.
values of field resistance and armature resistance in
a series wound machine are small, hence the termi-
nal voltage V is very nearly equal to E. A typical The circuit is shown in Fig. 22.13.
load characteristic for a series generator is shown in Volt drop in series winding D IRSe D 800.02 D
Fig. 22.11 1.6 V.
TLFeBOOK
An under-compounded machine gives a full-load

terminal voltage which is less than the no-load
voltage, as shown in Fig. 22.14. However even this
latter characteristic is a little better than that for a
shunt generator alone. Compound-wound generators
are used in electric arc welding, with lighting sets
and with marine equipment.

Figure 22.13
P.d. across the field winding D p.d. across

armature D V1 D 200 C 1.6 D 201.6 V Exercise 128 Further problems on the d.c.
generator
V1 201.6
Field current If D D D 5.04 A 1 A generator is connected to a 50 load and
Rf 40 a current of 10 A flows. If the armature resis-
Armature current, Ia D ICIf D 80C5.04 D 85.04 A tance is 0.5 , determine (a) the terminal volt-
age, and (b) the generated e.m.f.
Generated e.m.f., E D V1 C Ia Ra [(a) 500 volts (b) 505 volts]
D 201.6 C 85.040.04 2 A separately excited generator develops a no-
D 201.6 C 3.4016 load e.m.f. of 180 V at an armature speed
of 15 rev/s and a flux per pole of 0.20 Wb.
D 205 volts Calculate the generated e.m.f. when:
(a) the speed increases to 20 rev/s and the flux
per pole remains unchanged
Characteristics (b) the speed remains at 15 rev/s and the pole
In cumulative-compound machines the mag- flux is decreased to 0.125 Wb
netic flux produced by the series and shunt (c) the speed increases to 25 rev/s and the pole
fields are additive. Included in this group are flux is decreased to 0.18 Wb
over-compounded, level-compounded and under- [(a) 240 volts (b) 112.5 volts (c) 270 volts]
compounded machines – the degree of compound-
ing obtained depending on the number of turns of 3 A shunt generator supplies a 50 kW load at
wire on the series winding. 400 V through cables of resistance 0.2 . If the
A large number of series winding turns results field winding resistance is 50 and the arma-
in an over-compounded characteristic, as shown in ture resistance is 0.05 , determine (a) the ter-
Fig. 22.14, in which the full-load terminal volt- minal voltage, (b) the e.m.f. generated in the
age exceeds the no-load voltage. A level-compound armature [(a) 425 volts (b) 431.68 volts]
machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which is
equal to the no-load voltage, as shown in Fig. 22.14 4 A short-shunt compound generator supplies
50 A at 300 V. If the field resistance is 30 ,
the series resistance 0.03 and the armature
resistance 0.05 , determine the e.m.f. gener-
ated [304.5 volts]
5 A d.c. generator has a generated e.m.f. of

210 V when running at 700 rev/min and the
flux per pole is 120 mWb. Determine the gen-
erated e.m.f.
(a) at 1050 rev/min, assuming the flux remains
constant,
(b) if the flux is reduced by one-sixth at con-
Figure 22.14 stant speed, and
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 337
(c) at a speed of 1155 rev/min and a flux of is used to signify efficiency and since the units are,
132 mWb power/power, then efficiency has no units. Thus
[(a) 315 V (b) 175 V (c) 381.2 V]
6 A 250 V d.c. shunt-wound generator has an
armature resistance of 0.1 . Determine the output power
efficiency, h = × 100%
generated e.m.f. when the generator is supply- input power
ing 50 kW, neglecting the field current of the
generator. [270 V]
If the total resistance of the armature circuit (includ-
ing brush contact resistance) is Ra , then the total
loss in the armature circuit is Ia2 Ra
If the terminal voltage is V and the current in the
22.8 D.C. machine losses shunt circuit is If , then the loss in the shunt circuit
is If V
As stated in Section 22.1, a generator is a machine If the sum of the iron, friction and windage
for converting mechanical energy into electrical losses is C then the total losses is given by:
energy and a motor is a machine for converting Ia2 Ra + If V + C (I2a Ra C If V is, in fact, the ‘copper
electrical energy into mechanical energy. When such loss’).
conversions take place, certain losses occur which If the output current is I, then the output power
are dissipated in the form of heat. is VI. Total input power D VI C I2a Ra C If V C C.
The principal losses of machines are: Hence
output
(i) Copper loss, due to I2 R heat losses in the efficiency, h D , i.e.
input
armature and field windings.

(ii) Iron (or core) loss, due to hysteresis and eddy- VI
h= 2
× 100% 4
current losses in the armature. This loss can be VI + Ia Ra + If V + C
reduced by constructing the armature of silicon
steel laminations having a high resistivity and The efficiency of a generator is a maximum
low hysteresis loss. At constant speed, the iron when the load is such that:
loss is assumed constant.
Ia2 Ra = VIf + C
(iii) Friction and windage losses, due to bear-
ing and brush contact friction and losses due i.e. when the variable loss D the constant loss
to air resistance against moving parts (called
windage). At constant speed, these losses are Problem 12. A 10 kW shunt generator
assumed to be constant. having an armature circuit resistance of
(iv) Brush contact loss between the brushes and 0.75 and a field resistance of 125 ,
commutator. This loss is approximately propor- generates a terminal voltage of 250 V at full
tional to the load current. load. Determine the efficiency of the
generator at full load, assuming the iron,
friction and windage losses amount to 600 W.
The total losses of a machine can be quite significant
and operating efficiencies of between 80 per cent
and 90 per cent are common. The circuit is shown in Fig. 22.15
22.9 Efficiency of a d.c. generator

The efficiency of an electrical machine is the ratio of
the output power to the input power and is usually
expressed as a percentage. The Greek letter, ‘’ (eta) Figure 22.15
TLFeBOOK
Output power D 10 000 W D VI from which, a back e.m.f., and the supply voltage, V is given by:
load current I D 10 000/V D 10 000/250 D 40 A.
Field current, If D V/Rf D 250/125 D 2 A.
Armature current, Ia D If C I D 2 C 40 D 42 A V = E + Ia Ra or E = V − Ia Ra (5)
 
 VI 
Efficiency, D  2  ð 100% Problem 13. A d.c. motor operates from a
VI C Ia R 240 V supply. The armature resistance is
CIf V C C 0.2 . Determine the back e.m.f. when the
 
armature current is 50 A.
 10 000 
D 2  ð 100%
10 000 C 42 0.75
C2250 C 600 For a motor, V D E C Ia Ra hence back e.m.f.,

10 000 E D V Ia Ra
D ð 100%
12 423
D 240 500.2
D 80.50%
D 240 10 D 230 volts

Problem 14. The armature of a d.c.
machine has a resistance of 0.25 and is
connected to a 300 V supply. Calculate the
Exercise 129 A further problem on the e.m.f. generated when it is running: (a) as a
efficiency of a d.c. generator generator giving 100 A , and (b) as a motor
1 A 15 kW shunt generator having an armature taking 80 A.
circuit resistance of 0.4 and a field resis-
tance of 100 , generates a terminal voltage
of 240 V at full load. Determine the efficiency (a) As a generator, generated e.m.f.,
of the generator at full load, assuming the iron, E D V C Ia Ra , from Equation (3),
friction and windage losses amount to 1 kW
[82.14%] D 300 C 1000.25
D 300 C 25
D 325 volts
22.10 D.C. motors

(b) As a motor, generated e.m.f. (or back e.m.f.),
The construction of a d.c. motor is the same as E D V Ia Ra , from Equation (5),
a d.c. generator. The only difference is that in a
generator the generated e.m.f. is greater than the D 300 800.25
terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the generated D 280 volts
e.m.f. is less than the terminal voltage.
D.C. motors are often used in power stations
to drive emergency stand-by pump systems which Now try the following exercise
come into operation to protect essential equipment
and plant should the normal a.c. supplies or pumps
fail. Exercise 130 Further problems on back
e.m.f.
Back e.m.f.
1 A d.c. motor operates from a 350 V supply. If
When a d.c. motor rotates, an e.m.f. is induced in the armature resistance is 0.4 determine the
the armature conductors. By Lenz’s law this induced back e.m.f. when the armature current is 60 A
e.m.f. E opposes the supply voltage V and is called [326 volts]
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 339

2 The armature of a d.c. machine has a resis- 2pnZ
tance of 0.5 and is connected to a 200 V c
supply. Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it Hence torque T D Ia
2n
is running (a) as a motor taking 50 A, and (b)
as a generator giving 70 A p 8ZIa
[(a) 175 volts (b) 235 volts] i.e. T = newton metres 7
pc
3 Determine the generated e.m.f. of a d.c.
machine if the armature resistance is 0.1 For a given machine, Z, c and p are fixed values
and it (a) is running as a motor connected
to a 230 V supply, the armature current being Hence torque, T ∝ 8Ia 8
60 A, and (b) is running as a generator with a
terminal voltage of 230 V, the armature current
being 80 A [(a) 224 V (b) 238 V] Problem 15. An 8-pole d.c. motor has a
wave-wound armature with 900 conductors.
The useful flux per pole is 25 mWb.
Determine the torque exerted when a current
of 30 A flows in each armature conductor.
22.11 Torque of a d.c. motor
p D 4, c D 2 for a wave winding,
From Equation (5), for a d.c. motor, the supply  D 25 ð 103 Wb, Z D 900 and Ia D 30 A.
voltage V is given by From Equation (7),
V D E C Ia Ra pZIa
torque, T D
c
Multiplying each term by current Ia gives: 425 ð 103 90030
D
2
VIa D EIa C I2a Ra
D 429.7 Nm
The term VIa is the total electrical power supplied
to the armature, the term Ia2 Ra is the loss due Problem 16. Determine the torque
to armature resistance, and the term EIa is the developed by a 350 V d.c. motor having an
mechanical power developed by the armature armature resistance of 0.5 and running at
If T is the torque, in newton metres, then the 15 rev/s. The armature current is 60 A.
mechanical power developed is given by Tω watts
(see ‘Science for Engineering’ )
V D 350 V, Ra D 0.5 , n D 15 rev/s and Ia D 60 A
Hence Tω D 2nT D EIa Back e.m.f. E D V Ia Ra D 350 600.5 D 320 V.
From Equation (6),
from which, EIa 32060
torque, T D D D 203.7 Nm
2n 215
EIa
torque T = newton metres 6
2pn Problem 17. A six-pole lap-wound motor is
connected to a 250 V d.c. supply. The
From Section 22.5, Equation (1), the e.m.f. E gen- armature has 500 conductors and a resistance
erated is given by of 1 . The flux per pole is 20 mWb.
Calculate (a) the speed and (b) the torque
2pnZ developed when the armature current is 40 A.
ED
c

2pnZ V D 250 V, Z D 500, Ra D 1 ,  D 20ð103 Wb,
Hence 2nT D EIa D Ia
c Ia D 40 A and c D 2p for a lap winding
TLFeBOOK
(a) Back e.m.f. E D V Ia Ra D 250 401 The output power is the electrical output, i.e.
VI watts. The input power to a generator is
D 210 V
the mechanical power in the shaft driving the
2pnZ generator, i.e. Tω or T2n watts, where T is
E.m.f. E D
c the torque in Nm and n is speed of rotation in
2p20 ð 103 n500 rev/s. Hence, for a generator,
i.e. 210 D D 10n
2p
VI
210 efficiency, D ð 100%
Hence speed n D D 21 rev=s or 21 ð 60 T2n
10
10015100
D 1260 rev=min D
1500
EIa 21040 122
(b) Torque T D D D 63.66 Nm 60
2n 221
i.e. efficiency D 79.6%
Problem 18. The shaft torque of a diesel

motor driving a 100 V d.c. shunt-wound (b) The input power D output power C losses
generator is 25 Nm. The armature current of Hence, T2n D VI C losses
the generator is 16 A at this value of torque.
If the shunt field regulator is adjusted so that i.e. losses D T2n VI
the flux is reduced by 15 per cent, the torque
1500
increases to 35 Nm. Determine the armature D 122
current at this new value of torque. 60
[10015]
From Equation (8), the shaft torque T of a generator i.e. power loss D 1885 1500 D 385 W
is proportional to Ia , where  is the flux and Ia
is the armature current, or, T D kIa , where k is a
constant. Now try the following exercise
The torque at flux 1 and armature current Ia1 is
T1 D k1 Ia1 Similarly, T2 D k2 Ia2
Exercise 131 Further problems on losses,
T1 k1 Ia1 1 Ia1 efficiency, and torque
By division D D
T2 k2 Ia2 2 Ia2
1 The shaft torque required to drive a d.c.
25 1 ð 16 generator is 18.7 Nm when it is running at
Hence D
35 0.851 ð Ia2 1250 rev/min. If its efficiency is 87 per cent
under these conditions and the armature cur-
16 ð 35
i.e. Ia2 D D 26.35 A rent is 17.3 A, determine the voltage at the
0.85 ð 25 terminals of the generator [123.1 V]
That is, the armature current at the new value of 2 A 220 V, d.c. generator supplies a load of
torque is 26.35 A 37.5 A and runs at 1550 rev/min. Determine
the shaft torque of the diesel motor driving
the generator, if the generator efficiency is 78
Problem 19. A 100 V d.c. generator per cent [65.2 Nm]
supplies a current of 15 A when running at
1500 rev/min. If the torque on the shaft 3 A 4-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound arma-
driving the generator is 12 Nm, determine ture with 800 conductors. The useful flux per
(a) the efficiency of the generator and (b) the pole is 20 mWb. Calculate the torque exerted
power loss in the generator. when a current of 40 A flows in each armature
conductor. [203.7 Nm]
(a) From Section 22.9, the efficiency of a generator 4 Calculate the torque developed by a 240 V
D output power/input power ð 100 per cent. d.c. motor whose armature current is 50 A,
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 341
armature resistance is 0.6 and is running at

Problem 20. A 240 V shunt motor takes a
10 rev/s [167.1 Nm]
total current of 30 A. If the field winding
5 An 8-pole lap-wound d.c. motor has a 200 V resistance Rf D 150 and the armature
supply. The armature has 800 conductors and resistance Ra D 0.4 determine (a) the
a resistance of 0.8 . If the useful flux per current in the armature, and (b) the back
pole is 40 mWb and the armature current is e.m.f.
30 A, calculate (a) the speed and (b) the torque
developed V 240
[(a) 5.5 rev/s or 330 rev/min (b) 152.8 Nm] (a) Field current If D D D 1.6 A
Rf 150
6 A 150 V d.c. generator supplies a current Supply current I D Ia C If
of 25 A when running at 1200 rev/min. If
Hence armature current, Ia D I If D 30 1.6
the torque on the shaft driving the generator
D 28.4 A
is 35.8 Nm, determine (a) the efficiency of
the generator, and (b) the power loss in the (b) Back e.m.f.
generator
[(a) 83.4 per cent (b) 748.8 W] E D VIa Ra D 24028.40.4 D 228.64 volts
Characteristics
The two principal characteristics are the torque
22.12 Types of d.c. motor and their /armature current and speed/armature current rela-
characteristics tionships. From these, the torque/speed relationship
can be derived.
(a) Shunt wound motor (i) The theoretical torque/armature current char-
acteristic can be derived from the expression
T / Ia , (see Section 22.11). For a shunt-
In the shunt wound motor the field winding is
wound motor, the field winding is connected
in parallel with the armature across the supply as
in parallel with the armature circuit and thus
shown in Fig. 22.16 the applied voltage gives a constant field cur-
rent, i.e. a shunt-wound motor is a constant flux
machine. Since  is constant, it follows that
T / Ia , and the characteristic is as shown in
Fig. 22.17
Figure 22.16
For the circuit shown in Fig. 22.16,
Figure 22.17
Supply voltage, V D E C Ia Ra
or generated e.m.f., E D V Ia Ra (ii) The armature circuit of a d.c. motor has resis-
Supply current, I D Ia C If tance due to the armature winding and brushes,
Ra ohms, and when armature current Ia is flow-
ing through it, there is a voltage drop of Ia Ra
from Kirchhoff’s current law volts. In Fig. 22.16 the armature resistance is
TLFeBOOK
shown as a separate resistor in the armature cir-

cuit to help understanding. Also, even though Problem 21. A 200 V, d.c. shunt-wound
the machine is a motor, because conductors are motor has an armature resistance of 0.4
rotating in a magnetic field, a voltage, E / ω, and at a certain load has an armature current
is generated by the armature conductors. From of 30 A and runs at 1350 rev/min. If the load
Equation (5), V D E C Ia Ra or E D V Ia Ra on the shaft of the motor is increased so that
However, from Section 22.5, E / n, hence the armature current increases to 45 A,
n / E/ i.e. determine the speed of the motor, assuming
the flux remains constant.
E V Ia Ra
speed of rotation, n / / 9
  The relationship E / n applies to both generators
For a shunt motor, V,  and Ra are constants, and motors. For a motor, E D V Ia Ra , (see
hence as armature current Ia increases, Ia Ra equation (5))
increases and VIa Ra decreases, and the speed Hence E1 D 200 30 ð 0.4 D 188 V
is proportional to a quantity which is decreasing
and is as shown in Fig. 22.18 As the load on the and E2 D 200 45 ð 0.4 D 182 V
shaft of the motor increases, Ia increases and
the speed drops slightly. In practice, the speed The relationship
falls by about 10 per cent between no-load and
E1 1 n1
full-load on many d.c. shunt-wound motors. D
Due to this relatively small drop in speed, the E2 2 n2
d.c. shunt-wound motor is taken as basically
applies to both generators and motors. Since the flux
being a constant-speed machine and may be
is constant, 1 D 2 . Hence
used for driving lathes, lines of shafts, fans,
conveyor belts, pumps, compressors, drilling
1350
machines and so on. 1 ð
188 60
D
182 1 ð n2
22.5 ð 182
i.e. n2 D D 21.78 rev/s
188
Thus the speed of the motor when the arma-
ture current is 45 A is 21.78 ð 60 rev/min i.e.
1307 rev=min.
Problem 22. A 220 V, d.c. shunt-wound

Figure 22.18 motor runs at 800 rev/min and the armature
current is 30 A. The armature circuit
resistance is 0.4 . Determine (a) the
maximum value of armature current if the
flux is suddenly reduced by 10 per cent and
(b) the steady state value of the armature
current at the new value of flux, assuming the
shaft torque of the motor remains constant.
(a) For a d.c. shunt-wound motor, E D V Ia Ra .

Hence initial generated e.m.f.,
E1 D 220 30 ð 0.4 D 208 V. The gen-
Figure 22.19
erated e.m.f. is also such that E / n, so
at the instant the flux is reduced, the speed
(iii) Since torque is proportional to armature cur- has not had time to change, and E D 208 ð
rent, (see (i) above), the theoretical speed/ 90/100 D 187.2 V Hence, the voltage drop
torque characteristic is as shown in Fig. 22.19 due to the armature resistance is 220 187.2
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 343
i.e. 32.8 V. The instantaneous value of the

current D 32.8/0.4 D 82 A. This increase in
current is about three times the initial value
and causes an increase in torque, T / Ia .
The motor accelerates because of the larger
torque value until steady state conditions are
reached.
(b) T / Ia and, since the torque is constant, Figure 22.21
1 Ia1 D 2 Ia2 . The flux  is reduced by 10
per cent, hence 2 D 0.91 Thus, 1 ð 30 D
0.91 ðIa2 i.e. the steady state value of armature (ii) The speed/current characteristic
current, Ia2 D 30/0.9 D 33.33 A It is shown in equation (9) that
V Ia Ra
n/

(b) Series-wound motor
In a series motor, Ia D I and below the
In the series-wound motor the field winding is in magnetic saturation level,  / I. Thus n /
series with the armature across the supply as shown V IR/I where R is the combined resistance
in Fig. 22.20 of the series field and armature circuit. Since
IR is small compared with V, then an approx-
imate relationship for the speed is n / V/I /
1/I since V is constant. Hence the theoreti-
cal speed/current characteristic is as shown in
Fig. 22.22. The high speed at small values of
current indicate that this type of motor must not
be run on very light loads and invariably, such
motors are permanently coupled to their loads.
Figure 22.20
For the series motor shown in Fig. 22.20,

Supply voltage V D E C IRa C Rf
or generated e.m.f. E D V IRa C Rf
Characteristics Figure 22.22

In a series motor, the armature current flows in the
field winding and is equal to the supply current, I. (iii) The theoretical speed/torque characteristic
may be derived from (i) and (ii) above by
(i) The torque/current characteristic obtaining the torque and speed for various val-
It is shown in Section 22.11 that torque T / ues of current and plotting the co-ordinates
Ia . Since the armature and field currents are on the speed/torque characteristics. A typi-
the same current, I, in a series machine, then cal speed/torque characteristic is shown in
T / I over a limited range, before magnetic Fig. 22.23
saturation of the magnetic circuit of the motor A d.c. series motor takes a large current
is reached, (i.e. the linear portion of the B–H on starting and the characteristic shown in
curve for the yoke, poles, air gap, brushes Fig. 22.21 shows that the series-wound motor
and armature in series). Thus  / I and has a large torque when the current is large.
T / I2 . After magnetic saturation,  almost Hence these motors are used for traction (such
becomes a constant and T / I. Thus the as trains, milk delivery vehicles, etc.), driving
theoretical torque/current characteristic is as fans and for cranes and hoists, where a large
shown in Fig. 22.21 initial torque is required.
TLFeBOOK
(c) Compound wound motor

There are two types of compound wound motor:
(i) Cumulative compound, in which the series

winding is so connected that the field due to
it assists that due to the shunt winding.
(ii) Differential compound, in which the series
winding is so connected that the field due to
Figure 22.23 it opposes that due to the shunt winding.
Figure 22.24(a) shows a long-shunt compound motor

Problem 23. A series motor has an and Fig. 22.24(b) a short-shunt compound motor.
armature resistance of 0.2 and a series
field resistance of 0.3 . It is connected to a
240 V supply and at a particular load runs at
24 rev/s when drawing 15 A from the supply.
(a) Determine the generated e.m.f. at
this load (b) Calculate the speed of the motor
when the load is changed such that the
current is increased to 30 A. Assume that this
causes a doubling of the flux.
Figure 22.24
(a) With reference to Fig. 22.20, generated e.m.f.,
E1 at initial load, is given by
Characteristics
E1 D V Ia Ra C Rf
A compound-wound motor has both a series and a
D 240 150.2 C 0.3 shunt field winding, (i.e. one winding in series and
D 240 7.5 D 232.5 volts one in parallel with the armature), and is usually
wound to have a characteristic similar in shape to
(b) When the current is increased to 30 A, the gen- a series wound motor (see Figures 22.21–22.23). A
erated e.m.f. is given by: limited amount of shunt winding is present to restrict
the no-load speed to a safe value. However, by vary-
E2 D V I2 Ra C Rf ing the number of turns on the series and shunt
D 240 300.2 C 0.3 windings and the directions of the magnetic fields
produced by these windings (assisting or oppos-
D 240 15 D 225 volts ing), families of characteristics may be obtained to
Now e.m.f. E / n thus suit almost all applications. Generally, compound-
wound motors are used for heavy duties, particularly
E1 1 n1 in applications where sudden heavy load may occur
D such as for driving plunger pumps, presses, geared
E2 2 n2 lifts, conveyors, hoists and so on.
232.5 1 24 Typical compound motor torque and speed char-
i.e. D since 2 D 21 acteristics are shown in Fig. 22.25
22.5 21 n2
Hence
24225 22.13 The efficiency of a d.c. motor
speed of motor, n2 D D 11.6 rev=s
232.52
It was stated in Section 22.9, that the efficiency of
As the current has been increased from 15 A a d.c. machine is given by:
to 30 A, the speed has decreased from 24 rev/s
to 11.6 rev/s. Its speed/current characteristic is output power
efficiency, D ð 100%
similar to Fig. 22.22 input power
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 345

25600 1036.8 2560 1500
D ð 100%
25600

20503.2
D ð 100%
25600
D 80.1%
Figure 22.25 Problem 25. A 250 V series motor draws a

current of 40 A. The armature resistance is
0.15 and the field resistance is 0.05 .
Also, the total losses D I2a Ra C If V C C (for a shunt Determine the maximum efficiency of the
motor) where C is the sum of the iron, friction and motor.
windage losses.
For a motor, The circuit is as shown in Fig. 22.27 From equa-
the input power D VI tion (10), efficiency,

and the output power D VI losses VI I2a Ra If V C
D ð 100%
D VI I2a Ra If V C VI
Hence efficiency,
I = 80A Ia
VI − Ia2 Ra − If V − C
h= × 100% 10
VI If
The efficiency of a motor is a maximum when the

load is such that: V = 320 V Rt = 40 Ω
Ia2 Ra = If V + C Ra = 0.2 Ω
Problem 24. A 320 V shunt motor takes a

total current of 80 A and runs at Figure 22.26
1000 rev/min. If the iron, friction and
windage losses amount to 1.5 kW, the shunt
field resistance is 40 and the armature
resistance is 0.2 , determine the overall
efficiency of the motor.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 22.26. Field current,

If D V/Rf D 320/40 D 8 A. Armature current
Ia D I If D 80 8 D 72 A. C D iron, friction
and windage losses D 1500 W. Efficiency,

VI I2a Ra If V C
D ð 100%
VI
 
(320) (80) 722 (0.2)
 (8) (320) 1500 
D  ð 100%
32080
Figure 22.27
TLFeBOOK
However for a series motor, If D 0 and the I2a Ra

Problem 27. A d.c. series motor drives a
loss needs to be I2 Ra C Rf Hence efficiency,
load at 30 rev/s and takes a current of 10 A
when the supply voltage is 400 V. If the total
VI I2 Ra C Rf C resistance of the motor is 2 and the iron,
D ð 100%
VI friction and windage losses amount to
300 W, determine the efficiency of the motor.
For maximum efficiency I2 Ra C Rf D C Hence
efficiency,
Efficiency,
VI 2I2 Ra C Rf
D ð 100%
VI
VI I2 R C
25040 2402 0.15 C 0.05 D ð 100%
D ð 100% VI
25040
40010 102 2 300
10 000 640 D ð 100%
D ð 100% 40010
10 000
4000 200 300
9360 D ð 100%
D ð 100% D 93.6% 4000
10 000
3500
D ð 100% D 87.5%
4000
Problem 26. A 200 V d.c. motor develops a
shaft torque of 15 Nm at 1200 rev/min. If the
efficiency is 80 per cent, determine the Now try the following exercise
current supplied to the motor.
The efficiency of a motor D output power/input Exercise 132 Further problems on d.c.
power ð 100% motors
The output power of a motor is the power avail- 1 A 240 V shunt motor takes a total current of
able to do work at its shaft and is given by Tω or 80 A. If the field winding resistance is 120
T2n watts, where T is the torque in Nm and n and the armature resistance is 0.4 , determine
is the speed of rotation in rev/s. The input power is (a) the current in the armature, and (b) the
the electrical power in watts supplied to the motor, back e.m.f. [(a) 78 A (b) 208.8 V]
i.e. VI watts.
Thus for a motor, 2 A d.c. motor has a speed of 900 rev/min when
connected to a 460 V supply. Find the approx-
imate value of the speed of the motor when
T2n
efficiency, D ð 100% connected to a 200 V supply, assuming the flux
VI decreases by 30 per cent and neglecting the
 
1200 armature volt drop. [559 rev/min]
 152n
60 
i.e. 80 D 

 ð 100

3 A series motor having a series field resis-
200I tance of 0.25 and an armature resistance of
0.15 , is connected to a 220 V supply and at
a particular load runs at 20 rev/s when drawing
Thus the current supplied, 20 A from the supply. Calculate the e.m.f. gen-
erated at this load. Determine also the speed
15220100 of the motor when the load is changed such
ID that the current increases to 25 A. Assume the
20080 flux increases by 25 per cent
D 11.8 A [212 V, 15.85 rev/s]
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 347
Thus the value of the additional armature resistance

4 A 500 V shunt motor takes a total current of can then be reduced.
100 A and runs at 1200 rev/min. If the shunt When at normal running speed, the generated
field resistance is 50 , the armature resistance e.m.f. is such that no additional resistance is required
is 0.25 and the iron, friction and windage in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying
losses amount to 2 kW, determine the overall resistance in the armature circuit on starting, a d.c.
efficiency of the motor. [81.95 per cent] motor starter is used, as shown in Fig. 22.28
5 A 250 V, series-wound motor is running at
500 rev/min and its shaft torque is 130 Nm. If
its efficiency at this load is 88 per cent, find
the current taken from the supply. [30.94 A]
6 In a test on a d.c. motor, the following data was
obtained. Supply voltage: 500 V, current taken
from the supply: 42.4 A, speed: 850 rev/min,
shaft torque: 187 Nm. Determine the efficiency
of the motor correct to the nearest 0.5 per cent
[78.5 per cent]
7 A 300 V series motor draws a current of 50 A.
The field resistance is 40 m and the armature Figure 22.28
resistance is 0.2 . Determine the maximum
efficiency of the motor. [92 per cent] The starting handle is moved slowly in a clock-
wise direction to start the motor. For a shunt-wound
8 A series motor drives a load at 1500 rev/min motor, the field winding is connected to stud 1 or
and takes a current of 20 A when the supply to L via a sliding contact on the starting handle, to
voltage is 250 V. If the total resistance of give maximum field current, hence maximum flux,
the motor is 1.5 and the iron, friction and hence maximum torque on starting, since T / Ia .
windage losses amount to 400 W, determine A similar arrangement without the field connection
the efficiency of the motor. [80 per cent] is used for series motors.
9 A series-wound motor is connected to a d.c.
supply and develops full-load torque when the
current is 30 A and speed is 1000 rev/min. If 22.15 Speed control of d.c. motors
the flux per pole is proportional to the current
flowing, find the current and speed at half Shunt-wound motors
full-load torque, when connected to the same The speed of a shunt-wound d.c. motor, n, is pro-
supply. [21.2 A, 1415 rev/min] portional to
V Ia Ra

(see equation (9)). The speed is varied either by
varying the value of flux, , or by varying the value
22.14 D.C. motor starter of Ra . The former is achieved by using a variable
resistor in series with the field winding, as shown in
If a d.c. motor whose armature is stationary is Fig. 22.29(a) and such a resistor is called the shunt
switched directly to its supply voltage, it is likely field regulator.
that the fuses protecting the motor will burn out. As the value of resistance of the shunt field
This is because the armature resistance is small, regulator is increased, the value of the field current,
frequently being less than one ohm. Thus, additional If , is decreased. This results in a decrease in the
resistance must be added to the armature circuit at value of flux, , and hence an increase in the speed,
the instant of closing the switch to start the motor. since n / 1/. Thus only speeds above that given
As the speed of the motor increases, the armature without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by
conductors are cutting flux and a generated voltage, this method. Speeds below those given by
acting in opposition to the applied voltage, is pro- V Ia Ra
duced, which limits the flow of armature current. 
TLFeBOOK
(b) Back e.m.f. when Ia D 60 A,
E3 D 500 600.2
D 500 12 D 488 volts
E1 1 n1
Now D
E3 3 n3
476 1 10
i.e. D since 3 D 0.8 1
488 0.81 n3
Figure 22.29 from which,
10488
are obtained by increasing the resistance in the speed n3 D D 12.82 rev=s
0.8476
armature circuit, as shown in Fig. 22.29(b), where
V Ia Ra C R
n/
 Series-wound motors
Since resistor R is in series with the armature, it
carries the full armature current and results in a large The speed control of series-wound motors is
power loss in large motors where a considerable achieved using either (a) field resistance, or
speed reduction is required for long periods. (b) armature resistance techniques.
These methods of speed control are demonstrated
in the following worked problem. (a) The speed of a d.c. series-wound motor is given
by:

Problem 28. A 500 V shunt motor runs at V IR
nDk
its normal speed of 10 rev/s when the 
armature current is 120 A. The armature
resistance is 0.2 . (a) Determine the speed where k is a constant, V is the terminal voltage,
when the current is 60 A and a resistance of R is the combined resistance of the armature and
0.5 is connected in series with the series field and  is the flux. Thus, a reduction
armature, the shunt field remaining constant in flux results in an increase in speed. This
(b) Determine the speed when the current is is achieved by putting a variable resistance in
60 A and the shunt field is reduced to 80 per parallel with the field winding and reducing
cent of its normal value by increasing the field current, and hence flux, for a given
resistance in the field circuit. value of supply current. A circuit diagram of
this arrangement is shown in Fig. 22.30(a). A
(a) With reference to Fig. 22.29(b), back e.m.f. at variable resistor connected in parallel with the
120 A, E1 D V Ia Ra D 500 1200.2 D series-wound field to control speed is called
500 24 D 476 volts. When Ia D 60 A, a diverter. Speeds above those given with no
diverter are obtained by this method. Problem
E2 D 500 600.2 C 0.5 29 below demonstrates this method.
D 500 600.7
D 500 42 D 458 volts
E1 1 n1
Now D
E2 2 n2
476 1 10
i.e. D since 2 D 1
458 1 n2
from which,
10458
speed n2 D D 9.62 rev=s Figure 22.30
476
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 349
(b) Speeds below normal are obtained by con- D 300 100.620.14

necting a variable resistor in series with the
field winding and armature circuit, as shown D 300 14.087 D 285.9 volts
in Fig. 22.30(b). This effectively increases the Now e.m.f., E / n, from which,
value of R in the equation E1 1 n1 Ia1 n1
D D
V IR E2 2 n2 0.8Ia2 n2
nDk
 286.5 9015
Hence D
and thus reduces the speed. Since the additional 285.9 0.8100.62n2
resistor carries the full supply current, a large 285.99015
power loss is associated with large motors in and new speed, n2 D
which a considerable speed reduction is required 286.50.8100.62
for long periods. This method is demonstrated D 16.74 rev=s
in problem 30.
Thus the speed of the motor has increased
from 15 rev/s (i.e. 900 rev/min) to 16.74 rev/s
Problem 29. On full-load a 300 V series (i.e. 1004 rev/min) by inserting a 0.2 diverter
motor takes 90 A and runs at 15 rev/s. The resistance in parallel with the series winding.
armature resistance is 0.1 and the series
winding resistance is 50 m. Determine the Problem 30. A series motor runs at
speed when developing full load torque but 800 rev/min when the voltage is 400 V and
with a 0.2 diverter in parallel with the field the current is 25 A. The armature resistance
winding. (Assume that the flux is is 0.4 and the series field resistance is
proportional to the field current). 0.2 . Determine the resistance to be
connected in series to reduce the speed to
At 300 V, e.m.f. 600 rev/min with the same current.
E1 D V IR D V IRa C Rse With reference to Fig. 22.30(b), at 800 rev/min,
D 300 900.1 C 0.05 e.m.f., E1 D V IRa C Rse
D 300 900.15 D 400 250.4 C 0.2
D 300 13.5 D 286.5 volts D 400 250.6
With the 0.2 diverter in parallel with Rse (see D 400 15 D 385 volts
Fig. 22.30(a)), the equivalent resistance,
At 600 rev/min, since the current is unchanged,
0.20.05 0.20.05 the flux is unchanged.
RD D D 0.04
0.2 C 0.05 0.25 Thus E / n or E / n and
By current division, current E1 n1
D
E2 n2
0.2
I1 (in Fig. 22.30(a) D I D 0.8 I 385 800
0.2 C 0.05 Hence D
E2 600
Torque, T / Ia  and for full load torque, Ia1 1 D
Ia2 2 385600
from which, E2 D D 288.75 volts
Since flux is proportional to field current 1 / Ia1 800
and 2 / 0.8 Ia2 then 9090 D Ia2 0.8 Ia2 and E2 D V IRa C Rse C R
902 Hence 288.75 D 400 250.4 C 0.2 C R
from which, I2a2D
0.8
Rearranging gives:
90
and Ia2 D p D 100.62 A 400 288.75
0.8 0.6 C R D D 4.45
25
Hence e.m.f. E2 D V Ia2 Ra C R
from which, extra series resistance, R D 4.45 0.6
D 300 100.620.1 C 0.04 i.e. R = 3.85 Z.
TLFeBOOK
Thus the addition of a series resistance of 3.85 has With a pipe-ventilated type, air is piped into the
reduced the speed from 800 rev/min to 600 rev/min. motor from a dust-free area, and an internally fitted
fan ensures the circulation of this cool air.

speed control of d.c. motors Exercise 134 Short answer questions on
1 A 350 V shunt motor runs at its normal speed d.c. machines
of 12 rev/s when the armature current is 90 A. 1 A . . . . . . converts mechanical energy into
The resistance of the armature is 0.3 . electrical energy
(a) Find the speed when the current is 45 A
and a resistance of 0.4 is connected in 2 A . . . . . . converts electrical energy into
series with the armature, the shunt field mechanical energy
remaining constant 3 What does ‘commutation’ achieve?
(b) Find the speed when the current is 45 A
and the shunt field is reduced to 75 per 4 Poor commutation may cause sparking. How
cent of its normal value by increasing can this be improved?
resistance in the field circuit. 5 State any five basic parts of a d.c. machine
[(a) 11.83 rev/s (b) 16.67 rev/s]
6 State the two groups armature windings can
2 A series motor runs at 900 rev/min when the be divided into
voltage is 420 V and the current is 40 A. The
armature resistance is 0.3 and the series field 7 What is armature reaction? How can it be
resistance is 0.2 . Calculate the resistance to overcome?
be connected in series to reduce the speed to
8 The e.m.f. generated in an armature winding
720 rev/min with the same current. [2 ] is given by E D 2pnZ/c volts. State what
3 A 320 V series motor takes 80 A and runs p, , n, Z and c represent.
at 1080 rev/min at full load. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and the series winding 9 In a series-wound d.c. machine, the field
resistance is 0.05 . Assuming the flux is winding is in . . . . . . with the armature circuit
proportional to the field current, calculate the 10 In a d.c. generator, the relationship between
speed when developing full-load torque, but the generated voltage, terminal voltage, cur-
with a 0.15 diverter in parallel with the field rent and armature resistance is given by E D
winding. [1239 rev/min] ......
11 A d.c. machine has its field winding in par-
allel with the armatures circuit. It is called a
. . . . . . wound machine
22.16 Motor cooling
12 Sketch a typical open-circuit characteristic
Motors are often classified according to the type of for (a) a separately excited generator (b) a
enclosure used, the type depending on the conditions shunt generator (c) a series generator
under which the motor is used and the degree of 13 Sketch a typical load characteristic for (a) a
ventilation required. separately excited generator (b) a shunt gen-
The most common type of protection is the screen- erator
protected type, where ventilation is achieved by
fitting a fan internally, with the openings at the end 14 State one application for (a) a shunt generator
of the motor fitted with wire mesh. (b) a series generator (c) a compound gener-
A drip-proof type is similar to the screen- ator
protected type but has a cover over the screen to 15 State the principle losses in d.c. machines
prevent drips of water entering the machine.
A flame-proof type is usually cooled by the 16 The efficiency of a d.c. machine is given by
conduction of heat through the motor casing. the ratio (. . . . . .) per cent
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 351
17 The equation relating the generated e.m.f., 33 At a large value of torque, the speed of a d.c.
E, terminal voltage, armature current and series-wound motor is . . . . . .
armature resistance for a d.c. motor is E D
...... 34 At a large value of field current, the generated
e.m.f. of a d.c. shunt-wound generator is
18 The torque T of a d.c. motor is given by approximately . . . . . .
T D pZIa /c newton metres. State what
p, , Z, I and c represent 35 In a series-wound generator, the terminal
voltage increases as the load current . . . . . .
19 Complete the following. In a d.c. machine
(a) generated e.m.f. / . . . . . . ð . . . . . . 36 One type of d.c. motor uses resistance in
(b) torque / . . . . . . ð . . . . . . series with the field winding to obtain speed
variations and another type uses resistance
20 Sketch typical characteristics of torque/arma- in parallel with the field winding for the
ture current for same purpose. Explain briefly why these two
(a) a shunt motor distinct methods are used and why the field
(b) a series motor current plays a significant part in controlling
(c) a compound motor the speed of a d.c. motor.
21 Sketch typical speed/torque characteristics
37 Name three types of motor enclosure
for a shunt and series motor
22 State two applications for each of the follow-
ing motors:
(a) shunt (b) series (c) compound Exercise 135 Multi-choice questions on
In questions 23 to 26, an electrical machine d.c. machines (Answers on page 376)
runs at n rev/s, has a shaft torque of T, and
takes a current of I from a supply volt-
age V
(a) A d.c. motor converts electrical energy
23 The power input to a generator is . . . . . . watts to mechanical energy
(b) The efficiency of a d.c. motor is the ratio
24 The power input to a motor is . . . . . . watts input power to output power
25 The power output from a generator is . . . . . . (c) A d.c. generator converts mechanical
watts power to electrical power
(d) The efficiency of a d.c. generator is the
26 The power output from a motor is . . . . . . ratio output power to input power
watts A shunt-wound d.c. machine is running at
27 The generated e.m.f. of a d.c machine is n rev/s and has a shaft torque of T Nm.
proportional to . . . . . . volts The supply current is IA when connected to
d.c. bus-bars of voltage V volts. The arma-
28 The torque produced by a d.c. motor is pro- ture resistance of the machine is Ra ohms,
portional to . . . . . . Nm the armature current is Ia A and the gener-
ated voltage is E volts. Use this data to find
29 A starter is necessary for a d.c. motor because the formulae of the quantities stated in ques-
the generated e.m.f. is . . . . . . at low speeds tions 2 to 9, selecting the correct answer from
30 The speed of a d.c. shunt-wound motor will the following list:
. . . . . . if the value of resistance of the shunt (a) V Ia Ra (b) E C Ia Ra
field regulator is increased (c) VI (d) E Ia Ra
31 The speed of a d.c. motor will . . . . . . if the (e) T2n (f) V C Ia Ra
value of resistance in the armature circuit is
increased 2 The input power when running as a generator
32 The value of the speed of a d.c. shunt-wound 3 The output power when running as a motor
motor . . . . . . as the value of the armature
current increases 4 The input power when running as a motor
TLFeBOOK
5 The output power when running as a gener- 16 Which of the following statements is false?
ator (a) A series-wound motor has a large starting
torque
6 The generated voltage when running as a (b) A shunt-wound motor must be perma-
motor nently connected to its load
7 The terminal voltage when running as a gen- (c) The speed of a series-wound motor drops
erator considerably when load is applied
(d) A shunt-wound motor is essentially a
8 The generated voltage when running as a constant-speed machine
generator
17 The speed of a d.c. motor may be increased by
9 The terminal voltage when running as a (a) increasing the armature current
motor (b) decreasing the field current
(c) decreasing the applied voltage
10 Which of the following statements is false? (d) increasing the field current
(a) A commutator is necessary as part of a
d.c. motor to keep the armature rotating 18 The armature resistance of a d.c. motor is
in the same direction 0.5 , the supply voltage is 200 V and the
(b) A commutator is necessary as part of a back e.m.f. is 196 V at full speed. The arma-
d.c. generator to produce unidirectional ture current is:
voltage at the terminals of the generator (a) 4 A (b) 8 A (c) 400 A (d) 392 A
(c) The field winding of a d.c. machine is
housed in slots on the armature 19 In d.c. generators iron losses are made up of:
(d) The brushes of a d.c. machine are usually (a) hysteresis and friction losses
made of carbon and do not rotate with the (b) hysteresis, eddy current and brush con-
armature tact losses
(c) hysteresis and eddy current losses
11 If the speed of a d.c. machine is doubled (d) hysteresis, eddy current and copper
and the flux remains constant, the generated losses
e.m.f. (a) remains the same (b) is doubled
(c) is halved 20 The effect of inserting a resistance in series
with the field winding of a shunt motor is to:
12 If the flux per pole of a shunt-wound d.c. (a) increase the magnetic field
generator is increased, and all other variables (b) increase the speed of the motor
are kept the same, the speed (c) decrease the armature current
(a) decreases (b) stays the same (c) increases (d) reduce the speed of the motor
13 If the flux per pole of a shunt-wound d.c.
generator is halved, the generated e.m.f. at 21 The supply voltage to a d.c. motor is 240 V.
constant speed (a) is doubled (b) is halved If the back e.m.f. is 230 V and the armature
(c) remains the same resistance is 0.25 , the armature current is:
(a) 10 A (b) 40 A (c) 960 A (d) 920 A
14 In a series-wound generator running at con-
stant speed, as the load current increases, the 22 With a d.c. motor, the starter resistor:
terminal voltage (a) limits the armature current to a safe start-
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) stays the same ing value
(b) controls the speed of the machine
15 Which of the following statements is false for (c) prevents the field current flowing through
a series-wound d.c. motor? and damaging the armature
(a) The speed decreases with increase of (d) limits the field current to a safe starting
resistance in the armature circuit value
(b) The speed increases as the flux decreases
(c) The speed can be controlled by a diverter 23 From Fig. 22.31, the expected characteristic
(d) The speed can be controlled by a shunt for a shunt-wound d.c. generator is:
field regulator (a) P (b) Q (c) R (d) S
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES 353
S 24 A commutator is a device fitted to a genera-

tor. Its function is:
Terminal R (a) to prevent sparking when the load
voltage Q changes
P (b) to convert the a.c. generated into a d.c.
output
(c) to convey the current to and from the
windings
0 Load current (d) to generate a direct current
Figure 22.31
TLFeBOOK
23
Three-phase induction motors
ž appreciate the merits of three-phase induction motors

ž understand how a rotating magnetic field is produced
ž state the synchronous speed, ns D f/p and use in calculations
ž describe the principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor
ž distinguish between squirrel-cage and wound-rotor types of motor
ž understand how a torque is produced causing rotor movement
ž understand and calculate slip
ž derive expressions for rotor e.m.f., frequency, resistance, reactance, impedance,
current and copper loss, and use them in calculations
ž state the losses in an induction motor and calculate efficiency
ž derive the torque equation for an induction motor, state the condition for maximum
torque, and use in calculations
ž describe torque-speed and torque-slip characteristics for an induction motor
ž state and describe methods of starting induction motors
ž state advantages of cage rotor and wound rotor types of induction motor
ž describe the double cage induction motor
ž state typical applications of three-phase induction motors
(iii) requires little or no skilled maintenance, and

23.1 Introduction (iv) has self-starting properties when switched to a
supply with no additional expenditure on auxiliary
In d.c. motors, introduced in Chapter 22, conductors equipment. The principal disadvantage of a three-
on a rotating armature pass through a stationary phase induction motor is that its speed cannot be
magnetic field. In a three-phase induction motor, readily adjusted.
the magnetic field rotates and this has the advantage
that no external electrical connections to the rotor
need be made. Its name is derived from the fact that
the current in the rotor is induced by the magnetic 23.2 Production of a rotating magnetic
field instead of being supplied through electrical field
connections to the supply. The result is a motor
which: (i) is cheap and robust, (ii) is explosion When a three-phase supply is connected to
proof, due to the absence of a commutator or slip- symmetrical three-phase windings, the currents
rings and brushes with their associated sparking, flowing in the windings produce a magnetic field.
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 355
This magnetic field is constant in magnitude and Fig. 23.1(a). If the value of current in a winding is
rotates at constant speed as shown below, and is positive, the assumption is made that it flows from
called the synchronous speed. start to finish of the winding, i.e. if it is the red
With reference to Fig. 23.1, the windings are phase, current flows from RS to RF , i.e. away from
represented by three single-loop conductors, one for the viewer in RS and towards the viewer in RF . When
each phase, marked RS RF , YS YF and BS BF , the S and the value of current is negative, the assumption is
F signifying start and finish. In practice, each phase made that it flows from finish to start, i.e. towards
winding comprises many turns and is distributed the viewer in an ‘S’ winding and away from the
around the stator; the single-loop approach is for viewer in an ‘F’ winding. At time, say t1 , shown in
clarity only. Fig. 23.1(a), the current flowing in the red phase is
When the stator windings are connected to a a maximum positive value. At the same time t1 , the
three-phase supply, the current flowing in each currents flowing in the yellow and blue phases are
winding varies with time and is as shown in both 0.5 times the maximum value and are negative.
The current distribution in the stator windings is
therefore as shown in Fig. 23.1(b), in which cur-
rent flows away from the viewer, (shown as )
in RS since it is positive, but towards the viewer
(shown as þ) in YS and BS , since these are neg-
ative. The resulting magnetic field is as shown,
due to the ‘solenoid’ action and application of the
corkscrew rule.
A short time later at time t2 , the current flowing
in the red phase has fallen to about 0.87 times its
maximum value and is positive, the current in the
yellow phase is zero and the current in the blue
phase is about 0.87 times its maximum value and is
negative. Hence the currents and resultant magnetic
field are as shown in Fig. 23.1(c). At time t3 , the
currents in the red and yellow phases are 0.5 of their
maximum values and the current in the blue phase
is a maximum negative value. The currents and
resultant magnetic field are as shown in Fig. 23.1(d).
Similar diagrams to Fig. 23.1(b), (c) and (d) can
be produced for all time values and these would
show that the magnetic field travels through one
revolution for each cycle of the supply voltage
applied to the stator windings.
By considering the flux values rather than the
current values, it is shown below that the rotating
magnetic field has a constant value of flux. The
three coils shown in Fig. 23.2(a), are connected
in star to a three-phase supply. Let the positive
directions of the fluxes produced by currents flowing
in the coils, be A , B and C respectively. The
directions of A , B and C do not alter, but their
magnitudes are proportional to the currents flowing
in the coils at any particular time. At time t1 , shown
in Fig. 23.2(b), the currents flowing in the coils are:
iB , a maximum positive value, i.e. the flux is
towards point P; iA and iC , half the maximum value
and negative, i.e. the flux is away from point P.
These currents give rise to the magnetic fluxes
A , B and C , whose magnitudes and directions
Figure 23.1 are as shown in Fig. 23.2(c). The resultant flux is
TLFeBOOK
be repeated for all values of time and shows that

the magnitude of the resultant flux is constant for
all values of time and also that it rotates at constant
speed, making one revolution for each cycle of the
supply voltage.
23.3 Synchronous speed

The rotating magnetic field produced by three-phase
windings could have been produced by rotating a
permanent magnet’s north and south pole at syn-
chronous speed, (shown as N and S at the ends of
the flux phasors in Fig. 23.1(b), (c) and (d)). For this
reason, it is called a 2-pole system and an induction
motor using three phase windings only is called a
2-pole induction motor. If six windings displaced
from one another by 60° are used, as shown in
Fig. 23.3(a), by drawing the current and resultant
magnetic field diagrams at various time values, it
may be shown that one cycle of the supply current
to the stator windings causes the magnetic field to
move through half a revolution. The current distribu-
tion in the stator windings are shown in Fig. 23.3(a),
for the time t shown in Fig. 23.3(b).
Figure 23.2
the phasor sum of A , B and C , shown as  in

Fig. 23.2(c). At time t2 , the currents flowing are:
iB , 0.866 ð maximum positive value, iC , zero,
and iA , 0.866 ð maximum negative value.
The magnetic fluxes and the resultant magnetic
flux are as shown in Fig. 23.2(d).
At time t3 ,
iB is 0.5 ð maximum value and is positive
iA is a maximum negative value, and
iC is 0.5 ð maximum value and is positive.
The magnetic fluxes and the resultant magnetic

flux are as shown in Fig. 23.2(e)
Inspection of Fig. 23.2(c), (d) and (e) shows that
the magnitude of the resultant magnetic flux, , in
each case is constant and is 1 12 ðthe maximum value
of A , B or C , but that its direction is changing.
The process of determining the resultant flux may Figure 23.3
TLFeBOOK
It can be seen that for six windings on the stator,

the magnetic flux produced is the same as that Problem 3. A three-phase 2-pole motor is
produced by rotating two permanent magnet north to have a synchronous speed of
poles and two permanent magnet south poles at 6000 rev/min. Calculate the frequency of the
synchronous speed. This is called a 4-pole system supply voltage.
and an induction motor using six phase windings is
called a 4-pole induction motor. By increasing the
f
number of phase windings the number of poles can Since ns D then
be increased to any even number. p
In general, if f is the frequency of the currents frequency, f D ns p
in the stator windings and the stator is wound to
be equivalent to p pairs of poles, the speed of 6000 2
revolution of the rotating magnetic field, i.e. the D D 100 Hz
60 2
synchronous speed, ns is given by:
f Now try the following exercise

ns = rev=s
p
synchronous speed
Problem 1. A three-phase two-pole 1 The synchronous speed of a 3-phase, 4-pole
induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz induction motor is 60 rev/s. Determine the fre-
supply. Determine the synchronous speed of quency of the supply to the stator windings.
the motor in rev/min. [120 Hz]
2 The synchronous speed of a 3-phase induction
From above, ns D f/p rev/s, where ns is the motor is 25 rev/s and the frequency of the
synchronous speed, f is the frequency in hertz of supply to the stator is 50 Hz. Calculate the
the supply to the stator and p is the number of pairs equivalent number of pairs of poles of the
of poles. Since the motor is connected to a 50 hertz motor. [2]
supply, f D 50. 3 A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor is con-
The motor has a two-pole system, hence p, the nected to a 300 Hz supply. Determine the
number of pairs of poles, is 1. Thus, synchronous speed of rotation of the magnetic field pro-
speed, ns D 50/1 D 50 rev/s D 50 ð 60 rev/min D duced by the stator. [100 rev/s]
3000 rev=min.
Problem 2. A stator winding supplied from

a three-phase 60 Hz system is required to 23.4 Construction of a three-phase
produce a magnetic flux rotating at induction motor
900 rev/min. Determine the number of poles.
The stator of a three-phase induction motor is the
stationary part corresponding to the yoke of a d.c.
Synchronous speed, machine. It is wound to give a 2-pole, 4-pole, 6-
pole, . . . . . . rotating magnetic field, depending on
900 the rotor speed required. The rotor, corresponding
ns D 900 rev/min D rev/s D 15 rev/s
60 to the armature of a d.c. machine, is built up of
laminated iron, to reduce eddy currents.
Since In the type most widely used, known as a
squirrel-cage rotor, copper or aluminium bars are
f f 60 placed in slots cut in the laminated iron, the ends
ns D then p D D D4
p ns 15 of the bars being welded or brazed into a heavy
conducting ring, (see Fig. 23.4(a)). A cross-sectional
Hence the number of pole pairs is 4 and thus the view of a three-phase induction motor is shown in
number of poles is 8 Fig. 23.4(b).
TLFeBOOK
Figure 23.5
conductors on the rotor, so that a torque is produced

causing the rotor to rotate.
23.6 Slip
The force exerted by the rotor bars causes the rotor
to turn in the direction of the rotating magnetic field.
As the rotor speed increases, the rate at which the
rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor bars is less and
the frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor
Figure 23.4 bars is less. If the rotor runs at the same speed as
the rotating magnetic field, no e.m.f.’s are induced
in the rotor, hence there is no force on them and no
The conductors are placed in slots in the lami- torque on the rotor. Thus the rotor slows down. For
nated iron rotor core. If the slots are skewed, better this reason the rotor can never run at synchronous
starting and quieter running is achieved. This type of speed.
rotor has no external connections which means that When there is no load on the rotor, the resistive
slip rings and brushes are not needed. The squirrel- forces due to windage and bearing friction are small
cage motor is cheap, reliable and efficient. Another and the rotor runs very nearly at synchronous speed.
type of rotor is the wound rotor. With this type As the rotor is loaded, the speed falls and this causes
there are phase windings in slots, similar to those in an increase in the frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s
the stator. The windings may be connected in star or in the rotor bars and hence the rotor current, force
delta and the connections made to three slip rings. and torque increase. The difference between the
The slip rings are used to add external resistance to rotor speed, nr , and the synchronous speed, ns , is
the rotor circuit, particularly for starting (see Sec- called the slip speed, i.e.
tion 23.13), but for normal running the slip rings
are short-circuited. slip speed = ns − nr rev=s
The principle of operation is the same for both
the squirrel cage and the wound rotor machines. The ratio ns nr /ns is called the fractional slip
or just the slip, s, and is usually expressed as a
percentage. Thus

23.5 Principle of operation of a ns − nr
slip, s = × 100%
three-phase induction motor ns
When a three-phase supply is connected to the stator Typical values of slip between no load and full
windings, a rotating magnetic field is produced. load are about 4 to 5 per cent for small motors and
As the magnetic flux cuts a bar on the rotor, an 1.5 to 2 per cent for large motors.
e.m.f. is induced in it and since it is joined, via the
end conducting rings, to another bar one pole pitch
away, a current flows in the bars. The magnetic Problem 4. The stator of a 3-phase, 4-pole
field associated with this current flowing in the induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz
bars interacts with the rotating magnetic field and supply. The rotor runs at 1455 rev/min at full
a force is produced, tending to turn the rotor in load. Determine (a) the synchronous speed
the same direction as the rotating magnetic field, and (b) the slip at full load.
(see Fig. 23.5). Similar forces are applied to all the
TLFeBOOK

(a) The number of pairs of poles, p D 4/2 D 2 ns nr
The supply frequency f D 50 Hz The syn- Slip, s D ð 100%
ns
chronous speed, ns D f/p D 50/2 D
25 rev=s. Rotor speed, nr D 1200/60 D 20 rev/s and s D 4.
Hence
(b) The rotor speed, nr D 1455/60 D 24.25 rev/s.
ns 20 ns 20
ns nr 4D ð 100% or 0.04 D
Slip, s D ð 100% ns ns
ns
from which, ns 0.04 D ns 20 and
25 24.25
D ð 100% 20 D ns 0.04 ns D ns 1 0.04. Hence syn-
25 chronous speed,
D 3% 20
ns D D 20.83P rev/s
1 0.04
Problem 5. A 3-phase, 60 Hz induction
motor has 2 poles. If the slip is 2 per cent at D 20.83P ð 60 rev/min
a certain load, determine (a) the synchronous D 1250 rev=min
speed, (b) the speed of the rotor, and (c) the
frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor.
(a) f D 60 Hz and p D 2/2 D 1 Hence syn-
chronous speed, ns D f/p D 60/1 D Exercise 137 Further problems on slip
60 rev=s or 60 ð 60 D 3600 rev=min.
1 A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor runs at
(b) Since slip,
970 rev/min at a certain load. If the stator is
connected to a 50 Hz supply, find the percent-
ns nr
sD ð 100% age slip at this load. [3%]
ns
2 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has 8 poles.
60 nr If the full load slip is 2.5 per cent, determine
2D ð 100
60 (a) the synchronous speed,
(b) the rotor speed, and
Hence (c) the frequency of the rotor e.m.f.’s
2 ð 60 [(a) 750 rev/min (b) 731 rev/min (c) 1.25 Hz]
D 60 nr
100 3 A three-phase induction motor is supplied
i.e. from a 60 Hz supply and runs at 1710 rev/min
when the slip is 5 per cent. Determine the syn-
2 ð 60 chronous speed. [1800 rev/min]
nr D 60 D 58.8 rev/s
100
4 A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs
i.e. the rotor runs at 58.8 ð 60 D 3528 rev=min at 1440 rev/min at full load. Calculate
(c) Since the synchronous speed is 60 rev/s and (a) the synchronous speed,
that of the rotor is 58.8 rev/s, the rotating mag- (b) the slip and
netic field cuts the rotor bars at 60 58.8 D (c) the frequency of the rotor induced e.m.f.’s
1.2 rev/s. [(a) 1500 rev/min (b) 4% (c) 2 Hz]
Thus the frequency of the e.m.f.’s induced in
the rotor bars is 1.2 Hz.
23.7 Rotor e.m.f. and frequency
Problem 6. A three-phase induction motor
is supplied from a 50 Hz supply and runs at Rotor e.m.f.
1200 rev/min when the slip is 4 per cent. When an induction motor is stationary, the stator and
Determine the synchronous speed. rotor windings form the equivalent of a transformer
as shown in Fig. 23.6
TLFeBOOK
(b) Synchronous speed, ns D f/p D 50/4 D

12.5 rev/s or 12.5 ð 60 D 750 rev/min

ns nr
Slip, s D
ns

12.5 nr
hence 0.06 D
Figure 23.6 12.5
0.0612.5 D 12.5 nr
The rotor e.m.f. at standstill is given by
and rotor speed,

N2 nr D 12.5 0.0612.5
E2 D E1 1
N1
D 11.75 rev=s or 705 rev=min
where E1 is the supply voltage per phase to the
stator.
When an induction motor is running, the induced Now try the following exercise
e.m.f. in the rotor is less since the relative movement
between conductors and the rotating field is less.
The induced e.m.f. is proportional to this movement, Exercise 138 Further problems on rotor
hence it must be proportional to the slip, s. Hence frequency
when running, rotor e.m.f. per phase D Er D sE2 1 A 12-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor
runs at 475 rev/min. Determine
N2 (a) the slip speed,
i.e. rotor e.m.f. per phase D s E1 2
N1 (b) the percentage slip and
(c) the frequency of rotor currents
[(a) 25 rev/min (b) 5% (c) 2.5 Hz]
Rotor frequency
2 The frequency of the supply to the stator of a
The rotor e.m.f. is induced by an alternating flux 6-pole induction motor is 50 Hz and the rotor
and the rate at which the flux passes the conductors frequency is 2 Hz. Determine
is the slip speed. Thus the frequency of the rotor (a) the slip, and
e.m.f. is given by: (b) the rotor speed, in rev/min
[(a) 0.04 or 4% (b) 960 rev/min]
ns nr
fr D ns nr p D ns p
ns
However ns nr /ns is the slip s and ns p is

the supply frequency f, hence 23.8 Rotor impedance and current
Rotor resistance
fr = sf 3 The rotor resistance R2 is unaffected by frequency
or slip, and hence remains constant.
Problem 7. The frequency of the supply to Rotor reactance
the stator of an 8-pole induction motor is
50 Hz and the rotor frequency is 3 Hz. Rotor reactance varies with the frequency of the
Determine: (a) the slip, and (b) the rotor rotor current. At standstill, reactance per phase,
speed. X2 D 2fL. When running, reactance per phase,
Xr D 2fr L
(a) From Equation (3), fr D sf. Hence 3 D s50 D 2sfL from equation (3)
from which,
D s2fL
3
slip, s D D 0.06 or 6% i.e. Xr D sX2 4
50
TLFeBOOK
P2 Pm
then TD D
2ns 2nr
P2 Pm Pm nr
from which, D or D
ns nr P2 ns
Pm nr
Hence 1 D1
P2 ns
Figure 23.7
P2 Pm n s nr
D Ds
P2 ns
Figure 23.7 represents the rotor circuit when
running. P2 Pm is the electrical or copper loss in the rotor,
i.e. P2 Pm D I2r R2 . Hence
Rotor impedance
rotor copper loss I 2 R2
Rotor impedance per phase, slip, s = = r 9
rotor input P2

Zr D R22 C sX2 2 5
or power input to the rotor,
At standstill, slip s D 1, then
Ir2 R2
P2 = 10
Z2 D R22 C X22 6 s
Rotor current
23.10 Induction motor losses and
From Fig. 23.6 and 23.7, at standstill, starting
current,
efficiency
Figure 23.8 summarises losses in induction motors.

N2 Motor efficiency,
E1
E2 N1
I2 = = 7
output power Pm
Z2 R22 + X22 h= = × 100%
input power P1
and when running, current,

Problem 8. The power supplied to a
three-phase induction motor is 32 kW and the
N2 stator losses are 1200 W. If the slip is 5 per
s E1
Er N1 cent, determine (a) the rotor copper loss,
Ir = = 8
(b) the total mechanical power developed by
Zr R22 + .sX2 /2 the rotor, (c) the output power of the motor
if friction and windage losses are 750 W, and
(d) the efficiency of the motor, neglecting
rotor iron loss.
23.9 Rotor copper loss
(a) Input power to rotor D stator input power
Power P D 2nT, where T is the torque in newton
metres, hence torque T D P/2n. If P2 is the stator losses
power input to the rotor from the rotating field, D 32 kW 1.2 kW
and Pm is the mechanical power output (including
friction losses) D 30.8 kW
TLFeBOOK
Figure 23.8
From Equation (9),

ns nr
rotor copper loss (a) Slip, s D ð 100%
slip D ns
rotor input
ns 0.35ns
5 rotor copper loss D ð 100%
i.e. D ns
100 30.8
D 0.65100 D 65%
from which, rotor copper loss D 0.0530.8
D 1.54 kW Input power to rotor D 30.8 kW (from Prob-
lem 8)
(b) Total mechanical power developed by the rotor
rotor copper loss
D rotor input power rotor losses Since s D
rotor input
D 30.8 1.54 D 29.26 kW then rotor copper loss D srotor input

(c) Output power of motor 65
D 30.8
100
D power developed by the rotor
D 20.02 kW
friction and windage losses
(b) Power developed by rotor
D 29.26 0.75 D 28.51 kW
D input power to rotor
(d) Efficiency of induction motor, rotor copper loss

output power D 30.8 20.02 D 10.78 kW
D ð 100%
input power Output power of motor

28.51 D power developed by rotor
D ð 100%
32
friction and windage losses
D 89.10%
D 10.78 0.75 D 10.03 kW
Problem 9. The speed of the induction Efficiency,

motor of Problem 8 is reduced to 35 per cent output power
of its synchronous speed by using external D ð 100%
input power
rotor resistance. If the torque and stator
losses are unchanged, determine (a) the rotor 10.03
copper loss, and (b) the efficiency of the D ð 100%
32
motor.
D 31.34%
TLFeBOOK
Now try the following exercise If there are m phases then torque,
 2 
N2
Exercise 139 Further problems on losses s 2
E 1 R2 
m  N1 
and efficiency TD  
2ns  R22 C sX2 2 
1 The power supplied to a three-phase induction
motor is 50 kW and the stator losses are 2 kW.
If the slip is 4 per cent, determine i.e.
(a) the rotor copper loss,
(b) the total mechanical power developed by  2 
the rotor, N2

(c) the output power of the motor if friction m  sE12 R2
 N1 
and windage losses are 1 kW, and T =  11
 2pns  2
R2 + .sX2 /2
(d) the efficiency of the motor, neglecting
rotor iron losses.
[(a) 1.92 kW (b) 46.08 kW (c) 45.08 kW
(d) 90.16%]

sE21 R2
2 By using external rotor resistance, the speed of Dk
R22 C sX2 2
the induction motor in Problem 1 is reduced
to 40 per cent of its synchronous speed. If
the torque and stator losses are unchanged, where k is a constant for a particular machine, i.e.
calculate
(a) the rotor copper loss, and

sE12 R2
(b) the efficiency of the motor. torque, T ∝ 2
12
[(a) 28.80 kW (b) 36.40%] R2 + .sX2 /2
Under normal conditions, the supply voltage is usu-

ally constant, hence Equation (12) becomes:
23.11 Torque equation for an
induction motor sR2
T/
R22 C sX2 2
Torque
2 R2
P2 1 Ir R2 /
TD D R22
2ns 2ns s C sX22
(from Equation (10)) s

N2 The torque will be a maximum when the denom-
s E1
N1 inator is a minimum and this occurs when
From Equation (8), Ir D
R22 C sX2 2 R22
Hence torque per phase, D sX22
 2  s
N2
 s2 E21  i.e. when
1  N1  R2
TD  2 
2ns  R2 C sX2  s
2 R2
sD or R2 D sX2 D Xr
X2
i.e.  2 
N2 from Equation (4). Thus maximum torque occurs
s 2
E 1 R2  when rotor resistance and rotor reactance are equal,
1  N2 
TD   i.e. when R2 D Xr
2ns  R22 C sX2 2  Problems 10 to 13 following illustrate some of
the characteristics of three-phase induction motors.
TLFeBOOK
Hence maximum torque,

Problem 10. A 415 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, 4
pole, star-connected induction motor runs at

sE21 R2
24 rev/s on full load. The rotor resistance and Tm D 0.01380 from part (c)
reactance per phase are 0.35 and 3.5 R22 C sX2 2
respectively, and the effective rotor-stator

turns ratio is 0.85:1. Calculate (a) the 0.1239.62 0.35
synchronous speed, (b) the slip, (c) the full D 0.01380
0.352 C 0.352
load torque, (d) the power output if
mechanical losses amount to 770 W, (e) the
2009.29
maximum torque, (f) the speed at which D 0.01380 D 113.18 Nm
maximum torque occurs, and (g) the starting 0.245
torque.
(f) For maximum torque, slip s D 0.1

(a) Synchronous speed, ns D f/p D 50/2 D ns nr
Slip, s D i.e.
25 rev=s or 25 ð 60 D 1500 rev=min ns

ns nr 25 24
(b) Slip, s D D D 0.04 or 4% 25 ns
ns 25 0.1 D
(c) Phase voltage, 25
415 Hence 0.125 D 25 nr and
E1 D p D 239.6 volts nr D 25 0.125
3
Full load torque,
 2  Thus speed at which maximum torque occurs,
N2
nr D 25 2.5 D 22.5 rev=s or 1350 rev=min
m  sE21 R2
 N1 
TD 
 2ns  R22 C sX2 2 (g) At the start, i.e. at standstill, slip s D 1. Hence,
 2 
N2

from Equation (11) m  E21 R2
 N1 
starting torque D  
30.852 0.04239.62 0.35  2ns  R22 C X22
D
225 0.352 C 0.04 ð 3.52
from Equation (11) with s D 1
803.71
D 0.01380
0.1421
239.62 0.35
D 78.05 Nm D 0.01380
0.352 C 3.52
(d) Output power, including friction losses,

Pm D 2nr T 20 092.86
D 0.01380
12.3725
D 22478.05
D 11 770 watts i.e. starting torque = 22.41 Nm
Hence, power output D Pm mechanical losses
D 11 770 770 (Note that the full load torque (from part (c)) is
78.05 Nm but the starting torque is only 22.41 Nm)
D 11 000 W
D 11 kW
Problem 11. Determine for the induction
(e) Maximum torque occurs when
motor in Problem 10 at full load, (a) the
R2 D Xr D 0.35
rotor current, (b) the rotor copper loss, and
R2 0.35 (c) the starting current.
Slip, s D D D 0.1
X2 3.5
TLFeBOOK
(a) From Equation (8), rotor current, (b) Net power output D 11 kW from part (d), Prob-
lem 10. Hence efficiency,
N2
s E1 output 11
N1
Ir D D
input
ð 100% D
12.91
ð 100%
R22 C sX2 2
D 85.21%
0.040.85239.6 p
D (c) Power input, P1 D 3 VL IL cos (see Chap-
0.352 C 0.04 ð 3.52 ter 20) and cos D p.f. D 0.87 hence, supply
current,
8.1464
D D 21.61 A P1 12.91 ð 1000
0.37696 IL D p D p D 20.64 A
3 VL cos 34150.87
(b) Rotor copper
loss per phase D I2r R2 Problem 13. For the induction motor of
Problems 10 to 12, determine the resistance
D 21.612 0.35 of the rotor winding required for maximum
starting torque.
D 163.45 W
Total copper loss (for 3 phases) From Equation (4), rotor reactance Xr D sX2 At the
moment of starting, slip, s D 1. Maximum torque
D 3 ð 163.45 occurs when rotor reactance equals rotor resistance
D 490.35 W hence for maximum torque, R2 D Xr D sX2
D X2 D 3.5 Z.
(c) From Equation (7), starting current, Thus if the induction motor was a wound rotor

N2 type with slip rings then an external star-connected
E1 resistance of 3.5 0.35 D 3.15 per phase
N 0.85239.5
I2 D 1 Dp could be added to the rotor resistance to give max-
R22 C X22 0.352 C 3.52 imum torque at starting (see Section 23.13).
D 57.90 A Now try the following exercise

(Note that the starting current of 57.90 A is
considerably higher than the full load current of Exercise 140 Further problems on the
21.61 A) torque equation
1 A 400 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, 2-pole, star-
Problem 12. For the induction motor in connected induction motor runs at 48.5 rev/s
Problems 10 and 11, if the stator losses are on full load. The rotor resistance and reactance
650 W, determine (a) the power input at full per phase are 0.4 and 4.0 respectively, and
load, (b) the efficiency of the motor at full the effective rotor-stator turns ratio is 0.8:1.
load and (c) the current taken from the Calculate
supply at full load, if the motor runs at a (a) the synchronous speed,
power factor of 0.87 lagging. (b) the slip,
(c) the full load torque,
(d) the power output if mechanical losses
(a) Output power Pm D 11.770 kW from part (d), amount to 500 W,
Problem 10. Rotor copper loss D 490.35 W D (e) the maximum torque,
0.49035 kW from part (b), Problem 11. Stator (f) the speed at which maximum torque
input power, occurs, and
P1 D Pm C rotor copper loss C rotor stator loss (g) the starting torque.
[(a) 50 rev/s or 3000 rev/min (b) 0.03 or 3%
D 11.770 C 0.49035 C 0.650 (c) 22.43 Nm (d) 6.34 kW (e) 40.74 Nm
D 12.91 kW (f) 45 rev/s or 2700 rev/min (g) 8.07 Nm]
TLFeBOOK
2 For the induction motor in Problem 1, calcu- The rotor resistance of an induction motor is usu-
late at full load ally small compared with its reactance (for example,
(a) the rotor current, R2 D 0.35 and X2 D 3.5 in the above Prob-
(b) the rotor copper loss, and lems), so that maximum torque occurs at a high
(c) the starting current. speed, typically about 80 per cent of synchronous
[(a) 10.62 A (b) 135.3 W (c) 45.96 A] speed.
Curve P in Fig. 23.9 is a typical characteristic for
3 If the stator losses for the induction motor in an induction motor. The curve P cuts the full-load
Problem 1 are 525 W, calculate at full load torque line at point X, showing that at full load the
(a) the power input, slip is about 4–5 per cent. The normal operating
(b) the efficiency of the motor and conditions are between 0 and X, thus it can be
(c) the current taken from the supply if the seen that for normal operation the speed variation
motor runs at a power factor of 0.84 with load is quite small – the induction motor is
[(a) 7.49 kW (b) 84.65% (c) 12.87 A] an almost constant-speed machine. Redrawing the
4 For the induction motor in Problem 1, speed-torque characteristic between 0 and X gives
determine the resistance of the rotor winding the characteristic shown in Fig. 23.10, which is
required for maximum starting torque [4.0 ] similar to a d.c. shunt motor as shown in Chapter 22.
23.12 Induction motor torque-speed

characteristics
From Problem 10, parts (c) and (g), it is seen that

the normal starting torque may be less than the full Figure 23.10
load torque. Also, from Problem 10, parts (e) and
(f), it is seen that the speed at which maximum If maximum torque is required at starting then
torque occurs is determined by the value of the rotor a high resistance rotor is necessary, which gives
resistance. At synchronous speed, slip s D 0 and characteristic Q in Fig. 23.9. However, as can be
torque is zero. From these observations, the torque- seen, the motor has a full load slip of over 30 per
speed and torque-slip characteristics of an induction cent, which results in a drop in efficiency. Also such
motor are as shown in Fig. 23.9 a motor has a large speed variation with variations of
Figure 23.9
TLFeBOOK
load. Curves R and S of Fig. 23.9 are characteristics

for values of rotor resistance’s between those of P
and Q. Better starting torque than for curve P is
obtained, but with lower efficiency and with speed
variations under operating conditions.
A squirrel-cage induction motor would nor-
mally follow characteristic P. This type of machine
is highly efficient and about constant-speed under
normal running conditions. However it has a poor
starting torque and must be started off-load or very
lightly loaded (see Section 23.13 below). Also, on
starting, the current can be four or five times the Figure 23.11
normal full load current, due to the motor acting
like a transformer with secondary short circuited. In
Problem 11, for example, the current at starting was connects the auto transformer in circuit for
nearly three times the full load current. starting, and when the motor is up to speed
A wound-rotor induction motor would fol- the switch is moved to the run position which
low characteristic P when the slip-rings are short- connects the supply directly to the motor.
circuited, which is the normal running condition.
However, the slip-rings allow for the addition of (iii) Star-delta starting
resistance to the rotor circuit externally and, as a With this method, for starting, the connections
result, for starting, the motor can have a character- to the stator phase winding are star-connected,
istic similar to curve Q in Fig. 23.9 and the high so thatpthe voltage across each phase winding
starting current experienced by the cage induction is 1/ 3 (i.e. 0.577) of the line voltage. For
motor can be overcome. running, the windings are switched to delta-
In general, for three-phase induction motors, the connection. A typical arrangement is shown
power factor is usually between about 0.8 and 0.9 in Fig. 23.12 This method of starting is less
lagging, and the full load efficiency is usually about expensive than by auto transformer.
80–90 per cent.
From Equation (12), it is seen that torque is
Wound rotor
proportional to the square of the supply voltage. Any
voltage variations therefore would seriously affect When starting on load is necessary, a wound rotor
the induction motor performance. induction motor must be used. This is because
maximum torque at starting can be obtained by
adding external resistance to the rotor circuit via slip
rings, (see Problem 13). A face-plate type starter is
23.13 Starting methods for induction used, and as the resistance is gradually reduced, the
motors machine characteristics at each stage will be similar
to Q, S, R and P of Fig. 23.13. At each resistance
Squirrel-cage rotor step, the motor operation will transfer from one
(i) Direct-on-line starting characteristic to the next so that the overall starting
With this method, starting current is high and characteristic will be as shown by the bold line in
may cause interference with supplies to other Fig. 23.13 For very large induction motors, very
consumers. gradual and smooth starting is achieved by a liquid
type resistance.
(ii) Auto transformer starting
With this method, an auto transformer is used
to reduce the stator voltage, E1 , and thus the
starting current (see Equation (7)). However, 23.14 Advantages of squirrel-cage
the starting torque is seriously reduced (see
Equation (12)), so the voltage is reduced only induction motors
sufficiently to give the required reduction of
the starting current. A typical arrangement is The advantages of squirrel-cage motors compared
shown in Fig. 23.11. A double-throw switch with the wound rotor type are that they:
TLFeBOOK
Figure 23.12
Figure 23.13
(i) are cheaper and more robust

23.15 Advantages of wound rotor
(ii) have slightly higher efficiency and power factor induction motors
(iii) are explosion-proof, since the risk of sparking
is eliminated by the absence of slip rings and The advantages of the wound rotor motor compared
brushes. with the cage type are that they:
TLFeBOOK
(i) have a much higher starting torque Now try the following exercises
(ii) have a much lower starting current
(iii) have a means of varying speed by use of Exercise 141 Short answer questions on
external rotor resistance. three-phase induction motors
1 Name three advantages that a three-phase
induction motor has when compared with a
23.16 Double cage induction motor d.c. motor
The advantages of squirrel-cage and wound rotor 2 Name the principal disadvantage of a three-
induction motors are combined in the double cage phase induction motor when compared with
induction motor. This type of induction motor is a d.c. motor
specially constructed with the rotor having two
cages, one inside the other. The outer cage has high 3 Explain briefly, with the aid of sketches, the
resistance conductors so that maximum torque is principle of operation of a 3-phase induction
achieved at or near starting. The inner cage has motor.
normal low resistance copper conductors but high 4 Explain briefly how slip-frequency currents
reactance since it is embedded deep in the iron core. are set up in the rotor bars of a 3-phase induc-
The torque-speed characteristic of the inner cage tion motor and why this frequency varies
is that of a normal induction motor, as shown in with load.
Fig. 23.14. At starting, the outer cage produces the
torque, but when running the inner cage produces 5 Explain briefly why a 3-phase induction
the torque. The combined characteristic of inner and motor develops no torque when running at
outer cages is shown in Fig. 23.14 The double cage synchronous speed. Define the slip of an
induction motor is highly efficient when running. induction motor and explain why its value
depends on the load on the rotor.
6 Write down the two properties of the mag-
netic field produced by the stator of a three-
phase induction motor
7 The speed at which the magnetic field of a
three-phase induction motor rotates is called
the . . . . . . speed
8 The synchronous speed of a three-phase
induction motor is . . . . . . proportional to
supply frequency
9 The synchronous speed of a three-phase
induction motor is . . . . . . proportional to the
number of pairs of poles
Figure 23.14
10 The type of rotor most widely used in a three-
phase induction motor is called a . . . . . .
11 The slip of a three-phase
...... induction motor is
23.17 Uses of three-phase induction given by: s D ð 100%
motors ...
12 A typical value for the slip of a small three-
Three-phase induction motors are widely used in phase induction motor is . . . %
industry and constitute almost all industrial drives
where a nearly constant speed is required, from 13 As the load on the rotor of a three-phase
small workshops to the largest industrial enterprises. induction motor increases, the slip . . . . . .
Typical applications are with machine tools,
Rotor copper loss
pumps and mill motors. The squirrel cage rotor type 14 D ......
is the most widely used of all a.c. motors. Rotor input power
TLFeBOOK
15 State the losses in an induction motor (a) The synchronous speed is half the supply
frequency when it has four poles
16 Maximum torque occurs when . . . . . . D (b) In a 2-pole machine, the synchronous
...... speed is equal to the supply frequency
17 Sketch a typical speed-torque characteristic (c) If the number of poles is increased, the
for an induction motor synchronous speed is reduced
(d) The synchronous speed is inversely pro-
18 State two methods of starting squirrel-cage portional to the number of poles
induction motors
4 A 4-pole three-phase induction motor has a
19 Which type of induction motor is used when synchronous speed of 25 rev/s. The frequency
starting on-load is necessary? of the supply to the stator is:
(a) 50 Hz (b) 100 Hz
20 Describe briefly a double cage induction (c) 25 Hz (d) 12.5 Hz
motor
Questions 5 and 6 refer to a three-phase
21 State two advantages of cage rotor machines induction motor. Which statements are false?
compared with wound rotor machines
5 (a) The slip speed is the synchronous speed
22 State two advantages of wound rotor
minus the rotor speed
machines compared with cage rotor machines
(b) As the rotor is loaded, the slip decreases
23 Name any three applications of three-phase (c) The frequency of induced rotor e.m.f.’s
induction motors increases with load on the rotor
(d) The torque on the rotor is due to the
interaction of magnetic fields
6 (a) If the rotor is running at synchronous
Exercise 142 Multi-choice questions on speed, there is no torque on the rotor
three-phase induction motors (Answers on (b) If the number of poles on the stator is
page 376) doubled, the synchronous speed is halved
1 Which of the following statements about a (c) At no-load, the rotor speed is very nearly
three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor is equal to the synchronous speed
false? (d) The direction of rotation of the rotor is
(a) It has no external electrical connections opposite to the direction of rotation of the
to its rotor magnetic field to give maximum current
(b) A three-phase supply is connected to its induced in the rotor bars
stator
A three-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz induction motor
(c) A magnetic flux which alternates is pro-
runs at 1440 rev/min. In questions 7 to 10,
duced
determine the correct answers for the quan-
(d) It is cheap, robust and requires little or
tities stated, selecting your answer from the
no skilled maintenance
list given below:
2 Which of the following statements about a (a) 12.5 rev/s (b) 25 rev/s (c) 1 rev/s
three-phase induction motor is false? (d) 50 rev/s (e) 1% (f) 4%
(a) The speed of rotation of the magnetic (g) 50% (h) 4 Hz (i) 50 Hz
field is called the synchronous speed (j) 2 Hz
(b) A three-phase supply connected to the
rotor produces a rotating magnetic field 7 The synchronous speed
(c) The rotating magnetic field has a constant
speed and constant magnitude 8 The slip speed
(d) It is essentially a constant speed type 9 The percentage slip
machine
10 The frequency of induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor
3 Which of the following statements is false
when referring to a three-phase induction 11 The slip speed of an induction motor may be
motor? defined as the:
TLFeBOOK
(a) number of pairs of poles ł frequency 15 A four-pole induction motor when supplied
(b) rotor speed synchronous speed from a 50 Hz supply experiences a 5 per cent
(c) rotor speed C synchronous speed slip. The rotor speed will be:
(d) synchronous speed rotor speed (a) 25 rev/s (b) 23.75 rev/s
12 The slip speed of an induction motor depends (c) 26.25 rev/s (d) 11.875 rev/s
upon: 16 A stator winding of an induction motor sup-
(a) armature current (b) supply voltage plied from a three-phase, 60 Hz system is
(c) mechanical load (d) eddy currents required to produce a magnetic flux rotating
13 The starting torque of a simple squirrel-cage at 900 rev/min. The number of poles is:
motor is: (a) 2 (b) 8 (c) 6 (d) 4
(a) low 17 The stator of a three-phase, 2-pole induction
(b) increases as rotor current rises motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. The
(c) decreases as rotor current rises rotor runs at 2880 rev/min at full load. The
(d) high slip is:
14 The slip speed of an induction motor: (a) 4.17% (b) 92%
(a) is zero until the rotor moves and then (c) 4% (d) 96%
rises slightly
(b) is 100 per cent until the rotor moves and 18 An 8-pole induction motor, when fed from a
then decreases slightly 60 Hz supply, experiences a 5 per cent slip.
(c) is 100 per cent until the rotor moves and The rotor speed is:
then falls to a low value (a) 427.5 rev/min (b) 855 rev/min
(d) is zero until the rotor moves and then (c) 900 rev/min (d) 945 rev/min
rises to 100 per cent
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 7
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 22 and 23.
1 A 6-pole armature has 1000 conductors and a flux speed, in rev/min when the current is 50 A and
per pole of 40 mWb. Determine the e.m.f. gener- a resistance of 0.40 is connected in series with
ated when running at 600 rev/min when (a) lap the armature, the shunt field remaining constant.
wound (b) wave wound. (6) (7)
2 The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance 6 The stator of a three-phase, 6-pole induction
of 0.3 and is connected to a 200 V supply. motor is connected to a 60 Hz supply. The rotor
Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it is running runs at 1155 rev/min at full load. Determine
(a) as a generator giving 80 A (b) as a motor (a) the synchronous speed, and (b) the slip at full
taking 80 A (4) load. (6)
3 A 15 kW shunt generator having an armature cir- 7 The power supplied to a three-phase induction
cuit resistance of 1 and a field resistance of motor is 40 kW and the stator losses are 2 kW.
160 generates a terminal voltage of 240 V at If the slip is 4 per cent determine (a) the rotor
full-load. Determine the efficiency of the gener- copper loss, (b) the total mechanical power devel-
ator at full-load assuming the iron, friction and oped by the rotor, (c) the output power of the
windage losses amount to 500 W. (6) motor if frictional and windage losses are 1.48 kW,
and (d) the efficiency of the motor, neglecting
4 A 4-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound armature rotor iron loss. (9)
with 1000 conductors. The useful flux per pole
is 40 mWb. Calculate the torque exerted when a 8 A 400 V, three-phase, 100 Hz, 8-pole induction
motor runs at 24.25 rev/s on full load. The rotor
current of 25 A flows in each armature conductor.
resistance and reactance per phase are 0.2
(4)
and 2 respectively and the effective rotor-
5 A 400 V shunt motor runs at its normal speed stator turns ratio is 0.80:1. Calculate (a) the syn-
of 20 rev/s when the armature current is 100 A. chronous speed, (b) the slip, and (c) the full load
The armature resistance is 0.25 . Calculate the torque. (8)
TLFeBOOK
Formulae for electrical power
technology
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS: Input power D output power C losses

p 2
Star IL D Ip VL D 3 Vp N1
Resistance matching: R1 D RL
p N2
Delta VL D Vp IL D 3 Ip
p
PD 3 VL IL cos or P D 3I2p Rp D.C. MACHINES:
Two-wattmeter method 2pnZ

Generated e.m.f. E D / ω
p P1 P2 c
P D P1 C P2 tan D 3
P1 C P2 (c D 2 for wave winding, c D 2p for lap winding)
Generator: E D V C Ia Ra
TRANSFORMERS:

V1 N1 I2 VI
Efficiency, D ð 100%
D D I0 D I2M C I2C VI C I2a Ra C If V C C
V2 N2 I1
Motor: E D V Ia Ra
IM D I0 sin 0 Ic D I0 cos 0

E D 4.44 fm N VI I2a Ra If V C
Efficiency, D ð 100%
VI

E2 E1
Regulation D ð 100% EIa pZIa
E2 Torque D D / Ia 
2n c
2
V1
Equivalent circuit: Re D R1 C R2
V2 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:
2
V1 f ns nr
Xe D X1 C X2 Ze D Re2 C X2e nS D sD ð 100
V2 p ns
losses fr D sf Xr D sX2
Efficiency, D 1
input power
N2
Output power D V2 I2 cos 2 s E1
Er N1 I2r R2
Ir D D sD
Zr [R22 C sX2 2 ] P2
Total loss D copper loss C iron loss
TLFeBOOK
Efficiency, Torque,
 

input stator loss rotor copper loss N2 2
Pm friction & windage loss m  sE21 R2 sE21 R2
D D  N1 
P1 input power T D  2 /
 2ns  R2 C sX2 2 2
R2 C sX2 2
TLFeBOOK
Answers to multi-choice questions
CHAPTER 1. EXERCISE 4 (page 7) CHAPTER 8. EXERCISE 40 (page 91)
1 (c) 2 (d) 3 (c) 4 (a) 5 (c) 1 (d) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (a) 5 (b)
6 (b) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d) 10 (a) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (b)
11 (b) 12 (d)
CHAPTER 9. EXERCISE 47 (page 102)
CHAPTER 2. EXERCISE 10 (page 19) 1 (c) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (b) 5 (c)
6 (a) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (c) 10 (a)
1 (b) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (b) 5 (d) 11 (a) 12 (b)
6 (d) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (b) 10 (c)
11 (c) 12 (d) 13 (a) CHAPTER 10. EXERCISE 57 (page 125)
1 (d) 2 (a) or (c) 3 (b) 4 (b)
CHAPTER 3. EXERCISE 15 (page 27) 5 (c) 6 (f) 7 (c) 8 (a)
9 (i) 10 (j) 11 (g) 12 (c)
1 (c) 2 (d) 3 (b) 4 (d) 5 (d)
13 (b) 14 (p) 15 (d) 16 (o)
6 (c) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d)
17 (n) 18 (b) 19 (d) 20 (a)
21 (d) 22 (c) 23 (a)
1 (d) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (b)
6 (d) 7 (d) 8 (b) 9 (c) 10 (d) 1 (c) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (c) 5 (b)
11 (c) 12 (a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (a) 10 (b)
11 (d)
1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (c) 4 (c) 5 (a) 1 (b) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (a) 5 (a)
6 (b) 7 (d) 8 (b) 9 (c) 10 (d) 6 (d) 7 (b) 8 (d) 9 (b) 10 (c)
11 (d) 11 (a) 12 (b) 13 (b) 14 (b) 15 (b)
16 (b) 17 (c) 18 (b) 19 (a) 20 (b)
1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (a)
1 (d) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (a)
6 (b) 7 (b) 8 (a) 9 (c) 10 (c)
6 (d) 7 (c) 8 (a) 9 (c) 10 (c)
11 (d)
11 (b) 12 (d) 13 (d) 14 (b) 15 (c)
16 (a)
1 (d) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (c)
6 (d) 7 (a) 8 (c) 9 (c) 10 (c) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3 (d) 4 (a) 5 (d)
11 (a) and (d), (b) and (f), (c) and (e) 12 (a) 6 (c) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (b) 10 (c)
13 (a) 11 (b)
TLFeBOOK
1 (c) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (b) 5 (a) 1 (g) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (a) 5 (f)
6 (b) 7 (a) 8 (d) 9 (d) 10 (d) 6 (a) 7 (g) 8 (l) 9 (l) 10 (d)
11 (b) 12 (c) 13 (b) 14 (c) 15 (b) 11 (f) 12 (j) 13 (d) 14 (b) 15 (c)
16 (b) 17 (c) 18 (a) 19 (d) 16 (b) 17 (c)
1 (d) 2 (g) 3 (i) 4 (s) 1 (a) 2 (d) 3 (a) 4 (b) 5 (c)
5 (h) 6 (b) 7 (k) 8 (l) 6 (a) 7 (b) 8 (a) 9 (b) 10 (g)
9 (a) 10 (d), (g), (i) and (l) 11 (b) 11 (d) 12 (a) 13 (h) 14 (k) 15 (j)
12 (d) 13 (c) 14 (b) 16 (f) 17 (c) 18 (b) and (c) 19 (c)
20 (b)
1 (d) 2 (b) 3 (a) 4 (c)
5 (c) 6 (a) 7 (b) 8 (a) 1 (b) 2 (e) 3 (e) 4 (c) 5 (c)
9 (d) 10 (b) 11 (d) 12 (c) 6 (a) 7 (d) 8 (f) 9 (b) 10 (c)
11 (b) 12 (a) 13 (b) 14 (a) 15 (d)
16 (b) 17 (b) 18 (b) 19 (c) 20 (b)
21 (b) 22 (a) 23 (c) 24 (d)
1 (c) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (g) 5 (g)
6 (e) 7 (l) 8 (c) 9 (a) 10 (d)
11 (g) 12 (b) 13 (c) 14 (j) 15 (h) CHAPTER 23. EXERCISE 142 (page 370)
16 (c) 17 (a) 18 (a) 1 (c) 2 (b) 3 (d) 4 (a) 5 (b)
6 (d) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (f) 10 (j)
CHAPTER 19. EXERCISE 107 (page 279) 11 (d) 12 (c) 13 (a) 14 (c) 15 (b)
16 (b) 17 (c) 18 (b)
1 (c) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (d) 5 (a)
6 (b) 7 (d) 8 (a) 9 (c) 10 (c)
TLFeBOOK
Index
Absolute permeability, 71 Brush contact loss, 337
Absolute permittivity, 55 Buffer amplifier, 270
A.c. bridges, 120
generator, 183
values, 185 Calibration accuracy, 122
Acceptor circuit, 209 Capacitance, 54
Active power, 214 Capacitive a.c. circuit, 199
Advantages of: reactance, 199
squirrel cage induction motor, 367 Capacitors, 54
three-phase systems, 300 charging, 248
wound rotor induction motor, 368 discharging, 66, 253
Air capacitors, 64 energy stored, 63
Alkaline cell, 35 in parallel and series, 59
Alternating voltages and currents, 183 parallel plate, 57
Ammeter, 12, 106 practical types, 64
Amplifier gain, 267, 269 Capacity of cell, 35
Amplifier, transistor, 142 Cathode, 29
Amplitude, 112, 185, 189 Cathode ray oscilloscope, 12, 111
Analogue instruments, 105 double beam, 112
to digital conversion, 276 Cell capacity, 35
Angular velocity, 189 primary, 34
Anode, 29 secondary, 34
Apparent power, 214 simple, 30
Armature, 330 Ceramic capacitor, 65
reaction, 330 Characteristic impedance, 236, 237
Asymmetrical network, 236 Characteristics, transistor, 140
Atoms, 10 Charge, 3, 54
Attenuation, 236 density, 55
bands, 236 force on, 90
Attraction-type m.i. instrument, 105 Charging a capacitor, 248
Audio frequency transformer, 311 of cell, 32
Auto transformer, 319 Chemical effects of current, 17, 18, 29
Avalanche effect, 132 Circuit diagram symbols, 10, 11
Average value, 185 Closed-loop gain, 268
Avometer, 12, 109 Coercive force, 78
Collector, 136
Colour coding of resistors, 25
Back e.m.f., 338 Combination of waveforms, 191
Balanced network, 236 Common-mode rejection ratio, 266
Band-pass filter, 236, 244 Commutation, 329
Band-stop filter, 236, 245 Commutator, 329, 330
Bandwidth, 212, 265 Comparison between electrical and magnetic
Base, 136 quantities, 77
Battery, 32 Complex wave, 114
B-H curves, 70, 71 Composite series magnetic circuits, 74
Bipolar junction transistor, 136 Compound winding, 330
Block diagram, electrical, 9, 10 Compound wound generator, 335
Bridge, a.c., 120 motor, 344
rectifier, 132 Conductance, 5, 6
Wheatstone, 118 Conductors, 11, 14, 127
TLFeBOOK
378 INDEX
Constant current source, 171 Dynamic current gain, 144

Contact potential, 129 resistance, 227
Continuity tester, 109
Control, 89
Cooling of transformers, 312 Edison cell, 35
Copper loss, 314, 337 Eddy current loss, 314
rotor, 361 Effective value, 185
Core loss, 337 Effect of time constant on rectangular wave, 260
component, 306 Effects of electric current, 17
Core type transformer, 311 Efficiency of:
Corrosion, 31 d.c. generator, 337
Coulomb, 3, 11 d.c. motor, 344
Coulomb’s law, 53 induction motor, 361
Crest value, 185 transformer, 314, 315
Current, 10 Electrical:
decay in L–R circuit, 257 energy, 16
division, 45 measuring instruments, 12, 104
gain, transistor, 145 potential, 5
growth, L–R circuit, 255 power, 15
main effects, 17 Electric:
transformer, 323 bell, 84
Cut-off frequency, 236, 238 cell, 30
Cycle, 184 field strength, 53
flux density, 55
Electrochemical series, 30
Damping, 89, 105 Electrodes, 29
D.C. circuit theory, 157, 164 Electrolysis, 29
generator, 332 Electrolyte, 29, 34
characteristics, 333 Electrolytic capacitor, 65
efficiency, 337 Electromagnetic induction, 93
D.C. machine, 328 laws of, 94
construction, 329 Electromagnetism, 82
losses, 337 Electromagnets, 84
torque, 339 Electronic instruments, 108
D.C. motor, 89, 338 Electrons, 10, 29
efficiency, 344 Electroplating, 30
speed control, 347 Electrostatic field, 52
starter, 347 E.m.f., 5
types, 341
equation of transformer, 308
D.C. potentiometer, 119
in armature winding, 330
transients, 248
induced in conductors, 95
Decibel, 115
of a cell, 31
meter, 116
Emitter, 136
Delta connection, 291
Energy, 4, 16
Delta/star comparison, 300
Depletion layer, 129 stored in:
Design impedance, 238 capacitor, 63
Dielectric, 54, 56 inductor, 99
strength, 62 Equivalent circuit of transformer, 312
Differential amplifier, 272, 274
Differentiator circuit, 260
Digital to analogue conversion, 276 Farad, 54
voltmeter, 108 Faraday’s laws, 94
Discharging capacitors, 66, 253 Ferrite, 78
of cell, 31 Filter, 236
Diverter, 348 Fleming’s left hand rule, 86
Doping, 128 Fleming’s right hand rule, 94
Double beam c.r.o., 112 Force, 4
Double cage induction motor, 369 on a charge, 90
Drift, 11 current-carrying conductor, 85
TLFeBOOK
INDEX 379
Form factor, 185 Inverting amplifier op amp, 267

Formulae, lists of, 153, 283, 373 Iron losses, 314, 337
Forward bias, 129, 136 Isolating transformer, 321
characteristics, 130 Iterative impedance, 237
Frequency, 184, 189
Friction and windage losses, 337
Full wave rectification, 132 Joule, 4, 6, 16
Fuses, 18
Kilowatt hour, 6, 16
Galvanometer, 118 Kirchhoff’s laws, 157
Generator:
a.c., 183
d.c., 328 Lamps in series and parallel, 49
Germanium, 127 Lap winding, 330
Grip rule, 84 Laws of electromagnetic induction, 94
L–C parallel circuit, 222
Lead acid cell, 34
Half-power points, 212 Leclanche cell, 34
Half-wave rectification, 132 Lenz’s law, 9
Harmonics, 114 Lifting magnet, 85
Heating effects of current, 17, 18 Linear device, 12
Henry, 97 Linear scale, 105
Hertz, 184 Lines of electric force, 52
High-pass filter, 236, 240 Lines of magnetic flux, 68
Hole, 128 Load line, 144, 145
Hysteresis, 77 Local action, 30
loop, 77, 78 Logarithmic ratios, 115
loss, 78, 302 Losses:
d.c. machines, 337
induction motors, 361
Impedance, 201, 205 transformers, 314
triangle, 201, 205 Loudspeaker, 86
Induced e.m.f., 95 Low-pass filter, 236, 237
Inductance, 97 LR–C a.c. circuit, 223
of a coil, 99
Induction motor, 354
construction, 357 Magnetic:
double cage, 369 circuits, 68, 74
losses and efficiency, 361 effects of current, 17, 18
principle of operation, 358 field due to electric current, 82
production of rotating field, 354 fields, 68
starting methods, 367 field strength, 70
torque equation, 363 flux, 69
-speed characteristic, 366 flux density, 69
uses of, 369 screens, 73
Inductive a.c. circuit, 198 Magnetisation curves, 71
switching, 260 Magnetising component, 306
reactance, 198 Magnetising force, 70
Inductors, 98 Magnetomotive force, 70
Initial slope and three point method, 250 Majority carriers, 129
Instantaneous values, 185 Matching, 317
Instrument loading effect, 109 Maximum power transfer theorem, 179
Insulation resistance tester, 109 value, 185, 189
Insulators, 11, 15, 127 Maxwell bridge, 120
Integrator circuit, 260 Mean value, 185
op amp, 272 Measurement errors, 122
Internal resistance of cell, 31 of power in 3 phase system, 183
Interpoles, 329 Megger, 109
TLFeBOOK
380 INDEX
Mercury cell, 34 Peak factor, 186

Mesh connection, 291 Peak value, 112, 185
Mica capacitor, 64 Peak-to-peak value, 185, 189
Minority carriers, 130 Period, 184
Motor cooling, 350 Periodic time, 111, 184, 189
d.c., 89, 328, 338 Permanent magnet, 68
efficiency, 344 Permeability, 70
speed control, 347 absolute, 71
starter, 347 of free space, 71
types, 341 relative, 71
Moving coil instrument, 89 Permittivity, 55
Moving coil rectifier instrument, 105 absolute, 55
iron instrument, 105 of free space, 55
Multimeter, 12, 109 relative, 55
Multiples of units, 13 Phasor, 189
Multiplier, 107 Plastic capacitor, 65
Mutual induction, 97, 101 Polarisation, 30
Potential:
difference, 5, 12
Negative feedback, 265 divider, 40
Neutral conductor, 288 gradient, 53
Neutrons, 10 Potential, electric, 5
Newton, 4 Potentiometer, d.c., 119
Nife cell, 35 Power, 4, 6, 15
Nominal impedance, 238 active, 214
Non-inverting amplifier, 270 apparent, 214
Non-linear device, 12, 13 factor, 214
n–p–n transistor, 137 improvement, 230
Norton’s theorem, 172 in a.c. circuits, 213
and Thévenin equivalent circuits, 175 3-phase systems, 293
n-type material, 128 measurement in 3-phase systems, 295
Nucleus, 10 reactive, 214
Null method of measurement, 118 transformers, 311
triangle, 214
p–n junction, 129
Ohm, 5, 12 p–n–p transistor, 137
Ohmmeter, 12, 108 p-type material, 128
Ohm’s law, 13 Practical types of capacitor, 64
Operational amplifiers, 264 Prefixes of units, 3
differential amplifier, 274 Primary cells, 34
integrator, 272 Principle of operation of:
inverting amplifier, 267 moving-coil instrument, 89
non-inverting amplifier, 269 d.c. motor, 89
parameters, 266 3-phase induction motor, 358
summing amplifier, 271 transformer, 304
transfer characteristics, 265 Protons, 10
voltage comparator, 272
voltage follower, 270
Q-factor, 121, 210, 227
Q-meter, 121
Paper capacitor, 64 Quantity of electricity, 11
Parallel:
a.c. circuits, 219
connected capacitors, 59 Radio frequency transformer, 311
lamps, 49 Rating, 304
networks, 42 R–C parallel a.c. circuit, 220
plate capacitor, 57 R–C series a.c. circuit, 204
resonance, 224, 226 Reactive power, 214
Passbands, 236 Rectification, 132, 194
TLFeBOOK
INDEX 381
Regulation of transformer, 313 S.I. units, 3

Relative permeability, 71 Slew rate, 267
Relative permittivity, 55 Slip, 358
Relay, 85 Solenoid, 83
Reluctance, 73 Speed control of d.c. motors, 347
Rejector circuit, 227 Squirrel-cage rotor induction motor, 357, 367
Remanence, 78 advantages of, 367
Repulsion type m.i. instrument, 105 Star connection, 288
Resistance, 5, 12, 20 Star/delta comparison, 300
internal, 31 Stator, 329
matching, 317 Steady state, 249
variation, 20 Stopbands, 236
Resistivity, 20 Sub-multiples of units, 13
Resistor colour coding, 25 Sub-system, 10
Resonance: Summing amplifier, 271
parallel, 224, 226 Superposition theorem, 161
series, 206, 209 Switching inductive circuits, 260
Reverse bias, 130, 136 Symbols, electrical, 10, 11
characteristics, 130 Symmetrical network, 236
R–L parallel a.c. circuit, 219 Synchronous speed, 355, 356
series a.c. circuit, 201 System, electrical, 9
R–L–C seies a.c. circuit, 206
R.m.s. value, 112, 185
Rotor copper loss, 361 T-network, 236
Tangent method, 250
Telephone receiver, 85
Scale, 105 Temperature coefficient of resistance, 22
Screw rule, 83, 84 Thermal runaway, 147
Secondary cells, 34 Thévenin’s theorem, 166
Selectivity, 213 and Norton equivalent circuits, 175
Self-excited generators, 332, 333 Three-phase:
Self inductance, 97 induction motor, 354
Semiconductor diodes, 127, 130 supply, 287
Semiconductors, 127 systems, 287
Separately-excited generators, 332, 333 advantages of, 300
Series: power, 293
a.c. circuits, 198 transformers, 321
circuit, 39 Time constant:
connected capacitors, 59 CR circuit, 249, 250
lamps, 49 LR circuit, 256
resonance, 206, 209 Titanium oxide capacitor, 65
winding, 330 Torque equation:
wound generator, 335 for induction motor, 363
motor, 343 of a d.c. machine, 339
Shells, 10 -speed characteristic of induction motor, 366
Shell type transformer, 311 Transformation ratio, 304
Shunt, 107 Transformers, 303
field regulator, 347 auto, 319
winding, 330 construction, 311
wound generator, 334 current, 323
motor, 341 e.m.f. equation, 308
Siemen, 6 equivalent circuit, 312
Silicon, 127 isolating, 321
Simple cell, 30 losses and efficiency, 314, 315
Sine wave, 184, 185 no-load phasor diagram, 306
Single-phase: on-load phasor diagram, 310
parallel a.c. circuit, 219 principle of operation, 304
series a.c. circuit, 198 regulation of, 313
voltage, 287 three-phase, 321
Sinusoidal waveform equation, 189 voltage, 324
TLFeBOOK
382 INDEX
Transient CR circuit, 250 gain, transistor, 146

Transient LR circuit, 256 transformer, 324
Transistor: triangle, 201, 204
action, 137 Voltmeter, 12, 107
amplifier, 142
characteristics, 140
connections, 139 Watt, 4, 15
symbols, 139 Wattmeter, 109
Transistors, 136 Wave winding, 330
True power, 214 Waveform harmonics, 114
Two-port networks, 236 Waveforms, 184
combination of, 191
Weber, 69
Unbalanced network, 236 Wheatstone bridge, 118, 170
Unit of electricity, 16 Work, 4
Units, 3, 7 Wound rotor induction motor, 358, 367
advantages of, 368
Variable air capacitor, 64

Virtual earth, 267 Yoke, 329
Volt, 5, 12
Voltage, 12
comparator, 272 Zener diode, 132
follower amplifier, 270 Zener effect, 132
TLFeBOOK

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TLFeBOOK

Electrical and Electronic Principles and

OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS

Copyright  2000, 2003, John Bird. All rights reserved

The right of John Bird to be identified as the author of this work

No part of this publication may be

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 0 7506 5778 2

For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at www.newnespress.com

Typeset by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Preface ix 4 Chemical effects of electricity 29

7.6 Composite series magnetic 10.17 D.C. potentiometer 119

14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal 18.9 Current decay in an L –R

21.5 Transformer on-load phasor 23 Three-phase induction motors 354

attempt as part of their course structure. Lecturers’ Instructor’s Manual

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

ž state the basic SI units

Acceleration – metres per second

Derived SI units use combinations of basic units 1.2 Charge

work done 8 Determine the force acting downwards on

at the two points produces a current flow of one

1.8 Electrical power and energy Exercise 2 Further problems on e.m.f.,

(a) 0.5 kWh (b) 4 kWh (c) energy

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

ž appreciate that engineering systems may be represented by block diagrams

system, where a microphone is used to collect

A.C. Supply Thermostat

Figure 2.1 actual room temperature with the desired temper-

current is said to be a current of one ampere.

Generally, if I is the current in amperes and t the

Problem 1. What current must flow if

Since the quantity of electricity, Q D It, then

Q 0.24 0.24 ð 103

current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a

2.5 Basic electrical measuring

2.8 Multiples and sub-multiples

2.7 Ohm’s law Resistance R D 2 k D 2 ð 103 D 2000

Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a Current I D 10 mA D 10 ð 103 A

Problem 5. A coil has a current of 50 mA

Prefix Name Meaning Example

M mega multiply by 1 000 000 2 M D 2 000 000 ohms

k kilo multiply by 1000 10 kV D 10 000 volts

Problem 6. A 100 V battery is connected

V 100 100 ð 103

Problem 8. The current/voltage relationship

are conductors and some examples include copper,

P (b) Power dissipated by coil,

If the power is measured in watts and the time in

Problem 15. A source of e.m.f. of 15 V Power P D I2 R D 102 ð 20

Energy used in 6 hours D powerðtime D 2 kWð 6 A current of 4 A flows through a conduc-

Energy D power ð time. 8 A battery of e.m.f. 15 V supplies a current of

Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, genera-

Exercise 9 Short answer questions on the

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

ž appreciate that electrical resistance depends on four factors

Resistance at ° C, R D R0 1 C ˛0 . Hence resis-

then: R D . . . . . . (c) 43.3

Power dissipated in the 11 resistor,

Total resistance R D 4 C 9 C 11 D 24 The circuit shown in Fig. 5.5(b) is often referred

(b) P.d. across 2 resistor,

V1 D IR1 D 25 2.5 D 62.5 V

Vx D IRx D 25 1.5 D 37.5 V