Chapter 1- The Science of Nutrition

What is the study of nutrition?

 The American Medical Association defines nutrition as the “science of food; the nutrients
and the substances therein; their action, interaction, and balance in relation to health and
disease; and the process by which the organism (e.g., human body) ingests, digests, absorbs,
transports, utilizes, and excretes food substances.” Food provides the nutrients needed to
fuel, build, and maintain all body cells.
Define essential nutrient and what are the 3 main criteria to determine if a nutrient is essential?
 Nutrients are substances essential for health that the body cannot make or that it makes in
quantities too small to support health
 To be considered an essential nutrient, a substance must have these characteristics:
o It has to have a specific biological function
o Removing it from the diet leads to a decline in human biological function, such as
the normal functions of the blood cells or nervous system
o Returning the omitted substance to the diet before permanent damage occurs
restores to normal those aspects of human biological function impaired by its
absence
What are the 6 categories of nutrients? Also know the 3 main roles of nutrients and which nutrients
fall into each of those roles/functions.
 Carbohydrates, lipids (fats and oils), proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
 Nutrients can be assigned to 3 functional categories
o Those that primarily provide energy (typically expressed in kcal)
 Carbohydrates, protein, lipids
o Those that are important for growth and development (and later maintenance)
 Proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water
o Those that regulate body processes and keep body functions running smoothly
 Proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water
Which nutrients are macro- and micro- nutrients? And what does that imply?
 Because carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water are needed in large amounts, they are
called macronutrients
 In contrast, vitamins and minerals are needed in such small amounts in the diet that they
are called micronutrients
 Macronutrients are needed in gram quantities, and micronutrients are needed in
milligram/microgram quantities
What are the leading causes of death in the U.S? And with which ones does diet play a role?
 Leading causes of death (* diet plays a role)
o Diseases of the heart*
o Cancer*
o Cerebrovascular disease (stroke)*
o Chronic obstructive lung disease and allied conditions
o Accidents and adverse effects
o Diabetes*
o Influenza and pneumonia
o Alzheimer disease*
o Kidney disease*
o Blood-borne infections
 o Chronic liver disease
o All other causes
How is energy measured in food (what is the unit of measurement)? Use the values of energy-
yielding nutrients to determine the energy content in a food if given the grams of carbohydrate, fat,
protein. Also know alcohol energy value.
 On average, North American adults consume 16% energy as proteins, 50% as carbohydrates,
and 33% as fats
 A calorie is the term used to express the amount of energy in foods
 A calorie is the amount of heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1
degree Celsius
 1 kcal/Cal = 1000 calories
o amount of heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1000g (1L) of water 1
degree Celsius
 Per 1 gram
o Carbohydrates: 4 kcal
o Lipids: 9 kcal
o Proteins: 4 kcal
o Alcohol: 7 kcal
What do the terms organic versus inorganic refer to in terms of nutritional science?
 Organic compound
o Substance that contains carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms in the chemical
structure
 Inorganic substance
o Substance lacking carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms in the chemical
structure
What are the subcategories of carbohydrates and what general foods are carbohydrates food in?
 Composed mainly of elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
 Main types are simple and complex
o Small carbohydrate structures are called sugars or simple carbohydrates
 Sugar (sucrose) and blood sugar (glucose)
o Large carbohydrates, polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates
 Glucose bound together in a chain
 Starch in grains, glycogen stored in our muscles, fiber in plant structures
 Fruits, vegetables, grains, beans, and sugars are primary dietary sources of carbohydrate
What is the basic sub unit of protein and what general foods are proteins found in?
 Proteins are composed of elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
 Main structural material in body (bone, muscle, blood, cell membranes)
 Proteins form when amino acids bond together
 Twenty common amino acids are found in food
o 9 amino acids are essential nutrients for adults, and 1 additional amino acid is
essential for infants
 Found mostly in meat and legumes

What are the other words that describe “fat” used in class and text book? What were the 2 common
names of the essential fats we need to eat? What was the one unhealthy fat we said should be
consumed in amounts as low as possible?
 Lipids (fats, oils, cholesterol) are mostly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
  Fats are lipids at room temp, oils are liquid at room temp
 Lipid type called triglyceride is major form of fat in foods
o Composed of 3 fatty acid chains with a glycerol backbone
 Lipids are saturated (solid at room temp; unhealthy) and unsaturated (liquid at room temp,
healthy)
o Two unsaturated fatty acids are essential nutrients
 Linoleic acid (LA; omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA; omega-3)
 Trans fatty acids
o Intake should be minimized
o Unsaturated fats that have been processed to change their structure from cis to
trans form
o Found in deep-fried foods (doughnuts and French fries), baked snack foods (cookies
and crackers), and solid fats (stick margarine and shortening)
Differentiate between water and fat soluble vitamins in terms of absorption, transport, storage in
body, deficiency & toxicity. There are only 4 fat soluble vitamins, so be able to recognize their
names.
 Vitamins provide no useful energy for the body
 Main function is to enable many chemical reactions to occur; help release energy trapped
inside macronutrients
 13 vitamins are divided into two groups
o Fat-soluble (dissolve in fat)
 Vitamins A, D, E, and K
 Likely to accumulate in excessive amounts in body, which can cause toxicity
 Less likely to be deficient given method of storage, but more likely to cause
toxicity
o Water-soluble (dissolve in water)
 Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B-6, pantothenic acid, biotin, folate, and
vitamin B-12
 Destroyed by cooking
 Excreted from body much more readily

What’s the difference between major and trace minerals?

 Minerals are inorganic substances
 Minerals yield no energy for the body but are required for normal body function (nervous
system, skeletal system, and water balance)
 Major minerals are needed daily in gram amounts
o Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus
 Trace minerals are those that we need in amounts less than 100mg daily
o Iron, zinc, copper, selenium
Define phytochemicals and zoochemicals and give some examples of each.
 Both are physiologically active compounds, and are not considered essential nutrients
 Foods rich in phytochemicals and zoochemicals are functional foods – provide health
benefits beyond those supplied by the traditional nutrients it contains – offers additional
components
 Phytochemicals
o Plant components in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains
o Lycopene in tomatoes
  Zoochemicals
o Components in animals
o Fatty fish can provide beneficial zoochemical omega-3 fatty acids
o Fermented dairy products provide probiotics
Describe/Identify the factors that affect our food choices.
 Social needs
 Social network of family/friends
 Food customs and culture
 Food cost
 Education, occupation, and income
 Routines and habits
 Lifestyle and beliefs
 Health and nutrition concerns, knowledge, and beliefs
 Food marketing
 Food availability
 Food flavor, texture, and appearance preferences
 Psychological needs
Differentiate between hunger versus appetite.
 Hunger is the physical need for food
 Appetite is the psychological desire to eat certain foods and reject others
Discuss the components and limitations of nutritional assessment (A, B, C, D, and E)
 A: anthropometric
o Measuring parts of body (height, weight, skin-fold thickness)
o Easy to obtain, generally reliable
 B: biochemical
o Measurement of concentrations of nutrients and nutrient by-products in blood,
urine, and feces and of specific blood enzyme activities
 C: clinical
o Healthcare providers search for physical evidence of diet-related disease (high blood
pressure, skin conditions)
 D: dietary
o Examines how often a person eats certain types of foods, types of foods eaten over
long period of time; food frequency
 E: environmental
o Provides information on the person’s education and economic background
o Important for people who have inadequate education, income, and housing
 Limitations of nutritional assessments
o Many signs and symptoms of nutritional deficiencies are not specific (fatigue,
diarrhea) and could be caused by other factors
o It can take a long time for signs and symptoms of nutritional deficiencies to develop,
and because they can be vague, it is often difficult to establish a link between
individual’s current diet and his/her nutritional status
o A long time may elapse between the initial development of poor nutritional health
and first clinical evidence of a problem (increase in blood cholesterol  heart
attack)
What are the ways nutrition experts gather dietary information on clients/patients?
 24-hour recall
  3-day recall
 Food history (types of foods eaten over long period of time)
Understand that undernutrition and over-nutrition are both malnutrition. Explain subclinical versus
clinical deficiency as explained in lecture.
 Optimal, or desirable nutritional status
o State in which the body tissues have enough of the nutrient to support normal
functions, as well as to build and maintain surplus stores that can be used in times
of increased need
 Undernutrition
o Nutrient intake does not meet nutrient needs, causing surplus stores to be used
 Early stage of a nutrient deficiency is termed subclinical because there are no overt signs or
symptoms that can be detected or diagnosed
 Clinical deficiency is when a deficiency becomes severe, and clinical signs and symptoms
develop and become outwardly apparent
 Sign is a feature that can be observed, such as flaky skin
 Symptom is a change in body function that is not necessarily apparent to the health-care
provider, such as feeling tired or achy
 Malnutrition can refer to either overnutrition or undernutrition
What is Healthy People 2020?
 A report issued in 2010 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service
 Provides science-based, 10-year national goals for improving the health of all Americans—
many are nutrition-related
 Main objective is to help all people attain high-quality, longer lives free of preventable
disease, disability, injury, and premature death
 Promotes health equity and eliminates health disparities
Explain how the scientific method is used in developing hypotheses and theories in the field of
nutrition. Be familiar with the various types of studies and associated terminology (epidemiological
studies, case-control studies, migrant studies, double-blind, placebo-effect, etc.)
 Scientists suggest possible explanations, called hypotheses, about the causes of a
phenomenon
 To test hypotheses and eliminate coincidental or erroneous explanations, scientists perform
controlled experiments to gather data that either support or refute a hypothesis
 Sound scientific research requires the following
o Phenomena are observed
o Questions are asked and hypotheses are generated to explain the phenomena
o Research is conducted
o Incorrect explanations are rejected and the most likely explanation is proposed
o Research results are scrutinized and evaluated by other scientists. Research
conducted in an unbiased, scientific manner is published in a scientific journal
o The results are confirmed by other scientists and by more experiments and
scientists
 Case-control study
o Scientists compare individuals who have the condition in question (“cases”), such as
lung cancer, with individuals who do not have the condition (“controls”)
 Double-blind study
 o One group of participants (experimental group) receives treatment while the other
group (control group) follow their usual habits
o Control group usually receives placebo (fake treatment)
o Participants are assigned to each group by flip of coin (at random) and scientists do
not know who is in what group
o Reduces risk of bias (prejudice) and chance of placebo effect
o Placebo effect is when control group experiences changes that cannot be explained
by the action of the placebo they received
 Epidemiological studies are studies on populations
 Migrant studies follow populations that move from one area to another and analyze their
experienced changes
 Observational – collect data but no intervention
o Correlations/associations
o Migrant studies
o Cohort studies
o Case-control studies
 Interventional studies – intervention is intentionally done
o Double-blind studies (experimental studies)
Know other terms discussed in lecture but not in book- direct/indirect correlations (same as
positive/negative correlations).
 Direct/positive correlation
 Indirect/negative correlation
What is the “peer-review” process?
 Where, before experimental results are published in scientific journals, they are critically
reviewed by other scientists familiar with the subject
 The objective of this peer review is to ensure that only the most unbiased, objective findings
from carefully designed and executed research studies are published
 Peer-reviewed journals are more reliable than layman sources
Describe benefit of animal models.
 Experiments can be conducted on lab animals when study would be unethical to conduct on
humans
 Much of what is known about human nutritional needs and functions has been generated
from lab animal experiments
 The use of lab animal experiments to study the role of nutrition in human diseases depends
on the availability of an animal model – a disease in lab animals that closely mimics a
human disease
Identify reliable sources of nutrition information, including websites, journals and credential
professionals. Look at handouts on D2L referring to becoming a “dietitian”.
 .com vs .gov .org (sometimes) and .edu
 DSHEA (The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994) argued that supps are
foods, so FDA cannot regulate them

Chapter 2- Tools of a Healthy Diet

Explain the history and purpose of the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI).
 The first indication and documentation of nutrient deficiency diseases in the 1930s and
1940s, along with rejection of many young men from military service in World War II
  1941 scientists formed the Food and Nutrition Board with purpose of reviewing existing
research and establishing first official dietary standards
 Latest recommendations from the Food and Nutrition Board are called Dietary Reference
Intakes (DRIs)
o Apply to people in US and Canada
o Include 5 sets of standards:
 Estimated Average Requirements (EARs)
 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
 Adequate Intakes (AIs)
 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (Upper Levels, or ULs)
 Estimated Energy Requirements (EERs)
o DRIs differ by life stage (i.e., age group, by gender after age 9 years, pregnancy,
lactation)
Define and explain how each component is measured and used:
Estimated Average Requirements (EARs)
 Daily nutrient intake amounts that are estimated to meet the needs of half of the
people in a certain life stage
 EARs are set for 17 nutrients
 50% of healthy North Americans would have an inadequate intake if they consumed the
EAR, whereas 50% would have their needs met
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
 2 to 3% of healthy North Americans would have an inadequate intake if they met the RDA,
whereas 97 to 98% would have their needs met
 Daily nutrient intake amounts sufficient to meet the needs of nearly all individuals (97 to
98%) in a life stage
 RDA = EAR x 1.2
 Consideration made when setting an RDA is the nutrient’s ability to prevent chronic disease
rather than just prevent deficiency
 RDAs and AIs for nutrients are set high enough to meet the needs of almost all healthy
individuals
Adequate Intakes (AIs)
 Set for some nutrients instead of an RDA; lies somewhere between the RDA and UL. Thus,
the AI should cover the needs of more than 97 to 98% of individuals
 Used because no official research done to set RDA and UL
 Daily intake amounts set for nutrients for which there are insufficient research data to
establish an EAR; based on observed or experimentally determined estimates of the average
nutrient intake that appears to maintain defined nutritional state in a specific life-stage
group
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)
 Highest nutrient intake level that is likely to pose no risks of adverse health effects in almost
all healthy individuals. At intakes above the UL, the margin of safety to protect against
adverse effects is reduced. At intakes between the RDA and UL (Upper Level), the risk of
either an inadequate diet or adverse effects from the nutrient is close to 0%
 Maximum daily intake amounts of nutrients that are not likely to cause adverse health
effects in almost all individuals (97 to 98%) in a life-stage group
Estimated Energy Requirements (EERs)
 EERs are set at the average daily energy (kcal) need for each life-stage group
  Unlike vitamins and minerals, energy consumed higher than needed is stored as fat and not
excreted
 EERs are estimates because energy needs depend on energy expenditure, and in some
cases, energy needed to support growth or human milk production
 Best estimate of energy need is the amount required to achieve and maintain a healthy
weight
 Use to estimate energy needs according to height, weight, gender, age, and physical activity
pattern
Complementary to DRIs (Adequate Macronutrient Distribution Ranges -AMDRs). Know the AMDR for
each macronutrient- carbohydrate, protein and fat.
 AMDRs are the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges for intake of carbohydrate,
protein, fat, and essential fatty acids
 AMDRs provide a range of intake, as a percent of energy, associated with good health and a
reduced risk of chronic diseases while providing for recommended intakes of essential
nutrients
 Use to determine whether percent of calories from each macronutrient falls within
suggested range. The greater the discrepancy with AMDR, the greater the risk for nutrition-
related chronic diseases
 AMDRs
o Fat: 20-35%
o Protein: 10-35%
o Carbohydrate: 45-65%
Look at the various life stage groups in the DRI tables. Why is it important to have different RDAs/AIs
for the different groups?
 DVs (Daily Values) have been set for 4 groups: infants, toddlers, pregnant or lactating
women, and people over 4 years of age
 Infants don’t have fat restrictions
Compare the Daily Values to the Dietary Reference Intakes and explain how they are used on
Nutrition Facts panels.
 Daily Value (DV) – generic nutrient standard used on Nutrition Facts labels; it comprises
both Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) and Daily Reference Values (DRVs)
o Fat is set at 30% of calories (on 2000 kcal diet)
o Saturated fat: 10%
o Carbohydrate: 60%
o Protein: 10%
o Fiber: 11.5g per 1000 calories
 Daily Reference values (DRVs) – part of the DV; generic nutrient standards set for energy-
producing nutrients (fat, carb, protein, fiber), cholesterol, sodium, and potassium
 Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) – part of the DV; generic nutrient standards set for vitamins
and minerals (except sodium and potassium)
Describe Nutrition Facts panels and know how ingredient list is determined on food packages.
 Labels include product name, name/address of manufacturer, amount of product in
package, ingredients listed in descending order by weight, common allergens, and nutrition
facts panel
 Nutrition Facts panel lists the amounts of certain food components and reports many of
them as % Daily Value
  Serving sizes are specified by the FDA, so that they are consistent among similar foods;
based on typical serving sizes eaten by Americans
 All values shown on Nutrition Facts panels are for a single serving of food
What food components/nutrients must be on Facts panels?
 Required items on nutrition facts panel:
o Total calories (kcal)
o Calories from fat
o Total fat
o Saturated fat
o Trans fat
o Cholesterol
o Sodium
o Total carbohydrate
o Fiber
o Sugars
o Protein
o Vitamin A
o Vitamin C
o Calcium
o Iron
 Manufacturers are required to include a nutrient on the Nutrition Facts panel if they make a
claim about its health benefits or if the food is fortified with that nutrient
 Nutrient claims, such as “good source,” and health claims, such as “reduce the risk of
osteoporosis,” must follow legal definitions
 20% or more of daily value = Rich/excellent source
 10-19% of daily value = good source
o applies to fiber, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, or iron
What is “fortified” versus “enriched” foods?
 Vitamins and/or minerals added to the product in amounts at least 10% above levels
normally present in food; enriched generally refers to replacing nutrients lost in processing,
whereas fortified refers to adding nutrients not originally present in the specific food
Discuss the 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the diseases they are designed to prevent or
minimize. I ask that you know specific limits for sodium, saturated and trans fat, cholesterol, alcohol
and caffeine. The 2015 guidelines are not in book because they were published this year but they
will be in my lecture.
 Limits for:
o Sodium: 2,300mg/day
o Saturated fat: less than 10% of calories/day
o Trans fat: None
o Added sugars: less than 10% of calories/day
o Cholesterol: limited to no more than 300mg/day
o Alcohol: up to 1 drink/day for women and 2 drinks/day for men
o Caffeine: limit is 400mg/day; not to be consumed w/ alcohol; safety not determined
for children/adolescents
 Strong evidence shows that consumption of coffee within moderate range
(3 to 5 cups daily or up to 400mg/daily caffeine) is NOT associated with
increased long-term health risks among healthy individuals
  Associated with reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and CVD and protective
against Parkinson’s (moderate evidence)
 The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines provides Guidelines and Key Recommendations with clear
guidance for individuals to enhance eating and physical activity patterns. Implementation of
these Guidelines will help promote health and prevent chronic disease in the United States.
At the core of this guidance is the importance of consuming overall healthy eating patterns,
including vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy, protein foods, and oils—eaten within an
appropriate calorie level and in forms with limited amounts of saturated fats, added sugars,
and sodium.
o Follow a healthy eating pattern across the lifespan
 Choose a healthy eating pattern at an appropriate calorie level to help
achieve and maintain a healthy body weight, support nutrient adequacy,
and reduce the risk of chronic disease
o Focus on variety, nutrient density, and amount
 To meet nutrient needs within calorie limits, choose a variety of nutrient-
dense foods across and within all food groups in recommended amounts
o Limit calories from added sugars and saturated fats and reduce sodium intake
 Consume an eating pattern low in added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium.
Cut back on foods and beverages higher in these components
o Shift to healthier food and beverage choices
 Choose nutrient-dense foods and beverages across and within all food
groups in place of less healthy choices. Consider cultural and personal
preferences to make these shifts easier to accomplish and maintain
o Support healthy eating patterns for all
 Everyone has a role in helping to create and support healthy eating patterns
in multiple settings nationwide, from home to school to work to
communities
 The Dietary Guidelines are designed to meet nutrient needs while reducing the risk of
obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, alcoholism,
and food-borne illnesses
Discuss the MyPlate food groupings and the key behavior suggestions with this new revised food
tool? Also know the general amounts to make 1 ounce grain and 1 ounce protein and nutrient
contribution- both are on page 62 and 63 (Tables 2.7 and 2.8)
 MyPlate depicts the key elements of a healthy diet
 Emphasizes the fruit, vegetable, grain, protein, and dairy food groups
 Balancing Calories
o Enjoy your food, but eat less
o Avoid oversized portions
 Foods to Increase
o Make half your plate fruits and vegetables
o Make at least half your grains whole grains
o Switch to fat-free or low-fat (1%) milk
 Foods to Reduce
o Compare sodium in foods like soup, bread, and frozen meals and choose the foods
with lower numbers
o Drink water instead of sugary drinks
 When planning menus using MyPlate, keep these points in mind:
 o No specific food is required for good nutrition. Every food supplies some nutrients,
but provides insufficient amounts of at least 1 essential nutrient
o No individual food group provides all essential nutrients in adequate amounts. Each
food group makes an important, distinctive contribution to nutritional intake
o The foods within a group may vary widely with respect to nutrients and energy
content (3oz baked potato vs potato chips)
o To keep calories under control, pay close attention to serving size of each choice
o Variety is the key to getting the array of nutrients offered by each food group.
Variety starts with including foods from every food group and then continues by
consuming a variety of foods within each group. The nutritional adequacy of diets
planned using MyPlate depends greatly on the selection of a variety of foods
 1-ounce equivalent for Grains Group
o 1 slice of bread
o 1 cup of ready-to-eat breakfast cereal
o ½ cup of cooked cereal, rice, pasta, or bulgur
o 1 mini bagel or small tortilla
o ½ muffin
o 3 cups of popcorn
 1-ounze equivalent for Protein Group
o 1 ounce of meat, poultry, fish, or cooked tempeh
o 1 egg
o 1 tablespoon of peanut butter or hummus
o ¼ cup of cooked beans
o ½ ounce of nus or seeds
 Grains group provides carbs, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, magnesium, iron, zinc, fiber
 Protein provides protein, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin b-6, folate, vitamin b-12,
phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc
 Legumes are both vegetables and protein
Discuss and give examples of the concepts of variety, balance, moderation, nutrient density, and
energy density. Nutrient Density is an important concept used throughout the semester!
 Nutrient density is tool to assess nutritional quality of an individual food
o To determine, divide amount of a nutrient (protein, vitamin, mineral) in a serving of
the food by your daily recommended intake (RDA, AI)
o Next, divide calories in a serving of food by your daily calorie need (EER)
o Then, compare these values – food is nutrient dense if it provides a greater
contribution to your nutrient need than to your calorie need
 Empty-calorie foods tend to be high in sugar/fat but few other nutrients – calories are
“empty” of nutrients
 Energy density is determined by comparing a food’s calorie content per gram weight of the
food
o High in calories but weigh very little
 Examples: nuts, cookies, most fried foods, snack foods
o Low-energy-dense foods have high water content
 Examples: fruits, vegetables, stews, casseroles, oatmeal
 Variety of vegetables from all 5 subgroups: dark green, red and orange, legumes (beans and
peas), starchy, and other
 o Vegetable subgroup per week recommends dark-green, orange, beans/peas,
starchy, and others
 Nutrient needs should be met primarily by consuming foods. Foods provide an array of
nutrients and other compounds that may have beneficial effects on health. In certain cases,
fortified foods and dietary supplements may be useful sources of one or more nutrients and
otherwise might be consumed in less than recommended amounts.
 Moderation was discussed in class as eating “just enough”
Know the specific nutrient claims highlighted from Table 2.3 in book as discussed in class.
 Sodium free or salt free: less than 5mg of sodium/serving
 Fiber: if food is not low in total fat, must state total fat in conjunction with fiber claim
 High, rich in, or excellent source: 20% or more of DV per reference amount
 Good source: 10-19% of DV

Chapter 3- The Food Supply

Define food insecurity. What percent of U.S. households are food insecure?
 Food security is defined as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active,
healthy life”
 15% of households in the U.S. are food insecure
What factors contribute to food insecurity? What are the major health consequences of lack of
food? What are the most common micronutrient deficiencies?
 Vitamin A, iodine, iron, zinc, and folate are the micronutrients most likely to be in short
supply in developing countries
 Downward spiral of poverty and illness can lead to death
o Poor people eat and absorb too little nutritious food, so more disease prone
o Inadequate or inappropriate food leads to stunted development and premature
death
o Nutrient-deficient diets provoke health problems; undernutrition increases
susceptibility to disease
o Disease decreases people’s ability to cultivate or purchase nutritious foods
o Sickness and loss of livelihood
o Death
 Major health consequences of food insecurity
o Physical and mental activity declines
o Growth slows or ceases
o Muscle and fat wasting
o Immune system weakness, which leads to increased disease susceptibility
o Death
o Can impair physical and mental health status. Food-insecure children are more likely
to have poorer general health and report more asthma, stomachaches, headaches,
and colds, and they may not grow normally. Behavioral problems in school, lower
educational achievement, and higher rates of depression and suicidal symptoms,
and increased levels of psychological distress have been linked to food insecurity
o Food insecurity/poverty linked with obesity in US (women/children in particular)
What U.S. government agency administers most nutrition assistance programs?
 USDA (US dept of agriculture)
  15 food/nutrition assistance programs administered by the USDA account for more than
2/3rds of the USDA budget, and about 25% of Americans participate in at least 1 of the
programs
Have an understanding of the general food and nutrition programs discussed in class and what
segment of the population they usually cover.
 SNAP – supplemental nutrition assistance program
o “Food stamps program”
o regarded as the cornerstone of the food assistance programs. It provides monthly
benefits in the form of an Electronic Benefit Transfer card, which works as a debit
card
 WIC – special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants and children
o Iron-deficient anemia is rife in this group
o Children up to age 5
o Program provides low-income pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women,
infants, and children up to age 5 who are at nutritional risk with vouchers to
purchase specific nutrient-dense foods.
 National school lunch program
o Provide nutritious lunches to children
 School breakfast program
o Began in response to concerns about children attending school hungry
 Child and adult care food program
o Eligible child-care and nonresidential adult day care centers
 Programs for seniors
o Meals on wheels, senior farmers’ market nutrition programs, congregate meal
programs
 Food distribution programs:
o Food banks and pantries
Define “organic food” And what is not allowed in the farming and production of organic foods.
 The term organic refers to the way agricultural products are produced. Organic production
relies on farming practices such as biological pest management, composting, manure
applications, and crop rotation to maintain healthy soil, water, crops, and animals
 Synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, and hormones; antibiotics; sewage sludge (used as fertilizer);
genetic engineering; and irradiation are not permitted in the production of organic foods
 Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products must come from animals allowed to graze
outdoors and fed only organic feed
When we see “organic” listed on food labels, what does that mean? There are 3 levels of organic
labeling, know from my lecture the difference in what they mean.
 USDA organic seal identifies organic foods grown on USDA-certified organic farms
 Foods labeled and marketed as organic must have at least 95% of their ingredients (by
weight) meet USDA organic standards. The phrase “made with organic” can be used if at
least 70% of the ingredients are organic. Small organic producers and farmers with sales less
than $5000 per year are exempt from the certification regulation
Explain how genetic modification of foods occurs. What are the main uses for genetic modification?
What are the most common foods being used for genetic modification?
 Confers more desirable properties, such as greater yield, increased resistance to mildew and
bacterial diseases, and tolerance to salt and adverse climatic conditions
  Using recombinant DNA technology, scientists can transfer genes (sometimes called
transgenes) that confer specific traits, such as disease resistance, from almost any plant,
animal, or microorganism to another, resulting in what is called genetically modified food
(GM food, genetically engineered food GE food, transgenic plant/animal/organism, or
genetically modified organism GMO).
 GM food differs from original food only by 1 or 2 genes
 Golden rice vitamin A additive
 Research has focused on foods that are the dietary staples of millions of people, such as
rice, wheat, yams, chickpeas, and peanuts
What is irradiation in food processing and what is its purpose?
 Food irradiation, sometimes known as cold or electronic pasteurization, uses radiant energy,
or radiation, from gamma rays, X rays, or electron beams to extend the shelf life of food and
to control the growth of insects and pathogens (bacteria, fungi, parasites) in foods
What are some of the uses of intentional food additives in the market place? What are some of the
concerns about some food additives?
 Food additives help keep foods nutritious, fresh, safe, and appealing
 Intentional food additives are purposely added to achieve a goal, such as longer shelf life
(preservative), greater nutritional value, or a more appealing color or flavor. Flavor and
flavor enhancers are the most common
 Intentional food additives are listed on food ingredient labels
 Safety concerns regarding incidental additives (not intentional but part of food through
some aspect of food cultivation, processing, packaging, transport, or storage)
o Pesticide residues found in produce, grains, milk
o Arsenic, a potent carcinogen found in soil and monitored in drinking water
o Fruits, grains, vegetables can absorb arsenic from soil or pesticide residues as they
grow
o Bisphenol A (BPA in lining of metal food cans and plastic food containers –
endocrine disrupter
List food safety guidelines discussed in lecture. What criteria do bacteria need for growth in food?
What temperature is danger zone for bacteria growth in food?
 Pathogenic bacteria and viruses that cause foodborne illness originate in an infected human
or animal and reach food by these fairly well-defined routes
o Contamination by feces
o Contamination by an infected individual
o Cross-contamination
 To proliferate, bacteria require nutrients, water, and warmth, and most pathogenic bacteria
require oxygen for growth
 Most grow best in danger zone temperatures (41-135F, or 5-57C)
 Pathogenic bacteria typically do not multiply in perishable foods when foods are held at
temperatures above 135F (57C) or stored at safe refrigeration temperatures (32-40F, or 0-
4.4C)
What are the guidelines with food safety with produce
 Check for bruising or damage
 Clean hands, surfaces, and utensils
 Rinse fresh fruits and vegetables
 Separate from contaminants
 Chill, cut produce below 40F
  Throw away if in doubt
What are some typical foods associated with bacterial poisoning? See pages 89-90
 Meats, poultry, eggs, fish, shellfish, dairy products, and fresh produce
Who is at most risk for food-borne illnesses?
 One-quarter of the population is at increased risk of foodborne illness
 Includes those with weakened immune systems due to disease, pharmaceutical, or
radiological treatments (e.g., HIV/AIDS, transplant and cancer patients); pregnant women
and their fetuses; lactating mothers; infants and young children; and elderly persons; those
living in institutional settings and homeless persons
What foods are most likely to be contaminated with dioxins, mercury and PCBs?
 Dioxins
o Food sources are animal fats, where they accumulate, and fish from dioxin-
contaminated waterways
 Mercury
o Fish – especially large fish: shark, swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish
 PCBs
o Fish, primarily freshwater fish from contaminated waterways
Which nutrient may help protect against lead poisoning by decreasing lead absorption?
 Iron-deficient children may be at more risk of lead toxicity
What additive is used to cure (process) meats with and what is the purpose of doing this? What are
the risks?
 Sodium nitrate; prevents growth of deadly bacterium Clostridium botulinum in bacon, ham,
salami, hot dogs, and other cured means, which contributes a pink color of cured meats
 Sodium nitrate can be converted to carcinogenic nitrosamines in the stomach. Many deem
the benefit of minimizing deadly botulism infections greater than the small risk of
nitrosamine formation

Chapter 4- Digestion and Absorption

What’s another term/name for the GI tract?

 The alimentary canal – 15 ft from mouth to anus
What is another term (technical term) for “chewing”?
 Mastication
Describe how foods are moved along the digestive tract. Explain how peristalsis and segmentation
work. What are sphincters and their purpose and their various locations?
 Food is mixed with digestive secretions and propelled down the GI tract by a process called
peristalsis. Peristalsis consists of a coordinated wave of contraction and relaxation of circular
and longitudinal muscles; process begins in esophagus
 Mixing involves strong contractions of the stomach muscles that mix food and digestive
enzymes
 Segmentation is the back and forth contraction in the small intestine, that breaks apart
contents of the small intestine into increasingly smaller pieces and mixes them with
digestive juices
 Peristalsis is rhythmic waves of contraction and relaxation, moving contents through
intestinal tract toward anus
  Sphincters are ring-like muscles that open and close like valves to control the flow of the
contents; prevent contents from moving through the GI tract too quickly and allow thorough
mixing with digestive secretions; also help propel food through GI tract
o FIVE SPHINCTER TYPES
 Lower esophageal sphincter
 Prevents backflow (reflux) of stomach contents into the esophagus
 Pyloric sphincter
 Control the flow of stomach contents into the small intestine
 Hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi)
 Control the flow of bile and pancreatic juice from the common bile
and pancreatic ducts into the small intestine
 Ileocecal valve
 Prevent contents of large intestine from reentering the small
intestine
 Anal sphincters
 Prevent defecation until person desires to do so
 Epiglottis prevents food from entering larynx
 Amylase in saliva to help break down carbs (starch)
 Bolus -> chyme is soupy in stomach
 Stomach has pepsin that breaks down protein
Outline the roles played by the gastrointestinal tract and the related accessory organs (liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas) in digestion and absorption. Table 4.2 helps for this
 TABLE 4-2: OVERVIEW OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION GI TRACT FUNCTIONS
o Mouth and salivary glands
 Prepare food for swallowing: chewing, moistening with saliva
 Detect taste molecules
 Start digestion of starch with amylase enzyme
o Esophagus
 Moves food to stomach by peristaltic waves initiated by swallowing
o Stomach
 Secretes gastric juice containing acid and enzymes
 Mixes food with gastric juice, converting it to liquid chyme
 Starts digestion of protein with pepsin enzyme
 Kills microorganisms with acid
 Secretes intrinsic factor, a protein required for vitamin B-12 absorption
 Slowly releases chyme to the small intestine
o Liver
 Produces bile to aid fat digestion and absorption
o Gallbladder
 Stores and concentrates bile and releases it to the small intestine
o Pancreas
 Secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate into
the small intestine
o Small intestine
 Mixes chyme with bile and pancreatic juice to complete digestion
 Absorbs nutrients and other compounds in foods
 Transports remaining residue to large intestine
 o Large intestine (colon)
 Absorbs water and electrolytes (sodium and potassium)
 Forms and stores feces
 Houses most of the gut microbiota
o Rectum
 Holds and expels feces via the anus
Even though most nutrients are absorbed in small intestines, be sure to know what, if anything is
absorbed in stomach and large intestines.
 The cells lining the stomach absorb water, alcohol, and fatty acids
 Large intestine absorbs water and salts (sodium, potassium)
Using 4.3 as a guideline know the secretions for each of the organs involved and the functions of
those secretions.
 TABLE 4-3: IMPORTANT SECRETIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
o Saliva – Mouth
 Contributes to starch digestion, lubrication, and swallowing
 Contains lysozyme to kill bacteria and amylase to break down simple sugars
o Mucus – mouth, stomach, small/large intestines
 Protects GI tract cells, lubricates digesting food
o Enzymes (amylases, lipases, proteases) – mouth, stomach, small intestine, pancreas
 Break down carbs, fats, and protein into forms small enough for absorption
o Acid (HCl) - stomach
 Promotes digestion of protein, destroys microorganisms, increases solubility
of minerals
o Bile – liver (stored in gallbladder)
 Aids in fat digestion (emulsifies fat)
o Bicarbonate – pancreas, small intestine
 Neutralizes stomach acid when it reaches small intestine
o Hormones – stomach, small intestine, pancreas
 Regulate digestion and absorption
What is the difference between bolus and chyme?
 Bolus – mass of food that is swallowed
 Chyme – mixing in stomach forms solid food into chyme (food mixed with gastric juices)
Know details of Intestinal tract, the 3 subsections of small intestine and various cells and functions
of villi (e.g., goblet, enterocytes)
 3 sections of small intestine are duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
 interior of small intestine has circular folds and fingerlike projections (villi and microvilli) that
increase its surface area 600 times, which increases efficiency of digestion and absorption
o circular folds make chyme flow slowly, which allows segmentation + mixture of
chyme w/ digestive juices and bring it in contact with villi that extend into the lumen
o villi are lined with goblet cells that make mucus, endocrine cells that produce
hormones, and cells that produce digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients
(enterocytes)
o most digestion in small intestine occurs in duodenum and upper part of jejunum
Explain the 4 main types of absorption; if I emphasized certain nutrients being absorbed by a certain
route, you should know those.
 Passive diffusion (concentration gradient)
o Water and fats are absorbed via passive diffusion
  Facilitated diffusion (carrier protein + concentration gradient)
 Active transport
o Carrier protein + energy in ATP (regardless of concentration gradient)
 Endocytosis (engulfment of compounds or liquids
Which nutrients are absorbed into the cardiovascular system (blood) and which into the lymph?
 Cardiovascular system (blood)
o Includes heart, blood vessels, blood
o Water-soluble nutrients transported via capillaries in villi to portal vein
o Proteins, carbohydrates, B-vitamins, vitamin C, water-soluble nutrients, and short-
and medium-chain fatty acids
 Lymphatic system
o Includes lymph
o Fat-soluble nutrients and large particles transported via lacteals into the lymph
vessels to thoracic duct
Identify the key enzymes and hormones (discussed in class) involved in digestion and absorption and
their functions.
 Gastric juices include hydrochloric acid (HCl) which is secreted from parietal cells,
pepsinogen, and gastric lipase from chief cells
o HCl inactivates biological activity of ingested proteins so they don’t affect human
functions, destroys bacteria and pathogens (viruses), dissolves dietary minerals
(e.g., calcium) and pepsinogen is converted to pepsin enzyme in the presence of HCl
which allows it to digest protein
 Gastrin is a hormone made in stomach that controls release of HCl and pepsinogen
 Stomach secretes mucus to protect it from being digested by HCl and pepsin, and relies on
presence of hormone-like compounds called prostaglandins
o Heavy use of aspirin and other NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin production so can
damage stomach
 Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP, or gastric inhibitory peptide) is a hormone
that helps slow release of chyme into small intestine, giving small intestine time to
neutralize acid and digest nutrients
 Enzymes produced in the small intestine are called brush border enzymes, and are
responsible for chemical digestion of macronutrients
Explain the role of beneficial bacterial in the GI tract. Differentiate between probiotics and prebiotics
and give examples of each.
 Resident bacteria reside throughout the GI tract, but especially in the large intestine –
referred to as gut microbiota (also called microflora); part of body’s overall microbiome,
which comprises the microorganisms that live throughout the body
 Healthy intestinal bacteria help keep pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria under control
 Gut microbiota synthesize nutrients, such as folate, vitamin K, and biotin, along with short-
chain fatty acids, which can serve as an energy source for cells lining large intestine
 Beneficial bacteria
o Control pathogenic bacteria
o Synthesize vitamin K and biotin
o Aid lactose digestion and fermentation of dietary fibers
o Probiotic
 Live healthy bacteria in food and supplements
 Confer health benefits unto host
 o Prebiotics
 Non-digestible carbohydrates in food that promote growth of bacteria
Identify major nutrition-related gastrointestinal diseases and disorders and typical approaches to
prevention and treatment. These were the conditions discussed such as GERD, ulcers, constipation,
diarrhea, gallstones and Celiac disease.
 Heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
o Foods that increase reflux
 Citrus, caffeine, chocolate, fatty foods, spicy foods, onion, garlic, and
tomato-based foods
 Peptic ulcers
o Causes are H. pylori and NSAIDs
o Treatment are medications and avoiding foods that cause symptoms
 Intestinal gas (flatulence)
 Constipation
o Fiber, fluid, and exercise are ways to improve
o Laxative use
 Diarrhea
o Replace fluid and electrolytes
 IBS
o Cause unknown
 Hemorrhoids
o High fiber food + activity
 Gallstones
o Made in gallbladder
 Food intolerances
 Celiac disease
o Intolerance to gluten that flattens villi in small intestine resulting in decreased
absorption of nutrients
o 1 in 133 people affected, most un-dx
o can affect many body systems including GI
o gluten-free diet for life
 corn, rice, quinoa, and buckwheat are grains that are gluten-free
Understand the role of prostaglandins and mucus. What can decrease prostaglandin production?
 Prostaglandins are hormone-like compounds that promote production of mucus in the
stomach. NSAIDs and aspirin inhibit the production of prostaglandin, so less mucus in
stomach = higher risk of stomach acid/enzymes eating away at stomach lining