CE 388 – FUNDAMENTALS OF

STEEL DESIGN

CHAPTER 6: FASTENED CONNECTIONS

Introduction
„ The purpose of fasteners is to transmit the stresses
from a structural member to another so that members
acts as a whole (a single member)
„ The most essential fasteners used in steel structures
are rivets and bolts

Fasteners in steel structures (rivets and bolts)

1
Rivets
„ For many years, rivets were accepted method for
connecting the members of steel structures.
„ Today, the use of rivets is quite limited and
replaced by welding and high-strength bolting
„ A usual rivet consists of a cylindirical steel shank
with a rounded head (button head) on one end

Rivet

Rivets
„ A rivet is installed using a riveted
hammer in hot-driven and cold-
driven forms
Riveting hammer
„ In hot-driven form
‰ A rivet is heated first and inserted
in the hole
‰ A head is formed on the other end
by the riveting hammer, which is
operated by a compressed air
‰ A hot driven rivet swells under
hammer load and fills the hole Installation of a rivet
completely

2
Rivets
‰ As the rivet colds, it tends to shrink both lengthwise and
diametrically
‰ The tendency of the rivet to shrink in length is largely
prevented by the plates, thus producing tension in the shank
of the rivet and compression between the plates
„ In cold-driven form
‰ Rivets are driven at room temperature and require large
pressures to form the head and complete the process
„ Positive aspects: Cold driving increases the strength of the rivet
and eliminates the need for heating
„ Negative aspects: the process is limited by equipment required
and inconvenience of using it in the field

Bolts
„ Bolts are short pieces of round
Provide a better distribution of
steel bars generally with a pressure and keep the threases
hexagonal head at one end part outside the grip

and a threaded portion at the

other.
„ There are several types of
bolts, some of which are
‰ unfinished bolts secure the bolt in place

‰ turned bolts A typical bolt assembly

‰ high-strength bolts

3
Bolts
‰ Unfinished bolts:
• Generally come with square heads and nuts
• Have relatively large tolerance in shank and thread
dimensions, hence their allowable stresses are
considerably small
• Primarily used in light structures subjected to static loads
and for secondary members
‰ Turned bolts:
• They are made of 4D steel for St37 structures and 5D steel
for St52 structures
• Their yield stresses are 4.6 t/cm2 for 4D steel and 5.6 t/cm2
for 5D steel

Bolts
‰ High-strength bolts:
• They are made of 10K and sometimes 8G steel
• They have tensile strength several times those of ordinary
bolts, between 8-12 t/cm2
• Today they are the most popular method for connecting
steel members in the field as well as in the shop
• They can be used for all types of structures, from small
buildings to monumental bridges

4
Pretensioning of High-Strength Bolts
„ A high-strength bolt can be
pretensioned
„ The pretensioning is generated
by tightening a bolt additionally
once it is installed properly
„ As a result of tightening, the
Additional tightening
plates are clamped tightly and
they exert an opposite force on
the bolt. Hence, plates are Clamping of plates
(comp. stresses)
subjected to compressive
stresses, whereas the bolt is
subjected to tension (pretension bolt is in tension

or initial tension) Pretensioning of a bolt

Pretensioning of High-Strength Bolts

„ The bolts can be tightened in such
a manner that the tension induced F

is equal to or greater than 70% of F

the specified minimum tensile Friction forces

strength of steel
A pretensioned bolt
„ The advantages of pretensioning:
‰ The load is transmitted from one Shear stresses
plane to another by friction between
plates (bolts are not subjected to F

any bearing or shearing stresses) F

Litte or no
‰ Have no slip between the plates friction
Bearing stresses
‰ Have high fatique strength
A regular bolt
‰ Nuts are prevented from loosening

5
Rivets vs. High-Strength Bolts
„ High strength bolts exhibit the following advantages
as compared to rivets:
‰ Smaller and relatively less skilled crews are involved
‰ Inspection procedures are easier
‰ Fewer bolts are required to provide the same strength
‰ Noise in bolting is very little
‰ No fire hazard and/or danger are present from tossing
of hot rivets
‰ The bolted joints have a higher fatique strength
‰ Bolts can be removed easily wherever structures are
disassambled

Types of Fastened Connections

„ Fastened connections may be classified
‰ According to mode of load transmission
• Shear connections
• Tension connections
‰ According to nature and location of load with respect
to fastener groups
• Direct load connections
• Eccentric load connections
• Pure torque connections
• Shear and moment connections

6
Classification As to Mode of Load
Transmission
„ In shear type connections,
‰ The load is transmitted by the action of bearing
between the plate and fastener with shear stresses
induced in the fasteners
‰ They may be arranged in different forms
• Lap-joint: the load is tranmissted by shear only in one
section

Lap-joint

Classification As to Mode of Load

Transmission
• Butt-joint: three members are connected and fasteners are
subjected to double shear

Butt-joint

• Multiple-shear joint: the load on fastener is transmitted by

shear in more than two planes

Multiple shear-joint

7
Classification As to Mode of Load
Transmission
• The butt joint is more desirable
than a lap joint for the following
reasons:
a) the shearing force in each
plane in butt joint is one half of
that in a lap joint
b) In lap joint, there is an
eccentricity of the load which
causes bending in the
connection. In butt joint, this is
reduced or even eliminated

Classification As to Mode of Load

Transmission
„ In tension type connections,
‰ The fasteners are in tension
‰ Two problems associated with
these connections are that
• Fasteners heads might be Tension-type connection

pulled off
• Prying action can take place
in the connection
‰ Bolts should be used instead
of rivets Prying action

8
Classification As to Nature and Location
of Load
„ Direct Load Connection:
‰ The resultant load passes
through the centroid of the
fastener cross-sectional areas
(shear force due to P only) Direct load connection
„ Eccentric Load Connection:
‰ The resultant load does not
pass through the centroid of
the fastener cross-sectional
areas (shear force due to P
and torque both) Eccentric load connection

Classification As to Nature and Location

of Load
„ Pure Torque Connection:
‰ The load transmitted consists of
pure torque (shear due to torque
only)
„ Shear and Moment Connection: Pure Torque connection

‰ In a usual beam-column
connection, there is a shear and
moment at the joint
‰ The fasteners are subjected to
both shear and tension due to
moment transmitted Shear and moment connection

9
Allowable Stresses for Fasteners
„ The allowable stresses for rivets and bolts under shear,
bearing and tension are given in Table 12 in TS648

„ Particularly note that

‰ τem = 1/2σez
‰ The allowable tension stress for rivets is quite low

Modes of Failures in Fastened Connections

„ Failures modes in fastened

connections:
‰ Tension failure of the plate
‰ Shear failure across one or
more cross-sections of the
fastener
‰ Bearing failure of the plate
‰ Bearing failure of the fastener
‰ Bending failure of the fastener
‰ Shear-out failure of the plate
‰ Tension failure of the fastener
Modes of failures

10
Modes of Failures in Fastened Connections

„ Normally minimum edge

distance prevents shear-out
failure
„ Tension failure is prevented by
using net cross-sectional area
in design of tension member
„ Hence, in design of fastener
only shear, bearing and tensile
stresses should be checked

Modes of failures

Fastener Spacings
„ Minimum and maximum spacings are
often prescribed in specifications
„ Notations:
‰ d1: fastener hole diameter
‰ tmin: minimum plate thickness
‰ e (pitch): center-to-center distance of
fasteners in longitudional axis
‰ g (gage): center-to center distance of
fasteners normal to the long. axis (in
Turkish practice, g = 3.0-3.5d1)
‰ e1: edge distance in long. axis
‰ e2: edge distance normal to long. axis Notational Convention

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 Fastener Spacings
„ Minimum spacing (min e):
‰ to permit efficient installation
‰ to prevent tension failures of
fastened plates
„ Maximum spacing (max e):
Notational Convention
‰ to avoid local buckling of parts of
the plates between the fasteners
„ Minimum edge distance spacing (min e1 or e2):
‰ to prevent danger of a fastener tearing through the metal
„ Maximum edge distance spacing (max e1 or e2):
‰ to prevent development of openings between plates being
connected

Fastener Spacings
„ According to TS648:
‰ Minimum and maximum spacings ‰ For fasteners not carrying
for load carrying fasteners are loads (stitch fasteners), only
maximum spacings are
important

‰ For the stiffened edge max e2

can be taken as

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Design of Fastened Connections

„ Design procedures for various types of connections

will be discussed
„ Topics to be covered in this section are
‰ Direct shear connectors
‰ Eccentric load connections
‰ Methods of instantaneous center of rotation
‰ Combined shear and tension

Direct Load (Shear) Connections

„ When the line of action coincides
with the center of gravity, the
connection is said to be in direct
shear
„ The followings have to be
checked:
Direct shear connection
‰ Tension failure of the plate
‰ Shear failure of the fastener
‰ Bearing failure of the fastener
‰ Bearing failure of the plate

13
Direct Load (Shear) Connections
„ Tension stress in the plate:

load acting on
the connection
computed P
σt =
tension stress An
net section of the
An = Ag − ∑ Dt
area of the plate

gross area deductions for the

of plate bolt or rivet holes

Direct Load (Shear) Connections

„ Shear stress in the fastener: „ Bearing stress in the fastener:

load acting on
load acting on
computed P the connection computed
τ= P the connection
shear stress As bearing σb =
stress Ab

total shearing area

total projected
( As = ∑ (πd / 4) )
2
bearing area
( Ab = ∑ dt )

14
Direct Load (Shear) Connections
„ To have equal strength in shear and bearing

Lap-joint Butt-joint

πd 2 πd 2
Pall = n ( ) x τ em ....................(1) Pall = n (2 x ) x τ em ....................(3)
4 4
Pall = n (dt min ) x σ ez σez=2τem Pall = n (dt min ) x σ ez σez=2τem

= n (dt min ) x (2τ em ) ...............(2) = n (dt min ) x (2τ em ) .................(4)

(1) = (2) (3) = (4)

8 4
d= t min = 2.55t min d= t min = 1.275t min
π π

Direct Load (Shear) Connections

Example Problems

15
Eccentric Load Connections
„ When bolt groups are loaded by
some external load that does
not pass through the center of
gravity of fastener shear area,
the connection is said to be
eccentric load connection
„ Consider a force P which has an
Eccentric load connection
eccentricity e from the center of
gravity of the bolt group

Eccentric Load Connections

„ The eccentric force can be decomposed into a
concentric load passing through the center of gravity
plus a torsional moment equal to P.e

P
= +
P.e

Eccentric load Concentric load Torsional moment

16
Eccentric Load Connections
„ The force transmitted to each bolt can be obtained
using the principle of superposition
„ Concentric load:
‰ P is carried by a bolt in proportion
to its cross-sectional area
Cross-sectional
Shear force r PAi area of i-th bolt F’
carried by a Fi′ =
bolt ∑ Ai
‰ If the force P has components
along x and y axes, Shear force in bolts
due to concentric load
Px Ai Py Ai
Fix′ = and Fiy′ =
∑ Ai ∑A i

Eccentric Load Connections

„ Torsional moment:
F’’
‰ The shear force (F’’) in a bolt due
to torsion is normal to the radious
drawn from c.g. to the bolt
‰ This force can be determined by
applying the classical torsional
stress formula Shear force in bolts due to
torsional moment
torsional moment

radial distance
shear stress M T ri between center of
in a bolt
τ=
J0 gravity and a bolt

polar moment of inertia

of bolts group

17
Eccentric Load Connections
‰ Polar moment of inertia (J) of bolts group

J 0 = ∑ Ai ri
2
...........................(1)
y
‰ Noting that ri2 = x i2 + y i2
Fix’’
J 0 = ∑ Ai ( xi2 + yi2 ) ....................(2) ri
θ
Fi’’
Fiy’’
yi
θ
‰ Inserting (2) into torsion formula xi
x

M T ri Torsional shear force

τ= .....................(3)
∑ i ( x i2 + yi2 )
A in a bolt

‰ Shear force in a bolt due to torsion (Fi’’):

r Ai M T ri
Fi′′ = Ai .τ = ..............(4)
∑ i ( x i2 + yi2 )
A

Eccentric Load Connections

y
‰ The x and y components of Fi’’
Fix’’
θ
Ai M T ri ⎛y ⎞ Ai M T y i ri Fi’’
Fix′′ = Fi′′.Sinθ = 2 ⎜
.⎜ i ⎟⎟ = Fiy’’
∑ Ai ( x i + yi ) ⎝ ri
2
⎠ ∑ Ai ( x i2 + yi2 ) θ
yi
x
xi
Ai M T ri ⎛x ⎞ Ai M T x i
Fiy′′ = Fi′′.Cosθ = 2 ⎜
.⎜ i ⎟⎟ =
∑ i i i ⎝ ri
A ( x 2
+ y ) ⎠ ∑ i ( x i2 + yi2 )
A Torsional shear force
in a bolt
‰ Total shear force

Px Ai Ai M T x i
Fix = Fix′ ± Fix′′ = ±
∑ A ∑ A (x
i i i + yi )
2 2

+
Py Ai Ai M T y i
Fiy = Fiy′ ± Fiy′′ = ±
∑A i ∑ i ( x i2 + yi2 )
A

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Eccentric Load Connections
‰ Total shear force (if the fasteners
have all the same area): +

ƒ Vector formulation
r r r ⎛P⎞ ⎛ M T ri ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ M T ri ⎞
Fi = Fi′ + Fi′′ = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∑ ( x i + yi ) ⎟⎠ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ J ⎠
2 2

J = ∑ ri
2

ƒ Scalar formulations
Px MT xi P M x
Fix = Fix′ ± Fix′′ = ± = x ± T i
n ∑ i i
( x 2
+ y 2
) n J

Py M T yi Py M T y i
Fiy = Fiy′ ± Fiy′′ = ± = ±
n ∑ ( x i + yi ) n J
2 2

Eccentric Load Connections

Example Problem

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Method of Instantenous Center of
Rotation
„ For eccentrically loaded connections, the location of
most heavily loaded fastener (called critical fastener)
is located farthest from the center of gravity
‰ For simple connections, the critical fastener can be
located by inspection
‰ For more complicated connections, the method of
instantenous center of rotation can be used
„ Instantenous center of rotation (ICR) is defined as
the point on the connection where shear stress is
zero

Method of Instantenous Center of Rotation

‰ If all the fasteners have the same cross-

sect. area, resulting shear force in a bolt

P P.e.ri Instantenous center of

Fi = + rotation
n ∑r2
i

‰ At r = r0, Fi = 0

P P.e.ro
+ =0 ro = −
∑ri
2

n ∑r2 e.n
i

ƒ The negative sign indicates that ICR must Instantenous center

of rotation
be on the opposite side of load P
ƒ The shear force caused by concentric load
is directed (↓ )

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Method of Instantenous Center of
Rotation

• Then, to have zero shear, the shear

force caused by torsion must be Instantenous center of
rotation
directed in the opposite sense (↑ )
• The shear force caused by torsion is
directed (↑ ) only on the opposite side
of the load
• Also note that since the shear force
due to torsion is normal to the radious
drawn from center of gravity, ICR Instantenous center
must lie on a line perpendicular to the of rotation
line of application of the load P

Method of Instantenous Center of

Rotation
‰ ICR can be thought of a point where
only rotation takes place without any
translation. It is the center of rotation P(e+r0)

‰ The torsional moment (MT) at ICR:

MT = P(e + r0 )
Use positive value

‰ The magnitude of shear force in any

Instantenous center
bolt is obtained from torsion formula of rotation
measured from ICR
M T ri P(e + ro )ri
Fi = = radial distance
∑r ∑r
2 2
i i
measured from ICR

21
Method of Instantenous Center of
Rotation

Example Problem

Combined Shear and Tension

„ When eccentrically applies loads lies
outside the plane of connection, the
fasteners are subjected to a
combination of shear and tension
„ It is customary to consider the Shear and moment
combined effect through the connection
interaction diagram
computed shear computed tensile
stress stress
2 2
⎛ τ ⎞ ⎛ σç ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ≤ 1 .0
⎜ ⎟
⎝ τ em ⎠ ⎝ σ çem ⎠

allowable shear allowable tension Interaction diagram

stress stress

22
Combined Shear and Tension
„ To compute tension forces in the fasteners, two different
approaches can be used:
‰ Neglecting initial tensions in the fasteners
• (unfinished or turned bolts)
‰ Considering initial tensions in the fasteners
• (high-strength bolts)

Combined Shear and Tension

„ Neglecting initial tensions in the fasteners:

(Superposition)

Bending moment Concentric force

Tension Shear

Compression

• Hence, stress distribution varies linearly • The fasteners are subjected to

over the cross-section in accordance with identical and uniform shear
flexural formula stresses
• The bending moment tends to separate the
bracket from the column at the top and
press it against the column at the bottom

23
Combined Shear and Tension
‰ How is the moment transmitted?

Above the neutral axis (no contact between connection

plate and column) – moment is transmitted by tension
in the fasteners

cc

Below the neutral axis (full contact between connection

plate and column) – moment is tranmistted by bearing
surface

Combined Shear and Tension

‰ Tension stress in a bolt (accurate analysis)
m : number of fastener
vertical groups (m=2)

distance between a bolt h

ci
row and neutral axis

cc

• Neutral axis must pass through the centroid. Equating the

moments of effective areas above and below the neutral axis,
1 2
cc .b = m. A.∑ ci = m. A(c1 + c2 + ...)
2
Shear area of a single fastener

24
Combined Shear and Tension

ci h

cc

• The tensile stress in a fastener row group,

Tensile stress in a
Mci
fastener row group σç =
located ci distance I
above N.A.

Moment of inertia wrt to N.A

1
I = bcc3 + m. A ∑ ci2
3

Combined Shear and Tension

‰ Tension stress in a bolt (approximate analysis)
• An equivalent rectangular area for fasteners in tension zone
Area of a single fastener
s Total area of ct
h fastener in A f = Am ...... (1)
tension zone s

b Area of fasteners in number of

each horizontal row horizontal row
be

A f = c t .be .............................. (2)

The fastener area in tension can be replaced

by an equivalent rectangle of width be

25
Combined Shear and Tension
• Equating (1) = (2):

be = Am / s

• Neutral axis must pass through the centroid of the equivalent

section. Equating the moments of effective areas above and
below the neutral axis, b e

1 1 ct b Am
be ct2 = bcc2 ⇒ = e =
2 2 cc b sb
b

• The tensile stress in the top fastener is

σç =
Mct
I
I=
1
3
(
be c t3 + bc c3 )

Combined Shear and Tension

„ Considering initial tensions in the fasteners:

‰ If each bolt is given a pretension force P1,

Connection
the initial tensile stress in a bolt (σini) is plate

Pretension force
P in a bolt
Initial tensile σ ç′ = 1
stress in a bolt As1 h
Area of a single
fastener

‰ Due to pretention force given to bolts, the b

connection plate is clamped to the column

resulting in an initial bearing (compressive) Column

stress on the plate.

26
Combined Shear and Tension
‰ This stress (σo) is assumed to be uniform over the plate area
and can be computed from

Pretension force in Number of

a bolt fasteners
Initial bearing P1 .n
stress
σ0 =
b.h
Plate area

‰ The normal stresses in connection plate:

Compression Tension
σ0 σ1
My M (h / 2) 6 M
+ σ1 = = = 2
I 1 3 bh
bh
Compression 12
Initial normal stress in Normal stress in
connection plate due to connection plate due to
pretension of fasteners bending moment

Combined Shear and Tension

‰ If σo > σ1,
Compression Tension Compression
σ0 σ1 σ0 - σ1

+ =
σ1 σ0 + σ1
Compression Compression
Resulting normal stress

‰ the connection plate remains in complete contact with

the column. Hence the neutral axis occurs at the mid-
point of the plate
σ1

27
Combined Shear and Tension
‰ The stress in a bolt:
Normal stress Shear stress

Initial tension
= stresses due to + +
pretension
Normal stress Shear stress due
due to bending to concentric force
σ1
s
h

b Plate bend. stress

Feff = σ 1 .b.s
P1 F 6 Ms P
σ ç′ = σ ç′′ = eff = 2 τ=
A s1 mAs1 h mAs1 nAs1

Fastened Connections

Example Problems

28