ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Overview
A view of an object is called a projection. By projecting multiple views from different directions
in a systematic way, you can completely describe the shape of 3D objects.
There are certain standard practices that you must know to create sketches and documentation
drawings that can be easily interpreted. For example, you need to know which views to show,
how they should be oriented in your drawing, and how to represent key information such as
edges, surfaces, vertices, hidden lines, centerlines, and other crucial details.
The standard published in ANSI/ASME Y14.3 is common in the United States, where third-
angle projection is used. Europe, Asia, and many other places use the first-angle projection
system.
To make and interpret drawings, you need to understand projections and the standard
arrangement of views.
You also need to be familiar with the geometry of solid objects and be able to visualize a 3D
object that is represented in a 2D sketch or drawing. The ability to identify whether surfaces are
normal, inclined, or oblique in orientation can help you visualize.
Common features such as vertices, edges, contours, fillets, holes, and rounds are shown in a
standard way, which makes drawings simpler to create and help prevent them from being
misinterpreted.
The Six Standard Views
Any object can be viewed from six mutually perpendicular directions, as shown in Figure below.
These are called the six principal views.

Figure 1:The Six Principal Views.

Principal Dimensions
The three principal dimensions of an object are width, height, and depth (Figure 2). In technical
drawing, these fixed terms are used for dimensions shown in certain views, regardless of the
shape of the object. The terms length and thickness are not used because they may be misleading.
The front view shows only the height and width of the object and not the depth. In fact, any
principal view of a 3D object shows only two of the three principal dimensions; the third is
found in an adjacent view. Height is shown in the rear, left-side, front, and right-side views.
Width is shown in the rear, top, front, and bottom views. Depth is shown in the left-side, top,
right-side, and bottom views.

Figure 2:The Principal Dimensions of an Object.

Projection Method
Figure 3 illustrates the front view of an object drawn using an orthographic projection. Imagine a
sheet of glass parallel to the front surfaces of the object. This represents the plane of projection.
The outline on the plane of projection shows how the object appears to the observer.
In orthographic projection, rays (or projectors) from all points on the edges or contours of the
object extend parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. The word
orthographic means “at right angles”.
Examples of top and side views are shown in Figure 4. Specific names are given to the planes of
projection. The front view is projected to the frontal plane. The top view is projected to the
horizontal plane. The side view is projected to the profile plane.
 Figure 3:Projection of an Object.

Figure 4:Horizontal and Profile Projection Planes.

The Glass Box

One way to understand the standard arrangement of views on the sheet of paper is to envision a
glass box. If planes of projection were placed parallel to each principal face of the object, they
would form a box, as shown in Figure 5. The outside observer would see six standard views
(front, rear, top, bottom, right side, left side) of the object through the sides of this imaginary
glass box.
 Figure 5:The Glass Box.

Figure 6:Unfolding the Glass Box.

Figure 7:The Glass Box Unfolded.

Necessary Views
Figure 8 shows that right-side and left-side views are essentially mirror images of each other,
only with different lines appearing hidden. Hidden lines use a dashed-line pattern to represent
portions of the object that are not directly visible from that direction of sight. Both the right and
left views do not need to be shown, so usually the right-side view is drawn. This is also true of
the top and bottom views, and of the front and rear views. The top, front, and right-side views,
arranged together, are shown in Figure 6.15. These are called the three regular views because
they are the views most frequently used.

Figure 8:Opposite Views Are Nearly Identical.

Figure 9:The Three Regular Views.

Many objects need only two views to clearly describe their shape. If an object requires only two
views, and the left-side and right-side views show the object equally well, use the right-side
view. If an object requires only two views, and the top and bottom views show the object equally
well, choose the top view. If only two views are necessary and the top view and right-side view
show the object equally well, choose the combination that fits best on your paper. Some
examples are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10:Choice of Views to Fit Paper.

First-Angle and Third-Angle Projection
There are two main systems used for projecting and unfolding the views: third-angle projection,
which is used in the United States, Canada, and some other countries, and first-angle projection,
which is used primarily in Europe and Asia. Difficulty in interpreting the drawing and
manufacturing errors can result when a first-angle drawing is confused with a third-angle
drawing.
Third-Angle Projection
Figure 11a shows the concept of third-angle orthographic projection. To avoid misunderstanding,
international projection symbols have been developed to distinguish between first-angle and
third-angle projections on drawings. The symbol in Figure 11b shows two views of a truncated
cone. You can examine the arrangement of the views in the symbol to determine whether first- or
third-angle projection was used. On international drawings you should be sure to include this
symbol.
To understand the two systems, think of the vertical and horizontal planes of projection, shown
in Figure 11a, as indefinite in extent and intersecting at 90° with each other; the four angles
produced are called the first, second, third, and fourth angles (similar to naming quadrants on a
graph.) If the object to be drawn is placed below the horizontal plane and behind the vertical
plane, as in the glass box you saw earlier, the object is said to be in the third angle. In third-angle
projection, the views are produced as if the observer is outside, looking in.

Figure 11:Third-Angle Projection.

First-Angle Projection
If the object is placed above the horizontal plane and in front of the vertical plane, the object is in
the first angle. In first-angle projection the observer looks through the object to the planes of
projection. The right-side view is still obtained by looking toward the right side of the object, the
front by looking toward the front, and the top by looking down toward the top; but the views are
projected from the object onto a plane behind the object in each case.
The biggest difference between third-angle projection and first-angle projection is how the
planes of the glass box are unfolded, as shown in Figure 12. In first-angle projection, the right-
side view is to the left of the front view, and the top view is below the front view, as shown.

Figure 12:First-Angle Projection.

Projection System Drawing Symbol

The symbol shown in Figure 13 is used on drawings to indicate which system of projection is
used. Whenever drawings will be used internationally you should include this symbol in the title
block area.

Figure 13:Drawing Symbols for First- and Third Angle Projection.

VISUALIZATION
Along with having an understanding of the system for projecting views, you must be able
interpret multiple views to picture the object that they show. In addition to being an
indispensable skill to help you capture and communicate your ideas, technical sketching is also a
way for others to present their ideas to you.
Surfaces, Edges, and Corners
To effectively create and interpret Multiview projections, you have to consider the elements that
make up most solids. Surfaces form the boundaries of solid objects. A plane (flat) surface may
be bounded by straight lines, curves, or a combination of the two.
Views of Surfaces
A plane surface that is perpendicular to a plane of projection appears on edge as a straight line
(Figure 14a). If it is parallel to the plane of projection, it appears true size (Figure 14b). If it is
angled to the plane of projection, it appears foreshortened or smaller than its actual size (Figure
14c). A plane surface always projects either on edge (appearing as a single line) or as a surface
(showing its characteristic shape) in any view. It can appear foreshortened, but it can never
appear larger than its true size in any view.
There are terms used for describing a surface’s orientation to the plane of projection. The three
orientations that a plane surface can have to the plane of projection are normal, inclined, and
oblique. Understanding these terms will help you picture and describe objects.

Figure 14:Projections of Surfaces.

Normal Surfaces
A normal surface is parallel to a plane of projection. It appears true size and true shape on the
plane to which it is parallel, and it appears as a true-length vertical or a horizontal line on
adjacent planes of projection. Figure 15 shows an illustration of normal surfaces.
Inclined Surfaces
An inclined surface is perpendicular to one plane of projection but inclined (or tipped) to
adjacent planes. An inclined surface projects on edge on the plane to which it is perpendicular. It
appears foreshortened on planes to which it is inclined. An inclined surface is shown in Figure
15. The degree of foreshortening is proportional to the inclination. Although the surface may not
appear true size in any view, it will have the same characteristic shape and the same number of
edges in the views in which you see its shape.
Oblique Surfaces
An oblique surface is tipped to all principal planes of projection. Because it is not perpendicular
to any projection plane, it cannot appear on edge in any standard view. Because it is not parallel
to any projection plane, it cannot appear true size in any standard view. An oblique surface
always appears as a foreshortened surface in all three standard views. Figures 6.44 and 6.45
show oblique surfaces.
 Figure 15:Three orientations of plane surfaces.

EDGES
The intersection of two plane surfaces of an object produces an edge, which shows as a straight
line in the drawing. An edge is common to two surfaces, forming a boundary for each. If an edge
is perpendicular to a plane of projection, it appears as a point; otherwise it appears as a line. If it
is parallel to the plane of projection, it shows true length. If it is not parallel, it appears
foreshortened. A straight line always projects as a straight line or as a point. The terms normal,
inclined, and oblique describe the relationship of an edge to a plane of projection.
Normal Edges
A normal edge is a line perpendicular to a plane of projection. It appears as a point on that plane
of projection and as a true length line on adjacent planes of projection (Figure 16).

Figure 16:Projections of a Normal Edge.

Inclined Edges
An inclined edge is parallel to one plane of projection but inclined to adjacent planes. It appears
as a true-length line on the plane to which it is parallel and as a foreshortened line on adjacent
planes. The true-length view of an inclined line always appears as an angled line, but the
foreshortened views appear as either vertical or horizontal lines (Figure 17).

Figure 17:Projections of an Inclined Edge.

Oblique Edges
An oblique edge is tipped to all planes of projection. Because it is not perpendicular to any
projection plane, it cannot appear as a point in any standard view. Because it is not parallel to
any projection plane, it cannot appear true length in any standard view. An oblique edge appears
foreshortened and as an angled line in every view (Figure 18).

Figure 18:Projections of an Oblique Edge.

Parallel Edges
When edges are parallel to one another on the object, they will appear as parallel lines in every
view, unless they align one behind the other. This information can be useful when you are laying
out a drawing, especially if it has a complex inclined or oblique surface that has parallel edges.
Figure 19 shows an example of parallel lines in drawing views.

Figure 19:Parallel Lines.

Vertices
A corner, or point, is the common intersection of three or more surfaces, which is called a vertex
on the part. A point appears as a point in every view. An example of a point on an object is
shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20:Views of a Point.

Interpreting Lines
A straight visible or hidden line in a drawing or sketch has three possible meanings, as shown in
Figure 21:
 An edge (intersection) between two surfaces
 The edge view of a surface
 The limiting element of a curved surface
Because no shading is used on orthographic views, you must examine all the views to determine
the meaning of the lines. If you were to look at only the front and top views in Figure 21, you
might believe line AB is the edge view of a flat surface. From the right-side view, you can see
that there is a curved surface on top of the object.
If you look at only the front and side views, you might believe the vertical line CD is the edge
view of a plane surface. The top view reveals that the line actually represents the intersection of
an inclined surface.

Figure 21:Interpreting Lines.

Reading a Drawing
Visualize the object shown by the three views at Figure 22. Because no lines are curved, the
object must be made up of plane surfaces.

Figure 22:Orthographic projections.

Try picturing the views as describing those portions of a block that will be cut away, as
illustrated below.

Figure 23:Visualization.