UNIT-2

DISASTER CLASSIFICATION

2.1 CLASSIFACTION OF DISASTER:

Disasters which are considered as the most havoc creating events which cause damage, loss of human life
and properties ecological disruption etc… are majorly classified into two types Natural and Man-made
diseases.

2.2 Natural Disasters:

A natural disaster is characterized by the abnormal intensity of a natural agent (flood, mudslide, earthquake,
avalanche, drought) when the usual measures to be taken to prevent this damage were not able to prevent
their emergence or were not able to be taken.

The natural disasters are mostly classified into the following sub-categories:

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 (i) Meteorological: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather such as rain,
drought, snow, extreme heat or cold, ice, or wind. ... Examples of weather disasters embrace
blizzard, cyclones, droughts, hailstorms, heat waves, hurricanes, floods (caused by rain) and
tornadoes.

(ii) Geological: Natural disasters caused by a geological process (a

natural process whereby geological features are modified) are called geological disasters;
these are earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

(iii) Environmental: An environmental disaster or ecological disaster is defined as a catastrophic

event regarding the natural environment that is due to human activity. ... These disasters have
included deaths of wildlife, humans and plants, or severe disruption of human life or health,
possibly requiring migration.

(iv) Biological: Biological disasters define the devastating effects caused by an enormous spread
of a certain kind of living organism – that may the spread a disease, virus, or an
epidemic. Biological disasters can also be simply, a sudden growth in the population of a
certain kind of plants or animals, e.g., a locust plague.

Some of the natural disasters to be discussed as per syllabus:

• Floods
• Droughts
• Cyclones
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
• Coastal erosion
• Soil erosion
• Forest fires.

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2.2.1 Floods:

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. Floods are an area of study in the
discipline of hydrology. They are the most common and widespread natural severe weather event. Floods
can look very different because flooding covers anything from a few inches of water to several feet. They
can also come on quickly or build gradually.
According to National Severe Storms Laboratory, there are five types of floods. They include:
✓ River Flood
✓ Coastal Flood
✓ Storm Surge
✓ Inland Flooding
✓ Flash Flood

S.No Type of What is a Causes of ___________ Remarks……

flood ___________?
1 River A river flood occurs River flooding typically River floods can happen suddenly
flooding when water levels happens for four reasons. They or slowly. Sudden river flooding
rise over the top of are: events occur more often on smaller
river banks. This rivers, rivers with steep valleys,
Excessive rain from tropical
flooding can happen rivers that flow for much of their
storm systems making landfall
in all river and length over impermeable terrain,
stream channels. Persistent thunderstorms ov and normally dry channels.
This includes er the same area for extended
On the other hand, low-rising river
everything from periods
floods typically occur in large rivers
small streams to the
Combined rainfall and with large catchment areas. In case
world’s largest
snowmelt you didn’t know this already,
rivers.
a catchment area is any area of
Ice jam land where precipitation collects
and runs off into a common outlet

2 Coastal The next type Coastal flooding is typically a

flooding of flood you should result of a combination of sea
know about is a tidal surges, high winds, and
coastal barometric pressure.
flood. A coastal
flood is the

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 inundation of These conditions typically come
normally dry land from storms at sea like:
areas along the coast
Tropical cyclones
with seawater.

Tsunami

Higher-than-average tides

3 Storm Another type of Storm surge is always a result Storm surge is an extremely
flooding flooding that is often meteorological storms that dangerous form of flooding. It can
associated with cause higher than normal tides flood large coastal areas at the same
coastal flooding is on the coast. There are three time. It can also cause flooding
storm surge.Storm parts of a storm that create this very quickly.
surge is an abnormal surge. They are:
Extreme flooding occurs when
rise in water level in
Wind storm surge happens at the same
coastal areas over
time as high tide. This can cause
and above the Waves
storm tides to reach over 2o feet!
regular astronomical
tide. Low atmospheric pressure.
Our meteorologists always stress
that storm surge is the most
dangerous aspect of any tropical
system. It poses the most threat to
both life and property. In the past,
we’ve seen truly devastating storm
surge impacts. For example, storm
surge took the lives (directly and
indirectly) of over 1,500 people
during Hurricane Katrina.

4 Inland The next type Rainfall is almost always to Inland floods are often worse in
flooding of flood on our list is blame for inland floods. Rain urban areas because there isn’t
an inland flood. causes inland flooding in two anywhere for the water to go. The
Some organizations ways. It can happen with steady following urban features can create
refer to inland rainfall over several days or it urban flooding or make inland
flooding as urban can happen because of a short floods worse:
flooding. A flash and intense period of rainfall.
Paved roads and streets
flood is also a type of
inland flood.

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 An inland flood is Snowmelt also causes inland Low-capacity drainage
flooding that occurs floods, although rainfall is a equipment
inland or not in a more common cause.
Dense buildings
coastal area.
Another way inland flooding
Therefore, coastal Low amounts of green space
happens is when water ways get
flooding and storm
blocked by debris, ice, or dams.
surge are not inland
floods

5 Flash The most well- Most flash floods happen after Flash floods are
flooding known and deadly extremely intense rainfall extremely powerful. They have
type of flood is a from severe thunderstorms over enough force to roll boulders, tear
flash flood. a short period of time (normally trees from the ground, destroy
6 hours or less). There are two buildings and bridges, and scour out
A flash flood is
key elements to determine is new channels. This type of flood is
flooding that begins
flash flooding is likely: characterized by raging torrents that
within 6 hours, and
rip through river beds, urban streets,
often within 3 hours, ✓ Rainfall rate
or canyons, wiping out everything
of heavy rainfall (or ✓ Rainfall duration
in their paths. With heights reaching
other cause). ✓ Flash floods also happen
30 feet, flash floods can completely
when damns break, when
cover communities.
levees fail, or when an ice
jam releases a large amount Another reason why flash flooding
of water. is so dangerous is that it can happen
with little to no warning. This is
especially true when dams or levees
break.

(i) Flood Causes

As we mentioned above, there are plenty of different causes of flooding. While different flood types
typically have different causes, most floods are caused by one of the following activities.
➢ Heavy rainfall is the simplest cause of flooding. When there is too much rain or it happens too
fast, there just isn’t a place for it to go. This can result in floods like flash flooding.
➢ Overflowing rivers are another cause of floods. You don’t necessarily need heavy rains though to
experience river flooding. As we mentioned before, river flooding can happen when there is debris
in the river or dams that block the flow of the water.
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 ➢ Speaking of dams, broken dams are another cause of flooding. Older infrastructure can fail when
heavy rains come and water levels rise. When dams break, they unleash torrents of water on
unsuspecting households. This is part of what happened when Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans
in 2005.
➢ Storm surge and tsunamis also cause flooding. Storm surges from hurricanes and other tropical
systems can cause sea levels to rise and cover normally dry coastal areas in several feet of water.
Tsunamis on the other hand are giant waves caused by earthquakes or underwater volcanic
eruptions. As these waves move inland, they build height and can push a lot of water inland in
coastal areas.
➢ Channels with steep banks are also to blame for flooding. Flooding often occurs when there is
fast runoff into lakes, rivers, and other basins. This is often the case with rivers and other channels
that feature steep sides.
➢ A lack of vegetation can cause flooding. Vegetation can help slow runoff and prevent flooding.
When there is a lack of vegetation, there is little to stop water from running off and overflowing
river banks and streams.
➢ Melting snow and ice is another common reason for flooding. When a large amount of snow and/or
ice melts quickly, it often doesn’t have somewhere to go except low-lying areas.
➢ These aren’t all the reasons that flooding can happen, but they are some of the most common.

(ii) Flooding Effects

No matter what causes of a flood, it can have devastating effects on your community. There are actually
many dangerous flooding effects. Besides physical danger, floods also cause economic and social problems.
In this section, we’ll cover the most common flood effects.
➢ Loss of Lives
• The gravest effect of flooding is death. In fact, flooding is the number one severe weather
killer. Floods have claimed thousands of lives throughout history .Floods kill by carrying
people away in fast-moving water or drowning them. It only takes six inches of water to
wash a person away. Floods can also kill people by destroying buildings and creating unsafe
environments. One often-overlooked deadly effect of flooding comes from waterborne
illnesses.
• From 2010 to 2018, the National Weather Service recorded hundreds of flooding deaths
across the United States. Texas saw most of those deaths, with the 8-year total sitting at 212
fatalities.

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 ➢ Property Damage
• Since it only takes two feet of flood water to wash a car away, flooding can also cause great
loss of property. Surely you’ve seen images of cars floating away in flood waters. This is
why it is so important to avoid flooded areas when driving. You don’t want to be in your
car when it gets washed away in the flood!
• Flooding also causes property damage to buildings by blowing out windows, sweeping away
doors, corroding walls and foundations, and sending debris into infrastructure at a fast pace.
Not to mention the furniture and items inside a home or business that are damaged when
flood waters make it inside.
➢ Economic Impacts
• The economic impact of flooding can be devastating to a community. This comes from
damage and disruption to things like communication towers, power plants, roads, and
bridges. This brings business activities in an area to a standstill. Oftentimes, major flooding
results in dislocation and dysfunction of normal life long after flood waters recede.
• Flooding hinders economic growth and development because of the high cost of relief and
recovery associated with floods.
• In frequently flooded areas, there is less likely to be any investment in infrastructure and
other developed activities.
➢ Psychosocial Flooding Effects
• Flooding can also create lasting trauma for victims. The loss of loved ones or homes can
take a steep emotional toll, especially on children. Displacement from one’s home and loss
of livelihood can cause continuing stress and produce lasting psychological impacts.

(iii) Flood Safety Tips

While floods have many causes, there are proven flood safety and flood prevention tips to help keep
families, businesses, and communities safe.
Here are some steps you can take before, during, and after flooding to keep yourself and those you care
about safe.
What Do I Do Before a Flood?
The first thing you should do before a flood is assemble an emergency kit. Your flood emergency kit
should include food, water, and medicine. You should pack a supply of these items that will last each
person three days. You should also put the following in your kit:
• Phone Charger
• Batteries

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 • Blankets
• Flashlights
• First Aid Kit
• Rubber Boots and Gloves
• NOAA Weather Radio
• You should also have a cell phone on hand. This way, you can communicate with your friends,
family, and coworkers.
• The next thing you can do to prepare for a flood is research your home or organization’s location
to assess flood risk. Are you located in a flood plain? What’s the fastest way to get to higher
ground? Knowing the answers to these questions can help you in the case of floods.
• One last flood tip we recommend is to sign up for flooding notifications. The National Weather
Service issues Flood Advisories, Flood Watches, and Flood Warnings to help people prepare for
flooding dangers.
• Familiarize yourself with your local emergency management agency and how they communicate
with your community.

2.2.2 Earthquakes:

An earthquake is a sudden shaking of the surface of the earth by the passage of the seismic waves through
Earth’s rocks. It is also known as tremblor, tremor or quake. Let us tell you that just below the earth's
surface where earthquakes start is called hypocenter and just directly above the surface of the earth is called
epicentre?

Size of an earthquake may differ and sometimes it is said that weak earthquakes are not felt also but the
violent one may cause destruction and may destroy whole cities. It all depends upon the frequency, type
and size of the earthquake experienced over a period of time. It is measured on Richter’s scale.

(I) Causes of Earthquake:

Earthquakes are caused by sudden tectonic movements in the Earth’s crust. The main cause is that when
tectonic plates, one rides over the other, causing orogeny collide (mountain building), earthquakes. The
largest fault surfaces on Earth are formed due to boundaries between moving plates.

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The stress increases when they stick, relative motion between the plates. This continues until the stress rises
and breaks, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy as shock
waves. Such faults are San Andreas fault in San Francisco, Rift valley in Africa etc.

(II) Effects of Earthquake

The effects of an earthquake are terrible and devastating. Many building, hospitals, schools, etc are destroyed
due to it. A lot of people get killed and injured. Many people lose their money and property. It affects the mental
health and emotional health of people.

The environmental effects of it are that including surface faulting, tectonic uplift and subsidence, tsunamis, soil
liquefaction, ground resonance, landslides and ground failure, either directly linked to a quake source or
provoked by the ground shaking.

• Earthquake causes damage to the building, bridges, dams.

• Earthquake in many cases, can cause great loss of life.

• Earthquake can also cause floods and landslides. Landslides, triggered by earthquake, often cause
more destruction than the earthquake themselves.

•
If the earthquake happens to be beneath the ocean floor, they can lead to a tsunami.

(III) What to do During an Earthquake?

Before the disaster:

• Connections of gas lines and appliances must be made flexible.

• An earthquake readiness plan must be kept ready, including locating a shelter house, canned food
and up to date first aid kit, gallons of water, dust masks, goggles, firefighting equipment, a torch,
and a working battery-operated radio.
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 • Architects and structural engineers must be consulted before laying the foundation of buildings in
earthquake-prone areas, also the building must be manufactured as per the rules and regulations
laid by the disaster management committee.

• Awareness must be spread among friends and family members about the above-mentioned
measures.

Do’s and Dont’s:

• One must stay indoors until the shaking stops and it’s officially announced that it is safe to exit.

• One must stay away from bookcases, furniture, and heavy appliances that may fall.

• The shelter must be under a table or bed, and hold on to a post or any other fixture.

• If one is outdoors, the shelter must be taken in a clear stop away from buildings, trees, and power
lines.

After the disaster:

The following are the measures that must be undertaken after the calamity is over.

• First aid kits must be used to tend to persons with minor injuries such as bleeding and bruises.
Whereas seriously injured individuals must not be moved until they are out of danger and proper
medical help has arrived.

• If the person is not breathing, rescue breathing must be administered. If the person has no pulse,
CPR must be given.

• Tumbling shelves and falling items must be taken care of and damaged walls made of bricks must
be avoided.

• Main gas valves must be checked for leaks. The main power switch must be turned off if there is a
possibility of damage. Broken appliances must be unplugged until the damage is repaired.

• One must stay away from downed power lines and any object or appliance in contact with it.

• Types of Earthquakes
• Mainly, there are four types of earthquakes namely tectonic, volcanic, collapse and explosion.

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 • Tectonic earthquake: This occurs when due to geological forces on rocks and the adjoining plate’s
cause’s physical and chemical change and results in the breaking of the Earth's crust.
• Volcanic earthquake: Results from tectonic forces and occurs in conjunction with volcanic
activity.
• Collapse earthquake: are generally small earthquakes that occur in underground caverns and
mines caused by the seismic waves which are produced from the explosion of rock on the surface.
• Explosion earthquake: Occur due to the detonation of a nuclear or chemical device.

2.2.3 Tsunamis:

Introduction

The effects of a tsunami on a coastline can range from unnoticeable to devastating. The effects of a tsunami
depend on the characteristics of the seismic event that generated the tsunami, the distance from its point of
origin, its size (magnitude) and, at last, the configuration of the bathymetry (that is the depth of water in
oceans) along the coast that the tsunami is approaching.

Small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, happen almost every day
as a result of minor earthquakes and other events. They are very often too far away from land or they are
too small to have any effect when they hit the shore. When a small tsunami comes to the shoreline it is often
seen as a strong and fast-moving tide.

Tsunamis have long periods and can overcome obstacles such as gulfs, bays and islands. These tsunamis
make landfall usually in the form of suddenly decreasing and then rapidly increasing water levels (not
unlike a tidal bore) a combination of several large waves or bore-type waves. Generally tsunamis arrive,
not as giant breaking waves, but as a forceful rapid increase in water levels that results in violent flooding.

However, when tsunami waves become extremely large in height, they savagely attack coastlines, causing
devastating property damage and loss of life. A small wave only 30 centimetres high in the deep ocean may
grow into a monster wave 30m high as it sweeps over the shore. The effects can be further amplified where
a bay, harbour, or lagoon funnels the waves as they move inland. Large tsunamis have been known to rise
to over 100 feet!

Destruction

The amount of energy and water contained in a huge tsunami can cause extreme destruction when it strikes
land.

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The initial wave of a huge tsunami is extremely tall; however, most damage is not sustained by this wave.
Most of the damage is caused by the huge mass of water behind the initial wave front, as the height of the
sea keeps rising fast and floods powerfully into the coastal area. It is the power behind the waves, the
endless rushing water that causes devastation and loss of life. When the giant breaking waves of a tsunami
batter the shoreline, they can destroy everything in their path.

Destruction is caused by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water traveling at high speed,
and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying all with it, even if
the wave did not look large.

Objects and buildings are destroyed by the sheer weight of the water, often reduced to skeletal foundations
and exposed bedrock. Large objects such as ships and boulders can be carried several miles inland before
the tsunami subsides.

Tsunami waves destroy boats, buildings, bridges, cars, trees, telephone lines, power lines - and just about
anything else in their way. Once the tsunami waves have knocked down infrastructure on the shore they
may continue to travel for several miles inland, sweeping away more trees, buildings, cars and other man
made equipment. Small islands hit by a tsunami are left unrecognizable.

Especially along a high seismic area, known as the Ring of Fire, tsunamis may have dramatic consequences
as they hit less developed countries.

The buildings infrastructure in these poorer nations are not well built and cannot withstand the impact of
the tsunami. Whole areas and towns are a picture of destruction as the tsunami leaves at trail devastation
and misery behind it.

Death

One of the biggest and worst effects of a tsunami is the cost to human life because unfortunately escaping
a tsunami is nearly impossible. Hundreds and thousands of people are killed by tsunamis. Since 1850 alone,
tsunamis have been responsible for the loss of more than 430,000 lives. There is very little warning before
a tsunamis hits land. As the water rushes toward land, it leaves very little time to map an escape plan.

People living in coastal regions, towns and villages have no time to escape. The violent force of the tsunami
results in instant death, most commonly by drowning. Buildings collapsing, electrocution, and explosions
from gas, damaged tanks and floating debris are another cause of death. The tsunami of December 2004
that struck South East Asia and East Africa killed over 31,000 people in Sri Lanka only, leaving 23,000
injured.

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Disease

Tsunami waves and the receding water are very destructive to structures in the run-up zone. The areas close
to the coast are flooded with sea water, damaging the infrastructure such as sewage and fresh water supplies
for drinking.

Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease to spread in the tsunami hit areas. Illnesses
such as malaria arise when water is stagnant and contaminated. Under these conditions it is difficult for
people to stay healthy and for diseases to be treated, so infections and illnesses can spread very quickly,
causing more death.

Environmental impacts

Tsunamis not only destroy human life, but have a devastating effect on insects, animals, plants, and natural
resources. A tsunami changes the landscape. It uproots trees and plants and destroys animal habitats such
as nesting sites for birds. Land animals are killed by drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if
dangerous chemicals are washed away into the sea, thus poisoning the marine life.

The impact of a tsunami on the environment relates not only to the landscape and animal life, but also to
the man-made aspects of the environment. Solid waste and disaster debris are the most critical
environmental problem faced by a tsunami-hit country.

Recycling and disposal of this waste in an environmentally sensitive manner where possible (crushing
concrete, bricks, etc. to produce aggregate for rebuilding and road reconstruction) are critical.

Combined with the issue of waste is that of hazardous materials and toxic substances that can be
inadvertently mixed up with ordinary debris. These include asbestos, oil fuel, and other industrial raw
materials and chemicals. Rapid clean-up of affected areas can result in inappropriate disposal methods,
including air burning and open dumping, leading to secondary impacts on the environment.

Contamination of soil and water is the second key environmental impact of a tsunami. Salination of water
bodies such as rivers, wells, inland lakes, and groundwater aquifers can occur in most cases. This also
affects the soil fertility of agricultural lands, due to salination and debris contamination, which will affect
yields in the medium and long term. Sewage, septic tanks and toilets are damaged contaminating the water
supply.

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Last but not least, there may be radiation resulting from damage to nuclear plants, as it happened in Japan
in March 2011. Since radiation exists for a long time, it has the capacity to inflict damage upon anything
exposed to it. Radiation is most dangerous to animals and humans causing destruction as molecules loose
their electrons. The damage caused by radiation to the DNA structure determines birth defects, cancers even
death.

Cost

Massive costs hit communities and nations when a tsunami happens. Victims and survivors of the tsunami
need immediate help from rescue teams.

Governments around the world may help with the cost of bringing aid to devastated areas. National
institutions, the United Nations, other international organizations, community groups and NGOs , and a
variety of other entities come together to provide different kinds of aid and services. There might also be
appeals and donations from people who have seen pictures of the area in the media.

Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a huge cost problem. Infrastructure must be replaced, unsafe
buildings demolished and rubbish cleared. Loss of income in the local economy and future losses from the
destruction of infrastructure will be a problem for some time to come.

The total financial cost of the tsunami could be millions or even billions of dollars of damage to coastal
structures and habitats. It is difficult to put an exact figure on the monetary cost but the cost may represent
an important share of a nation's GDP.

Psychological effects

Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems which can last for days, years or an entire
lifetime. Survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami of December 2004 were found to have PTSD (post traumatic
stress disorder) when examined by the World Health Organization (WHO): 14% to 39% of these were
children, 40% of adolescents and 20% of mothers of these adolescents were found to have PTSD 4 months
after the tsunami.

These people were suffering from grief and depression as their homes, businesses and loved ones were
taken from them. Many still had PTSD. Periliya Village counts 2,000 dead and 400 families became
homeless. These people were found to still have psychological problems 2 years after the tsunami.

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2.2.4 landslides:

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Landslides in India:

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2.2.5 VOLCONIC ERUPTIONS:

Volcanoes are ruptures in the crust of our planet Earth that allow hot gases, molten lava and some rock
fragments to erupt by opening and exposing the magma inside. In this piece of article, we will be discussing
how and why volcanoes erupt.

How Do Volcanoes Erupt?

It is so hot deep within the earth that some rocks slowly melt and turn into a thick flowing matter known as
magma. Since it is lighter than the solid rock around it, the magma rises and gets collected in magma
chambers. Eventually, some magma pushes through fissures and vents in the earth’s surface. Hence, a
volcanic eruption occurs and the erupted magma is known as lava.

We need to understand the Earth’s structure to know how volcanoes erupt. At the top lies the lithosphere,
being the outermost layer that consists of the upper crust and mantle. The thickness of the crust ranges from
10km to 100km in mountainous locations and mainly consists of silicate rock. The video below will help
you clearly understand the process of the volcanic eruption.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

The Earth’s mantle within the crust is classified into different sections depending on individual seismology.
These include upper mantle, that ranges between 8 – 35 km to 410 km; transition zone ranges from 400 to
660 km; lower mantle lies between 660 – 2891 km.

The conditions change dramatically from the crust in the mantle location. The pressures rise drastically and
temperatures rise up to 1000 oC. This viscous and molten rock gets collected into large chambers within the
Earth’s crust.

Since magma is lighter than surrounding rock, it floats up towards the surface and seeks out cracks and
weakness in the mantle. It finally explodes from the peak point of a volcano after reaching the surface.
When it is under the surface, the melted rock is known as magma and erupts as ash when it comes up.

Rocks, lava and ash are built across the volcanic vent with every eruption. The nature of the eruption mainly
depends on the viscosity of the magma. The lava travels far and generates broad shield volcanoes when it
flows easily. When it is too thick, it makes a familiar cone volcano shape. If the lava is extremely thick, it
is capable of building up in the volcano and explode, known as lava domes.

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Effects of Volcanism on Human Activity:
Destructive Effects:
Volcanic eruptions count among the earth’s great natural disasters. Wholesale loss of life and destruction
of towns and cities are frequent in the history of peoples living near active volcanoes. The damage is caused
by advancing lava which engulfs whole cities, from showers of ash, cinders and bombs, avalanches of
incandescent gases descending down volcano slopes, violent earthquakes associated with the volcanic
activity and mudflows of volcanic ash saturated by heavy rain.

In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called tsunamis in Japan) are additional dangers which are generated
by submarine earth faults. A volcano in Mexico in 1943 went on erupting four lakh tons of lava and cinders
a day in its first year. It depopulated an area of over 750 square km and caused huge losses.

Positive Effects:
The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and orchards. Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon
weathering and decomposition. Although steep volcano slopes prevent extensive agriculture, forestry
operations on them provide valuable timber resources. Volcanic activity adds extensive plateaus and
volcanic mountains to our earth. Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores, are conspicuously lacking in
volcanoes and lava flows unless later geological events have resulted in infusion of ore minerals into the
volcanic rocks. Sometimes copper and other ores fill the gas-bubble cavities.

2.2.6 DROUGHTS:

The entire human, plant and animal life spins around water. Lack of water can bring a region to its knees.
Some regions entirely depend on agriculture for survival and when lack of water persists; their futures are
literally dried up. But it’s not just farmers that need water to get by; industries, cities, and animals suffer
when water shortage persists. The main cause of water shortage is drought. Drought is a natural disaster
that can have far reaching impacts. According to the National Climate data Centre, droughts comes in
second to hurricanes in regards to causing severe economic impacts. This is why people must learn to
insulate themselves from it implications by ensuring prudent use of water when it’s bountiful in supply.

Droughts are generally periods that rainfall is below normal, leading to extended periods of water shortage.
Droughts can also be defined as temporary situations when water demands in a hydrological system surpass
the income of water from other sources. In most ecosystems, precipitation is the major source of water
supply, which is why many droughts occur due to precipitation failure. During the period of extended water
shortage, atmospheric, surface and ground water can reduce substantially or dry up altogether. Droughts
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are able to cause destruction and losses because their end cannot be predicted. They can last for months or
years. It’s surprising that most people don’t view droughts as natural disasters such as hurricanes,
tornadoes, and wildfires. This is because their destructive impacts are not instant. However, droughts can
be disastrous in the long run.

Types of Drought

Different sets of people have different definitions of drought. Meteorologists define drought as a prolonged
duration without rain. Crop farmers describe drought as the absence of moisture, which inhibits crop
growth. Hydrologists define drought as an extended period of less precipitation and stream flow. These
definitions of drought bring us to the main types of droughts, which include:

1. Meteorological drought

This kind of drought takes places when dry weather patterns outweigh other climatic conditions. It is greatly
determined by the overall absence of moisture in the atmosphere, for instance, lack of precipitation coupled
with other weather conditions like high temperatures and dry winds. Metrological drought is a warning sign
of potential water shortage if conditions remain constant for extended period. This kind of drought can also
be short lived, which means it can start and end in a short period.

2. Agricultural drought

This kind of drought occurs when atmospheric moisture is minimized to the degree that soil moisture is
impacted. The reduction of moisture in the soil takes toll on crops and animals. Agricultural drought is the
first signal people witness when meteorological drought is happening.

3. Hydrological drought

This kind of drought manifests when there is evidently low water supply, more so in natural rivers and
lakes, reservoirs, streams, and groundwater levels. Hydrological droughts occur after months of
metrological droughts. Hydrological droughts stem from less precipitation, overreliance on these water
sources for agriculture, energy requirements and other needs. Unlike meteorological droughts, hydrological
droughts do not take place at the same time. This reduction in quantity and quality of surface water is a
direct effect of meteorological drought.

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 4. Socioeconomic drought

This kind of drought is related to demand and supply. Supply of specific goods and services, for example,
drinking water, food, and energy are impacted or threatened by shifts in hydrological and meteorological
changes. This situation is sometimes compounded by rising population and explosion of demand for those
goods and services to the degree that it leads to scramble for the little available water. This kind of drought
takes a long time to become severe and equally long time to recover from it.

Various Causes of Droughts

1. Lack or insufficient rainfall (or precipitation)

This is the major cause of droughts in most regions. A long-drawn-out period without rainfall can cause an
area to dry out. The quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere pretty much impacts the precipitation of an
area. When a region has moist and low-pressure systems, there is huge probability that rain, hail, and
snow will occur. The exact opposite would happen when the region has high-pressure systems, and less
water vapor. Farmers plant crops in anticipation of rains, and so when the rains fail, and irrigation systems
are not in place, agricultural drought happens.

2. Changes in climate

Changes in climate, for instance, global warming can contribute to droughts. Global warming is likely to
impact the whole world, especially third world economies. Most governments have tried to play down the
fact that the earth’s temperature has significantly increased. But scientists have proven, without doubt, that
human activities are the main contributors to the increase in greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere. This
increase in greenhouse gasses has resulted in warmer temperatures. Warmer temperatures are recipes for
dryness and bushfires. These set of conditions mightily contribute to prolonged droughts.

3. Human activities

Forests are critical components of the water cycle. They help store water, minimize evaporation, and
contribute a great deal of atmospheric moisture in the form of transpiration. This, in essence, implies
that deforestation, aimed at uplifting the economic status of a region, will expose vast quantities of water
to evaporation. Cutting down trees will also take away the capability of the ground to retain water and allow
desertification to occur easily. Deforestation also greatly minimizes watershed potential. Over-farming is

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another human activity contributing to droughts. Over-farming loosens the soil allowing erosion to take
place. Soil erosion compromises the capacity of soil to hold water.

4. Overexploitation of surface water resources

Specific areas are endowed with surface water resources like rivers and streams whose sources are
watersheds and mountains. These surface water resources could dry out if their main sources are interfered
with. Irrigation systems and hydroelectric dams are just some of the aspects that contribute to over-
exploitation of surface water resources. They also cut off supply of water to downstream communities.

Harmful Effects of Droughts

Economic Effects

Economic effects of droughts usually involve loss of money by governments, enterprises, families or
individuals. Below is an outline of the main economic impacts of droughts:

• Farmers will have to contend with spending huge sums of money for irrigation and watering
animals. This involves drilling wells or buying water from far distances.
• Low yields equal loss of substantial income. Low yields also lead to pay cuts and layoffs to farm
workers.
• Businesses and industries that produce farm equipment may close down since farmers have no
money to purchase equipment.
• Prolonged shortage of rains means drier conditions. This makes an area susceptible to wildfires.
Wildfires can destroy property; devastate farms and burn down forests. Governments spend
millions to control or put out wildfires annually. All this affects the economy of the region.
• If water supply plummets, hydropower plants operate below capacity, and this means businesses
have to pay more for electricity or incur the cost of using their own generators. Energy firms also
lose out since they are unable to satisfy energy demands of the region. The government also loses
a big chunk of tax revenue.
Environmental Effects

• Droughts lead to decimation of habitats. Water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds, lagoons, and
creeks dry out, and this leads to death of water animals.

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 • Soil moisture is critical to the breakdown of organic matter. Droughts compromise soil
quality since there is less to zero organic activity because organisms have died.
• Droughts magnify the impacts of desertification by wiping out any chance of land recovering.
• The quality and health of surface water bodies such as rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds are
enormously impacted. This endangers living organisms depending on the water for survival.
• Wildlife walk long distances in search of water. They end up in new dangerous habitats that can
lead to their demise.

2.2.7 CYCLONES:

In meteorology, it refers to a large-scale air mass that revolves around a strong low atmospheric
pressure centre. We can characterize cyclones by spiralling inward winds rotating around a low-pressure zone.
In this topic, we will explain how are cyclones formed and its causes and effects. Polar vortices and extra-
tropical cyclones of the biggest scale (the synoptic scale) are the biggest low-pressure systems. The synoptic-
scale also includes warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones.

How are Cyclones Formed

How are cyclones formed is a bigger question which we will learn after getting to know the formation of
different cyclones.

• Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are familiar to most people because they are cyclones that occur across tropical ocean
regions. Hurricanes and typhoons are types of tropical cyclones in fact, but they have different names to make
it clear where the storm occurs.

Generally, hurricanes occur in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, while the typhoons occur in the Northwest
Pacific. We can also define tropical cyclones on the basis of their wind rates. Cyclones are classified by wind
speed and the harm they cause.

First category: Wind speeds ranging from 90 to 125 km / h, some noticeable harm to buildings and trees.
Second category: Wind rates ranging from 125 to 164 kilometers per hour, housing harm and important crop
and forest harm.
Third category: Wind rates ranging from 165224 km / h, structural harm to houses, comprehensive damage

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to plants and uprooted trees, upgraded cars, and building devastation.
Fourth category: Wind rates ranging from 225 to 279 kilometers per hour, power failure and significant
harm to towns and towns.
Fifth category: Wind speeds exceeding 280 km / h, extensive harm.

• Polar Cyclones

Cyclones in polar regions such as Greenland, Siberia and Antarctica are cyclones. In winter months, polar
cyclones are generally heavier than tropical cyclones. These storms, as you can see, really prefer the colder
weather! In fields areas, they are not very common and happen very less often that’s why the harm they do is
generally quite minimal.

• Meso Cyclone

A mesocyclone is when the portion of a thunderstorm cloud begins to spin, eventually leading to a tornado.
Meso’ implies’ centre,’ which we can regard as the midpoint between one weather form and the other. All
tornadoes originate from the snow of the thunderstorm, but not all parts of the thunderstorm create tornadoes.

Part of that cloud has to spin in order for a tornado to occur, and while you can’t really see this happening, it’s
the intermediate or ‘meso’ step from regular cloud to the dangerous spinning cloud running along the ground.

Causes and Effects of Cyclone in Points

• Tropical cyclones trigger serious rainfall and landslides. They cause serious damage to towns and
villages. Also, they destroy coastal companies, such as shipyards and oil well.

• When these hurricanes blow far inland, human settlements are causing a lot of devastation.

• They trigger a lot of crop damage and destroy plenty of forests.

• They are disturbing the entire civic lives, particularly when they kill electricity and telephone lines.

• Torrential rains often accompany these cyclones, which trigger flooding.

• Not only do they cause a lot of damage to assets, but also to people’s lives. Civic installations are being
dismantled.

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2.2.8 FOREST FIRES:

The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the forests themselves. They
pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to fauna and flora seriously disturbing
the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment of a region. During summer, when there is no rain for
months, the forests become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames
ignited by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been burning
regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that region.
Forest fire causes imbalances in nature and endangers biodiversity by reducing faunal and floral wealth.
Traditional methods of fire prevention are not proving effective and it is now essential to raise public
awareness on the matter, particularly among those people who live close to or in forested areas.

CAUSES OF FOREST FIRE

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Man made causes

• Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set trees on fire.
However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage. High atmospheric temperatures
and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire to start.
• Man made causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or bidi, electric
spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.

Traditionally Indian forests have been affected by fires. Themenace has been aggravated with rising human
and cattle population and the consequent increase in demand for Forest products by individuals and
communities. Causes of forest fires can be divided into two broad categories: environmental (which are
beyond control) and human related (which are controllable).

Environmental causesare largely related to climatic conditions such as temperature, wind speed and
direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere and duration of dry spells. Other natural causes are the
friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity and rolling stones that result in sparks setting off fires
in highly inflammable leaf litter on the forest floor.

Human related causesresult from human activity as well as methods of forest management. These can be
intentional or unintentional, for example:

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 • graziers and gatherers of various forest products starting small fires to obtain good grazing grass as
well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest produce like flowers of Madhuca indica and leaves
of Diospyros melanoxylon
• the centuries old practice of shifting cultivation (especially in the North-Eastern region of India and
inparts of the States of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh).
• the use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals
• fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation
• fires started accidentally by careless visitors to forests who discard cigarette butts.

The causes of forest fire have been increasing rapidly. The problem has been accentuated by the growing
human and cattle population. People enter forests ever more frequently
to graze cattle, collect fuelwood, timber and other minorforest produce. It has been estimated that 90% of
forest fires in India are man-made

Classification of Forest Fire

Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;

• Natural or controlled forest fire.

• Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through carelessness
of people (human neglect) and
• Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

Types of Forest Fire

There are two types of forest fire i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire

Surface Fire-
A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the surface litter (senescent
leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor and is engulfed by the spreading flames.

Crown Fire-
The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn, often sustained by a
surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a coniferous forest because resinous material
given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated

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air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there
is less likelihood of it spreading downwards.

EFFECT OF FOREST FIRE

Fires are a major cause of forest degradation and have wide ranging adverse ecological, economic and social
impacts, including:

• loss of valuable timber resources

• degradation of catchment areas
• loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals
• loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife
• loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover
• global warming
• loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of CO2 in atmosphere
• change in the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
• soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production
• ozone layer depletion
• health problems leading to diseases
• loss of livelihood for tribal people and the rural poor, as approximately 300 million people are directly
dependent upon collection of non-timber forest products from forest areas for their livelihood.

The needs of the fire management

The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned each year. The major
cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem. Both the national focus and the technical
resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the country.
Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres, coordination among Ministries, funding,
human resource development, fire research, fire management, and extension programmes are missing.
Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to make some major improvements
in the forest fire management strategy for the country. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government
of India, has prepared a National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. This plan proposes to introduce a well-
coordinated and integrated fire-management programme that includes the following components:

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 • Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental modification. It will include
silvicultural activities, engineering works, people participation, and education and enforcement. It is
proposed that more emphasis be given to people participation through Joint Forest Fire Management
for fire prevention.
• Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation points, efficient ground
patrolling, and communication networks. Remote sensing technology is to be given due importance
in fire detection. For successful fire management and administration, a National Fire Danger Rating
System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be developed in the country.
• Fast initial attack measures.
• Vigorous follow up action.
• Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
• Firefighting resources.

2.2.9 COASTAL ERROSIONS:

The Coastal Erosion is the process of wearing away of the land by the sea due to corrosion, abrasion,
hydraulic action, attrition and corrosion/solution. India's has long peninsular region and due to
developmental activities are often carried out without properly understanding the coastal dynamics, leading
to long-term damage, particularly to local communities. Find out the concept of Coastal erosion, findings
of Ministry of Earth Sciences, and reasons for coastal erosion and measure to deal with coastal erosion for
the preparation competitive examination.

The Coastal Erosion is the process of wearing away of the land by the sea due to corrosion, abrasion,
hydraulic action, attrition and corrosion/solution. India's has long peninsular region and due to
developmental activities are often carried out without properly understanding the coastal dynamics, leading
to long-term damage, particularly to local communities. It came into the light when one of biodiversity rich
uninhabited islands part of Lakshadweep has disappeared due to coastal erosion and another four such
islands in Lakshadweep Sea are shrinking fast.

The Ministry of Earth Sciences was formed in 2006 from a merger of the India Meteorological
Department (IMD), the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), the Indian
Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, and Earth Risk Evaluation Centre (EREC), and the
Ministry of Ocean Development for monitoring the shoreline changes along the Indian coast on an annual
basis. Recently it gives some findings on Coastal erosion which are given below:
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 1. The 89% of Andaman and Nicobar Islands shoreline eroded by the Bay of Bengal.

2. The shoreline of Tamil Nadu facing the process of accretion (a gradual deposition by water of mud,
sand to form dry land), that causes 62% of its coast gaining land.

3.Goa has the highest percentage (52%) of stable shoreline.

Reason for Coastal Erosion

1. Wave Energy

2. Climate Change

3. Strong littoral drift

4. Construction dams in catchment areas

5. Sand and coral mining and dredging

Measures to deal with Coastal Erosion

1. Construction of saline stone-packaging and breakwater structures

2. By constructing low walls called groyne

3. By installing Geo-Synthetic Tubes

4. By growing more vegetation along the coastline

4. Encouraging Social Forestry

5. Encouraging conservation activities, educational and recreational opportunities (Eco-development).

The coastal regions where land and water meet are ecologically dynamic and sensitive regions, as marine
and coastal ecosystems continuously impact on each other. These regions has rich ecosystem such as
mangroves, water bodies, seaweeds coral reefs, fisheries and other marine life, and other coastal and
marine vegetation. These ecosystems protect the region from saline winds, cyclones, tsunami waves etc.,

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promote carbon sequestration and promote biodiversity as well as provide raw materials for a number of
manufacturing activities. Hence, this is an alarming situation for us to overcome from the coastal erosion.

2.2.10 SOIL EROSION:

In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers, streams or far
away lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture and deforestation.

Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in a continuous
loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

Let us have a detailed look at the causes, effects and prevention of soil erosion.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

• Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorm is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are caused by
rainfall:

✓ Rill erosion

✓ Gully erosion

✓ Sheet erosion

✓ Splash erosion

The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and rivers. Regions
with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing water during floods also
erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

• Agriculture

The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb the ground. The
trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of the crops are grown during the
spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the soil is eroded during winters.

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Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water. Fine soil particles
are eroded by wind.

• Grazing

The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their hooves churn up
the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and makes it more prone to erosion.

• Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil firmly. The
canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects the soil from erosion,
is also lost during logging.

Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.

• Construction

The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands are cleared
for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

• Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion activity.

• Heavy Winds

During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by the wind to
faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

• Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients required by
the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads to low crop
productivity.

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 • Clogging of Waterways

The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals. This pollutes
the water bodies where the soil flows.

The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in flooding.

• Air Pollution

The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic substances such as pesticides
and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from the arid and semi-arid
regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.

• Desertification

Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into deserts.
Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to loss of biodiversity,
degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.

• Destruction of Infrastructure

The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce their efficiency. Thus, it affects
infrastructural projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

Soil Erosion Prevention

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb this problem. Following are
some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

1. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

2. Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.
3. Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on the slopes.
4. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.
5. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.
6. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into proper water
collecting systems.

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Key Points of Soil Erosion

• It is the natural process of wearing away of the topsoil, but human activities have accelerated the
process.

• It is usually caused due to the removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders the ground dry.

• Farming, grazing, mining, construction and recreational activities are some of the causes of soil
erosion.

• The effects of soil erosion are not just land degradation. It has led to a drastic increase in pollution
and sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies resulting in a decline in the population of
aquatic organisms.

• Degraded lands lose the water holding capacity resulting in floods.

The health of the soil is of utmost importance to the farmers and the population that depends upon
agriculture for food and employment. There are several challenges to resist soil erosion, but there are
solutions to prevent it as well.

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 2.3 MAN – MADE DISASTERS:

Man-made disasters have an element of human intent, negligence, or error

involving a failure of a man-made system, as opposed to natural disasters resulting
from natural hazards. Such man-made disasters are crime, arson, civil disorder,
terrorism, war, biological/chemical threat, cyber-attacks, etc.

2.3.1 Technological disasters:

Let us discuss the technological disaster with the help of an case study related to transportation accident.

Transport accidents

• a road traffic accident (including vehicle collision, pedestrian- bicycle collisions, pedestrian-pedestrian
collisions etc.）
• a marine accident (sailing ship accident, including man overboard.)
• railroad accidents (including train wreck)
• an aviation accident and incident.

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 Case study: Seoul ferry marine accident

Date 16 April 2014; 7 years ago

Time Around 9 a.m. to around 11:30 a.m. (Koren Standard Time)

Location 1.5 kilometers (0.93 mi) off Donggeochado, South Jeolla, South Korea

Cause Center-of-gravity instability due to overloading of cargo, exacerbated by multiple right turns

Deaths 299 on-board

2 rescue divers
5 emergency workers

Missing 5

Property damage Cargo: ₩200 billion ($180 million)

Inquest 3 separate investigations

Suspects Captain and 14 crew members

Charges Homicide (4 including the captain), Fleeing and abandoning ship (2), Negligence (9)

Verdict Guilty

Convictions Life sentence (Captain), 10 years (Chief Engineer), 18 months −12 years (13 other crew)

On board 476 in which 325 are Danwon High School students)

Survivors 172 (171 after the subsequent suicide of the vice principal of Danwon High School)

Causes of accident:

• Officials have worked hard to improve maritime safety, adopting new regulations and tougher penalties for
people who violate them.

• But rule breaking appears widespread, with the government making limited headway against an industry in
which safety is still often an afterthought.
• Crucial new measures to prevent ships from being overloaded are often sidestepped. The Coast Guard has
uncovered cheating at almost every step of the cargo-weighing process.

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• The government itself has declined to require changes at ports that experts say would dramatically increase
safety by making it easier to catch cargo cheaters. Officials rejected the fixes as too costly.

• One maritime safety expert put it bluntly: “They haven’t learned the lessons of the Sewol disaster after all
the sadness and national trauma.”

The report found that the disaster could have been avoided if:

• The licensing of the ship had been properly regulated. The report revealed that the vessel was licensed
based on fake documents.
• Less cargo had been onboard. Officials confirmed that the Sewol had been illegally modified and was
carrying almost double its legal limit.
• Adequate safety checks had been performed by the Korean Register of Shipping.
• The coastguard had responded faster and issued better rescue guidelines.
• The captain had not delayed in issuing evacuation orders.

URBAN FLOODING:

Urban flooding is another example of technological / design failure

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2.3.2 INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENT:

Let us discuss the Industrial disaster with the help of an case study related to industrial spillage.

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident on the night of
2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh, India. It is considered among the world's worst industrial disasters.[1][2] Over 500,000 people were
exposed to methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the small
towns located near the plant.

Date 2 December 1984 – 3 December 1984

Location Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

Also known as Bhopal gas tragedy

Cause Methyl isocyanate leak from Union Carbide India Limited plant

Deaths At least 3,787; over 16,000 claimed

Non-fatal injuries At least 558,125

Cause of accident:

Union Carbide India's Bhopal facility housed three 68,000-litre liquid MIC storage tanks: E610, E611, and
E619. Months before the tragedy, MIC production was in progress and was being filled in the tanks. No
tank was allowed to be filled more than 50% of its capacity and the tank was pressurized with inert nitrogen
gas. The pressurization allowed liquid MIC to be pumped out of each tank. However, one of the tanks
(E610) lost the ability to contain nitrogen gas pressure, hence liquid MIC could not be pumped out of it. As
per the rules, each of the tanks could not be filled with more than 30 tonnes of liquid MIC. But this tank
had 42 tonnes. This failure forced UCIL to halt methyl isocyanate production in Bhopal and the plant was
partly shut for maintenance. An attempt was made to make the defective tank functional again on December
1, however the attempt failed. By then, most of the plant's methyl isocyanate related safety systems were
malfunctioning. According to reports, by December 2 eve, water had entered the malfunctioning tank,
which resulted in runaway chemical reaction. The pressure in the tank increased five times by night. By
midnight, the workers in the MIC area started feeling the effects of MIC gas. The decision to address the
leak was to be made a couple of minutes later. However, by then the chemical reaction in the tank had
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reached a critical state. About 30 tonnes of MIC escaped from the tank into the atmosphere within an hour.
Most Bhopal residents were made aware of the gas leak by exposure to the gas itself.

• What is Methyl Isocyanite (MIC)?

Methyl Isocyanate is a colourless liquid used for making pesticides. MIC is safe when maintained properly.
The chemical is highly reactive to heat. When exposed to water, the compounds in MIC react with each
other causing a heat reaction.

Methyl Isocyanite is no longer in production, although it is still used in pesticides. The Bayer CropScience
plant in Institute, West Virgina is currently the only storage location of MIC left across the globe.
• Methyl Isocyanate chemical reaction's impact on health
Immediate health effects include ulcers, photophobia, respiratory issues, anorexia, persistent abdominal
pain, genetic issue, neuroses, impaired audio and visual memory, impaired reasoning ability, and a lot more.

Long-term health effects include chronic conjunctivitis, decreased lung function, increased pregnancy loss,
increased infant mortality, increased chromosomal abnormalities, impaired associate learning and more.
• Impact of methyl Isocyanite leak
Doctors were not aware of proper treatment methods the incident. Methyl isocyanate gas leak killed more
than 15,000 people and affected over 600,000 workers. The stillbirth rate and the neonatal mortality rate
increased by up to 300% and 200% respectively. The gas leak impact trees and animals too. Within a
couple of days, trees in the nearby area became barren. Bloated animal carcasses had to be disposed of.
People ran on the streets, vomiting and dying. The city ran out of cremation grounds.

Govt's response to Bhopal tragedy

Until then, the Indian government had never dealt with a disaster like this. Legal proceedings between India,
UCC and the US began right after the catastrophe. The government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in
March 1985, which allowed it to act as the legal representative for victims. While the UCC initially offered
a $5 million relief fund to India, the government turned down the offer and demanded $3.3 billion.
Eventually, an out-of-court settlement was reached in February 1989, Union Carbide agreed to pay $470
million for damages caused. The Supreme Court of India also laid down guidelines for the money—the
family of the dead were to be given Rs 100,000-300,000. In addition, fully or partially disabled were to get
Rs 50,000-500,000 and those with a temporary injury, Rs 25,000-100,000. The apex court asked UCIL to
"voluntarily" fund a hospital in Bhopal to treat victims of the tragedy. In June 2010, seven former employees

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-J.Seetunya; Asst.Prof (MLRITM)
of UCIL, who were all Indian nationals, were convicted of causing death by negligence and sentenced to
two years of imprisonment. However, they were later released on bail.

2.3.3 WARFARE:
Disasters are also caused by sociopolitical conflicts that escalate into violence. War is defined as a conflict
between to large groups of population, which involves physical force, violence and the use of weapons.

Let us discuss the warfare disaster with the help of an case study related to war and terrorist strikes.

Following is the list of terrorist attacks in India for the past two decades.

From the table we can the understand the number of persons loosing their life in a terrorist attack and the
family depending on them. In addition to the death toll these attacks also impact the propertry loss and the
GDPA of the country. In order to discuss the effects in detail let us the report of death toll and property loss
of one such terrorist attack.

Case study

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-J.Seetunya; Asst.Prof (MLRITM)
The 2019 Pulwama attack occurred on 14 February 2019, when a convoy of vehicles carrying Indian
security personnel on the Jammu–Srinagar National Highway was attacked by a vehicle-borne suicide
bomber at Lethapora (near Awantipora) in the Pulwama district of the erstwhile state of Jammu and
Kashmir. The attack killed 40 Indian Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)[a] personnel as well as the
perpetrator—Adil Ahmad Dar—who was a local Kashmiri youth from the Pulwama district.[2][3] The
responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Pakistan-based Islamist terrorist[4] group, Jaish-e-
Mohammed.[5] India blamed neighboring Pakistan for the attack, while the latter condemned the attack and
denied having any connections to it.[6] The attack dealt a severe blow to India–Pakistan relations,
consequently resulting in the 2019 India–Pakistan military standoff.

Location Lethapora, Pulwama district, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Date 14 February 2019 ; 15:15 IST (UTC+05:30)

Target Central Reserve Police Force security personnel

Attack type Suicide attack, car bombing

Deaths 40 (+1 suicide bomber)[1]

Injured 35

Perpetrators Jaish-e-Mohammed

Assailants Adil Ahmad Dar

2.4 HAZARD AND VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA:

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-J.Seetunya; Asst.Prof (MLRITM)