UNIT 1: Conductors, insulators and semiconductors

If we connect a battery across a body, there is a movement of free electrons towards the
positive end. This movement of electrons is an electric current. All materials can be classified
into three groups according to how readily they permit an electric current to flow. These are:
conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
In the first category are substances which provide an easy path for an electric current. All
metals are conductors, however some metals do not conduct well. Manganin, for example, is a
poor conductor. Copper is a good conductor, therefore it is widely used for cables. A non-metal
which conducts well is carbon. Salt water is an example of a liquid conductor.
A material which does not easily release electrons is called an insulator. Rubber, nylon,
porcelain and air are all insulators. There are no perfect insulators. All insulators will allow
some flow of electrons, however this can usually be ignored because the flow they permit is so
small.
Semiconductors are midway between conductors and insulators. Under certain conditions
they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave as insulators. Germanium and
silicon are semiconductors. Mixtures of certain metallic oxides also act as semiconductors.
These are known as thermistors. The resistance of thermistors falls rapidly as their temperature
rises. They are therefore used in temperature-sensing devices.
1.1.1. Exercise 1: Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with expressions from
the passage which have similar meanings:
1. The flow of free electrons is called an electric current.
2. Materials in the first group are called conductors.
3. Materials which provide a path for an electric current are conductors.
4. All insulators permit some flow of electrons.
5. Germanium sometimes acts as an insulator and sometimes as a conductor.
1.1.2. Exercise 2: Contextual Reference
Which do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to?
1. All materials can be classified into three groups according to how readily they permit an
electric current to flow (line 3)
a) Three groups
b) All materials
c) Free electrons
2. Under certain conditions, they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave
as insulators (line 16)
a) Conductors.
b) Semiconductors
c) Insulators
3. These are known as thermistors. (line 18)
a) Metallic oxides.
b) Semiconductors.
c) Mixtures of certain metallic oxides
4. They are therefore used in temperature-sensing devices.
a) Thermistors.
b) Semiconductors.
c) Metallic oxides.
1.1.3. Exercise 3: Checking Facts and Ideas
Describe if these statement are true or false. Quote from the passage to support your
decision.
1. Electrons flow from positive to negative.
2. Copper provides an easy path for an electric current.
3. All metals are good conductors.z
4. All good conductors are metals.
5. Air is not a perfect good insulator.
6. Rubber readily releases electrons.
7. The resistance of a thermistor is higher at low temperature than at high temperatures.
* Terms:
- conductor (n) : chất dẫn điện
- insulator (n) : chất cách điện
- semiconductor (n) : chất bán dẫn
- connect (v) : kết nối
- battery (n) : ắc quy
- movement (n) : dòng chuyển dời
- positive end >< negative end (n) : cực dương >< cực âm
- electric current (n) : dòng điện
- material = substance (n) : vật liệu
- classify (v) : phân loại
- permit (v) : cho phép
- category (n) : nhóm
- metal >< non-metal (n) : kim loại >< phi kim
- copper (n) : đồng
- cable (n) : cáp
- salt water (n) : nước muối
- liquid (n) : chất lỏng
- rubber (n) : cao su
- nylon (n) : ni – long
- porcelain (n) : sứ cách điện
- ignore (v) : bỏ qua
- condition (n) : điều kiện
- behave as = act as (v) : hoạt động như
- thermistor (n) : nhiệt điện trở
- resistance (n) : giá trị điện trở
- temperature-sensing device (n) : thiết bị cảm nhiệt
- release (v) : giải phóng

1.2. Use of Language

1.2.1. Relative Clause 1

1.2.1.1. Grammar

1.2.1.1.1. Uses

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without

starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes
more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

1.2.1.1.2. Structure

Who, which, where, that are relative pronouns. They are used to link ideas.

* Which/that = thing/things

Ex1: 1. Starter motor brushes are made of carbon.

2. The carbon contains copper.

Both these sentences refer to carbon. We can link them by making sentence 2 a
relative clause.

-> Starter motor brushes are made of carbon WHICH CONTAINS copper.

The relative clause is in capitals. Note that THE CARBON in sentence 2 becomes WHICH.

* Who = person/people

Ex2: 3. Consumers are supplied at higher voltages than domestic consumers.

 4. These consumers use large quantities of energy.

-> Consumers who use large quantities of energy are supplied a higher voltages than domestic
consumers.

* Where (in which) = place/places

Ex3: 5. 33kV lines are fed to intermediate substations.

6. In the intermediate substations where the voltage is stepped down to 11kV.

-> 33kV lines are fed to intermediate substation where the voltage is stepped down to 11kV.

1.2.1.2. Exercises

Now link these sentences. Make the second sentence in each pair a relative clause.

1. The coil is connected in a series with a resistor.

The resistor has a value of 249 ohms.

2. The supply is fed to the distribution substation.

The supply is reduced to 415 V in the distribution substation.

3. Workers require a high degree of illumination.

The workers assemble very small precision instrument.

4. Manganin is a metal.

This metal has a comparatively high resistance.

5. The signal passes to the detector.

The signal is rectified by the detector.

6. A milliammeter is an instrument.

The instrument is used for measuring small current.

7. Workers require illumination of 300 lux.

The workers assemble heavy machinery.

8. Armoured cables are used in places

There is a risk of mechanical damage in these places.

1.2.2. Reason and Connectives 1

1.2.2.1. Grammar

1.2.2.1.1. Uses

Ex1: 1. Copper is used for cables.

2. Copper is a good conductor.

Sentence 1 tells us what copper is used for. Sentence 2 tells us why it is used. Sentence
2 provides a reason for sentence 1. We can link a statement a reason using because.

-> Copper is used for cables BECAUSE it is a good conductor.

* When the reason is a noun or a noun phrase, we use because of.

Ex2: The motor overheated BECAUSE OF dirt in the air gap.

Ex3: 3. The flow of electron through an insulator is very small.

4. The flow can be ignored.

Sentence 4 is the result of sentence 3. We can link a statement and a result using therefore.

-> The flow of electrons through an insulator is very small, THEREFORE it can be ignored.

1.2.2.1.2. Structure

Because + a clause

Because of + a noun/a noun phrase

Therefore + a clause

* Notes: A comma is used before therefore

1.2.2.2. Exercise

Now link these ideas using because and therefore to make shorten two sentences.

1. Soft iron is used in electromagnets.

Soft iron can be magnetized easily.

2. The voltage is 250 V and the current 5 A.

The resistance is 50 ohms

3. Pvc is used to cover cables.

Pvc is a good insulator.

4. Transistors can be damaged by the heat.

Care must be taken when soldering transistors.

5. Capacitance is usually measured in microfarads or pico-farads.

The farad is too large a unit.

6. Output transistors are mounted on a heat sink.

Output transistors generate heat

7. It is easy to control the speed of DC motors.

DC motors are used when variable speeds are required.

8. A cathode ray tube screen glows when an electron beam strike it.

The screen is coated with a phosphor.

UNIT 2: Circuit Elements

Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low potential. It can
only do so if there is a path for it to follow. This path is called an electric circuit. All
circuits contain for elements: a source, a load, a transmission system and a control.
The source provides the electromotive force. This establishes the difference in
potential which makes current flow possible. The source can be any device which supplies
electrical energy. For example, it may be a generator or a battery.
The load converts the electrical energy from the source into some other form of
energy. For instance, a lamp changes electrical energy into light and heat. The load can be
any electrical device.
The transmission system conducts the current round the circuit. Any conductor can
be part of a transmission system. Most systems consist of wires. It is often possible,
however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one section of its transmission system. For
example. the metal chassis of many electrical devices are used to conduct current. Similarly
the body of a car is part of its electrical transmission system.
The control regulates the current flow in the circuit. It may control the current by
limiting it as does a rheostat, or by interrupting it, as does a switch.

Study Figure 1. In this simple flashlight circuit, the source comprises three 1.5 V
cells in series. The load is a 0.3 W bulb. Part of the transmission system is the metal body of
the flashlight, and the control is a sliding switch

Compare Figure 2. The function of this circuit is to operate a television camera abroad a
space satellite. Here the source is a battery of solar cells. A solar cell is an electric cell which
converts sunlight into electrical energy. The load is the television camera. The transmission
system is the connecting wires. The control is a relay actuated by transmissions from ground
control. Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the flashlight, it
too consists of the four basic elements
2.1.1. Exercise 1: Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with expressions from
the passage which has a similar meaning.
1. A lamp converts electrical energy into light.
2. The generator provides the circuit with electromotive force.
3. The metal frame of the oscilloscope is part of its transmission system.
4. The rheostat controls the current flow in the circuit.
5. A battery of a solar cells supplies power to the circuit.
2.1.2. Exercise 2: Contextual Reference
What do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to?
1. Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low potential. (line 1)
A- Current.
B- Energy
C- A point
2. For example, it may be a generator or a battery. (line 7)
A- The source
B- A device
C- Electromotive force
3. It is often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one
section of its transmission system. (line 13)
A- The metal frame’s
B- The unit’s
C- The circuit’s
4. Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the flashlight, it
too consists of the four elements. (line 27)
A- This circuit
B- The function
C- The flashlight
2.1.3. Exercise 3: Checking Facts and Ideas
Decide if these statements are true (T) or false (F). Quote from the passage to support
your decisions.
1. A difference in potential is required before current can flow in a circuit.
2. A generator is a source of electromotive force.
3. Loads convert electrical energy into light and heat.
4. Transmission system must consist of wires.
5. A rheostat may be used as a control.
6. The load in the flashlight circuit is a bulb.
7. The source in the satellite circuit is a solar cell.
8. The current flows in the satellite circuit is regulated by a relay.
9. The flashlight circuit differs basically from the satellite circuit.
* Terms:
- circuit (n) : mạch điện
- element (n) : thành phần
- potential energy (n) : hiệu điện thế
- path (n) : đường dẫn
- electric circuit (n) : mạch điện
- source (n) : nguồn
- load (n) : tải
- transmission system (n) : hệ thống truyền dẫn
- control (n) : bộ phận điều khiển
- electromotive force (n) : suất điện động
- establish (v) : thiết lập
- difference in potential (n) : sự chênh lệch về điện thế
- generator (n) : máy phất điện
- convert (v) : chuyển đổi
- lamp (n) : đèn
- electrical device (n) : thiết bị điện
- wire (n) : dây dẫn
- chassis (n) : khung
- similar (a) : tương tự
- regulate (v) : điều chỉnh
- rheostat (n) : biến trở
- interrupt (v) : ngắt quãng
- switch (n) : khóa ngắt
- flashlight (n) : đèn pin
- sliding switch (n) : công tắc trượt
- function (n) : chức năng
- satellite (n) : vệ tinh
- solar cell (n) : pin mặt trời
- relay (n) : rơ – le
- actuate (v) : vận hành

2.2. Use of Language

2.2.1. Describing Function

2.2.1.1. Grammar

- When we answer the question What does X do?, we describe the function of X.

Ex: - What does a fuse do?

- It protects a circuit.

- We can emphasize function by using this pattern:

 + The function of a fuse is to protect a circuit.

2.2.1.2. Exercise

Now identify and explain the function of each component with help of this list.

a. adds capacitance to a circuit.

b. rectifies alternating currents

c. adds resistance to a circuit.

d. measures very small currents.

e. breaks a circuit.

f. protects a circuit.

g. varies the current in a circuit.

h. transforms AC voltages.

i. receives rf signals.

j. selects a frequency.

2.2.2. Describing Purpose

2.2.2.1. Grammar

- When we answer the question What is X for?, we describe the purpose of X.

 Ex: - What is an ammeter for?

- It is for measuring current.

- Other ways we can describe the purpose of an ammeter are:

+ It is used for measuring current.

+ It is used to measure current.

+ We measure current with an ammeter.

+ We measure current using an ammeter.

* Structure:

- Question: What is X for?

+ It is for + V_ing …

+ It is used for V_ing …

+ It is used to V…

+ We + V … with X …

+ We + V … using X …

2.2.2.2. Exercise

- Now describe the purpose of these instruments and tools using any of the structures
presented above.

1. A voltmeter/measuring voltage.

2. A soldering iron/ heating joints and soldering them.

3. A milli-ammeter/measuring very small current.

4. An oscilloscope/showing variables of the current in wave lines on the screen of CRT.

5. A heat sink/ reducing heat.

6. Wire-clippers/cutting wires.

7. A megohmmeter/ measuring very high resistance.

8. An ohmmeter/ measuring resistance.

9. A signal generator/ generating signals.

10. A battery charger/ charging batteries.

2.2.3. Relative Clause 3: Making Definition

2.2.3.1. Grammar

Ex: The cables were undamaged.

The cables were armoured.

- We can link them in two ways using a relative clause:

1. The cable WHICH WERE ARMOURED were undamaged.

2. The cables, WHICH WERE ARMOURED, were undamaged.

- Sentence 1 means that only the armoured cables were undamaged. Other cables, for
example pvc coated cables, were damaged. The relative clause is a defining one. It defines the
type of cable which was undamaged. It carries essential information.

- Sentence 2 means that all the cables were undamaged and all the cables were armoured.
The relative clause is a non-defining one. It adds some extra information to the sentence
but it is not essential. We can remove it from the sentence and the sentence still makes
good sense. It is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

- One use of defining clauses is to make definitions.

- We can make a definition of solar cell by joining (a), (b) and (c).

A solar cell is an electric cell which converts sunlight into electrical energy.
2.2.3.2. Exercise

- Now make eight definitions using information in this table. You must decide the correct
combinations of (A), (B) and (C).

(A) (B) (C)

A generator a material - measures light

An insulator - readily releases electrons

An alternating current an instrument - flows first in one direction then in

A direct current a current the other

A resistor a device - does not readily release electrons.

A conductor - impedes the flow of current in a

A light meter circuit

An ammeter - measures current

- converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy.

- flows in one direction only.

UNIT 3: The DC motor

An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Motor can be designed to run on direct (dc) or alternating current (ac). The motor shown in
Figure 1 is a dc motor. Its most important parts are the rotor, the stator and the brushgear.
The rotor is the moving part. It contains an armature, which are set of wire loops wound
on a steel core. When current is fed to the armature, these windings produce a magnetic field.
The armature and core are mounted on a shaft which runs on bearings. It provides a means of
transmitting power from the motor.
The rotor also contains a commutator. This consists of a number of copper segments
insulated from one another. The armature windings are connected to these segments. Carbon
brushes are held in contact with the commutator by springs. These brushes allow current to pass
to the armature windings. As the rotor turns, the commutator acts as a switch making the current
in the armature alternate.
The motor does not move. It consists of magnetic and electrical conductors. The
magnetic circuit is made up the frame and the poles. Wound round the poles are the field coils.
These form the stator's electrical circuit. When current is fed to them, a magnetic field is set up
in the stator.
The motor operates on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, a force is produced on the conductor. The interaction of the forces produced by
the magnetic field of the rotor and the stator makes the rotor spin.
3.1.1. Exercise 1: Meaning from Context
Select the word from the three alternatives given which is most similar to meaning to
the word in italics as it is used in the passage:
1. Provides (line 8)
A- Produces
B- Supplies
C- Allows
2. segments (line 11)
A- sections
B- pieces
C- wires
3. alternate (line 15)
A- reverse
B- change
C- flow in one direction then in another
4. interaction (line 22)
A- acting together
B- operation
C-result
3.1.2. Exercise 2: Complete a Diagram
Complete the following diagram of the component of a DC motor using the
information in the passage and figure 3.1
3.1.3. Exercise 3: Describing Position
Describe the following components are located using the information in the passage
and the figure 3.1.

1. The armature windings

2. The core
3. The field coils
4. T he poles
5. Commutator
+ The armature windings are wound round on a steel core.
+ The core is mounted on a shaft which runs on bearings.
+ The field coils are wound round the poles.
+ The poles are wound round by the fields coils.
+ Commutator is held in contact with carbon brushes by springs.
* Terms:
- electric motor (n) : động cơ điện
- direct current (n) : dòng một chiều
- alternating current (n) : dòng xoay chiều
- machine (n) : máy móc
- mechanical energy (n) : cơ năng
- rotor (n) : rô – to
- stator (n) : sta - to
- brushgear (n) : bộ phận chổi
- wire loop (n) : vòng dây dẫn
- steel core (n) : lõi thép
- armature (n) : phần ứng
- winding (n) : cuộn dây
- magnetic field (n) : từ trường
- shaft (n) : trục
- bearing (n) : ổ đỡ
- transmitting power (n) : điện truyền động
- commutator (n) : cổ góp điện
- segment (n) : thanh mỏng
- magnetic conductor (n) : chất dẫn từ
- pole (n) : cực
- interaction (n) : sự tương tác

3.2. Use of Language

3.2.1. Describing Component Parts 1

3.2.1.1. Grammar

The following verbs can be break down a piece of equipment into its component parts.
Note how they are used.

consists of X
A
A comprises X and Y Y
is composed of

is made up of

CD
A
 contains

A includes C and D

3.2.1.2. Exercise

Study this description of a simple transformer:

A simple transformer consist of two coils, primary and secondary, wound on a former
which is mounted on a soft-iron core. The coils are made up of a number of laminations of
turns of insulated wire. The core is composed of thin laminations. Either E-and I-or U- and
T-shaped laminations are used. The former is mounted on the centre limb of the E or T.

- Now complete this diagram of the components of the transformer:

* Terms:

- transformer (n) : máy biến áp

- primary coil (n) : cuộn dây sơ cấp
- secondary coil (n) : cuộn dây thứ cấp
- former (n) : khung
- soft – iron core (n) : lõi sắt từ
- lamination (n) : lá cách điện
- limb (n) : cạnh
3.2.2. Writing impersonal instructions

3.2.2.1. Grammar

- Study these instructions

1. Use a high-resistance voltmeter.

 2. Do not insert a fuse in an earth conductor

- In writing instructions are often made impersonal using should

Ex:1. A high-resistance voltmeter SHOULD be used.

2. A fuse SHOULD NOT be inserted in an earth conductor.

- We emphasize an instruction by using must

Ex: 1. A high-resitance voltmeter MUST be used

2. A fuse MUST NOT be inserted

3.2.2.2. Exercise

- Here are some points to remember when using transistors. Study them:

+ Use heat shunts when soldering

+ Do not connect or disconnect transistors with the power on.

+ Do not use an ohmmeter for checking transistors unless a safe voltage or current
range is used.

+ Keep sharp bends in the leads at least 1.5 mm away from the transistor body.

+ Do not exceed the reverse breakdown voltage.

- Rewrite each instruction to make it impersonal. Then emphasize each instruction using must.

3.2.3. Relative Clauses 3: Clauses with Prepositions

3.2.3.1. Grammar

- Study these sentences:

1. The resistor has a value of 33 000 ohms.

2. The capacitor is connected across the resistor.

- Note how they can be linked using a relative clause:

1+2. The resistor ACROSS WHICH the capacitor is connected has a value of 33000 ohms.
 The repeated noun in sentence 2, resistor, has a preposition, across, before it. This
preposition must be included in the relative clause. It is placed before the relative word, which.

3.2.3.1. Exercise

- Now link these sentences. Make the second sentence in each pair a relative clause.

1. The range is 0-1000 volts.

The meter can operate over the range.

2. A battery is a device.

The device changes chemical energy into electrical energy.

3. Power supplies are used to drive DC motors.

The power supplies use thyristor rectifiers.

4. The capacitor has a value of 27pF.

The signal is passed through the capacitor.

5. The telephone is a device.

The device uses the magnetic effect of a current.

6. The receiver can only be used with headphones

The headphones have high impedance.

7. The plates are known as X and Y plates.

The beam passes between the plates.

8. The rotor contains a commutator.

The commutator acts as a switch.

UNIT 4: Process Control System

Control systems provide a mean of replacing human operators in many industrial
processes. They are widely used to monitor and control pressure, temperature, motor speed, the
flow of a liquid or any other physical variable. They must be capable of fulfilling a number of
functions. First, the physical variable to be controlled, such as the air temperature in a factory or
the pressure of a hydraulic system, must be measured. Then its value must be compared with the
desired value. Next, action has to be taken to reduce to zero the difference between the actual
and desired value.
The basic components of a control system are an input transducer, an error sensor, a
controller and an output transducer. The input transducer converts changes in the physical
variable into electrical signals. Figure 1 shows one type of transducer which converts changes in
pressure to frequency changes. Pressure changes move the diaphragm in or out, thus altering the
position of the ferrite core in L1 which forms part of a tuned circuit. This causes the frequency of
the circuit to change, thus altering the output frequency of the oscillator. The output is then fed
to an error sensor.

FIGURE 1
The error sensor measures the deviation between the actual and desired values for the
variable. The controller receives the error sensor output and uses it to control the variable either
directly or indirectly. A simple controller is an electromagnetic relay which uses a small signal
to control a much larger signal such as a power supply output.
The output transducer converts the electrical output from the controller into whatever
form of energy is required to change the physical variable. It may be a valve, a heater, a motor
or any electrically operated piece of fluid in a pipeline.
Let us take as an example a process system for controlling the speed of a dc motor. The
input transducer measures the speed and converts it into a voltage. The error sensor compares
this voltage with the voltage across a speed-setting potentiometer. The error sensor output is fed
to the controller which sends a signal to the power supply of the motor. This increases or
reduces the supply of current to the motor, thus controlling its speed.
The operation of a process control system is summarized in Figure 2 which shows a
input error controller
closed-loop system. In such a system
transducer the results of the action of the controller are constantly fed
sensor
back to it provides a
measures the compares the signal to drive
variable and input signal the output
produces an with the transducer
electrical desired value
input signal
 output
physical transducer
variable
acts on the
FIGURE 2 physical variable
to change it to the
4.1.1. Exercise 1: Meaning from Context desired value
Select a word from the three alternatives given to replace the word in italics taken
from the passage:
1. Monitor (line 2)
a- Warn
b- Check
c- Convert
2. desired (line 7)
a- actual
b- changed
c- required
3. deviation (line 17)
a- mistake
b- bias
c- difference
4. converts (line 22)
a- changes
b- controls
c- generates
4.1.2. Exercise 2: Contextual Reference
What do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to?
1. They must be capable of fulfilling a number of functions (line 4)
a- control system
b- industrial processes
c- human operators
2. Then its value must be compared with the desired value. (line 6)
a- the pressure
b- the air temperature
c- the physical variable
3. This causes the frequency of the circuit to change, thus alternating the output frequency
of the oscillator (line 14)
a- moving the diaphragm in or out
b- alternating the position of the ferrite core
c- changing the pressure
4. It may be a valve, a heater, a motor, or any electrically-operated piece of equipment.
(line 23)
a- the output transducer
b- the electrical output
c- the physical variable
5. In such a system the results of the action of the controller are constantly fed back to it. (line
34)
a- a process control system
b- a closed-loop system
c- a system for controlling the speed of a DC motor
4.1.3. Exercise 3: Finding out Facts
- Answer questions about the passage:
+ What must a process control system be capable of doing?
+ Compare an input transducer with an output transducer.
+ What is the function of an error sensor?
+ What is a closed - loop system?
+ How does a control system provide a means of replacing human operators?
+ Fill in the blanks in the following diagram to explain how the frequency-
changing input transducer operates. Use the phrases given.

* Terms:
- process control system (n) : hệ thống điều khiển quá trình
- human operator (n) : thao tác của con người
- industrial process (n) : quy trình công nghiệp
- monitor (v) : giám sát
- pressure (n) : áp suất
- fulfill (v) : thực hiện
- physical variable (n)
- hydraulic system (n) : hệ thống thủy lực
- measure (v) : đo lường
- actual value >< desired value (n) : giá trị thực >< giá trị yêu cầu
- component (n) : thành phần
- input transducer (n) : bộ biến đổi đầu vào
- error sensor (n) : cảm biến sai
- output transducer (n) : bộ biến đổi đầu ra
- diaphragm (n) : màng chắn
- tuned circuit (n) : mạch dò
- deviation (n) : sự lệch hướng
- electromagnetic relay (n) : rơ - le điện từ
- power supply output (n) : đầu ra nguồn cung cấp
- pipeline (n) : ống dẫn

4.2. Use of Language

4.2.1. Cause and Effect 2

4.2.1.1. Grammar

Ex: Worn brushes cause sparking.

We represent a cause and effect like this:

Worn brushes sparking

- Study the circuit in the textbook.

When the switch is closed, two things happen:

(1) current flows through the filament.

(2) the bulb lights.

Action (1) is the cause. Action (2) is the effect. Both cause and effect are clauses. We can link
the two clauses in a number of ways:

- Using cause to or make:

+ Current flows through the filament CAUSING the light bulb TO light.

+ Current flows through the filament MAKING the bulb light.

- Using an -ing clause:

+ Current flows through the filament thereby LIGHTING the bulb.

* We can only use an -ing clause it the verb is transitive. Transitive verbs are verbs which can
have an object. In this case thereby can be omitted.

- Study the circuit in the book:

- When A and B are connected to an AC supply of 240 volts, two things happen:

(i) the supply current flows through the primary

(ii) a voltage of 24 V is induced in the secondary.

Action (i) is the cause, action (ii) is the effect. Both are clauses. The verb in action (ii) is
in the passive, is induced. We can link action (i) and (ii) using cause to or _ing clause.

Ex: + The supply current flows through the primary causing a voltage of 24 V to be
induced in the secondary.

+ The supply current flows through the primary, inducing a voltage of 24 V in the
secondary.

4.2.1.2. Exercise

- Now link these cause and effect pairs using the methods you have studied:

CAUSE EFFECT
1. The cathode is heated. Electrons are emitted.
2. The current rises sharply. The circuit-breaker opens.
3. A voltage is applied to the Y plates. The electron beam is deflected.
4. The thermostat contacts open at 20C. The heating system is turned off.
5. The current flows through the A magnetic field is set up round the
conductor. conductor.
6. The current passes through the water. The water breaks down into hydrogen and
oxygen.
7. The electrons strike the screen. The screen glows.
4.2.2. Expressing Possibility

4.2.2.1. Grammar

- We use can or may to express possibility

Ex: 1. We MAY transform ac voltages.

2. We CAN NOT transform dc voltages

The previous sentences are personal. Most technical writing is impersonal. There are
two ways to express possibility in an impersonal way:

- We use can or may with the passive.

Ex: 1. AC voltage MAY BE transformed.

2. DC voltages CAN NOT BE transformed.

- We use it is possible/impossible

Ex: 1. It is POSSIBLE to transform ac voltages.

2. It is IMPOSSIBLE to transform dc voltages.

4.2.2.2. Exercise

- Rewrite these sentences into different ways to make them impersonal:

+ We can use the meter-bridge method for most experiments involving resistance.

+ We may classify most materials as conductors or insulators.

+ We can not measure small currents accurately with an ammeter.

+ Often we can use a circuit breaker instead of a fuse.

+ You can heat non-conductors with a high frequency current.

+ Engineers can not make an ideal transformer.

+ Often we can use a dc machine as a motor or as a generator.

+ We cannot operate dc machines on ac supplies.

4.2.3. Sentence Building

 Join the following groups of sentences to make ten longer sentences. Use the words
printed in italics above each group. You may omit words and make whatever changes you
think are necessary in the word order and punctuation of the sentences.

1. Which

A resistor is a device.

A resistor is used to add resistance to a circuit.

2. Both

Many types of resistors are made.

Fixed and variable resistors are made.

3. Either…or

Most resistors are made from two materials.

Resistance wire and compressed graphite are used.

4. Such as, which

Wire wound resistor consists of a coil of resistance wire. Nichrome is

a resistance wire.

The resistance wire is wound on a former.

5. To

A ceramic coating is applied over the winding.

The ceramic coating insulates the winding.

6. For example

For small currents, carbon resistors are used.

Small current are usual in radio work.

7. Which

Carbon resistors are made of compressed graphite.

The graphite is formed into small tubes.

8. Which

Connections are made with wires.

The wires are attached to the ends of the resistor.

9. Either…or….

Variable resistor may have a coil of resistance wire.

Variable resistors may have carbon track.

10. So that

The wire or track is mounted.

A sliding contact can rub over it to select the resistance required.

Unit 5: The cathode ray tube

The cathode ray tube (crt) is used in osciloscopes, radar receivers and television sets. The
type described here is that used in oscilloscopes. By means of crt, an oscilloscope not only
shows the size of a signal, but also how the signal varies with time. In other words it shows the
waveform of the signal.
The crt operates as follows. First electrons are emitted from a heated cathode. Then these
electrons are accelerated to give them velocity. Next they are formed into a beam which can be
deflected vertically and horrizontally. Finally they are made to strike a screen coated on its inner
surface with a phosphor.
The crt comprises an electron gun and a deflection system enclosed in a glass tube with a
phosphor coated screen. The electron gun forms the electrons into a beam. It contains a cathode
which is heated to produce a stream of electrons. On the same axis as the cathode is a cylinder
known as the grid. By varying the negative potential on the grid, the intensity of the beam can be
varied. A system of three anodes follows. These accelerate the beam and also operate as a lens
to focus the beam on the screen as a small dot. Varying the potential on the central anode, a2,
allows the focus to be adjusted.
 On leaving the electron gun, the beam passes through two sets of plates which are at right
angles to each other. The first set of plates are the Y plates. As these are nearer the anodes, they
have a greater effect on the beam. Therefore the signal is applied to this set. They control the
vertical deflection of the beam. The second set are the X plates. On an oscilloscope is the time
axis. By means of the deflection system, then, the beam can be made to traverse the screen both
horizontally and vertically.
The final element is the phosphor coated screen. When the electron beam strikes
the screen, the phosphor coating fluoresces. Various colours of light are produced
depending on the phosphor used.

5.1.1. Exercise 1: Meaning from Context

Select a word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to
the word in italics it is used in the passage:
1. Emitted

a. scattered

b. given off

c. absorbed

2. Deflected
a. moved

b. bent

c. changed

3. Intensity

a. focus

b.brightness

c. shape

4. Adjusted

a. reduced

b. varied

c. increased

5. Regular

a. frequent
b. equally time
c. varying
6. Fluoresces
a. lights
b. emits electrons
c. turns green
5.1.2. Exercise 2: Finding out Facts
- Answer these questions about the passage
+ Why is an oscilloscope better than a meter?
+ What is the source of electrons for the electron beam?
+ What is the function of the electrons gun?
+ How is the intensity of the beam controlled?
+ In what way is the system of anodes like a lens?
 + What does the timebase do?
+ Why is the signal applied to the Y plates?
.1.3. Exercise 3: Diagram Labeling

* Terms:

- cathode ray tube (n) : ống tia ca - tốt

- oscilloscope (n) : dao động kế
- receiver (n) : máy thu
- signal (n) : tín hiệu
- accelerate (v) : gia tốc
- velocity (n) : tốc độ
- vertical (adj) : thẳng đứng
- horizontal (adj) : nằm ngang
- deflect (v) : lệch hướng
- coat (v) : tráng phủ
- electron gun (n) : súng điện tử
- lens (n) : thấu kính
- grid (n) : hệ thống đường dây điện
- plate (n) : bộ cực
- traverse (v) : cắt ngang
- fluoresce (v) : phát sáng
- angle (n) : góc

5.2. Use of Language

5.2.1. Describing a Process
5.2.1.1. Grammar
To make the correct sequence of a number of events clear, we often use sequence
words like these:
a. First/firstly/first of all
b. Second/secondly
c. Third/thirdly
d. Then
e. Next
f. After that
g. Finally
(a) and (g) must come first and last respectively, but the others can be used in any
order and can be repeated.
5.2.1.2. Exercise
Now replace each number in your description of soldering a resistor into place with a
sequence word to make the order of events clear.
The following diagram shows the distribution of power from the power station to the
consumer. The sentences which follow it describe the distribution. Put the sentences in the
correct order and mark this order using sequence words.
 In the UK, electrical energy is generated at power station at 25kV. First, it is stepped
up by a transformer to 132, 275 or 400kV for long- distance distribution. Then it passes
via the switching compound to the grid. Next, it is distributed via the grid system to main grid
supply point where it is stepped down 33kV of distribution to heavy industry. After that, it is
distributed via overheat or underground cables to intermediate substations where it is
further reduced to 11kV for light industry. Then it is fed to distribution substation where it is
reduced to 415 V, 3 phase and 240V, 1 phase. Finally, it is distributed to the domestic
consumer.
5.2.2. Reduced Time Clauses
5.2.2.1. Grammar
- Study these two actions:
+ Ground waves pass over sand.
+ Ground waves lose energy.
- We can link these actions to make one sentence, using a time clause:
When ground waves pass over sand, they lose energy.
- Because the subject of both actions is the same - ground waves - there is a shorter method
we can use to link the actions:
When passing over sand, ground waves lose energy.
- When + _ing shows that action 2 happens during the same period as Action 1.
- Now study these two actions:
+ The sky wave strikes the earth.
+ The sky wave bounces back again.
- Again we can link these actions to make one sentence using:
When the sky wave strikes the earth, it bounces back again.
- We can also link the actions in a shorter way:
On striking the earth, the sky wave bounces back again.
On + _ing shows that the action 2 follows immediately after the action 1.
5.2.2.2. Exercise
- Link these pairs of actions. Use short ways when this is possible:
1. The switch is closed.
Current flows through the primary of the transformer.
2. The radar signal strikes a plane.
The radar signal is reflected.
3. A cell discharges quickly.
A cell may become hot.
4. The TV receives signals from the remote control.
The TV follows your instructions.
5. The radar receivers receive the reflected signal.
The signal is compared with the transmitted signal.
6. You choose a course in electronics.
You think carefully about your future.
7. Microwave signals strike a high building.
Microwave signals are deflected.
8. You make a recording.
You should ensure the recording levels are satisfactory.
9. The alarm detects an intruder.
The alarm triggers an audible warning.
10. The remote control is pressed.
The TV set changes channel.
5.2.3. Sentence Building
Join the following groups of sentences to make ten longer sentences. Use the words
printed in italics above each group. You may omit words and make whatever changes you
think are necessary in the word order and punctuation of the sentences.
1. or
Circuits can be protected from excessive currents by a fuse.
Circuits can be protected from excessive currents by a circuit breaker.
2. however
A fuse is the simplest and cheapest protection.
For accurate and repetitive operation a circuit breaker is used.
3. which
The simplest circuit breaker consists of a solenoid and a switch with contacts.
The contacts are held closed by a latch.
4. thus energizing
The current from the supply line flows through the switch and solenoid coil.
This energizes the solenoid.
5. which, therefore
At normal currents the pull of the solenoid on the latch will not overcome the tension of the
spring.
The spring holds the latch in place.
The switch remains closed.
6. if
The current rises to a dangerous level.
The pull of the solenoid on the latch increases.
7. and
The increased pull overcomes the latch spring tension.
The increased pull pulls the latch towards the solenoid.
8. which
This releases the switch contacts.
The switch contacts are pulled apart by a spring.
9. as
The circuit is now broken.
The unit is protected.
10. when
The fault is the supply or unit is put right.
The latch can be reset.