3.4.

Multimeter

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog
instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be
made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. A multimeter can
be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of
accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic
equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Seeing as how a common meter movement can be made to function as a voltmeter, ammeter, or ohmmeter simply by connecting it to different
external resistor networks, it should make sense that a multi-purpose meter (”multimeter”) could be designed in one unit with the appropriate
switch(es) and resistors. For general purpose electronics work, the multimeter reigns supreme as the instrument of choice. No other device is
able to do so much with so little an investment in parts and elegant simplicity of operation. As with most things in the world of electronics, the
advent of solid-state components like transistors has revolutionized the way things are done, and multimeter design is no exception to this rule.
However, in keeping with this discussion’s emphasis on analog (”old-fashioned”) meter technology, I’ll show you a few pre-transistor meters.

Figure 1.  Analog Multimeter

The unit shown above is typical of a handheld analog multimeter, with ranges for voltage, current, and resistance measurement. Note the many
scales on the face of the meter movement for the different ranges and functions that can be selected by the rotary switch. The wires for
connecting this instrument to a circuit (test probes) are plugged into the two copper jacks (socket holes) at the bottom-center of the meter face
marked ”- ,+”, black and red.

The parts of a multitester are:

A Scale
A Needle or Pointer
An Adjustment Screw
A Zero Ohm Selector
A Range Selector Knob
Ports
Test Probes
 Figure 2. Modern-day Analog multimeter

Image: Electrical Knowledge

Scale

This is how you read the value being measured.

For an analog multitester, this is a series of markings in a semicircle.

In the example above, voltage, current, and resistance can be displayed. Which value you are measuring depends on what port you plugged
into on your analog multitester.

Needle Pointer

This is the needle-shaped rod that moves over the scale of a meter.

The needle pointer is mechanically connected to the moving coil. The value the pointer hovers over indicates the value being measured by the
multitester.

Note that when there are multiple values being measured on the same scale, you’ll need to pay attention to which port the multitester is
connected to. Match the port up with the value being measured.

Adjustment Screw

Also known as the dial or infinity knob. This allows you to adjust the pointer to the zero position of the scale – usually with the help of a flat head
screwdriver (check out our best electricians screwdriver sets if you’re looking for a good set).

Fun fact: the name ‘infinity knob’ comes from the fact that at 0 voltage, you have ‘infinite resistance’ (as per Ohm’s law).

Zero-Ohm Adjustment Knob

The zero-ohm adjustment knob is used to calibrate the multitester when you want to measure the resistance of an object.

To make sure the multitester is calibrated correctly:

Turn on the multitester

And that’s it! Since you’re not putting anything between the two metal tips, you would expect the multitester to read a resistance value of zero. If
that’s not the case – then you need to use the zero-ohm adjustment knob to calibrate the multitester to… zero ohms!
 Figure 3. Zero-ohm adjustment knob calibration

Image: Electrical Knowledge

Range Selector Knob

Also known as a selector switch. This allows you to adjust the settings of the multitester (range selector knobs are also present on the best
insulation resistance testers).

Using this you can change what the multitester is measuring (e.g. voltage, current, or resistance), as well as the range of the measurement(e.g.
volts or millivolts).

The range selector knob can be auto ranging, or manual ranging.

Figure 4. Ranging

Image: Electrical Knowledge

Auto ranging is much easier to work with. You simply adjust the dial to the symbol corresponding the the electrical parameter you want to
measure. You connect the test probes and like magic – you have your measurement.

Manual ranging on the other hand is a little bit trickier. With manual ranging, you need adjust the dial so that the value its set to is higher than the
maximum value you expect from your circuit.

Let’s run through an example. In the image above, the multitester measures current using a manual range setting. The setting values are:

400 µA
4 mA
40 mA
400 mA
10 A

So lets say I have a circuit where I expect the maximum current to be 300 mA. I now need to select the manual setting which is higher than my
expected maximum current. Hence I should adjust the range selector switch to the 400 mA setting.

In another circuit where I expect a maximum current of 6 A, I would adjust the selector switch to the 10 A setting. Here the 400 mA setting would
be too low, as 400 mA < 6 A (remembering that 6 A = 6000 mA).
Ports

The holes at the front of the multitester are known as ports. You need you plug your test probes into the appropriate ports to allow the multitester
to measure the parameter that you’re interested in.

Test Probes

A test probe (or test lead) is an instrument used to connect a multitester to a Device Under Test (DUT).

Test probes are flexible, insulated wires. They are able to establish an electrical connection between a multitester and the DUT without exposing
electrical workers to live conductive parts.

Red test probes connect to the positive terminal, and black test probes connect to the negative terminal.

The best multimeter test leads are well insulated, strong, and low cost – while bad test probes can be expensive and fragile.

For a simple handheld multitester, the strong low-cost test leads are usually sufficient.

Types of Probes

The types of probes include:

Banana plug to Simple Test Probes

Figure 5. Digital Multimeter

Image: EsoGoal

Lastly, here is a picture of a digital multimeter. Note that the familiar meter movement has been replaced by a blank, gray-colored display
screen. When powered, numerical digits appear in that screen area, depicting the amount of voltage, current, or resistance being measured.
This particular brand and model of digital meter has a rotary selector switch and four jacks into which test leads can be plugged. Two leads –
one red and one black – are shown plugged into the meter A close examination of this meter will reveal one ”common” jack for the black test
lead and three others for the red test lead. The jack into which the red lead is shown inserted is labeled for voltage and resistance measurement,
while the other two jacks are labeled for current (A, mA, and μA) measurement. This is a wise design feature of the multimeter, requiring the
user to move a test lead plug from one jack to another in order to switch from the voltage measurement to the current measurement function. It
would be hazardous to have the meter set in current measurement mode while connected across a significant source of voltage because of the
low input resistance, and making it necessary to move a test lead plug rather than just flip the selector switch to a different position helps ensure
that the meter doesn’t get set to measure current unintentionally. Note that the selector switch still has different positions for voltage and current
measurement, so in order for the user to switch between these two modes of measurement they must switch the position of the red test lead and
move the selector switch to a different position. Also note that neither the selector switch nor the jacks are labeled with measurement ranges. In
other words, there are no ”100 volt” or ”10 volt” or ”1 volt” ranges (or any equivalent range steps) on this meter. Rather, this meter is
”autoranging,” meaning that it automatically picks the appropriate range for the quantity being measured. Autoranging is a feature only found on
digital meters, but not all digital meters. No two models of multimeters are designed to operate exactly the same, even if they’re manufactured
by the same company. In order to fully understand the operation of any multimeter, the owner’s manual must be consulted.

With all three fundamental functions available, this multimeter may also be known as a volt-ohm-milliammeter. Obtaining a reading from an
analog multimeter when there is a multitude of ranges and only one meter movement may seem daunting to the new technician. On an analog
multimeter, the meter movement is marked with several scales, each one useful for at least one range setting. Here is a close-up photograph of
the scale from the Barnett multimeter:
 Figure 6. Barnett Multimeter

Image: All About circuits

Note that there are three types of scales on this meter face: a green scale for resistance at the top, a set of black scales for DC voltage and
current in the middle, and a set of blue scales for AC voltage and current at the bottom. Both the DC and AC scales have three sub-scales, one
ranging 0 to 2.5, one ranging 0 to 5, and one ranging 0 to 10. The meter operator must choose whichever scale best matches the range switch
and plug settings in order to properly interpret the meter’s indication. This particular multimeter has several basic voltage measurement ranges:
2.5 volts, 10 volts, 50 volts, 250 volts, 500 volts, and 1000 volts. With the use of the voltage range extender unit at the top of the multimeter,
voltages up to 5000 volts can be measured. Suppose the meter operator chose to switch the meter into the ”volt” function and plug the red test
lead into the 10 volt jack. To interpret the needle’s position, he or she would have to read the scale ending with the number ”10”. If they moved
the red test plug into the 250 volt jack, however, they would read the meter indication on the scale ending with ”2.5”, multiplying the direct
indication by a factor of 100 in order to find what the measured voltage was. If current is measured with this meter, another jack is chosen for the
red plug to be inserted into and the range is selected via a rotary switch. This close-up photograph shows the switch set to the 2.5 mA position:

Figure 7. Rotary Switch

Note how all current ranges are power-of-ten multiples of the three scale ranges shown on the meter face: 2.5, 5, and 10. In some range
settings, such as the 2.5 mA for example, the meter indication may be read directly on the 0 to 2.5 scale. For other range settings (250 μA, 50
mA, 100 mA, and 500 mA), the meter indication must be read off the appropriate scale and then multiplied by either 10 or 100 to obtain the real
figure. The highest current range available on this meter is obtained with the rotary switch in the 2.5/10 amp position. The distinction between
2.5 amps and 10 amps is made by the red test plug position: a special ”10 amp” jack next to the regular current-measuring jack provides an
alternative plug setting to select the higher range. Resistance in ohms, of course, is read by a nonlinear scale at the top of the meter face. It is
”backward,” just like all battery-operated analog ohmmeters, with zero at the right-hand side of the face and infinity at the left-hand side. There is
only one jack provided on this particular multimeter for ”ohms,” so different resistance-measuring ranges must be selected by the rotary switch.
Notice on the switch how five different ”multiplier” settings are provided for measuring resistance: Rx1, Rx10, Rx100, Rx1000, and Rx10000.
Just as you might suspect, the meter indication is given by multiplying whatever needle position is shown on the meter face by the power-of-ten
multiplying factor set by the rotary switch.

References:

Kubala, T.(2013). Electricity 1: Devices, circuits, and materials (10th Ed).USA: Delmar, Cengage Learning