Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: HYDR1 -1S-2021-2022

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 1
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: HYDRAULICS
TITLE:
IM
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year TIME FRAME: WK NO. 1-2
NO.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

1. Common Fluid Properties
2. Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

II. LESSON TITLE

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Concept of Fluids
1.3. Types of fluid
1.4. Mass Density
1.5. Unit weight
1.6. Specific gravity
1.7. Compressibility of liquid/ Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
1.8. Viscosity
1.9. Surface tension
1.10. Capillarity
2.1. Unit Pressure
2.1.1. Pascal’s Law
2.1.2.. Absolute and Gage pressure
2.1.3. Variations in pressure
2.1.4.. Pressure head
2.1.5. Manometer
2.2 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
2.2.1. Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces
3.1.1.1. Properties of Common Geometric Shapes
2.2.2. Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surface
2.3. Dams
3.2.1. Type of Dams
3.2.2. Analysis of Gravity Dams
2.4. Buoyancy
2.4.1. Archimedes Principles
2.5. Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
2.6. Stress on Tin-Walled Pressure Vessel
2.6.1. Cylindrical tank
2.6.2. Spherical Shell
2.6.3. Wood Stave Pipes

II. LESSON OVERVIEW

Introduced the basic concept of hydraulics with some basic terminologies. This includes the
properties of fluid that may be useful in determining the pressure and forces acted upon an
object. And that applying the different types of pressure using the prescribed formulas.
Wherein unit pressure will be the basis on how to determine the force with fluid involved in an
existing container in a static position.

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Know and understand the types of fluid and its common properties
2. Explain and identify common fluid properties
3. Calculate and solved numerical problems relating to properties of fluid
4. Discuss the principles of Hydrostatic pressure and force
5. Apply common fluid properties in solving numerical problems in hydrostatic pressure and
force
6. Perform numerical calculation in solving hydrostatic pressure and force

V. LESSON CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics: is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid
statics). And it is the study of forces that develop when an object moves through a fluid
medium.
The analysis of the behavior of fluids is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics
which relate continuity of mass and energy with force and momentum together with the
familiar solid mechanics properties.

Hydraulics: deals with the study of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids,
usually water or oil. It is also deals with such problems as the flow of fluids trough pipes or in
open channels, the design storage dams, pumps and water turbines and with other devices
for the control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets and flowmeters.

A fluid cannot resist a shear stress by a static deflection and it moves and deforms
continuously as long as the shear stress is applied.

THE CONCEPT OF FLUIDS

Two Classes of Fluids:

1. Liquids: are composed of relatively close‐packed molecules with strong cohesive forces.
Liquids have constant volume (almost incompressible) and will form a free surface in a
gravitational field if unconfined from above.
:is relatively incompressible and does not expand indefinitely when all pressure,
except that of its own vapor pressure, is removed
2. Gases: molecules are widely spaced with negligible cohesive forces. A gas is free to
expand until it encounters confining walls. A gas has no definite volume, and it forms an
atmosphere when it is not confined. Gravitational effects are rarely concerned.

Liquids and gases can coexist in two‐phase mixtures such as steam‐water mixtures.
We can define fluid properties and parameters, as continuous point functions, ONLY if the
continuum approximation is made. This requires that the physical dimensions are large
compared to the fluid molecules.
: is very compressible and tends to expand indefinitely if all external pressure is
removed.
The fluid density is defined as:
𝛿𝑚
𝜌 = lim ∗
𝛿→𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
where: 𝛿𝑉 is a limiting volume above which molecular variations are not important, this
volume for all liquids and gases is about 10‐9 mm3.

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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Dimensions and units
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The arbitrary magnitudes
assigned to the dimensions are called units. There are two types of dimensions, primary or
fundamental and secondary or derived dimensions. Some primary dimensions are: mass, m;
length, L; time, t; temperature, T.
Secondary dimensions are the ones that can be derived from primary dimensions such as:
velocity (m/s), pressure (Pa = kg/m.𝑠 2 ).
There are two unit systems currently available SI (International System) and USCS
(United States Customary System) or English system. We, however, will use SI units
exclusively in this course. The SI system is based on 7 fundamental units: length, meter (m);
mass, kilogram (kg); time, second (s); electric current, ampere (A); amount of light,
candela (cd); amount of matter, mole (mol).
The SI units are based on decimal relationship between units. The prefixes used to express
the multiples of the various units are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Standard prefixes in SI units.

Multiple 1012 109 106 103 10−2 10−3 10−6 10−9 10−12
Prefix Tetra, Giga, Mega Kilo,k Centi, Mili, Micro Nano Pico,
T G ,M cm mm ,𝜇 ,n P

Important note: in engineering all equations must be dimensionally homogenous. This means
that every term in an equation must have the same units. It can be used as a sanity check for
your solution.

TYPES OF FLUID

Fluids are generally divided into two categories:

Ideal Fluids
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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 Assumed to have no viscosity ( and hence, no resistance to shear)
 Incompressible
 Have uniform velocity when flowing
 No friction between moving layers of fluid
 No eddy currents or turbulence

Real Fluids
 `Exhibit infinite viscosities
 Non-uniform velocity when flowing
 Compressible
 Experience friction and turbulence in flow

COMMON FLUID PROPERTIES

DENSITY, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, SPECIFIC VOLUME,

AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The density 𝝆 (rho),1 or more strictly, mass density, of a fluid is its mass per unit volume,
while the specific weight g (gamma) is its weight per unit volume. In the British Gravitational
(BG) system density rho will be in slugs per cubic foot (kg/m3 in SI units), which can also be
expressed as units of lb.sec2/ft4 (N.s2/m4 in SI units). Specific weight 𝛾 represents the force
exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid, and therefore must have the units of force per unit
volume, such as pounds per cubic foot (N/m3 in SI units). Density and specific weight of a
fluid are related as:
𝑀
𝜌=
𝑉
𝛾
𝜌= 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑔
𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉

Since the physical equations are dimensionally homogeneous, the dimensions of density are
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝛾 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 𝑙𝑏.𝑠 2 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
Dimension of 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 = 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
= 𝑓𝑡 4
= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑓𝑡 3

In SI units
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝛾 𝑁/𝑚3 𝑁.𝑠2 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
Dimension of 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 = = = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑚3
𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑚4

Note that density 𝜌 (rho) is absolute, since it depends on mass, which is independent of
location. Specific weight g, on the other hand, is not absolute, since it depends on the value
of the gravitational acceleration g, which varies with location, primarily latitude and elevation
above mean sea level.
Densities and specific weights of fluids vary with temperature. Appendix A provides commonly
needed temperature variations of these quantities for water and air. It also contains densities
and specific weights of common gases at standard atmospheric pressure and temperature.

Specific volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. We commonly

applies it to gases, and usually express it in cubic feet per slug (𝑚3 /kg in SI units). Specific
volume is the reciprocal of density. Thus

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑚 ) 1
𝑣=
=
𝑚 (𝑘𝑔) 𝜌
Specific gravity: is the ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid, typically water at
4°C (for liquids) and air (for gases):
Specific gravity sg of a liquid is the dimensionless ratio
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑠𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Physicists use 4°C (39.2°F) as the standard, but engineers often use 60°F (15.56°C). In the
metric system the density of water at 4°C is 1.00 g/cm3 (or 1.00 g/mL), equivalent to 1000
kg/m3, and hence the specific gravity (which is dimensionless) of a liquid has the same
numerical value as its density expressed in g/mL or Mg/m3.
Since the density of a fluid varies with temperature, we must determine and specify specific
gravities at particular temperatures

Specific gravity sg of a gas is the dimensionless ratio

𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑠𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

@20℃, 1atm Air Water Hydrogen Mercury

𝜌 (kg/m3) 1.20 998 0.0838 13,580

Sample problem:
1. The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 . The
specific gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specific weight
and density of mercury.

Given: 𝑠𝑔 = 13.56
𝛾 = 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
Required: a) Density (𝜌), b) Mercury specific weight (𝛾), c). Mercury Density (𝜌)

Solution:
a) Density (𝜌),
𝛾 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌= = = 1.94𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔 32.2𝑓𝑡
𝑠2

b) Mercury specific weight (𝛾)

𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
from the formula of specific gravity; 𝑠𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑔𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾 = 13.56(62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 ) = 846.144𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
c) Mercury Density (𝜌)
𝜌 = 𝑠𝑔𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌 = 13.56(1.94𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3 ) = 26.31 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3

2. A liquid in a 0.83𝑚3 container has a mass of 1056kg. Calculate its unit weight, density and
weight.
Given: 𝑉 = 0.80𝑚3
𝑀 = 1056kg
Required: a). Density (𝜌) b). unit weight (𝛾),c).weight

Solution:

a) Density (𝜌),
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: HYDR1 -1S-2021-2022
𝑀 1056kg
𝜌= = = 1272.289𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉 0.83𝑚3

b) unit weight (𝛾)

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝜌 = 1272.289𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 ) = 12481.157𝑁/𝑚3

c).weight, (W)
W=mg =1056kg (9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
W= 10359.36 N

3. If the specific volume of gas is 360𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔,what is its specific weight?

Solution:
𝑣 = 360𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
But
1 1
𝑣 = ∴ 𝜌 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝜌 𝑣
Hence
𝜌 = 2.78𝑥10−3 ;
𝛾 = (2.78𝑥10−3 slug/𝑓𝑡 3 )(32.2𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 )
𝛾 = 0.089𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3

PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES

When the conditions of most real gases are far removed from the liquid phase, these relations
closely approximate those of hypothetical perfect gases. Perfect gases, are here (and often)
defined to have constant specific heats5 and to obey the perfect-gas law,
𝑝
= 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝜌
Where: p –absolute pressure
𝜌-mass density (mass per unit volume
𝑣 – specific volume( volume per unit mass)
R -a gas constant, the value of which depends upon the particular gas
T- absolute temperature in degrees Rankine or Kelvin
For air, the value of R is 1715 ft.lb/(slug.°R) or 287 N.m/(kg.K)

Since 𝛾 = 𝜌g ,can also be written as

𝑝
𝛾=
𝑅𝑇
Note: Absolute temperature is measured above absolute zero. This occurs on the Fahrenheit
scale at -459.67°F (0° Rankine) and on the Celsius scale at -273.15°C (0 Kelvin). Except for
low-temperature work, these values are usually taken as -460°F and -273°C. Remember that
no degree symbol is used with Kelvin.

Avogadro’s law states that all gases at the same temperature and pressure under the action
of a given value of g have the same number of molecules per unit of volume, from which it
follows that the specific weight of a gas is proportional to its molar mass. Thus, if M denotes
𝛾 𝑅 𝛾 𝑅
molar mass (formerly called molecular weight), 𝛾1 = 𝑀1 and, 𝛾1 = 𝑀2 for the same
2 1 2 2
temperature, pressure, and value of g. Hence for a perfect gas

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𝑀1 𝑀1 = 𝑀2 𝑅2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜

R0 is known as the universal gas constant, and has a value of 49,709 ft.lb/ (slug-mol.°R) or
8312 N.m/(kg mol.K). Rewriting the preceding equation in the form
𝑅0
𝑅=
𝑀

Isothermal Condition
For fixed temperature, ideal gas law becomes;
𝛾1 𝑝
𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑝2 𝑣2 and 𝛾2
= 𝑝1
2
Bulk modulus E=𝑝

Another fundamental equation for a perfect gas is

𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
or
𝑝 𝜌 𝑛
= ( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑝1 𝜌1

Adiabatic Condition
If no heat is exchange between the gas and its container it becomes;

𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑘

𝑇2 𝑝2 (𝑘−1)/𝑘
=( )
𝑇𝟏 𝑝1

Bulk modulus E=𝑘𝑝

1
where p is absolute pressure, 𝑣 = is specific volume, 𝜌 is density, and n may have any
𝜌
nonnegative value from zero to infinity, depending on the process to which the gas is
subjected. Since this equation describes the change of the gas properties from one state to
another for a particular process, we call it a process equation. If the process of change is at
a constant temperature (isothermal), n=1. If there is no heat transfer to or from the gas, the
process is adiabatic. A frictionless (and reversible) adiabatic process is an isentropic
𝑐𝑝
process, for which we denote n by k, where k= 𝑐 , the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure
𝑣
to that at constant volume. This specific heat ratio k is also called the adiabatic exponent.
For expansion with friction n is less than k, and for compression with friction n is greater than
k. Values for k are given in, Table A.5-Table A-6. For air and diatomic gases at usual
temperatures, we can take k as 1.4.

Sample Problem:

1. At 90℉ and 30 psia, the specific weight of a certain gas was 0.0877lb/𝑓𝑡 3 . Determine the
gas constant and density of this gas.

Given: 𝑇 = 90℉
𝛾 = 0.0877𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
p = 30psi

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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Required: a) Density (𝜌), b) gas constant, (R)

Solution:
a) Density (𝜌),
𝛾 0.0877𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌= = = 2.724 𝑥10−3 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔 32.2𝑓𝑡
𝑠2

b) Gas constant, (R)

𝑝
𝛾=
𝑅𝑇
(30𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (144𝑖𝑛2 )𝑓𝑡 2
0.0877𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 =
𝑅(90+460)
𝑅 = 89.56𝑓𝑡/°𝑅
2. Calculate the specific weight 𝛾, specific volume, and density of methane at 100℉ and
120psi absolute.
Given: 𝑇 = 100℉
p = 120psi
Gas = methane
Required: a) specific weight 𝛾 b) Density (𝜌), c) specific volume, 𝑣

Solution:

a) specific weight 𝛾
From Table A-6, Methane R=96.2𝑓𝑡/°𝑅
𝑝
𝛾=
𝑅𝑇
(120𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (144𝑖𝑛2 )𝑓𝑡 2
𝛾= 96.2𝑓𝑡/°𝑅 (120+460)
𝛾 = 0.3096𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
b) Density (𝜌),
𝛾 0.3096𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌= = = 9.618𝑥10−3 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔 32.2𝑓𝑡
𝑠2

c) specific volume, 𝑣
𝑣 = 1/𝜌
𝑣 = 1/ 9.618𝑥10−3 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡3
𝑣 = 103.97𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔

3. A cylinder contains 12.5 𝑓𝑡 3 of air at 120℉ and 40 psia. The air is then compressed to
2.50𝑓𝑡 3 . a) Assuming isothermal conditions, what are the pressure at the new volume and
the bulk modulus of elasticity? b) Assuming adiabatic conditions, what are the final pressure
and temperature and the modulus of elasticity?
Given: 𝑇 = 120℉
p = 40psia
v=2.50𝑓𝑡 3 .
Type of fluid = air
Required: a) final pressure and bulk modulus of elasticity.
b) final pressure and temperature and the modulus of elasticity

Solution:
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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a) Assuming Isothermal condition:
𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑝2 𝑣2
40𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (12.5𝑓𝑡 3 ) = 𝑝2 (2.5𝑓𝑡 3 )
𝑝2 = 200𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎

E=p=200𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
b) Assuming adiabatic condition
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑘 = 1.4 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴 − 6
40𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (12.5𝑓𝑡 3 )1.4 = 𝑝2 (2.5𝑓𝑡 3 )1.4
𝑝2 = 380.73𝑠𝑖𝑎

𝑇2 𝑝2 (𝑘−1)/𝑘
=( )
𝑇𝟏 𝑝1

𝑇2 380.73 (1.4−1)/1.4
=( )
𝟏𝟐𝟎 40

𝑇2 = 228.44 ℉

E=kp =1.4(380.73)

E= 533.02psia

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COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS

The compressibility (change in volume due to change in pressure) of a liquid is inversely

proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity, also known as the bulk modulus. This
modulus is defined

𝑑𝑝 𝑣
𝐸𝑣 = −𝑣 = −𝑣 ( ) 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑣 = −
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 /𝑉𝑜𝑙

as where 𝑣 = specific volume

p =pressure.
𝑣/𝑑𝑣 = dimensionless ratio,
Ev –bulk modulus of elasticity
𝑑𝑝 - change in pressure

Note that we often specify applied pressures, in absolute terms, because atmospheric
pressure varies. The units psia or kN/m2 abs indicate absolute pressure, which is the actual
pressure on the fluid, relative to absolute zero.
By rearranging the definition of Ev, as an approximation we may use for the case of a fixed
mass of liquid at constant temperature

𝑨𝒗 𝑨𝒑
≈−
𝒗 𝑬𝒗
𝒗 𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏
≈−
𝒗𝟏 𝑬𝒗

where: 𝑬𝒗 is the mean value of the modulus for the pressure range and the subscripts 1 and
2 refer to the before and after conditions.
Coefficient of compressibility is defined as
𝛽 = 1/𝐸𝑣
Sample Problem:
1. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000𝑐𝑚3 at 1MN/𝑚2 and a volume of
995𝑐𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 2MN/𝑚2 .What is its bulk modulus of elasticity?

Given: 𝒗𝟏 = 1000𝑐𝑚3
p = 1MN/𝑚2
𝒗𝟐 =995𝑐𝑚3
p = 2MN/𝑚2 .

Required: a) Bulk Modulus of Elasticty.

Solution:

𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑣 = −
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 /𝑉𝑜𝑙

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1𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 − 2𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 .
𝐸𝑣 = −
995𝑐𝑚3 − 1000𝑐𝑚3 /1000𝑐𝑚3
𝐸𝑣 =200 GPa

2. If Ev =2.3 GPa is the bulk modulus of elasticty for water, what pressure is required to reduce
a volume by 0.7 percent?
Solution:
𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑣 = −
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 /𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑝2 − 0
2.3 = −
−0.007
𝑝2 = 0.0161 𝑜𝑟 16.1𝑀𝑃𝑎

3. A rigid steel container is partially filled with a liquid at 15 atm.The volume of the liquid is
1.23200L. At a pressure of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid is 1.23100L. Find the average
bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid over the given range of pressure if the temperature after
compression is allowed to return to its initial value. What is the coefficient of compressibility
(𝛽)?
Given: 𝒗𝟏 = 1.23200L
p = 15 atm
𝒗𝟐 =1.23100L
p = 30 atm,

Required: a) Coefficient of compressibility.

Solution:

𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑣 = −
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 /𝑉𝑜𝑙

(15atm − 30atm)(101.3KPa)
𝐸𝑣 = −
1.23100L − 1.23200L/1.23200L
𝐸𝑣 =1872.024 𝑥103 KPa or 1.872GPa

𝛽 = 1/𝐸𝑣
𝛽 = 1/1.872GPa
𝛽 = 5.34𝑥10−7 𝐾𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 0.534 𝐺𝑃𝑎−1

4. A heavy tank contains oil(A) and water (B) subject to variable air pressure; the dimensions
shown in the figure below corresponds to 1atm. If air is slowly added from pump to bring p up
to 1MPa gage., what will be the total downward movement of the free surface of oil and air?
Take average values of bulk moduli of elasticity of the liquids as 2050 MPa for oil and 2070
MPa for water. Assuming the container does not change volume. Neglect hydrostatic
pressure.

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Given:

x
Ev =2050 MPa

Ev=2070 MPa

Solution:

Let x be the downward movement of the free surface of liquids given

For Oil:

𝑑𝑝 1−0
𝐸𝑣 = − ; 2050 = −
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 /[600𝜋(300)2 /4]
𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = −20390𝑚𝑚3

For water

𝑑𝑝 1−0
𝐸𝑣 = − ; 2050 = −
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 /[700𝜋(300)2 /4]
𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = −23850𝑚𝑚3

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −44540𝑚𝑚3

∴ 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

−44540𝑚𝑚3 = −𝑥[𝜋(300)2 /4]

𝑥 =0.630mm

VISCOSITY

Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the
“fluidity”.
Refers to the internal friction of a liquid
Note:As the temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids decrease, while the viscosities
of all gases increase

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Figure 2

For a large class of fluids under the conditions of Fig. 2.4a, experiments have shown that

𝑨𝑼
𝑭∝
𝒀
𝑑𝑢
We see from similar triangles that we can replace U/Y by the velocity gradient . If we now
𝑑𝑦
introduce a constant of proportionality (mu), we can express the shearing stress (tau) between
any two thin sheets of fluid by
𝐹 𝑈 𝑑𝑢
𝜏= =𝜇 =𝜇
𝐴 𝑌 𝑑𝑦
In transposed form of the above equation defines the proportionality constant
𝜏
𝜇=
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
known as the coefficient of viscosity, the absolute viscosity, the dynamic viscosity (since
it involves force), or simply the viscosity of the fluid. We shall use “absolute viscosity” to help
differentiate it from another viscosity that we will discuss shortly.

Dynamic (Absolute) viscosity 𝜇(𝑚𝑢)

Absolute viscosity or the coefficient of absolute viscosity is a measure of the internal
resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move
one horizontal plane with respect to the other unit velocity when maintained a unit distance
apart by the fluid.

Kinematic viscosity 𝑣(𝑛𝑢) is defined as the dynamic viscosity divided by the fluid density, a
quantity in which no force is involved.
𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌

Viscosity:
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. The
friction forces in fluid flow result from the cohesion &momentum interchange between
molecules in fluid.
Viscosity depends on temperature. But this property is different for liquid & gas. As
temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids decrease, while the viscosities of all gases
increase.
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Reason: This is because the force of cohesion, which diminishes with temperature,
predominates in liquids, while with gases the predominating factor is the interchange of
molecules between the layers of different velocities. Thus a rapidly moving molecule shifting
into a slower-moving layer tends to speed up later. And a slow-moving molecule entering a
fast-moving layer tends to slow down the faster-moving layer. This molecular interchange sets
up a shear, or produces a friction force between adjacent layers. Increased molecular activity
at higher temperatures causes the velocity of gases to increases with temperature.

Various kinds of fluids and solids by referring

Typical non-Newtonian fluids include paints, printer’s ink, gels and emulsions, sludges and
slurries, and certain plastics.

Sample Problem:

1. A crude oil with viscosity of 8.95 x10−4 lb-s/𝑓𝑡 2 is contained between two parallel plates.
The bottom plate is fixed and the upper one move when applying a force F as shown in the
figure.If the distance between the two plates is 0.3 in, what is the value of F to cause the
upper plate to move at a velocity of 3.6ft/s? take the effective area of the upper plate as
180𝑖𝑛2 .
Given:
𝑣 = 3.6𝑓𝑡/𝑠

2
B =0.30 in 𝜇 = 8.95 𝑥 10−4 𝑙𝑏 − s/𝑓𝑡 𝑠

Required: Force F

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

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3.6𝑓𝑡
𝑠
𝜏 = 8.95 𝑥 10 𝑙𝑏 − s/𝑓𝑡 2 [
−4
]
1ft
0.30 in ( )
12in
𝜏 = 0.12888𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 8.95 𝑥 10−4 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐹
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝜏 =
𝐴
∴ 𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 =8.95 𝑥 10−4 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (180𝑖𝑛2 )
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟏𝒃

2. If the viscosity of water at 68℉ is 0.01008 poise, compute its absolute viscosity in pounds
seconds per square foot. If the specific gravity at 68℉ is 0.998, compute its kinematic
viscosity in square feet per second
Required:
a) Absolute viscosity (𝜇) in pounds seconds per square foot
b) kinematic viscosity in square feet per second

Solution:
Poise is measude by dyne –seconds per square centimeter.
1lb = 444800 dynes, 1ft =30.48cm
∴ 1𝑙𝑏. 𝑠/𝑓𝑡 2 = 478.8 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
0.01008 poise
a) μ = 478.8𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒃 − 𝐬/𝒇𝒕𝟐

𝜇
b) 𝑣 = 𝜌

𝜇 𝜇 𝜇𝑔
𝑣= = =
𝜌 𝛾/𝑔 𝛾
2.11𝑥10 𝑙 𝑏 − s/𝑓𝑡 2 (32.2𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 )
−5
𝑣=
0.998(62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 )

𝑣 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐 /𝒔

3. A 15 kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface as shown. The thin gap (0.2mm) between
the block and the surface is filled with SAE 30W oil.The area of contact between the block
and the oil is 0.15𝑚2 . Find the terminal velocity of the block, assuming a linear velocity
distribution in the gap.

Given: v=?

0.2 mm gap
25° F
N
W = 15kg

SAE W oil 𝜇 = 1.7 𝑥 10−1 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2

Required: Thermal velocity dv

Solution:
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From the figure above

W=mg =15kg(9.81m/s2) = 147.15 N

𝐹 147.15 sin 25
𝜏= =
𝐴 0.15𝑚2 .

𝜏 =414.59/𝑚2

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜,

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑢
414.59N/𝑚2 = 1.7 𝑥 10−1 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2 (2𝑥10−4 )

v=du= 0.488m/s

4. The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 40cm long

concentric cylinders. The outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 12cm, and the gap between
the two cylinders is 0.15cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at 300rpm; the torque is measured
to be 1.8 N.m. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.

Fixed

Given: 𝜔
F

Fixed Cylinder

L=30cm

0.15cm 6cm

6.15cm

Solution:

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Rearrange the formula of shearing stress (𝜏)

𝑑𝑢
𝜇 = 𝜏/
𝑑𝑦

But 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑟𝜔

10𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔 = 300𝑟𝑝𝑚 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐
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𝑑𝑢 = 0.12𝑚(10𝜋) = 3.77𝑚/𝑠

𝑑𝑦 = 0.0015𝑚

Torque =F(0.12)

T= 𝜏𝐴(0.12)

1.8N-m= 𝜏[2𝜋(0.12)(. 30)](0.12)

𝜏 = 66.31𝑃𝑎

3.77
𝜇 = 66.31/
0.0015

𝜇 = 0.026𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠

SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARY EFFECT

Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of molecular attraction.
Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stress, while adhesion enables it to adhere to
another body. At the interface between a liquid and a gas, i.e., at the liquid surface, and at
the interface between two immiscible (not mixable) liquids, the out-of-balance attraction force
between molecules forms an imaginary surface film which exerts a tension force in the
surface. This liquid property is known as surface tension. Because this tension acts in a
surface, we compare such forces by measuring the tension force per unit length of surface.

Surface tension is a phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid, where the liquid is in contact
with gas, acts like a thin elastic sheet. This term is typically used only when the liquid surface
is in contact with gas (such as the air). If the surface is between two liquids (such as water
and oil), it is called "interface tension."

The free-body diagram of half a droplet or air bubble and

half a soap bubble

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Capillarity is the property of exerting forces on fluids by fine tubes or porous media; it is due
to both cohesion and adhesion. When the cohesion is of less effect than the adhesion, the
liquid will wet a solid surface it touches and rise at the point of contact; if cohesion
predominates, the liquid surface will depress at the point of contact.
Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.

The contact angle for wetting and nonwetting fluids.

The meniscus of colored waterina

4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the
meniscus
meets the wall of the capillary tube
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified byatthe
a very small(orcontact
contact angle.
wetting) angle, defined as
the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid surface at the point of
contact.

The capillary rise of water and the The forces acting on a liquid column that
capillary fall of mercury in a small has risen in a tube due to the capillary
diameter glass tube. effect

2𝜋𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

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Where:y
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎)𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜃 = 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑡𝑎)
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
ℎ = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒

Sample Problem:

1. A small drop of water at 80℉ is in contact with the air and has a diameter of 0.0200 in. If the
pressure within the droplet is 0.082 psi greater than the atmosphere, what is the value of the
surface tension?

Solution:
From the formula of change of pressure of droplet, surface tension can be solved by:
𝑝𝑅
𝜎=
2
0.082𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (144𝑖𝑛2 )(0.0100𝑖𝑛/12𝑖𝑛)
𝜎=
2
𝜎 =0.00492 l 𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2

2. Estimate the height to which water at 70℉ will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 0.120in.
Solution:
Refer to table A-1; At 70℉ the surface tension of water is 0.00500lb/ft
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑟

0.00500
( 12 ) 𝑙𝑏
2[ ] cos 0
𝑖𝑛
ℎ=
62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 (0.06𝑖𝑛)
ℎ = 2.67𝑥10−3 𝑖𝑛

3. A glass tube is inserted in mercury, the common temperature is 20℃. what is the upward force
on the glass as a result of surface effect?
Given:

Solution:
From the general formula of surface tension which is F/L, thus ;
F= 𝜎𝐿

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The glass tube shown has an inside and outer diameter which is submerged to mercury,
therefore to calculate the upward caused by the surface tension, we have to sum up the forces
acted on the inner and outside diameter of the tube.
Thus;
F=( 𝜎𝐿)𝑖𝑛 + ( 𝜎𝐿)𝑜𝑢𝑡

F=( 𝜎𝐿)𝑖𝑛 + ( 𝜎𝐿)𝑜𝑢𝑡

The surface tension of mercury @ T =20℃.is 0.514𝑁/𝑚
F= 0.514N/m(𝜋 ∗ 0.025)𝑐𝑜𝑠50° + 0.514𝑁/𝑚(𝜋 ∗ 0.035𝑚)𝑐𝑜𝑠50°
F=0.062N

4. What force is required to lift a thin wire ring 6cm from water surface at 20℃?
Solution: Given: Neglecting the
Refer to table A-2: weight of the ring,
F
At 20℃ the surface tension of water is F= 𝜎𝐿
0.728N/m 6cm∅
Since there is no resistance on the
Inside and the outside of ring, F=2 𝜎𝐿
F=2*0.728N/m(𝜋 ∗ 0.06𝑚)
F=0.27N/m

5. The surface tension of mercury and water at 60℃ are 0.47N/m and 0.0662N/m, respectively.
What capillary height changes will occur in these two fluids when they are in contact with air
in glass tube of radius 0.30mm? Use 130° for mercury, and 0° for water: 𝛾 = 132.3𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 for
mercury, and 9.650𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 for water.

Solution:
a) For water
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑟

(0.0662)𝑁
2[ ] cos 0
𝑚
ℎ=
9650𝑁/𝑚3 (0.0003𝑚)
ℎ = 0.046𝑚

b) For mercury
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑟

(0.47)𝑁
2[ ] cos 130
𝑚
ℎ=
132300𝑁/𝑚3 (0.0003𝑚)
ℎ = −0.015𝑚

2.0 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCES

UNIT PRESSURE

Unit pressure or simply called pressure is the amount of force exerted by a fluid distributed uniformly
over a unit area.

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If the unit pressure is not uniform over the unit area, it can be expressed as the sum of differential
pressure.

Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662)

Since fluid at rest cannot resist shearing stress,
pressure is always at right angle to the area
where it is acting. It is also worthy to note that
the total hydrostatic force F = pA, which can
be found by cross multiplication

PASCAL’S LAW
The French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) states that the pressure is the same in all
directions at any point in a fluid at rest.

From the figure shown below, summation of forces in y-direction:

Since,

Summation of forces in z-direction:

Since , .
Thus,
which can be used to conclude Pascal's Law.
Summation of forces in x-direction:

Since , .

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ATMOSPHERIC, GAGE, AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURES

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of all gasses above the surface in which it comes in contact. Under
normal conditions, atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi), usually
rounded off to 100 kPa (14.7 psi) by engineers. With increase in altitude, atmospheric pressure
decreases.

Gauge pressure, measured with the use of pressure gauges, is the pressure above or below atmospheric
pressure. Negative gauge pressure indicates a vacuum which cannot go below –101.325 kPa. Positive
gauge pressure indicates that the pressure is above atmospheric. Gauge pressure is also called relative
pressure.

Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. There is no such thing as
negative absolute pressure. In the absence of all matter (complete vacuum), the absolute pressure is
zero.

Pressure Gauges

Just for the purpose of completeness of this page, pressure gauges (or pressure instruments) are listed
here. For more detailed discussion about pressure gauges, refer to the links in each type of pressure
instrument. Some general types of pressures instruments are as follows.

 Barometer - used to measure atmospheric pressure.

 Manometer - a U-tube that contains liquid of known specific gravity.
 Bourdon gauge - used to measure large pressure difference.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH IN A FLUID

Consider two points 1 and 2 lie in the ends of fluid prism having a cross-sectional area dA and length
L. The difference in elevation between these two points is h as shown in Figure 02 below. The fluid is
at rest and its surface is free. The prism is therefore in equilibrium and all forces acting on it sums up
to zero.

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Note: FFS stands for Free Fluid Surface which refers to fluid surface subject to zero gauge pressure.
The volume of the prism is equal to the length times the base area of the fluid.

The weight of the fluid prism shown is equal to the product of the unit weight and volume.

Sum up all the forces in x-direction

but L sin θ = h, thus

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any two points is equal
to the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of the points.

If h = 0 so that points 1 and 2 are on the same horizontal plane, p2 - p1 = 0 or

𝑝2 = 𝑝1

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points along the same horizontal plane
are equal.

If point 1 lie on the FFS, the gauge pressure p1 = 0, making p2 - 0 = γh or simply

This means that the pressure at any depth h below a continuous free fluid surface at rest is equal to the
product of the unit weight of fluid and the depth h.

Transmission of Pressure

We can write the equation p2 - p1 = γh into the form

which means that any change in the pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change of pressure at
point 2. In other words, a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and
undiminished to every other point in the liquid.

Pressure Head

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The equation p = γh may be written into the form

where h or its equivalent p/γ is in hydraulics called the pressure head. Pressure head is the height of
column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight γ that will produce an intensity of pressure p.

To convert pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure head of liquid B

To convert pressure head of any liquid to equivalent pressure head of water

Sample Problems:

1. If the atmospheric pressure is 0.900 bar abs and a gage attached to a tank reads 390mmHg vacuum,
what is the absolute pressure within the tank?
Given:
390mmHg

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.900𝑏𝑎𝑟

Solution:

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 -------equation 1

Convert 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 to kPa; where 1bar =100kPa:

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.900𝑏𝑎𝑟 ∗ 100𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 90𝑘𝑃𝑎

Convert 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 to kPa:

𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝛾ℎ

𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 13.6 ∗ (9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(0.390𝑚)

𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 52.03𝑘𝑃𝑎

Substitute the value of 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 and 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 to equation 1

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 90𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 52.03𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 142.03 𝑘𝑃𝑎

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2. An open tank contains 5.7 m of water covered with 2.84m of kerosene (𝛾 = 8.0𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 ). Find the
pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.
Given:
open

𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑡
2.84m

5.70m

Solution:

𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝛾ℎ = 8.0𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 (2.84𝑚)

𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 22.72𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑡 +𝛾ℎ

𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 22.72𝑘𝑃𝑎 + (1 ∗ 9.81)(5.70𝑚)
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 78.64𝑘𝑃𝑎

3. If air had a constant specific weight of 0.076 lb/𝑓𝑡 3 and were incompressible, what would be the
height of the atmosphere if sea-level pressure were 14.92 psia?
Solution:
From the equation
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
we can solve h by rearranging the equation mentioned above, thus;
𝑝
ℎ=
𝛾
(14.92 ∗ 144)𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
ℎ= 3
0.076lb/𝑓𝑡

ℎ = 28269.47𝑓𝑡

4. If the pressure in a tank is 50psi, find the equivalent pressure head of (a) water, b) mercury and c) heavy
fuel oil with a specific gravity of 0.92.
Solution:
From the equation
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
we can solve h by rearranging the equation mentioned above, thus;
𝑝
ℎ=
𝛾
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(50 ∗ 144)𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
ℎ= 3
62.4lb/𝑓𝑡

ℎ = 115.38𝑓𝑡
for mercury

(50 ∗ 144)𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
ℎ= 3
(13.6 ∗ 62.4)𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡

ℎ = 8.48𝑓𝑡

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for heavy oil

(50 ∗ 144)𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
ℎ= 3
(0.92 ∗ 62.4)𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡

ℎ = 125.42𝑓𝑡

Another solution
From the formula of converting pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure head of liquid B; we can
easily solve the value of equivalent height/pressure head of a liquid.
𝑠𝑔𝐴
ℎ𝐵 = ℎ
𝑠𝑔𝐵 𝐴
𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
1.0
ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 115.38𝑓𝑡
13.6
ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 8.48𝑓𝑡

5. For the tank shown in the figure, ℎ1 = 2𝑚 and ℎ2 = 4𝑚. Determine the value of ℎ3 .
Given:
1
4
2m Oil
y
Sg=0.84 2 2’
ℎ3
4m

Solution:
From the figure above, point 2 and point 2’ is on the same level therefore there pressure is the same,
thus we neglect the pressure of water (𝑝3 )on those points.
Summing up the pressure from point 1 to 3;
0 0
∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 − 𝛾ℎ = 𝑝4
Thus; 𝑝2 = 𝛾ℎ

0.84 ∗ (9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(4𝑚) = 1.0 ∗ (9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 ) 𝑦

𝑦 = 3.36𝑚
∴ ℎ3 = ℎ1 + 𝑦=2m+3.36m
ℎ3 = 5.36𝑚
Assignment:
1. What is the greatest pressure in the tank described in the given figure?

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2. Eight meters of seawater is equivalent to how many meters of mercury?

Manometer

Manometer is a simple and in expensive device of measuring pressure and pressure difference. It is
usually bent to form a U-tube and filled with liquid of known specific gravity. The surface of the liquid
will move in proportion to changes of pressure.

Types of Manometer

Piezometer
Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into the wall of pressure conduit for the
purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in many purposes, piezometer is not practical to use
in lighter liquids with large pressure and cannot be used to measure gas pressure.

From the figure above, three piezometers A, B, and C are attached to a pressure conduit at bottom,
top, and side, respectively. The column of liquid at A, B, and C will rise at the same level above M
indicating a positive pressure at M. Also, the piezometer D measures the negative pressure at N.

Open Manometer
Open manometer is a tube bent into a U-shape to contain one or more fluids of different specific
gravities. It is used to measure pressure. Example of open manometer is shown below.

Differential Manometer
Differential manometer cannot measure pressure but can measure pressure difference. Frequently in
hydraulic problems, difference in pressure is more useful information than the pressure itself.

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Steps in Solving Manometer Problems

Ordinarily, it is easier to work in units of pressure head rather than pressure for solving any manometer
problem.

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer approximately to scale.

2. Decide on the fluid of which head are to be expressed. Water is more desirable. In most cases, we
suggest to use head in water even if there is no water in the system.
3. Starting at a point of know pressure head, number in order the levels of contact of fluids of different
specific gravities.
4. Proceed from level to level, add pressure head in going down and subtract pressure head in going up
with due regard to the specific gravity of the fluids.

Sample Problem:
1. For the pressure vessel containing glycerin, with piezometer attached, as shown in the fig. below, what
is the pressure at point A?
Given:

Solution:
0
∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ = 𝑝𝐴

62.4𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ = (1.26 ∗ 3 ) (40.8 ) 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
𝑝𝐴 = 267.32𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2

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2. A vessel containing oil under pressure is shown. Find the elevation of the oil surface in the attached
piezometer.
Given: Solution

∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝛾ℎ

35𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.83(9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(2𝑚)

= 0.83(9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(ℎ)
h=? ℎ = 6.29𝑚

3. A manometer is attached to a tank containing three different fluids, as shown. What will be the
difference in elevation of the mercury column in the manometer?

Given:
Solution:

∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝛾ℎ

30𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.82(9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(3𝑚)

+ 1(9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(3)
= 13.6(9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )(𝑦)

ℎ = 0.626𝑚

4. For a gauge reading of -15.25kPa, determine the a) elevations of liquids in the open piezometer
columns E, and F, b) the deflection of the mercury in the U-tube monometer neglecting the weight of
the air.
Given: Solution:
-15.25kPa
E F
∑ 𝑝 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑒
Air
Elev. 18m 1
ℎ1
∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝛾ℎ = 𝑝𝑒
e
Sg=0.8 y f
ℎ2 −15.25𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.80(9.81)(5) = 0.80(9.81)(𝑦)
Elev. 13m 0 [2
4444 𝑦 = 3.056m; ℎ1 = 5𝑚 − 3.056 = 1.94𝑚
water
[ Surface elevation @ e = 18-1.94=16.06m
Elev. 9m
G 4444 Column F
4
3 ℎ3 ∑ 𝑝 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 𝑡𝑜 2
Elev. 5m Hg=13.6
∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑝2

−15.25𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.80(9.81)(5) = 0.80(9.81)(𝑦)

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−15.25𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.80(9.81)(5) = 𝑝2

𝑝2 = 23.9𝑘𝑃𝑎; ℎ2 = 𝑝2 /𝛾 = 23.9𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 /(9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 ) = 2.44𝑚

Surface elevation @ f = 13 +2.44=15.44m

Deflection of mercury

∑ 𝑝 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 𝑡𝑜 4

∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝛾ℎ = 𝑝4

−15.25𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.80(9.81)(5) + 9.81(8) − 13.6(9.81) ℎ4 = 0

ℎ4 = 0.77𝑚

5. A differential manometer is shown. Calculate the pressure difference between points A and B.

Given:

olution:
Solution:

∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝑝𝐻𝑔 = 𝑝𝐵

24 12 12
𝑝𝐴 − 0.92(62.4) ( ) + 0.92(62.4) ( ) − 13.6(62.4) ( ) = 𝑝𝐵
12 12 12
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 906.05𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2

6. Figure shows a setup with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What force F is required to balance the
weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is negligible?

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Given:

Solution:

∑ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ; 𝑝𝑐𝑦𝑙 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟

But p=F/A

10000lb/(500𝑖𝑛2 -[0.78(62.4)(15)]/(
144i𝑛2 )=F/5i𝑛2

F=74.65lb

Assignment

1. Calculate the deflection of mercury in the open-type manometer shown corresponding to 1.25 bars at
C.

2. Determine the difference in pressure between points m and n in the differential type manometer
described below

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IX. REFERENCES

E-Resources
1. J.F.Cruise, M.M. Sherif, and V.P. Singh, (2012).” Introduction to Hydraulics”, Philippine
Edition
2. DIT Gillesania “Fluid Mechanic and Hydraulics” 4 th Edition, Cebu DGPrint, Inc. Cebu City,
Philippines
3. J.B. Evett,. & C. Lui,” Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics” Schaum’s, McGrawHill Inc.
4. Streeter, Wylie, Bedford “Fluid Mechanics” 9th Edition, McGrawHill

B) E-Resources
1. http://mathalino.com

Prepared by:

GINA F. MOVILLA
Faculty

“In accordance with Section 185,Fair use of Copyright Work Of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works in this material may be reproduced for educational
purposes only and not for commercial distribution.”
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220)
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