The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Week 3- Biological Development

Instructor: Angelie Mae B. Bonaobra
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I. Biological Beginnings
The biological beginnings of human can be
considered complex. It has various significant
branches that can be interrelated to one another.
These consequently determine or uniquely classify
one from another in terms of psychological,
physiological, and social aspects. This is also the
area where illnesses emanate, like cancer,
Alzheimer’s, psychosomatic illnesses, and the like.
These “mechanisms” are transmitted from
generation to the next through the principles of
genetics. Every person contains “genetic codes”
inherited from their respective parents. These codes are unique from one person to another, and
therefore provide different individual traits and characteristics. Some traits can overlap but none
would be exactly the same as of the other person.
Genetic foundations, one of the branches of the biological beginnings, involved several sub-
categories such as the genes, meiosis and mitosis, principles of genetics, behavior genetics,
molecular genetics, and gene-linked abnormalities and chromosomes (Santrock 2005).
The beginning of life starts from the unification of the sperm and of the egg cell. The combined
cell contains the information “genetic codes” of what the persons becomes.
During the conception would and after giving birth, these cells would eventually replicate to a
quantity of about trillion cells, each containing the same “code” of the original cell. The nucleus
of every human cell is comprised of around 46 chromosomes, a threadlike figure that consists of
23 pairs wherein one member of each pair belongs respectively to the parent.
Each chromosome contains an extraordinary substance called the DNA or the Deoxyribonucleic
acid. This DNA eventually carries the genetic code or information. Genes considered as the unit
of hereditary data or information has a short segment structure comprised of DNA’s.
Furthermore, the genes serves as a relative reference or blueprint to other cells to enable self-
reproduction and to manufacture important proteins to sustain life.
The Meiosis and Mitosis serves as the processes on the biological aspect to fully comprehend
how and what are the functions of the genes. Mitosis is the process of dividing cells upon which
the cell material is replicated or duplicated so that two daughter cells would be formed. The
chromosomes are also duplicated before the cells are divided so that the correct number of
chromosomes would be the same. Each of the human being’s body cell has 46 separate
chromosomes or 23 pairs. The pair comprised of 22 body or autosomal pairs and the last pair
comprised of the sex chromosomes.
These daughter cells also have 23 pairs of chromosomes similar to the original cell. In Meiosis,
the sex cells are divided into two, thus producing 4 daughter cells. It is the process of reducing
the number of chromosomes in a sex cell to half of the original quantity.
The reduction division is one phase of the Meiosis process and when completed each cell
produced contains 23 chromosomes, upon which these will eventually be contributed to the
zygote for a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 individual chromosomes. The zygote is the
single cell formed when the ovum is fertilized by the sperm cell, the reproduction process. This
zygote contains 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 individual chromosomes.
There are several genetic principles that have been discovered such as the sex-linked genes, the
dominant and recessive genes, the inherited polygenically characteristics, canalization, and
reaction range. The sex-linked genes refer to the existence of two sex cells out of the 46
chromosomes in a human being.
Discovered in 1920, the female has two X chromosomes while the male has an X and Y-
chromosomes. This will consequently determine the resulting sex of the new born. The
dominant-recessive genes principle described the relevant behavior of two genes; the dominant
gene usually overrides the recessive gene.
The recessive gene exerts its power if both genes are recessive. The traits or characteristics being
carried by the dominant gene (brown eyes, dimples, etc.) would be passed on to the child if the
combined genes are dominant-recessive type. The Polygenic inheritance is the principle in
genetics wherein the genes combines to form or produce a specific characteristic. Only a few
psychological traits are formed from single cell, the rest are the results of the interaction of
different genes from one another.

II. Physical, Motor and Brain Development

A. Early Childhood “Preschool Age” (2 to 6
years)
Physical Development
Physical development in children follows a directional pattern.
1. The rapid increase in body size of the first two years tapers off into a slower growth pattern.
On average, children add 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. Boys
continue to be slightly larger than girls.
2. Large muscles develop before small muscles. Muscles in the body's core, legs and arms
develop before those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how to perform gross (or large)
motor skills such as walking before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills such as
drawing.
3. The center of the body develops before the outer regions. Muscles located at the core of the
body become stronger and develop sooner than those in the feet and hands.
5. Development goes from the top down, from the head to the toes. This is why babies learn to
hold their heads up before they learn how to crawl.
Motor Development
As child grows, his nervous system becomes more mature. As this happens, the child
becomes more and more capable of performing increasing complex actions. Motor development
may vary somewhat. However, nearly all children begin to exhibit these motor skills at a fairly
consistent rate unless some type of disability is present (Bayley, 1993). When a child is healthy,
he strengthens all his muscles, establishes his coordination, acquires equilibrium, fine tunes
movement of his small muscles, and learns to move for specific purposes progressively (Gines,
et al., 1998).
Two types of motor skills:
 Gross (or large) motor skills involve the larger muscles including the arms and legs.
Actions requiring gross motor skills include walking, running, balance and coordination.
When evaluating gross motor skills, the factors that experts look at include strength,
muscle tone, movement quality and the range of movement.
  Fine (or small) motor skills involve the smaller muscles in the fingers, toes, eyes and
other areas. The actions that require fine motor skills tend to be more intricate, such as
drawing, writing, grasping objects, throwing, waving and catching.

Brain Development
Children’s brains develop in spurts called critical
periods. The first occurs around age 2, with a second one
occurring during adolescence. At the start of these periods, the
number of connections (synapses) between brain cells
(neurons) doubles. Two-year-olds have twice as many
synapses as adults. Because these connections between brain
cells are where learning occurs, twice as many synapses enable
the brain to learn faster than at any other time of life.
Therefore, children’s experiences in this phase have lasting
effects on their development.
This first critical period of brain development begins around age 2 and concludes around
age 7. It provides a prime opportunity to lay the foundation for a holistic education for children.
Four ways to maximize this critical period include encouraging a love of learning, focusing on
breadth instead of depth, paying attention to emotional intelligence, and not treating young
children’s education as merely a precursor to “real” learning.
 Language skills, typically housed in the left hemisphere of the brain, increase at an
astonishing pace in early childhood, and they support children’s increasing control
over behaviour, also mediated by the frontal lobes.
 Spatial skills, usually located in the right hemisphere, such as giving directions,
drawing pictures, and recognizing geometric shapes, develop gradually over
childhood and adolescence (Berke, 2008).

B. Middle Childhood ( The Primary Schooler)

Physical Development
 Children’s body change a lot during this development.
 Bones broaden and lengthen dramatically. In general, children
will grow an average of 2 to3 inches each year throughout this
stage.
 Boys are generally taller than girls, but at the end of middle childhood, the
growth trend in height will reverse.
 Both boys and girls are building muscle. Children will gain 6 to 7 pounds a year
each during the period.
 Girls tend to retain more fatty tissue than boys in preparation for puberty.
Motor Development
Gross Motor Skills Development
During middle childhood, children can do large-scale body movements.
 Boys develop these skills slightly faster than do girls, except for skills involving balance
and precise movements such as skipping, jumping and hopping.
 Children in this stage also refine their control over gross motor skills. They are able to
gain this improved control and coordination due to increases in their flexibility,
equilibrium, and agility.
  They also learn how to synchronize the movement of their body's various parts, allowing
for the development of smoother, more coordinated whole-body movement routines such
as are needed for participating in organized sports.
Fine Motor Skills Development
 Contrary to gross motor skills development, girls tend to develop fine motor skills
slightly faster than do boys.
 Middle-childhood-aged children show dramatic improvements with their penmanship.
Their artistic ability can truly begin to shine during this period as they also develop the
ability to draw complex and detailed pictures incorporating depth cues and 3D elements
and they become more imaginative.
 Children also learn how to use their hands to successfully complete manual activities
other than drawing or writing. For example, they become capable of executing complex
detail-oriented craft projects involving beading, sewing, scrap booking, building models,
and good at using simple tools.
Brain Development
Brain and nervous system developments continue during middle childhood. More
complex behavioral and cognitive abilities become possible as the central nervous system
matures.
Early in middle childhood, a growth spurt occurs in the brain so that by age 8 or 9, the
organ is nearly adult‐size. Brain development during middle childhood is characterized by
growth of specific structures, especially the frontal lobes. These lobes, located in the front of the
brain just under the skull, are responsible for planning, reasoning, social judgment, and ethical
decision making, among other functions. Damage to this part of brain results in erratic emotional
outbursts, inability to plan, and poor judgment. The most anterior (front) portion of the frontal
lobes is the prefontal cortex, which appears to be responsible for personality.
As the size of the frontal lobes increases, children are able to engage in increasingly
difficult cognitive tasks, such as performing a series of tasks in a reasonable order. An example
is assembling a mechanical toy: unpacking the pieces, connecting the parts, making the model
move by adding a power source—a series of tasks that must be completed in the correct order to
achieve certain results.
Lateralization of the two hemispheres of the brain, also continues during middle
childhood, as does maturation of the corpus callosum (the bands of neural fibers connecting the
two cerebral hemispheres), and other areas of the nervous system. Interestingly, children achieve
concrete operations around age 7 when the brain and nervous systems have developed a certain
amount of neural connections. When these neural connections have developed, a child's ability to
perceive and think about the world advances from an egocentric, magical viewpoint to a more
concrete and systematic way of thinking.
C. Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)
Physical Development
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be
in a hurry. They get so busy with their school work,
interacting with their friends, exploring other possible
activities, but this period of physical development seems to
take on a leisurely pace.
 Girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of
boys in terms of physical maturity.
 Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for girls - which is the initial sign of puberty.
 Menstrual period may start as early as 8 and some as late 13.
  Muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face follow a normal curve of development for both girls
and boys.
 Children at this stage have growth spurt - sudden boost in height and weight, which are
usually accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake.
 Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth that occurs during
adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity. Girls
appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch of height
than girls.
 Children may become very concerned about their physical appearance. Girls especially,
may become concerned about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may become
aware of their stature and muscle size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very conscious
about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be designed so that children
will be guided into the right direction. Children must be given opportunities to engage
themselves in worthwhile activities that:
 promote healthy growth
 give them a feeling of accomplishment
 reduce the risk of certain diseases

D. Adolescence (The High School Learner)

Physical Development
The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of
puberty and ends with the role and work of adult life. The specific ages
for this period varies from person to person but distinct phases have been
identified. The advent of puberty may come early for some and late for
some others. But everyone goes through these stages.
These stages are:
l). early adolescence characterized by puberty mostly occurring between
ages l0 and 13;
2). middle adolescence characterized by identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16; and
3). late adolescence which marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
During this developmental stage, adolescents experience two significant changes in physical
development. These are:

1.   Adolescent or Pubertal Growth Spurt.

This refers to the rapid acceleration in height and weight. Girls enter the rapid growth
earlier than boys. Girls may begin as early as age 9 or as late as age 12, while boys may
begin as early as 12 or as late as 16. Typically, the spurt for girls occurs two years earlier
than boys. Aside from growing taller and heavier, the body assumes an adult-like
appearance. 
2. Puberty.
This is the emergent of primary and secondary sex characteristics, and the point which
the individual becomes physically capable of sexual reproduction. 
 Primary sex characteristics include development of gonads (testes for boys and ovaries
for girls), and production of sex hormones.
 Secondary sex characteristics include development of body form (triangular for
boys and hour glass for girls) and growth of pubic hair.
 The resulting changes of puberty can have wide‐ranging effects on teenagers' bodies. For
both adolescent girls and boys, differences in height and weight, general awkwardness,
emotional ups‐and‐downs, and skin problems (acne vulgaris, or pimples) are common. These and
other changes, including the timing of sexual maturation, can be sources of great anxiety and
frustration for the blossoming youth.
Motor Development
Development Gross and fine motor skills improve continuously during adolescence.
Adolescents can do more complex and strenuous activities compare when they were in their
middle childhood.
Brain Development
Brain remodelling happens intensively during adolescence, continuing until the
learners is in their mid-20s. Brain change depends on age, experience and hormonal changes in
puberty.

Activity 1
As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help the primary schooler, intermediate
schooler and the high school learner develop physically?
The Primary Schooler
 ________________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________________
The Intermediate Schooler
 ________________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________________
The High School Learner
 ________________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________________
 Activity 2: Physical Development
Instruction: Examine the skills found in the physical domain. Identify the skills in a particular
sub age group and put an appropriate activity that can help develop the each skill. You may surf
the net for suggested activities, interview teachers or simply be creative yourself!
Physical Domain Skills Proposed Activity
The Pre-schooler

The Primary Schooler

The Intermediate Schooler

The High School Learner

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developmen
Arizabal, L. A. (2014, September 7). Physical and Motor Development of Children and
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and-Adolosecents
Physical Development: Age 7–11. (n.d.). CliffNotes. Retrieved 20212–10-17, from
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology/development-psychology/physical-
cognitive-development-age-711/physical-development-age-711
PaperAp.com. (2018). Biological Beginnings of Human. [Online]. Available at:
http://paperap.com/paper-on-biological-beginnings/ [Accessed: 17 Oct. 2021]