Seminar 7 Reference, deixis

Semantics is concerned with the meaning of words. A broad interpretation of the notion referring
expression is the following: any expression that can be used to refer to an entity in the real world or in
any imaginary world will be called a referring expression.

Task 1. Imagine the sentences below being spoken; decide for each of the noun phrases in bold whether
the speaker would be using them to refer:
a. We waited for twelve hours at Nairobi Airport.
b. They had no food.
/ They took a lot of food to the picnic.
c. Edward pulled the drawer and a pair of socks fell off.
d. Doris passed through the room like a whirlwind.
The whirlwind took the house roof away.
Whirlwinds take house roofs away.
e. He was run over by a bus in Trafalgar Square.
f. What we need is an army of volunteers.
Pronouns are described as noun phrases and occur anywhere a noun phrase (NP) may occur. Semantic
rules of varying complexity establish whether a pronoun and some other noun phrase in the discourse
may be interpreted as coreferential. A minimum condition of co-referentiality is that the pronoun and its
antecedent have the same semantic feature values for the semantic properties of number and gender.
When semantic rules and contextual interpretation determine that a pronoun is coreferential with a NP,
we say that the pronoun is bound to that NP antecedent.
Jack came into the room. He closed the door behind him.
When a pronoun refers to some object not explicitly mentioned in the discourse, it is said to be free or
unbound.
The reference of a free pronoun may be determined by context. First and second person nonreflexive
pronouns are always free. Reflexive pronouns are always bound and require an antecedent in the
sentence. I did it myself/*Myself did it.
Professor Brown and myself answered the public’s questions. I and Professor Brown…
Task 2. State for each pronoun in the following sentences whether it is free, bound, or either bound or
free. Consider each sentence independently.
Ex. John found himself in love with her. / himself--bound; her--free
Ex. John said that he loved her. / he--bound or free; her--free
1. I hope you’ll join us tomorrow.
2. The fact that he considers her pretty pleases her.
3. Whenever I see you, I think of her.
4. John discovered that a picture of himself was hanging in the Post Office, and that fact bugged him?,
but it pleased her.
5. It seems that she and he will never stop arguing with them.
6. Persons are prohibited from picking flowers from any but their own graves. (On a sign in a cemetery.)
7. Louise said to herself in the mirror, 'I'm so ugly.'

Anaphora and cataphora. Textual reference can be anaphoric (when the markers look back in the text
for interpretation) and cataphoric (the markers look forward to something which is about to be
said/written).
A man asked about you. That man was old./ I’m going to tell you this: if you don’t work hard etc.
Task 3. Identify the type of textual reference of the italicized phrases in the examples below:
a. Mum washed the clothes and then hung them on a line to dry.
b. That was a pleasant surprise, your message.
c. Everyone likes his paintings. It's amazing.
d. This is the best way to make the dough: mix the flour with the yeast, water and olive oil, add the
salt and sugar …
e. Last week I cycled to work and they did the same. pro-verb
f. We went to New York this summer. Have you ever been there?
(based on Morley, 1985)

Deictic (from Greek deiktikos = pointing, showing) expressions are all linguistic forms that require the
knowledge of the immediate context to be interpreted correctly.
Person, place, time, social (tu vous)(Du Sie)
Task 4. Circle any deictic expression in the following sentences. (All sentences do not include such
expressions.) Identify the type of deixis.
a. We saw her standing there.
b. Dogs are animals.
c. Last week, all my troubles seemed so far away.
d. The name of this rock band is "The Beatles".
e. The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 A.D.
f. The Declaration of Independence was signed last year.
g. Copper conducts electricity.
h. The treasure chest is on the right.
i. These are the times that try men's souls. One of these days / at that time /
j. I want this, and this, and this. (Q: How many objects does he want?)
Demonstratives proximal and distal

Types of Deixis: Gestural vs Symbolic:

If a deictic expression is used in a gestural manner, then it can only be understood by physically
observing the speech event.
Ex. “Put the flowers on this table.”
This utterance can only be interpreted correctly if one sees the gestural movement accompanying this
utterance, by for example pointing at the intended table with a hand.
In the case of symbolic use, the utterance can also be understood if only the basic spatio-temporal
parameters surrounding the utterance are known.
Ex. “This country is very patriotic”
This utterance can be understood without any physical gestures, just by knowing in which country the
speaker currently resides. A symbolic use of a deictic expression can always occur with a gesture but
gestural expression cannot be used symbolically.
non-deictic use: A deictic expression can be used non-deictically. (generic use)
Ex. “You have to be 18 to be allowed to buy alcohol” (On a sign in a supermarket)
The use of you is non-deictic in this case because it refers to whoever is reading the sign, it could also be
replaced with “one has to be 18 to be allowed to buy alcohol...”
a non-deictic expression can be used deictically.
Ex. “Her hair looks nice, but hers doesn't” (while giving a gestural indication on who is meant
both times) –
Here her is used in a deictic way, because the reference of her keeps changing.
Task 5. In the following cases, decide if it is a case of gestural G; symbolic S; non-deictic use ND:
a. You, you, but not you, are dismissed.
b. What did you say?
c. You can never tell what they want nowadays.
d. This finger hurts.
e. This city stinks.
f. Sometimes you wonder about the quality of the political leadership.
g. I met this weird guy the other day.
h. Push, not now, but now.
i. Let’s go now rather than tomorrow.
j. Now, that is not what I said.
k. Not that one, idiot, that one.
l. Oh, we talked about this and that…
m. Are we ready for our medicine now, Dr Smith?
n. She’s a beauty all right [said of a car].

(based on Levinson 1983)

Context: much of reference involves reliance on context and general knowledge on the part of the
speakers and hearers; this is characteristic of normal language use – speakers estimate how much
information their interlocutors need to make successful reference and where they can “economize”.
Some of the types of knowledge interlocutors may use are: knowledge of the world as
context/encyclopedic, discourse as context, background/common knowledge as context.
Task 6. What does the hearer need in order to establish reference in the following examples?
a. (reader to bookseller in a book shop) I’m looking for the new wolf*
b. (in a snooker game) He’s got two reds left.
c. (in an office, speaking about purchasing new office supplies) Have you cleared this with the top
floor?
d. (two students on the phone deciding to meet):
A: Can we meet? `
B: Cappuccino?
A: John`s in 20.
* Thomas Clayton Wolfe was an American novelist of the early twentieth century. Wolfe wrote four
lengthy novels as well as many short stories, dramatic works, and novellas.
(Based on Saeed, 1997)

Task 7. Consider the following text (in Saeed, 1997, based on Anderson 1977), decide on a title and
paraphrase the paragraph accordingly; consider how topic of discourse can influence interpretation of
meaning.

Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought.
Things were not going well. What bothered him was being held, especially since the charge
against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was
strong, but he thought he could break it.