KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.

net/magloop/#zebra

Small Transmi ng Loop Project

Introduc on

Of the many different antenna projects I have built for HF, the most interes-ng and rewarding project was the small transmi0ng loop. A2er
consul-ng many of the available Internet sources, and by combining ideas, I was able to assemble an antenna that performed well, even under
poor band condi-ons. The experience was so much fun that I built several different ones, all described below.

Thinking About Loops

Having previously spent many years as an apartment-dweller, I have a keen sense of how difficult it is to do
effec-ve HF communica-ons from restricted spaces. Even though I now have a small yard in which to
experiment with antennas, the idea of a high-performance, small HF antenna s-ll holds my interest.

There are a number of amateurs who have suggested that small loop efficiency and effec-veness can
actually be far be er than conven-onal wisdom might suggest. Some have even challenged tradi-onal
round loop designs altogether, using different shapes and materials to squeeze more performance out of
their antennas. Despite the challenges associated with confron-ng long-held tradi-ons in design, these
amateurs con-nue to perform some impressive experiments with their crea-ons.

For me, the process of building loops started small, mainly as an experiment driven by idle curiosity. Over
the past few years, however, I have slowly developed my loop antennas into fully automated, remotely
controlled, high power (500W) antennas for the 80m through 6m bands, becoming a major part of my radio
hobby. In fact, my experience with low-band (40m and 80m) loops has convinced me to use this type of
antenna as a main contes-ng antenna, even when other larger antennas are available.

Even for those of us who live on property without antenna restric-ons, the ever-shrinking lot size for new development is combining with all
manner of consumer electronic devices to make our HF bands noisier than ever. Because of these and other factors, the need for smaller and
quieter HF antennas is growing. One of our challenges in the future is to design and build small antennas that s-ll have good performance
characteris-cs, both for DX and domes-c contacts.

On that note, the project has inspired a couple of related receive-only antenna projects. These share many traits with the small transmi0ng
loops, but they also have some important differences for those seeking to op-mize receiver performance. A dedicated installa-on of
independent transmi0ng and receiving loops could be the ul-mate small-lot, high-performance HF antenna system, especially for the longer
wavelengths.

What follows is a walk-through of my experiences building transmi0ng loops. I'm not going to include the spreadsheets, calcula-ons,
theore-cal formulae, etc. I will include links to the more interes-ng ones at the bo om of the ar-cle. What I want to capture here are the
more prac-cal experiences, and some of the "Ah ha!" moments of the project.

This document con-nues to grow, so it's -me to add a Table of Contents, to help organize it:

Step 1 — Just the Essen-als — Proving the theory to myself with a no-frills loop experiment
Step 2 — Vacuum-Variable Capacitor — Adding a high-quality capacitor to allow precise tuning
Step 3 — Motor Driven Capacitor — Tuning the loop remotely with a small DC motor
More Loops — Construc-on of addi-onal loops of varying sizes and materials:
A 20m loop — trying to squeeze every last drop of efficiency out of a loop on 20m
A 6m loop — because, well, why not?
A 40m loop — a truly small loop with capacitor selec-on cost-op-mized for 40m
A 10m loop — op-mized for 10m, but also extendable down to 20m
An 80m loop — that turned out to work really well on 40m, too
The Mark-7 — an op-mized 20m loop, with some alterna-ve construc-on techniques; later extended to cover 20m through 80m
The Zebra — another 80m antenna using a thin helix of copper foil
Mul-band Opera-on — How I match my loops for use on more than one band
Next Steps — Some wish-list items for more research and permanent installa-ons
Conclusions — What I would do if I were to do it all over again
Closing Thoughts — A discussion on why loop antennas aren't as simple as a few formulas

1 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

Step 1 — Just the Essen-als

Star-ng out, I wanted to avoid inves-ng any significant amount of money in an experimental antenna un-l I was convinced that the principles
were sound, and that I could make them work for me. People who use small loops o2en make impressive claims about their performance, but
then again, even a light bulb can work the occasional DX sta-on, right? I wanted to prove the concept before commi0ng a lot of resources to
the project.

Finding a quality tuning capacitor is the most difficult step in procuring materials, so I started with that. I had quite a bit of success using open-
wire feed line for feeding and matching a dipole for QRO opera-on, and I knew that the voltage handling capacity of such line is quite high.
This line is also rather inexpensive, with a 100' roll of 300-ohm window line at around $20.

I decided on a basic and minimal small loop, 3' in diameter, using a stub made from quality window line as the tuning capacitor. Such an
antenna would, in theory, readily resonate in the 20m band. This design would also allow me to simply discard the antenna if it didn't work
well, without losing a lot of money.

This first loop was tuned for a single frequency, 14,070kHz. I thought digital modes would be a good way to test the antenna, especially since
so much digital ac-vity is clustered -ghtly around a single PSK-31 frequency on each band. That would allow me to find the highest number of
sta-ons in close proximity to each other.

In keeping with my cost-saving approach to my experimental antenna, the first mast was made from PVC plumbing pipe. It is non-conduc-ve,
and the large-bore PVC pipe is very rigid at short lengths. I keep a surveyor's tripod handy for doing antenna experiments, so between that
and the PVC, I had the materials to build the support. The tripod will accept a schedule 40 PVC pipe of nominal 1-1/4" size, so that was the
type chosen for the mast. 5' lengths are commonly available, and threaded connectors were used to to join the loop's 5' sec-on with a second
5' sec-on that would slide into the tripod. This allowed a 10' overall height, that could be easily assembled and disassembled.

Some things I learned about using PVC as a mast:

Conveniently, 1" PVC pipe fits very nicely within 1-1/4" PVC pipe. If you cement the two together, one inside the other, the strength and rigidity of the mast
increases substan-ally. Most of the loops shown here use this arrangement in at least some part of the support structure.
When using the threaded connectors, it is very wise to apply a small amount (or not-so-small amount) of dielectric (silicone) grease to the threads before trying to
mate them. Remember, this is plumbing pipe, and the various connectors are not meant to be disassembled repeatedly. They are meant to glue together and stay
glued for decades. The threaded connectors I used had a slight taper, which means they were also meant to thread together -ghtly, and stay that way. Without
some kind of lubricant to prevent this, I would eventually need some large wrenches to twist them back apart.
Using a high-quality cement to join the pipe to the connectors is a must. Few things will ruin your day faster than watching your beau-ful antenna crea-on come
crashing to the ground because a joint worked loose. Cement is cheap. Rebuilding an antenna is not.
The tripod is a great way to support the antenna, but loop antennas can get very top-heavy. The tripod will easily support the bo om mast by itself. Before
threading the loop itself onto the bo om mast sec-on, I made sure to guy the bo om mast sec-on just above the tripod. This is absolutely mandatory. More than
once, I had to catch a falling loop because the wind had caught it just right, and caused it to -p over. The tripod wasn't enough to resist the leaning tendencies of
the loops under wind load, even though the en-re thing was only 10' above ground.
The green guy lines in the pictures are rela-vely thick nylon rope. Nylon is not typically UV-resistant, so using it as a long-term guy line for a permanent installa-on
is probably not a good idea. There are inexpensive ropes available that are meant to be used as guy lines for permanent antenna installa-ons, and these ropes are
UV-resistant. If you use nylon outside for long periods of -me, the sun will eventually make it bri le to the point of failure.
Speaking of guys, I used cheap aluminum tent stakes from the camping sec-on of a local store. These were were more than adequate to hold the long guys in
place. However, there is also a stake in the ground that you cannot see in the photographs. It is directly inside the bo om support PVC pipe segment. This keeps
the bo om of the mast from sliding around on the ground. This is also mandatory, because of the top-heavy nature of the loop. Without it, the bo om mast
segment could shi2, and send the antenna falling.

For the loop itself, I chose 5/8" so$ copper tubing. This is the type you might use to feed refrigerant to an air condi-oner. It is o2en sold as
"refrigera-on tubing." The small-loop theory says that larger bore tubing makes the antenna more efficient, but 5/8" seems to be a nice
compromise size, and is s-ll in the "cheaper" grade of tubing. Price starts to climb rapidly as you increase the tubing size, and again, I was just
trying to prove the theory.

So2 copper tubing also lends itself to being easily formed into a circular loop. Unlike loops built from copper pipe, the tubing doesn't have to
be cut and joined with elbows. Having a long con-nuous piece of copper seemed ideal for keeping losses low. A2er all, solder joints increase
losses. I have seen some very clever jigs for doing circular bends of piping. I did mine by hand, and the result was almost as good. The trick is
to bend the tubing a li le at a -me, working your way around the length of tubing several -mes, making very small bends every few inches
during each pass. Out of the box, the tubing is already coiled up in a nice circular shape. All you have to do is increase the radius of curvature
to get it to the diameter that you want.

For the inner (driven) loop, I chose 1/4" so2 copper tubing. An SO-239 connector was carefully soldered to the ends of the inner loop.

Both types of tubing can be purchased by the foot from local hardware shops for reasonable amounts. I was able to secure both from Lowe's
for just over $1/foot.

Some notes about working with copper tubing:

1. Handling copper with your bare hands will very quickly cause it to tarnish. The copper content of pipe and tubing is extremely high, and copper loves to react to the
natural oils and salts from your skin. If you will wear thin latex gloves while handling the tubing, and especially while bending it, the copper will retain its shiny
appearance and you will minimize contaminants on the surface of the inductor.
2. On the subject of contaminants, remember that the thickness of the copper is irrelevant for an antenna. The skin effect of RF flowing on any conductor will force all

2 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

of the current into the top few micrometers of the copper tubing. I have not seen any literature that describes how tarnish, oxida-on, and other surface
contaminants effect the RF resistance of a conductor, but the cleaner you can keep the surface, the be er.
3. It is easy to polish the copper loops with a wire wheel, available at any store that sells drills and bits. The coarseness is up to you, but mechanically polishing the
imperfec-ons out of the loop is easy and well-advised. If you use a drill or Dremel to work on any part of your loop, make sure to wear eye protec-on.

3' Loop with Window Line Capacitor

Now it was -me to tune it.

To figure out how long to make the capacitor stub, I used some exis-ng 300-ohm stubs cut for the dipole project. These were in lengths
ranging from 6" to 8', in binary increments. I can combine these into any length of stub, to a resolu-on of 6". To interconnect them, I soldered
PowerPole connectors to the ends. In a very handy coincidence, the spacing between PowerPole contacts is almost exactly the same as the
spacing between the wires of 300-ohm window line. This way the stubs could be connected in series quite easily. At the top of the loop,
where the copper tubing is split, I soldered in a 2" stub with a PowerPole connector, for a aching to the stub of the stub.

Some thoughts about capaci-ve stubs:

Using feedline stubs for matching isn't a new idea. People have used open-wire and coaxial feeder stubs for impedance matching purposes for some -me. The
dipole matching project used both series and shunt stubs between the coax and a 600-ohm feedline to match the two, and was inspired by W5DXP's work on that
very subject. His project used series transformer sec-ons exclusively. I just extended the idea by adding a second piece of feedline, open-ended, as a shunt sec-on
on the high-impedance side, to further refine the match. That piece served (mostly) as a matching capacitor of very small value. That is the idea here, with the
loop. The stub is open-ended, and serves only as a capacitor.
From an efficiency standpoint, the stub isn't a good permanent solu-on, because it adds more than capacitance. It serves as a delay line that also contains a non-
negligible amount of inductance, that actually adds to the effec-ve length of the large copper loop. For use as a first experimental capacitor it was a wonderful and
cheap way to do tests. In the long run, a good design will probably use some kind of lumped-C capacitor, such as a vacuum-variable or an air-variable.
I have seen some really nice designs for homebrew trombone-style capacitors made out of copper pipe (not tubing). I opted to avoid these as a final solu-on for
two reasons.
1. I wanted to operate high-power levels. This means that the dielectric of the capacitor needed to be high-quality and low-loss. A vacuum is hard to beat for
this purpose.
2. I'm not yet convinced either way with respect to how much addi-onal inductance is introduced by the trombone arms. It may be negligible, but as with the
window-line stub, it certainly "looks" substan-al, due to the lengths involved.

A2er some experimenta-on, I found the length closest to 14,070kHz for the loop. Using a Palstar analyzer, I mixed stubs un-l I found a length
that was close. I then took a spare stub that only had one connector, and started cu0ng it from one end about 1/8" at a -me, un-l I slowly
resonated the antenna at 14,070kHz.

For the feed loop, I used a single turn of 1/4" tubing, fed directly in a balanced fashion from the coaxial cable. I used an MFJ-915 choke close
to the feed point, to ensure that no common mode current flowed on the cable. During later experiments, I found that this is usually not
needed, but I didn't want to pollute my test with common mode radia-on or recep-on. I wanted all the power to go into the large loop,
whether that mean radia-on or loss.

Even before making any contacts, I no-ced that the loop Q was quite high. Dri2ing in frequency more than 15kHz from the center frequency
would raise the SWR quickly to 2:1 and beyond. Another 15kHz would take the SWR beyond 10:1, which is the measurement limit of the
Palstar device.

Since the high Q is cri-cal to maintaining loop efficiency, I knew I was on the right track. Efficiency and Q are very -ghtly coupled, and for an
electrically small (dare I say, -ny?) antenna, efficiency and Q are directly propor-onal. Higher Q tends to indicate higher efficiency for a small
radiator. If the antenna had a lot of resis-ve loss, the Q would fall, and the 2:1 bandwidth of the antenna would be wider.

3 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

The band condi-ons on 20m the day of my first tests were terrible, but I s-ll had no problem making coast-to-coast domes-c contacts on
PSK-31, even in the presence of heavy fade. A2er spending an a2ernoon making contacts on the loop, and watching several DX sta-ons come
in quite clearly, it was obviously working well enough to jus-fy ge0ng more serious about the loop project.

Step 2 — Vacuum-Variable Capacitor

The next step in improving the loop was to add a variable capacitor, to allow the antenna's frequency to be changed. I wanted to use the loop
on at least a couple of different bands, to see how the performance changed as the loop wavelength was changed. A 3' loop is just under 9.5
feet in length. That's about 1/8 wavelength on 20m, almost 1/4 wavelength on 15m, and well over a quarter wavelength on 10m.

Alan at MaxGain was able to provide me with a couple of used vacuum variable capacitors, 10-60pF, 10kV, for around $100 each, shipped.
Vacuum variable capacitor prices only go up from there, so I thought that would be a good star-ng place. According to the calculators
available online, those capacitors would allow me to tune across the frequencies that I cared about, at a peak power level of 500W, which is
the limit of my sta-on, anyway.

The capacitor replaced the stub, and I added a sha2 made of PVC, to allow for turning the capacitor sha2 from the ground. At le2 is an image
of a drive sha2 added to a 5' loop, constructed later. At right is a close-up of the capacitor moun-ng.

Vacuum-Variable Capacitor

You will note that I used wires to connect the ends of the inductor to the capacitor. Although this wasn't op-mal from the standpoint of
keeping resistance low, the Q of the loop remained quite high a2er this change. More importantly, I could tune the loop to any frequency
from 20m through the CW/data por-on of 10m.

The wires were soldered to the tubing using standard PC-board solder. I tried silver solder, but my first a empts didn't work out well. Later, I'll
describe how I was able to successfully resolder with silver-bearing solder.

As a side note, most capacitors are rated for maximum voltage, and they are typically marketed that way. While the voltage ra-ng is important
applica-ons like this, I found that an equally important capacitor ra-ng is its maximum steady state current ra-ng. The voltage ra-ng only
ma ers once you get close to the limit; anything less than that, and the capacitor's voltage handling is just as good whether you run 100V or
10kV. This contrasts with the current ra-ng, which is the point where the capacitor is no longer able to keep itself properly cool, and hea-ng
effects occur. I have seen more than once where the limi-ng factor for a loop antenna was the capacitor, and it was the current ra-ng that was
the limit. As the power level caused the circula-ng current to approach this value, the capacitor would start to heat, causing thermal dri2 of
the resonant frequency.

Unfortunately, the AA5TB spreadsheet doesn't capture the circula-ng current value of the loop you are modeling, but it is not difficult to do
calculate, since it is included with the ARRL loop formulas. I modified the spreadsheet to include circula-ng current, which has been very
helpful in selec-ng proper capacitors to use for a given design. I won't publish the updated spreadsheet here, but if anyone would like a copy,
please send me an email. I no-ced that the MaxGain folks are usually good about documen-ng the current capacity of their products, so it
would be a good idea to compare these ra-ngs with the an-cipated value from the ARRL model before selec-ng a specific capacitor model.

While working with this loop, I no-ced some other interes-ng things that the standard literature didn't seem to men-on. I have no
explana-on for why any of these were true, but my experience was consistent across all of the loops built:

1. Adjus-ng the inner loop for 50-ohm resonance was much easier if I moved it ver-cally, within the loop plane, rather than rota-ng it about the mast. All of the
literature I read suggested the la er.
2. The proper loca-on of the inner loop for a 50-ohm match was extremely dependent on the loop's surroundings; e.g., its height above ground, whether it was
indoors or out, proximity to other objects, etc.
3. The range of resonant impedances a ainable by moving the inner loop along the mast could also be changed by deforming the inner loop to be oblong, rather than
circular. This was another technique suggested by some texts, and it was necessary to get 50-ohm resonant matches when the loop was sited in difficult loca-ons,

4 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

e.g., indoors.
4. The overall loop was also easier to match to 50-ohms if the inner loop was fed at its top, as shown in the picture
at right.

The first point was very helpful, because simply rota-ng the inner loop didn't always work. By raising
or lowering it on the mast, so that the two loops remained coplanar, I could easily reach a 50-ohm
point at resonance, regardless of the loca-on details. When mounted outdoors in the clear, the 50-
ohm posi-on of the inner loop was several inches up the mast. When used indoors, the 50-ohm
posi-on of the inner loop was near the bo om edge of the outer loop. At right, you see what the 3'
loop looked like adjusted for use outside.

A few QSOs later, it was -me to add a motor drive to the capacitor, so that I could remotely tune the
loop.

Step 3 — Motor Driven Capacitor

Robo-cs is a fairly common hobby today, so finding a motor to move the capacitor sha2 was easy. I
bought a gearhead motor from a robo-cs wholesale outlet. The gearhead reduced the RPM of the
motor from several hundred RPM, to about 3 RPM. Both the motor and the capacitor had 1/4"
sha2s, so connec-ng them required only adap-ng the PVC drive sha2 to them. I found a couple of
knobs at Radio Shack that did the trick. They were replacement knobs for audio equipment volume
controls. The knobs fit -ghtly inside the 1/2" pipe, and to the sha2s.

High-current antennas such as this are capable of genera-ng huge magne-c fields close to the
antenna, so I adopted a rule to help keep my test results as trustworthy as possible. I decided not to
run any conductors near the outer loop, where the high loop currents exist. That way, the mutual
coupling between the outer loop and other conductors was kept to a minimum. The intent was to
keep the antenna's radia-on pa ern as pure and undistorted as possible. To accomplish this, I did a
couple of things that also were not men-oned in any of the small loop literature that I found:

1. The coaxial feedline was mounted in such a way to keep several inches between it and the outer loop. This was
done by making a large arc from the feed point, over the main loop, then back to the mast.
2. The motor drive for the capacitor was not mounted close to the capacitor. Instead, a long "drive sha2" was formed with PVC pipe, and used to connect the motor
to the capacitor. The drive sha2 was long enough to allow the motor to be placed well outside the outer loop.

I added a couple of protec-on items to the motor before using it. First, I placed a 0.05μF capacitor across the motor's DC terminals. This
keeps the RF out of the motor windings. Second, I choked the power leads with a common mode snap-on bead, to keep RF from flowing into
the motor from the long leads, or back to the power supply from the motor. The motors also had a vinyl cover added, to weatherproof them.

Another handy tool I borrowed from the robo-cs hobby was the PWM motor controller. These devices generate pulses of DC to drive the
motor. Using voltage to control a motor's speed can also be done, but it has some disadvantages:

1. A motor running at a lower voltage develops less torque than one running at full voltage.
2. A motor running at a lower voltage can generate more internal heat, especially since it stalls more easily under load.
3. A motor running at a lower voltage is less efficient than when it runs at its design voltage.

The PWM mostly solves these problems. By pulsing the power, rather than lowering the voltage, the
PWM allows the motor to run at full voltage while moving. The PWM generator takes advantage of
the rota-onal iner-a of the rotor to provide a natural slow-down of its mo-on, which allows much
more fine-grained control over the motor speed.

Adding the PWM to the motor circuit allowed me to more easily find and adjust the resonant
frequency of the antenna. I added a DPDT, momentary, center-off switch to the PWM circuit output.
This allows me to send normal or inverted voltage pulses to the motor, to rotate it in both direc-ons.
Many DC motors are reversible in this way, and the specifica-ons of the motor will tell you for sure.
At right is the PWM controller, with the DPDT switch on the output.

The loop was really taking shape, and I was happy with the performance I was ge0ng, but there were s-ll a couple of things I wanted to do to
try to squeeze out the last bit of efficiency.

First, I replaced the wire jumpers between the capacitor and the main inductor. Georgia Copper sells nice, polished copper strap in various
lengths. I used 1/2-inch strap to make the connec-ons. I also used silver solder the second -me. It turns out that my previous a empt failed
because I did not properly flux the conductor before applying the solder. Tractor Supply sold me a roll of silver-bearing solder that contained
its own flux, and that worked much be er.

Note that the copper and solder around the joints was polished a2er assembly. This removed the discolora-on and oxida-on that naturally
occurs when using a torch for soldering. Again, the skin effect of RF flowing on the surface of a conductor adds enough resistance on its own.
I hoped the polish would make sure that the current wasn't flowing through any addi-onal impuri-es.

5 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

Radials

Several loop builders also men-oned poten-al improvements in performance by adding a fan of
short radials underneath the loop on the ground. I added a set of 15 to 18 radials under the loop,
each of which was around 6' long, and made from THHN-insulated copper wire.

A2er several a empts at using loops both with and without radials underneath, I have concluded
that the loop doesn't benefit substan-ally from the addi-on of radials over our local (rela-vely
conduc-ve) soil. The computer models agree with this conclusion — in fact, the number and length
of radials required for the computer model to show any substan-al improvement is almost
prohibi-vely high — far more than needed to cause a similar improvement in a simple λ / 4 ver-cal
antenna. Some authors have commented on the loop antenna's weak dependence on ground (as
opposed to a typical ver-cal antenna which is strongly dependent upon the ground underneath).
This would seem to be supported by the experiments and models based on our local ground. The
performance of the loop appears to be far more influenced by its proximity to the ground, which I
will discuss later.

Radia on Pa-ern Observa ons

The overall loop pa ern was nearly omnidirec-onal. The nulls that I did find were rather sharp. They
were, however, enough to null out some RFI from a local neighbor, when the loop was properly rotated. DX contacts were readily made at
angles 60-80 degrees azimuth from the loop plane, and some-mes, directly above the null. The theory seems to indicate that this is typical for
a small-loop pa ern.

Installa on Height

A2er looking at several EZNEC+ models of small transmi0ng loops, I have concluded that the op-mal installa-on height for a ver-cally-
oriented loop is approximately 0.90 * λ / 4, measured from the top of the loop to the ground. At this height, the peak gain of the main lobes is
the highest, and the angle of peak radia-on is the lowest. Some people recommend one to two loop diameter eleva-on, which usually results
in a very usable antenna, but not always op-mal, and certainly not op-mal across several bands. An approach that is more consistent with the
computer models, is to raise the antenna to somewhere just below a quarter of one wavelength above the ground for the band most o2en
used for the loop.

There are obviously a couple of excep-ons to this rule of thumb, both having to do with low-band loops.

First, a loop for 40m or 80m is going to be difficult to raise to near λ / 4, and doing so defeats one of the advantages of using a small loop --
compactness. What I discovered with the 40m and 80m loops described below, is that lower installa-on heights can be used effec-vely, with
minimal adverse effect to the DX capability of the antenna. The trick is to be reasonable with the trade-offs, and computer modeling of the
desired installa-on height can help visualize the effect on its pa ern.

Second, if NVIS response is desired, raising the antenna to near λ / 4 will remove much of its high-angle response. Much like lowering a dipole
to increase high-angle response, installing a 40m or 80m loop at below its ideal height increases its NVIS capabili-es. The models suggest that
a good height for a NVIS loop is indeed between one and two loop diameters, measured from the ground to the bo om of the loop, and my
experiments with NVIS loops confirms that this is a good working es-mate. If NVIS opera-on is desired, it is also best to place the capacitor at
the bo om of the loop, rather than at the top. Doing so places the current maximum at the top of the loop, which helps maximize the
overhead antenna gain.

Bandwidth Observa ons

The three-foot loop has a 2:1 SWR bandwidth of 22kHz on 15m, as measured at the end of a 45' length of RG-213/U. As I later discovered, the
coaxial cable tends to correct impedance mismatch along its length, so the actual 2:1 bandwidth measured at the antenna would be
somewhat less than that measured at the end of a long cable. All of the loop antennas described below were measured with similar cables,
unless otherwise noted, so it may be useful to go back at some point and repeat the measurements of some of these antennas, to see how
close each of them is to the theore-cal values.

Others have contacted me to point out that the bandwidth predicted by the Antenna Book formulas is measured at its -3dB points, not a 2:1
SWR. That means that the bandwidth numbers I provide here are not directly comparable with the results from these formulas. Others s-ll
have pointed out that a -3dB point is o2en correlated as a rule of thumb with a 2.61 SWR. However, I am not convinced that a 2.61 SWR
reading correlates to the -3dB points, because this rule of thumb has some other assump-ons built into it. In any event, the reader should be
aware that the bandwidth measurements I present here are based on measured 2:1 SWR points, and not -3dB points.

6 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

Regardless of the conven-on used for measuring bandwidth, there are some general principles that apply to all of them. The foremost idea is
that bandwidth and Q are inversely propor-onal, regardless of the units used. That means, for example, that comparing the efficiency of one
capacitor to another should yield a narrower bandwidth with the more efficient part, since it increases the Q value of the circuit. So
performing meaningful comparisons is s-ll a prac-cal exercise, even for those of us who may not have the ability to measure the true -3dB
bandwidth of the antenna.

More Loops

So far, I have built several different loop antennas, some of which have had two or three rounds of modifica-ons done to them. These
antennas ranged in size from 9 feet down to 17 inches diameter. Each of the new loops was built to emphasize a par-cular band. The loop
described above was approximately 3' in diameter, and is a good choice for mul-band opera-on from 20m through 10m (strongest on 15m)
with the capacitor chosen.

20m Loop

One of the loops was a 5' model specifically built for 20m performance. It was a larger diameter, making the overall
circumference about a foot less than one quarter wavelength at 14,350 kHz. This maximized the efficiency for that band,
but s-ll kept it electrically small. Its measured 2:1 SWR bandwidth on 20m is 18kHz. This antenna used the second of
the two 10-60pF variable capacitors I originally picked up from MGS. This allowed it to tune well outside the 20m band,
even with the rela-vely narrow range of the capacitor.

This antenna served as a first dra2 for the Mark-7, which I have installed semi-permanently at my house. That antenna
also tunes across several bands, and is used regularly and successfully for contes-ng. This antenna is also of similar size
to the 40m loop described below. In fact, this loop, the 40m loop, and the Mark-7 loop are nearly iden-cal electrically. The main difference
between the three designs was in the range of the tuning capacitor a ached to each one.

6m Loop

Back in my college years, 6m FM had some fantas-c propaga-on, and I remember some very nice band openings. I have
been wan-ng to get back into 6m, but didn't have an antenna that fit well anywhere at the house. So as an experiment, I
also tried a 6m loop. This loop has a diameter of about 17 inches. It used a single 3-30pF capacitor for tuning, which was
sized to be usable into the 100W range. This loop has made several domes-c CW contacts, but has not seen a lot of use
beyond that.

The computer model suggests that the op-mal installa-on height is a few inches shy of five feet, measured from the
ground to the top of the main loop. This places the top of the loop at just over λ / 4. This raises some interes-ng issues
not seen with most of these loop designs. First, a 5' installa-on height is easy to achieve either outdoors or from inside a
single-story building, but it is too short for an a0c installa-on. If this antenna is used in an a0c, it should be installed as
low as possible within that space to achieve the best possible pa ern. Second, like any other ground-mounted antenna, care must be taken to
prevent others from touching the antenna during transmission. Given the elevated voltage and current present on the loop conductor, even at
low power levels, RF safety is par-cularly important with an antenna that is easily reached by humans of any age.

40m Loop

Loops that are extremely small electrically are able to maximize other aspects of their opera-on. For example, lower noise pick-up and deeper
nulls. I built a 40m loop to experiment with these proper-es.

The loop size was chosen to be approximately 4.5 feet in diameter. This makes the circumference of the antenna about 11% of the wavelength
at 7,000kHz, and the diameter about 3% of the wavelength. Electrically speaking, that is the defini-on of "small".

The measured 2:1 SWR bandwidth of the 40m loop is 5.4kHz. At this bandwidth, the antenna is s-ll capable of SSB
transmission. However, it reminds me that loops of this size will only be usable for narrow modes (e.g., CW or PSK-31)
on longer wavelengths. Antennas large enough for SSB on the lower bands will likely not be easily portable. This
antenna's Q is high enough that it needs frequent retuning while moving up and down the band, even on CW. Adding an
automa-c controller eased opera-on considerably.

This loop was a li le different than the others, in that I didn't try to use a single capacitor to tune it. Instead, it used two
capacitors arranged in parallel. The first was a vacuum-fixed capacitor, 100pF, to provide most of the 120pF required to
bring the resonant frequency down to around 7,500kHz. The second capacitor was a smaller 3-30pF vacuum-variable,
used to provide the tuning adjustment to pull the frequency down further into the 40m band.

The maximum current ra-ng for the 100pF vacuum-fixed cap was considerably higher than that of the vacuum-variable.
The reason for this is that the current flowing into and out of each capacitor in a parallel arrangement is directly

7 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

propor-onal to its value. When the vacuum-variable is adjusted to 20pF, it shoulders roughly 1/6 of the total circula-ng
current within the loop antenna. So the current ra-ngs for the two capacitors were chosen accordingly. This was very
helpful, because high-capacity fixed capacitors are far cheaper than high-capacity variables, mostly due to the simplicity
of the construc-on. By using two caps in parallel, I minimized the cost of the overall capacitor bank considerably.

The ini-al tests of the 40m loop were very promising. During a CW contest, the 40m loop made numerous DX contacts in
Europe. When running at 500W, the capacitors showed no signs of hea-ng (SWR dri2, physical warmth, etc.).

I ran several computer models of this antenna, to determine the effect of differing installa-on heights. Unsurprisingly, the ideal installa-on
height for a low-angle pa ern is somewhat less than λ / 4, in the neighborhood of 30' to 31'. That height isn't very prac-cal for a loop
antenna, and people who can install a 40m antenna at that kind of height will probably use a ver-cal, instead. That said, I was s-ll impressed
by the DX performance of the antenna, so I looked at several models at lower installa-on heights.

What I found was that the difference in low-angle performance between the antenna at its "ideal" height and more prac-cal heights isn't
much. When installed at a height of 31', the eleva-on angle of peak gain (the so-called "take off" angle) is around 18°. When the antenna is
installed at 12', the gain at that eleva-on angle is within 0.2dB of the 18° gain for the same antenna installed at 31'. As a result, the antenna is
quite usable for DX, even when installed at less than half its ideal height. Further, the antenna's high-angle response is much be er at the
lower installa-on height. So installing the antenna at 12' allows it to work both NVIS and DX contacts. This kind of versa-lity is difficult to find
in any other type of antenna.

10m Loop

A few years back, while 10m condi-ons were somewhat be er, a dedicated 10m loop seemed to be a good idea. Its
construc-on was very similar to the others, with a 6' circumference and a measured 2:1 SWR bandwidth of 27kHz. As
with the other antennas, the computer models suggest that the op-mal height for installa-on is just under λ / 4, or
somewhere around 98" (just over 8'), measured from the ground to the top of the loop. As with the 6m loop, such a
height places the loop conductor within reach of an average adult, so RF safety precau-ons should be taken with
placement of the antenna.

During one 10m Contest, I did several A/B tests between the 10m loop at 8', and a KIO hexbeam at 23' — reasonably
close to op-mal for 10m. The received signal strength on the loop was about one S-unit less than that of the beam.
Given that the difference in expected gain between the two antennas is around 8dB, the signal levels received on the
loop were more than sa-sfactory. The noise level on the loop was also down about one S-unit (6dB). When
transmi0ng, this loop was just as capable of European and domes-c contacts as the beam: I found no sta-ons that could
be worked on the beam but not on the loop. I verified this by a emp-ng to work all sta-ons first with the loop.

As you can see in the photo, this loop has been painted with a coat of white enamel. This protects the copper from
tarnishing from handling, but it does not seem to have effected the performance in any measurable way. The copper
was finely sanded prior to pain-ng, to make the copper surface as conduc-ve as possible. The other HF loops have been
similarly painted, with no adverse effects to performance, or even a measurable change in opera-ng parameters such as
Q or resonant frequency.

The antenna performed as expected for 10m, the band for which it was designed to be op-mal. However, with a
capacitor of appropriate range, this antenna can be resonated across all of the higher HF bands from 20m through 10m,
despite its small size. The predicted ideal efficiency between those extremes varies from around 35% on 20m to nearly
90% at the top of 10m. The range of capacitor required to cover those bands is approximately 125pF to 25pF. On 20m,
the loop is about 9% of 1·λ, a size that makes it a textbook "small loop" for that band.

For an installa-on where space is truly limited, this antenna could provide effec-ve coverage across the higher HF bands with reasonable
efficiency, and it can fit literally anywhere. If such extended opera-on is desired, it would be advisable to pay par-cular a en-on to efficient
construc-on, including generous conductors sizes, limi-ng the number of joints, and low-loss capacitor selec-on.

80m Loop

The yard in which I build my "antenna farm" is roughly 642 square. Even a loaded 80m antenna would take up a lot of room. I modeled a few
80m antennas, and decided to try a loop for this band, as well.

This antenna's construc-on differed from the others in some significant ways. First, it used flat copper strap, rather than tubing. The 3" strap
width was selected so as to give an equivalent surface area to that of tubing roughly 1.9" in diameter. The strap does not have any structural
strength of its own, so a "plus"-shaped PVC structure was built from 1.25" schedule-40 PVC. This turned out to be sufficient, but it is s-ll quite
flexible under the weight and wind load. A larger-bore pipe would be a be er selec-on.

The antenna is rather large, as compared to the others. The arms of the support structure were each 4.5' long, and each of the four sides are
over 6' long, for a total conductor circumference of 26', with about a foot curled up near the tuning capacitor. This means it is possible for the
loop to fit through a door, but not easy. So this antenna was built to have some basic protec-on for the motor and capacitor, so that it could

8 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

be le2 outdoors for extended periods of -me. The housing around the moving parts is 4" PVC nominal I.D.

This antenna is fed with the capacitor at the bo om of the loop, and the smaller driven loop at the top. This is an inverted configura-on from
my other loops. I spent some -me in EZNEC+, modeling these antennas, and found that for the higher band antennas, the normal (cap-at-the-
top) configura-on gave the best overall pa ern for these bands. However, for a low-band loop, I found that the pa ern was slightly be er
(between 1dB and 2dB) if I inverted the antenna in its resonant state. I can't explain why the models worked out that way, but I suspect it
might have something to do with the distance of the antenna from the ground, as measured in wavelengths. Since they are all roughly the
same height (5 to 8 feet) from the ground, this is the main difference between them.

Because of the inverted configura-on and large size, I moved the loca-on of the motor, as well. While I could have placed the motor below
the main loop on a short drive sha2, this would have increased the size of the overall antenna significantly, and it would have placed the motor
very close to areas of high RF energy. So this -me, I placed the motor near the center of the loop, which should be a near-null area for RF.
While the motor is in the center of the area of high flux density, it does not appear to pick up any significant levels of RF on the control lines.
Further, the 4kHz square-wave PWM signals that drive the motor during rota-on produce only faint RFI to the antenna if the motor is moved
while the radio is receiving. Given the coincidence of two areas of high magne-c flux, that of the antenna and that of the motor, I was
pleasantly surprised by the effec-veness of placing the motor inside the antenna's null zone at the center of the large loop.

The capacitor selected was a 500pF Jennings, with some impressive power handling specifica-ons. The copper strap was a ached directly to
the capacitor body, to eliminate any unnecessary mechanical joints in the high-current part of the loop. The ends of the strap were cut to form
several "fingers" that fit under the silver clamps on the ends of the cap. The antenna shows no signs of dri2 due to RF hea-ng, even under
100W con-nuous key-down. The model suggests that it should be fine through 500W for CW opera-on, and perhaps higher for SSB duty
cycles.

The feed point was made from #16 solid wire, rather than from tubing. This made it easy to shape, and to a ach to the weatherproof
enclosure housing the coax connector. This was the first antenna that does not have a choke on the coax feed — and as it turns out, it wasn't
needed. The loop balance was quite good, and the broadside nulls were very pronounced. A local neighborhood noise was S-9 end-fire to the
loop, but when the loop was turned so that the noise was broadside to loop, it could no longer be heard at all.

This antenna was easily managed with the AutoCap so2ware, using a 400-step/rev stepper motor a ached to the capacitor through a 4' PVC
drive sha2.

Outdoors, the bandwidth was quite narrow, and it showed a measured 2:1 bandwidth of approximately 3kHz on 80m. The antenna's
circumference is less than 1/4 wavelength on 40m, so it is also very usable there, and with higher efficiency. On 40m, the bandwidth was also
considerably higher.

80m STL

My first QSO with this antenna was broadside, to an MFSK-16 sta-on in Missouri. My transmit power was 25W, and we cha ed for about an
hour. The distance was ~340 miles, and the skip angle was approximately 55 degrees. Later tes-ng over the next few days showed it to be
quite capable of domes-c contacts at all distances, from coast to coast, as well as within the skip zone at high angles (NVIS). I made contacts
on both 40m and 75m SSB, running 500W without any signs of hea-ng or temperature-related dri2. Received signal reports are always
subjec-ve, but the SSB contacts all gave me feedback along the lines of, "wow that really is a big signal."

During the 2015 IARU contest, I used this loop as a dual-band antenna, for 40m and 80m, doing CW contacts at 500W+. The loop was oriented
with the main lobes pointed NE/SW, and the feedpoint was adjusted for lowest SWR (1:1) on 40m. On both bands, the antenna made
numerous contacts at all eleva-on angles. Once each band's propaga-on was fully formed, DX sta-ons, NVIS sta-ons, and everything in
between arrived with similar signal levels. Working Europe and South America was done with amazing ease, even on 80m. The recep-on on
both bands was excep-onal, with generous signal levels.

The nulls appear to be limited to near-zero eleva-on angles. While the loop can greatly a enuate noise from nearby buildings when turned
broadside to the source, it is s-ll able to send and receive skywave signals along the same bearing. If the EZNEC model is anywhere near

9 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

accurate, the loop should be able to do NVIS and other domes-c contacts broadside, although DX signals perpendicular to the loop are
probably ge0ng close to the null's eleva-on angle.

On that subject, it was surprising to me how far off-axis from the main lobes a sta-on could s-ll be worked. NE/SW contacts were not that big
of a surprise, but some distant sta-ons were worked with ease at angles exceeding 60 degrees from the main lobes. While the loop is
certainly not a gain antenna, on the low bands, the ionosphere is doing most of the heavy-li2ing for propaga-on, so gain doesn't seem to be
an issue.

About that feedpoint adjustment... One issue with using an induc-vely-fed loop for mul-ple bands is that the 50-ohm feedpoint posi-on for
one band is not necessarily the 50-ohm feedpoint posi-on for the others. This effect was more pronounced with the 80m loop than the
others, as adjus-ng for 1:1 on one band meant almost 2:1 SWR on the other. For 2015 IARU, I decided to op-mize, and run 1:1 on 40m, and
2:1 on 80m, so I would not have to readjust during the contest. This allowed me to switch back and forth quickly between bands, and it put
the 2:1 SWR where it would cause the least coaxial feedline loss.

This brings up a slightly controversial point with respect to loops. It is o2en said that a loop cannot be used with a tuner. While it is true that a
tuner should not be used to adjust a loop antenna, there is no reason why an otherwise resonant loop cannot have its impedance transformed
to 50 ohms by a normal "L" or "pi" tuner, if the loop's resonant point is not 50 ohms. As with any other antenna, the tuner and feedline loss
will be propor-onal to the feedline SWR, but at moderate levels, the losses can be kept negligible. See the Notes on Mul-band Opera-on
below for more details on how I do this with my own loops.

Because of the sharp bandwidth on 80m, large movements in frequency would require me to preadjust the tuning point using the controls in
the AutoCap so2ware. This wasn't a par-cular challenge, since it is easy to es-mate the correct adjustment by tuning for maximum noise
level. A panadapter view makes this procedure even easier, since you can move the noise peak visually, and with more precision. A2er that,
the AutoCap so2ware can do the fine-tuning on its own. The so2ware can do large adjustments, too, but SWR above 2.0 will cause my
amplifier to fault before the so2ware can get the antenna tuned. One way to avoid this is to simply avoid large movements, and just work
sta-ons in frequency-order. Otherwise, it is only necessary to preadjust as needed to keep the gear happy for the second or two while the
so2ware gets the antenna centered up on the new frequency.

With these minor adjustments in the opera-on of the loop for 80m, it was easily used as a dual-band low-band loop for contes-ng.
Considering that the next step up in antennas for these bands are 1/4-wavelength ver-cals (with 33' and 67' mast and radials, for 40m and
80m, respec-vely), a loop antenna with its base 5' above the ground, and its top at 15' is a good op-on for limited space, and has the benefit
of working equally well for DX and domes-c contests.

The Mark-7 — An Op-mized 20m STL — Extended to Cover 20m through 80m

The seventh STL project — which I have dubbed the "Mark-7" — has been the most used and updated of all
of them. This antenna started as a 20m-only replacement for my hexbeam, which was large, heavy, and of
limited u-lity in low-sunspot years. The Mark-7 has been modified and reinstalled several -mes, and seems
to be just the right size for a number of different uses beyond just 20m.

A2er taking down the hexbeam, I modeled a number of antennas to use for 20m DXing and contes-ng, and
realized that a slightly larger version of my other 20m loop, with an improved moun-ng structure, would be
the best op-on for my loca-on for a long-term installa-on. When built properly, it would have be er low-
angle gain than a ver-cal, with an efficiency of nearly 95%. In fact, the gain on 20m at eleva-on angles of
less than 10° would even be be er than a hexbeam installed at anything less than 33'. In contrast, the
op-mum installa-on height of the loop would be with the top of the loop at around 15', which is much less
of a mechanical project than a hexbeam at over 30 feet!

So I built a new 20m loop to replace the hexbeam un-l the next solar peak.

The ini-al version incorporated some design changes that I thought would be worth sharing. Some worked,
and some didn't.

The first change I made for this loop was the support. In order to control the wind-induced torque of the
"wings" of the antenna, I used a cross-shaped or plus-shaped PVC frame that supports the copper at four
points. I replaced the threaded break-down coupling at the bo om of the loop with an O-ring-bearing union
joint. This joint has two nice improvements over a simple threaded joint. First, the strength of the joint isn't
on the threads, making it much stronger and resistant to breakage. Second, it is much wider, which forms a
nice flange that can be used to hold guy ropes in place. The overall structure is 1.25" schedule 40 PVC, with
a 1" piece of schedule 40 PVC telescoped into the ver-cal por-on of the structure for added rigidity and
strength.

Eventually, the union joint would no longer be needed, but it's s-ll handy for test-standing. The "plus"-
shaped structure was a real improvement for stability.

10 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

The next change I made was to use an air-variable capacitor instead of a vacuum cap. This new capacitor
wasn't a bu erfly capacitor, but rather a differen-al capacitor from Palstar, with two stator halves, which
were connected to the main ring. Although s-ll a split-stator like a bu erfly, this cap has two advantages
over a bu erfly. First, it allows a larger range of C values for a given size of capacitor, while retaining the
bu erfly's advantage of not flowing current through wiper connec-ons. Second, the differen-al cap does
not have a uniform rate of change of the C value as the rotor turns. The value changes faster at low C
values, and slower at high C values. This is an advantage because at high frequencies (low C), the bandwidth
of the antenna is larger, so tuning rate isn't nearly as cri-cal. At lower frequencies (high C values) the
bandwidth of the antenna is lower, requiring a slower rate of C change to avoid overshoo-ng the target
value. The air-variable cap is just aluminum plates, which should make it more durable than a vacuum cap.
Since the air-variable is shaped like a large heatsink, any hea-ng that occurs should be easier to manage.

The third change was to use a CT-style feed, instead of a simple air-loop wire. I used a few turns of wire on a
large 43-material toroid core from Fair-Rite. The μ values for #43 at 20m were nearly iden-cal to those of
#31 and #44 material, so I chose #43, as it also tends to be the most available of the material types. With
the loop at its op-mal 15' height (10' mast underneath it), a 6:1 turns ra-o provides 50 ohms at the
feedpoint on 20m. When the antenna is on its 4' test stand mast, the best turns ra-o is 4:1 on 20m, so the
si-ng of the loop does have substan-al effect on the feedpoint impedance.

Ini-al tes-ng of the loop suggested that it would have performance on par with that predicted using
AA5TB's spreadsheet. The measured -3dB bandwidth was 50kHz at the end of 45' of RG-213, while the 2:1
SWR bandwidth was 35kHz. As an added benefit, the capacitor was large enough to allow opera-on on 30m
and 40m.

I ini-ally used the antenna in the NAQP CW contest, where it performed as expected on 20m. The azimuth
and eleva-on pa erns achieved in prac-ce seemed to match that predicted by the model (see EZNEC+ plots
at right), with peaks and nulls where they were expected. Even with long CQ runs at 100W, the #43 split-
bead showed no signs of hea-ng or stress-related SWR dri2. Later QRO tes-ng showed a very different
result (discussed later on).

To minimize resistance related losses, the capacitor was connected in a series split-stator configura-on, with
the rotor connec-on le2 floa-ng. Copper strap was used to connect opposite ends of each stator bank. This
way, current wouldn't need to flow along the full length of the stators.

One point of considera-on with the joints between the vanes of the air variable capacitor is that of water
intrusion. Weatherproofing for an outdoor antenna will be a must, to prevent water from seeping into the
joints between the vanes if they are not welded together. Alterna-vely, the careful applica-on of a silicone-
based grease to seal these joints would seem to be a good idea. Otherwise, oxida-on and/or corrosion may
eventually compromise the joints slowly over -me, increasing the losses between the plates.

A2er the first couple of contests, I set up the antenna in a good loca-on for higher power tes-ng with an
800W amplifier. What I found was rather interes-ng.

The AT2KD capacitor worked fine at 100W, but at higher power levels, it can't withstand the elevated
voltages, even on 20m. Judging by the measured bandwidth, the air cap doesn't have excessive losses, even
when compared to a vacuum equivalent, but when running anything over 150W CW on 20m, the capacitor
arcs. Both the NEC model and the ARRL formulas predicted a peak voltage far below the 5kV ra-ng of this
capacitor at that power level, and further, this capacitor should have been able to handle double that ra-ng,
as the two stator halves were connected in series. But the cap just can't take the stress. For the $150 price
tag of this unit, I could have go en a nice NOS vacuum capacitor with a 25kV ra-ng, so the AT2KD is not a
good value for this purpose.

On the bright side, the AT2KD s-ll has some nice advantages, if one is willing to live with the modest power limita-ons:

First, the AT2KD has some amazing long-term temperature stability. A2er weatherproofing the capacitor, and leaving the antenna outside
across several months, from spring-me to well into winter, the resonant point stayed right in place. Its stability rivals any of the vacuum
variable capacitors I used.

Also, the AT2KD has plenty of efficiency on this loop, with a -ght, narrow bandwidth, high Q, and yielding an overall antenna that earns
consistently excellent signal reports from other sta-ons, even at considerable distances.

Not least of all, a aching the AT2KD to an STL of this size gives a large usable frequency range, fully handling 100W at 100% duty cycle, from
20m to 40m. That covers at least three very popular DX bands at the 100W level. So even this modest capacitor is very DX-capable.

Nevertheless, my desire for higher power levels on 20m led to the next experiment with this loop, which was to replace the AT2KD with a

11 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

25kV, 50pF vacuum variable capacitor. This capacitor easily handled power levels up to 750W CW, which was the safe limit of my amplifier. It
is actually a very nice device, and I wish I had bought two or three of these instead of just one. The 50pF range allowed the antenna to cover
both 20m and 30m, and kept the amplifier happy.

When running at these elevated power levels, however, the #43 core I used to couple at the feedpoint gets rather warm. It would probably be
fine for a CW or even a RTTY contest, as the thermal dri2 is quite slow. Nonetheless, heat dissipated in the ferrite is power that doesn't get
radiated, so my next step was to replace the ferrite transformer feed with a more familiar single-turn induc-ve feed. For what it's worth, AD5X
ran into similar issues with ferrite-core QRO transformers while he was developing his now-famous base-loading matchbox for 43' ver-cal
antennas. In the end, he also switched to a large air-core inductor instead of the compact ferrite-core design. Other than the rela-ve size of
the two strategies, there really is no advantage to using the ferrite feed over the air-core coupling.

The vacuum-variable capacitor modestly increased the loop Q, to the point that measured bandwidth is slightly lower than predicted by the
ARRL formulas, when mounted in the clear, and outdoors. This implies that the losses in the antenna are lower than predicted by the classical
loop models. Even when adjus-ng the formulas to account for both the outside and inside conductor surfaces of the tubing, the measured Q
is s-ll higher than the formulas predict.

November 2019 Update - Extended Opera$on from 20m through 80m - More recently, while -nkering with models and formulas for the
Mark-7, I realized that a 500pF variable capacitor would increase the range of the loop to cover all bands from 20m through 80m. That
seemed like a lot to ask of a loop that was just over 5' in diameter, but it was an irresistable challenge.

So I updated the loop with a very large Jennings vacuum variable, and reinstalled it. During the first month of tes-ng, the loop made ~2,500
contacts on the 20m, 30m, 40m, and 80m bands, using just 50W. The big surprise was the 80m performance. Over several hundred contacts'
worth of FT8/FT4 SNR reports, the averge signal reports received from others differed by only 4dB between 20m and 80m. While I am
skep-cal of WSJT-X SNR es-mates in general, the consistency of reported performance is difficult to ignore. The STL had very comparable
performance across 40m and 80m (both in terms of QSO rate and average signal reports) to the HF2V, which it replaced. During the first
month of opera-on, I picked up several new 80m countries using the Mark-7.

Another nice surprise was that the antenna performend well for both NVIS and DX contacts. This could be a nice feature for a limited-space
installa-on, because one antenna can cover all distances, from DX to down the street, without having to make any adjustments.

The very respectable 40m and 80m performance of this very small antenna (which has a diameter of roughly 0.02λ on 80m) leads me to
another efficiency-related observa-on—when comparing an STL design to other antennas, one needs to consider more than just raw intrinsic
efficiency predic-ons of computer models and generalized formulas. While it is wise to consider conductor losses, it is more important to
consider the overall antenna and its surroundings, as well as the characteris-cs of the bands being sought. That includes considering near-
field ground losses and counterpoise losses, among others. Many perfectly-capable ver-cal antennas for longer wavelenths have very low
intrinsic efficiencies, especially if they are heavily loaded to make them shorter. This means that even a small STL antenna may be able to
compete favorably with much larger antennas, if an honest comparison is done that includes all of the losses that can be quan-fied.
Remember—it's the ionosphere that does the heavy-li2ing for us. If the signal gets to the receiver with the desired SNR, the antennas involved
have done their job.

I installed the updated Mark-7 loop semi-permanently just above the roof line of my house. The installa-on height is roughly the same that
one would get from an a0c installa-on in a single-story home, or when set up in a second-story lo2 or work room. I installed mine outdoors,
because the best performance (and least RFI poten-al) comes from ge0ng the antenna clear of the clu er in the house. But if an indoor
installa-on is one's only op-on, the antenna has excellent performance from such modest installa-on height.

To protect the capacitor from the weather, I cut some slots in a plas-c storage bin, and used it to enclose the capacitor and its drive motor.
The plas-c wasn't par-cularly UV-friendly, so I coated it with an enamel paint to keep it from deteriora-ng. This installa-on also uses a Balun
Designs 1115 coaxial choke.

The Zebra — A Helical STL for 40m & 80m

The copper-strap 80m STL described earlier worked very well, but it needed to be improved. For one thing, the copper strap acts like a wing
during windy condi-ons, which causes it to twist and torque. That causes the resonant frequency to dri2 up and down as the conductor is
con-nually warped by the wind. With a usable 80m bandwidth of only a few kHz, the antenna can't really afford a lot of dri2. Thicker copper
strap would be one way to stabilize the "vanes" formed by the loop, but thicker strap is both more expensive, and heavier.

Further, the diamond loop was a simple enough shape, but it seemed like there should be some way to be er exploit the area enclosed by the
loop without making it heavier. The simple 25' perimeter loop has a predicted efficiency of around 38%. While this is compe--ve with many
ver-cal antenna installa-ons for 80m, I wanted to find a way to improve this, if possible, without making the antenna significantly larger.

I have o2en looked at K8NDS's helical loop designs, and wondered if such a design could be made to work efficiently on 80m, using helical
windings to increase the length of the loop without increasing the enclosed area. I also wondered if the helical design might provide a more
stable mechanical shape, without adding excessive weight to the antnena.

The Zebra antenna, shown at right, is just such an antenna. It uses the same 6.25' diamond support shape as the previous 80m loop, but it

12 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

uses foam tubing along the perimeter to provide a cylindrical form for wrapping thin copper strap into a
helix. The foam uses a piece of thin-walled PVC tubing inside, to hold it into a linear shape, and to keep the
foam from collapsing due to the inner void. The copper strap is actually a very thin copper foil tape, typically
used for forming shields inside plas-c project enclosures.

The copper tape wrapped around black foam tubes reminded me of a zebra, so I named it the "zebra loop."

Unlike the previous copper strap, this tape is only 3 mils thick. That's roughly the thickness of a glossy
magazine cover — thin enough to be easily cut with a pair of scissors. This makes it rather light for its size.
Unlike the previous loop, where the copper had to hold its own form and support itself for significant spans,
all of the mechanical support for the Zebra's main loop is done by the foam.

The skin depth at 80m is approximately 35μm, or ~1.5 mils. Since the copper tape is 3 mils thick, it is near
the op-mum thickness which s-ll allows both sides of the tape to support independent current flows. This
allows the 2"-wide copper tape to approximate a closed, round copper conductor of ~1.27" in outer
diameter. The $15 USD that I spent for 52' of copper tape is nothing compared to what I would have spent
for 52' of 1" copper tubing or pipe. So the tape is about as cost-effec-ve as STL conductor materials can get,
at least for copper.

The perimeter of the loop form is approximately 26', with four sides of 6.25' each. With a conductor length
of 52', the helical winding of the conductor yields a size reduc-on ra-o of just over 2:1, in both diameter and
perimeter. The foam "noodles" that I used are 1" ID, and ~2.125" OD, which was large enough to allow the
2" tape to have a spacing between turns of ~1".

The first test-stand of the Zebra yielded an antenna that could be made to resonate anywhere between 80m
and 40m. The tuning is very sharp, as one might expect, with the 40m 2:1 bandwidth being around 10kHz,
and the 80m 2:1 bandwidth being approximately 4.5kHz, as measured at the end of approximately 50' of
RG-213 cable. The SWR sweeps for 40m and 80m are also shown at right.

According to the ARRL formulae, a circular loop of 50' circumference, when mated with a 500pF capacitor,
should be able to resonate over the en-rety of the 160m band as well. However, winding the inductor into a
helix changed the proper-es enough that I was only able to tune down to about 2350kHz with 500pF. So the 160m band is definitely possible
with this loop, but it will require a bigger cap than what I have handy.

Resonance near the bo om of 80m was accomplished with less than 250pF of the 500pF capacitor. Since vacuum variable capacitors have the
best voltage handling characteris-cs when they are fully enmeshed, a 250pF or 300pF capacitor might be a be er choice for this design.

Unsurprisingly, the 80m SWR bandwidth, even when measured at the end of a piece of coaxial cable, is lower than that predicted by the ARRL
models for a full-sized loop made from strap of the same length, measured at its feedpoint. It is possible that winding the single turn inductor
into a rough toroidal form is hiding addi-onal losses by narrowing the bandwidth through normal "loading" mechanisms seen in other antenna
types. That said, if there were any substan-al losses introduced by the shape of the antenna, I would expect to see more change in the
bandwidth than what I observed.

The first on-air tes-ng of this antenna was during ARRL Field Day 2018. I put the antenna up about one loop diagonal high, measured from the
ground to the bo om corner, and proceeded to work 80m in the event. I used an 0.5 RPM DC motor for simplicity, which was about the right
speed to enable easy and manual adjustment with a simple toggle switch. As expected, the antenna worked sta-ons coast-to-coast (and all
distances in between) on 80m, despite poor condi-ons (elevated A-index) and lots of local thunderstorms. I worked sta-ons un-l the storms
closed in on my loca-on, then lowered the antenna around 00:45 local -me. Since 80m was s-ll in the process of "going long," more tes-ng
under quieter condi-ons is definitely on the calendar.

The good news about this antenna design is that the helical shape wrapped around a foam and PVC support did indeed stabilize the conductor
physically, providing a far more consistent match than the previous design when opera-ng in windy condi-ons. The thunderstorms during
Field Day provided excellent test condi-ons for physical stability.

The helix pitch is completely at the control of the designer, so even if a helix isn't an explicit goal of an antenna project, the tubular support
shape could be used to wind a very loose helical form for a copper strap/foil antenna. So even if the helix doesn't contribute to the "loading"
of the antenna, the general shape could be used for purposes that are related solely to mechanical stability. I previously thought of the helical
designs as just a way to get more copper length on a fixed-size form, but the helix shape is a general tool with several advantages, each of
which is valid independently of the others.

Notes on Mul band Opera on

I tend to use my loops on single bands, but I have used a few on more than one band. It is easy enough, given sufficient funds, to buy or build
a tuning capacitor that has a large enough range that it can resonate a given loop on any frequency across several HF bands. However, the

13 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

radia-on resistance will vary widely as you move from band to band, because the loop circumference is a very different frac-on of a
wavelength on one band than it is on another. This makes feeding the loop a challenge.

My experience has been that feeding a loop on one band for a 1:1, 50-ohm match, will result in around 1.5:1 match on the two adjacent
bands, and a 2:1 match on the two adjacent bands beyond that. For example, if I adjust the Mark-7 loop so that it has a 1:1 match on 20m, the
30m match will show about 1.5:1, and the 40m match will show 2:1. Similarly, the 80m loop can be matched for 1:1 on either 40m or 80m,
but once adjusted, the other band will be 2:1, with 60m showing about 1.5:1. I have o2en used my original 3' loop for both 20m and 15m, but
when I move the feed loop to achieve 1:1 on either band, the other band will show about 1.5:1.

So what can a mul-band loop user do?

You can adjust the feed loop (or change the number of turns on a CT-style feed) when you change bands, but this isn't terribly convenient.
There are probably all kinds of clever ways to motorize the posi-on of the feed loop, or use relays to adjust the number of primary taps on a
CT, or to selec-vely switch in a hairpin matching inductor. And there is nothing wrong with any of these approaches.

There is also nothing wrong with using a common desktop tuner on an otherwise resonant loop. As long as the loop capacitor has been
adjusted to cancel the reac-ve component of the feedpoint impedance, the loop is resonant. If the SWR presented at that point is s-ll
reasonable, perhaps 1.5:1 or 2:1, corresponding to a resonant impedance between 25+j0 and 100+j0, using a desktop tuner to pull the real
por-on of the impedance closer to 50 ohms is perfectly acceptable. The trick is to avoid using the tuner to trim a loop that is off-frequency,
even by a small amount. A proper sequence should be something like this:

1. Bypass the tuner, removing its reac-ve components from the feedline
2. Adjust the loop antenna to be resonant on the current frequency; this means that the reac-ve part of the impedance is zero or as close as possible to zero. This
might not be the point of minimum SWR for a 50-ohm system; the target impedance is the point where the loop reactance is zero.
3. Put the tuner back in-line, so that the reac-ve components are connected to the feedline
4. Adjust the tuner, or run its automa-c tuning sequence, to bring the impedance presented to the transmi er to 50 ohms
5. Operate as normal, by adjus-ng only the loop capacitor as opera-ng frequency changes
6. DO NOT ADJUST the desktop tuner un-l a band change; use the loop capacitor to do all the tuning within a band. If the tuner has an automa-c mode, switch the
tuner to manual mode. Do not allow the tuner to make automa-c adjustments within the current band.
7. When changing bands, repeat the en-re sequence from the top

I have used this sequence for mul-band opera-on of small loops, up to a 2:1 SWR reading at the desktop tuner, and it works very well, even at
power levels in excess of 500W. Again, the main idea is that I only use the desktop tuner to do real-valued impedance transforma-on, with the
loop capacitor performing all of the adjustment needed to change frequency within a single band. It is the loop capacitor that does all the
work of presen-ng a real, resonant impedance to the feedline.

Next Steps

Beyond the extensive -nkering described above, any loop will need some addi-onal work before use in a permanent outdoor installa-on:

1. Security — Copper the2 is all the rage these days. A yard full of copper loops s-cking up in the air might be too much tempta-on for a thief to resist. Finding a way
to prevent this may be tough, since the tubing would be easy to cut from the mast. Height is one tool, ge0ng the loop up high enough in the air to make it difficult
to reach. Another op-on is to paint the copper with a flat enamel that is a dull gray or green color. That would make the antenna harder to see, as well as making it
appear to be just another piece of plas-c yard junk. A nice side-effect of pain-ng the antennas with an appropriate paint is that it prevents the copper from
tarnishing or oxidizing over -me, which is par-cularly helpful with portable antennas like these, that are handled regularly for set-up and tear-down.
2. Weatherproofing — The capacitor needs to be covered and protected from rain, ice, dirt, debris, birds, insects, etc. Some kind of sealed plas-c enclosure be ideal,
especially if the plas-c is resistant to UV from the sun. The main challenge is the number of protrusions that need accommoda-on. The enclosure needs holes for
the mast, the sha2, and the two inductor ends, at a minimum. The 80m strap loop used a PVC tube as a jacket around the motor and capacitor, and this seemed to
be a good first dra2. The plas-c shell around the Mark-7 is also holding up well a2er several months outdoors.
3. Mast Alterna ves — The PVC mast was cheap, simple and effec-ve. However, not all PVC is made to endure the elements. PVC can deteriorate under UV
exposure, and it can even deform when heated. Further, PVC does have limits on how much voltage it can withstand. When high voltage is presented across short
lengths of PVC, the PVC can absorb substan-al amounts of power due to hea-ng. Rebuilding the loops on a fiberglass mast would be be er, since fiberglass is also
non-conduc-ve, but is also tougher and more rigid.
4. Motor Stops — For some capacitors, there needs to be a way to prevent the motor from running the capacitor sha2 all the way to either of its physical limits. If the
capacitor adjustment range is limited, this could do some damage to the capacitor or the a ached motor. For now, I'm just careful, and I use an antenna analyzer to
make sure the posi-on of the capacitor is s-ll well within its limits while tuning. I discussed this topic at somewhat more length in the AutoCap ar-cle.

An Improved Control System

I have also done some work on an automated control system for these antennas, and that project is described on the AutoCap So2ware Page.
That ar-cle is a con-nua-on of this one, describing control system changes. The so2ware-based controller allowed me to convert the loops to
use stepper motors to move the capacitor sha2s, and achieve some truly impressive tuning speeds.

That said, the simple DC motors described above are more than adequate for loop control, and are easy to run remotely with very simple
wiring. The AutoCap so2ware supports many types of motors, and can even be interfaced to some types of self-contained motor controllers.
For the casual operator who likes to rag-chew, a simple gearhead motor with a DPDT switch at the control point makes the loop antenna easier
to use than a typical tube amplifier.

14 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

Some Conclusions

Over the course of several years, I constructed and tested loops for all of the major HF bands, and for some
bands, more than one. In hindsight, if I were to start from scratch se0ng up a limited-space set of permanent
outdoor loops, my goal would be to have two:

The first would be a smaller loop, such as the ~32 diameter loop like the one described at the top of this
ar-cle, for the shorter HF wavelengths.
The second would be a larger loop, such as the extended Mark-7, which would include the 80m and 40m
bands in its coverage.

Even though I have described several purpose-built loops for single bands, the combina-on of two such loops would cover all of the HF bands,
and would consume a very small installa-on area. In fact, such a setup could easily fit in the a0c space of nearly any medium-sized house. An
a0c installa-on has the nice feature of elimina-ng the need for weatherproofing the capacitor and feedline connec-ons. Such an
arrangement could also work for apartment dwellers, consuming only a -ny bit of floor space.

Closing Thoughts — Possibly Controversial Ones

There are two aspects to loop performance that interest me. The first is receive rejec-on of certain kinds of interference, and the other is
efficiency during transmit.

Noise Reduc-on

People who study EM theory point out that a loop antenna's pa ern isn't all that "magne-c" in a large por-on of the near field. They also
point out that in the far field, the propagated EM wave has a fixed ra-o of E/H components, with the ra-o being fixed by the impedance of
free space. The la er argument is solid, but the former argument needs some context.

For transmission, the ra-o of E/H is variable within the near field, with the ra-o being a func-on of distance from the antenna. As the wave
travels away from the antenna, the ra-o approaches the fixed ra-o that it will hold as it propagates through free space. The small loop
antenna does have a mostly magne-c response, very close to the antenna during transmission. However, during transmission, the antenna is
driving this field varia-on. As the current oscillates within the antenna conductor, it forms a strong magne-c field, and a very weak electric
field, which generates a wave that transi-ons to a normal free-space E/H ra-o in the far field.

However, during recep-on, the antenna isn't ac-vely driving the E and H fields in the antenna's near field. EM waves that approach the
antenna don't magically start to change their E/H ra-o when they cross the imaginary two-wavelength surface surrounding the antenna's near
field. These waves maintain their E/H ra-o at a natural value, defined by the impedance of free space, un-l these waves actually strike the
antenna, and start to generate a response. Since the loop conductor is essen-ally a large current probe suspended in free space, the response
of the antenna is driven by the magne-c field crossing the conductor, which induces a small current in the loop. So during recep-on, it is
en-rely possible that the antenna really does respond mostly to the magne-c component of an arriving wave.

More important s-ll is the nature of the arriving wave. Remember that a small loop antenna is a high-Q resonant circuit. If an arriving signal is
self-similar (i.e., the signal has a high autocorrela-on value), wave a2er wave of energy strikes the antenna, each one adding to the circula-ng
current building up in the loop, producing a signal at the receiver. If the signal isn't self-similar at RF, the amount of circula-ng current allowed
to build within the antenna is limited, which limits the signal level at the receiver. Most ham transmissions (CW, SSB, RTTY, PSK, etc.) are highly
autocorrelated, otherwise their spectral purity would be poor. Many pulse-like QRM sources (engine igni-on noise, arcing power line
hardware), have poor autocorrela-on because they are generated by individual sparks at a rate far less than the receiver's RF frequency. This
may be another reason why loop builders report significant S/N ra-o improvement from their loops, even when the offending noise source is
well within the main lobe of the antenna, and not located in a null. The loop may indeed be less sensi-ve to some kinds of noise than other
antenna types, depending on the autocorrela-on value of the noise signal, and the Q of the loop used for recep-on. If the loop is par-cularly
lossy, this might improve the situa-on even more, because the required amount of autocorrela-on in an arriving signal would be even higher
in order to produce a significant signal at the receiver. This "lossy improvement" is likely present even though the loss resistance tends to
lower the Q of the antenna.

Efficiency

Many people are quick to dismiss the STL as a prac-cal antenna due to efficiency concerns. They design an STL using the AA5TB spreadsheet
or other equa-ons from the Antenna Book, and they see that their preferred design has a less-than-stellar predicted efficiency. For example,
according to those formulae, the 40m, 5' antenna described above should have an efficiency on the order of 30%, or -5.2dB. That sounds fairly
poor on first glance, but even if the predicted efficiency is correct, it requires some perspec-ve. AD5X did considerable work on antenna
efficiency, and he points out that even a quality installa-on of many popular mul-band ver-cals can easily have an efficiency on the order of
30% or less. For mul-band ver-cals that use a wide-range indoor tuner, the extra feedline losses can make the -5.2dB efficiency of an STL
par-cularly compe--ve — while fi0ng in a much smaller space, even indoors. A loop that is close to λ / 4 in circumference (approximately λ /
13 in diameter), can easily have an intrinsic efficiency of 90%, while achieving this with even the best ver-cal antenna is a nontrivial challenge.
As both the loop and the ver-cal are reduced in size, the STL remains very compe--ve, and can even have a be er performance than the

15 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

ver-cal if all losses are accounted for, including coaxial SWR losses, ground losses, and the reduced resonant impedance of a shortened or
loaded ver-cal element.

All of these considera-ons are well-known for people who are willing to research and understand them. However, there are some other
possible reasons why the efficiency of an STL, of the type and design typically used by amateurs, might be more efficient than suggested by the
normal design tools.

There is some well-accepted classic theory that describes the efficiency of a small transmi0ng loop. That theory is documented in the ARRL
Antenna Book, among other places. However, people like G3LHZ have done some interes-ng work trying to account for the losses claimed by
the classic theory. Strangely, there are real-world thermodynamic experiments that do not seem to support the tradi-onal loss calcula-ons.
For example, if a magne-c loop for 2MHz is constructed so that the classic calcula-on shows a 5% efficiency, and if we feed that antenna with
a 100W carrier, we should be able to find 95W of energy (or something close to it) being dissipated as heat somewhere in the loop. Mr.
Underhill's experiments using thermal cameras show this may not be the case. When he accounts for the detectable heat generated by the
loop, his experiments suggest typical small-loop efficiencies to be on par with other classic antennas, such as dipoles and ver-cals. At the very
least, they may be no worse than the loaded versions of these antenna types.

I have spent some -me thinking about this discrepancy, and how to account for it within the typical ham home-made loop. This is not to say
that I am asser-ng this as correct, but I suspect there are straigh`orward reasons why the efficiency of a small loop of typical construc-on
could be be er than the classic formulae predict.

One simple possibility has to do with construc-on. Many loop designs, mine included, use open-ended copper tubing for the radia-ng
element. Mechanically, this means that the loop itself actually has two conductors, wired in parallel. One is the outside of the loop conductor,
and one is the inside of the loop conductor. The reason for this is skin effect. Anybody who has run high power RF into a coaxial cable that is
poorly matched to a balanced antenna is familiar with the "feedline radia-on" effect, where the shield of the coaxial cable forms two
conductors, with current flowing on both. In the loop case, The outer and inner surfaces of the loop conductor are connected together at the
ends, so the two conductor shells carry current in parallel. Depending on the difference in diameter of the two surfaces, the effec-ve increase
in surface area can be almost 100%, roughly doubling the surface area of the main element. "But the inner conductor is shielded from the
environment by the outer conductor," someone might object. This is true for the electrical field, but not the magne-c field, which just happens
to be the largest component of the EM near-field created by this type of antenna. A small loop is driven almost completely by the magne-c
field generated by the driven element, and the lines of magne-c flux cut both the inner and outer surfaces of the main (large) loop, inducing
current flow into each one, independently, and the two are able to create a combined magne-c field around the antenna.

Many loop builders unknowingly depend on this two-surface behavior, because their designs u-lize trombone-style capacitors. These
capacitors are o2en fed current on their outside surface, but the outer "plate" of such a capacitor is actually the inside surface of the outer
trombone tube.

If the tubular loop's effec-ve surface area is nearly double that used in the calcula-ons, because it has both an inner and outer surface, the
current flowing in each surface is roughly half what is predicted for the loop conductor using the standard formulae. Since power lost in the
resistance is propor-onal to the square of the current passing through the resistance (P = I2R), the hea-ng loss in each surface of a tubular
loop could be closer to 25% of that predicted by the model. The two surfaces together, then, have a combined hea-ng effect that is 50% that
predicted by the model for a wire of equivalent outer diameter. Put another way, the two surfaces in parallel form a net resistance that is half
that for a solid wire with an outer diameter equal to that of the tube. This results in a power loss of one half the amount of a wire of the same
outer diameter. This dual-surface feature alone is enough to explain a 3dB discrepancy between the model (which assumes a solid conductor)
and an open-ended tubular loop antenna.

Another possibility that applies to loops of any construc-on has to do with the pa ern of current flow on a loop antenna's main conductor. At
its core, such a device is a capacitor and an inductor, connected back-to-back. You can think of it as a resonant circuit, where the capacitor and
inductor are in series with the abstract "radia-on resistance", which is the "load" presented to any antenna, allowing the RF current in the
antenna to be transferred into free space.

We want the "radia-on resistance" of any antenna to be much larger than the sum of all other losses. This is the heart of antenna efficiency
calcula-ons.

Power transferred into the antenna is going to be dissipated in one of two ways — radia-on into space, or hea-ng of the antenna or its
immediate surroundings. The copper loops and the metals in the capacitor contain the real resis-ve components of the antenna. If hea-ng of
the antenna is to occur, it must happen here. In addi-on to the intrinsic real resistance of the copper itself, we must again consider the skin
effect, which effec-vely "thins" the copper conductors for the purposes of conduc-ng RF current.

Copper conductors in a magne-c loop antenna are not simple conductors, however. Even when you factor in skin effect, there is s-ll a
component missing. All of the copper conductors in a small transmi0ng loop are part of one of two inductors. The small loop is a primary
winding of a two-winding air-core transformer. The large loop is the secondary. The current flowing through these conductors are opera-ng at
varying amounts of phase angle from the voltage at any given point. Inductors delay current changes, capacitors delay voltage changes. Since
all of the metal in the antenna is part of a reac-ve component, the power flowing in the en-re loop is subject to voltage-current phase angle
shi2.

16 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM
KK5JY Small Transmitting Loop Project http://www.kk5jy.net/magloop/#zebra

There are two points in the antenna where the phase angle between voltage and current will be zero. These points would be very difficult to
locate physically, but they must exist. The large copper loop is an inductor along its en-re length. The capacitor is a lumped reac-ve
component, and its leads are, for all prac-cal purposes, part of the inductor. As current circulates in the loop, the current will experience the
highest induc-ve VAR (volts-amps-reac-ve, or "reac-ve" power) value at the bo om of the loop, furthest from the capacitor. The highest
capaci-ve VAR value will be within the capacitor itself. Somewhere along the conduc-ve path between each capacitor plate and the bo om of
the loop, the capaci-ve phase angle will cancel the induc-ve phase angle, and all of the power at that point will be real (i.e., the impedance is
completely real, and has no complex components). Remember these points for the moment.

Heat in a circuit is generated as current passes through real resistance. The reac-ve components of a resistor do not add to the heat
generated. Put another way, current cannot do work (including genera-ng heat) unless a voltage poten-al is also present. The amount of
work that can be done is inversely propor-onal to the phase angle between the voltage and current. This is the whole idea behind power
factor — the voltage and current must overlap to some level to do work. Power companies rely on this principle, and enforce it vigorously in
their customer contracts. So hea-ng of any AC circuit component is directly related to the phase angle of the voltage and current within that
component.

Now back to the loop. Remember that there are two "loads" within our antenna. The first is the radia-on resistance of the antenna, which is
its ability to transfer RF current into radio waves in free space. The second load is the loss inherent within the antenna. Remember also that
there are two points in the antenna where voltage and current are in-phase. These are the points where the RF energy is able to do real work
and heat the antenna conductors. As we move away from these points, there is some amount of phase angle between voltage and current.
This angle diminishes the ability of the RF energy to heat the conductors where the angle is not zero. The closer the angle is to 90°, the less
hea-ng can occur. By restric-ng the zero-VAR area of the antenna to two points, and to a lesser extent, the regions immediately around those
points, the resis-ve losses of the antenna are concentrated around those two points. Despite the fact that RF current flows at high levels
throughout the antenna, these two points and their immediate surroundings become the focus for resis-ve losses.

However, remember that there is a second load in the circuit: the radia-on resistance. We can't pin a loca-on on this load, but its value is s-ll
part of the efficiency equa-on. If we rethink the loop, and realize that the hea-ng losses don't occur throughout the en-re conductor length,
but are instead centered at two points in the loop, that realiza-on leads us to the conclusion that the current theory for small transmi0ng
loops is grossly overes-ma-ng the contribu-on of I2R losses contribu-ng to the efficiency calcula-on. This would go a long way to explain Mr.
Underhill's experimental results. The ra-o of RF energy being dissipated by the radia-on resistance to that of the RF energy being dissipated
by the resis-ve losses of the conductors is likely much higher than predicted by the classic theory. I am increasingly convinced that this is due
to the reac-ve nature of the antenna components, as described above.

If we assume that this is correct, then how might this influence the design and construc-on of loop antennas? How could we squeeze the
highest efficiency out of an antenna if we are correct?

A key improvement would be to focus on the two points of minimum phase angle, and minimize the real resistance of the conductor found
there. To do this would require being able to calculate these loca-ons. Given a value for the capacitor, and a length of the a ached inductor
(that included the leads and plates inside the capacitor itself), it should be possible to es-mate their loca-on. Given that the capacitor is a
lumped value, and the inductor's reactance is distributed over a rela-vely large length, it is en-rely possible that most real hea-ng occurs close
to the capacitor body, possibly within the jumpers between the capacitor leads and the main inductor body. This may explain why hea-ng in
G3LHZ's loops appeared to be rather uniform within the inductor body. The maximum hea-ng may have been taking place at spot loca-ons
on the capacitor jumpers. Since we tend to expect these connec-ons to be "weak spots" anyway, the extra hea-ng there and its cause may
have been overlooked.

It is also possible that the hea-ng effect of loop antennas is just not sufficient to make it necessary to find the two main hea-ng points. Even
at these two points, the radia-on resistance may sufficiently trump the real losses that the real losses are insignificant. This idea is also
supported by the experimentally determined efficiencies of Mr. Underhill's loops.

Devising experiments that would support or discredit these ideas is difficult. However, the current experimental evidence has made me
curious, and will con-nue to encourage me to experiment with these antennas.

Links

AutoCap Version 1.0 — An autotuner project specifically for small transmi0ng loops.
An Overview of the Underes-mated Magne-c Loop HF Antenna by Leigh Turner, VK5KLT
AA5TB Small Loop Site — includes an excellent Excel calculator for sizing loop components.
ARRL Antenna Book — Source for the formulas used by AA5TB's design spreadsheet.
Georgia Copper — Source for all sorts of copper products.
ServoCity — Source for all sorts of DC motors.
MaxGain Systems — Source for surplus vacuum capacitors and other hard-to-find components.
Balun Designs — Source for customized coaxial chokes.

Copyright (C) 2013-2019 by Ma Roberts, All Rights Reserved.

17 of 17 9/25/2021, 11:55 PM