ELECTRONICS

MSc 1st year (I Sem.)

by:
Miss ROSHNI PAHUJA
ELECTRONICS SYLLABUS
Unit I
Electronics Semiconductor discrete devices (characteristic curves and physics of p-n
junction), Schottky, Tunnel and MOS diodes, Bipolar junction transistor, junction field
effect transistor (JFET),Metal-oxide-Semiconductor Field effect transistor (MOSFET),
unijunction transistor(UJT) and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), Opto-electronic
devices (Photo-diode, solar cell, LED, LCD and photo transistor), Diffusion of
impurities in silicon, growth of oxide.
Unit II
Applications of semiconductor devices in linear and digital circuits- Zener regulated
power supply, Transistor (bipolar, MOSFFT, JFET) as amplifier, coupling of amplifier
stages (DC, RC and Transformer coupling), RC-coupled amplifier, dc and power
amplifier Feedback in amplifiers and oscillators (phase shift, Hartley, Colpitts and
crystal controlled) clipping and clamping circuits. Transistor as a switch OR, AND and
NOT gates (TIL and CMOS gates).
Unit III
Digital integrated circuits- NAND and NOR gates building block, X-OR gate, simple
combinational Circuits -Half and full address, Flip-Flops, Multivibrators (using
transistor) and sweep generator (using transistors, UJT and SCR). shift registers, counters,
A/D and D/A converters, semiconductor memories (ROM, RAM, and EPROM, basic,
architecture of 8 bit microprocessor (INTEL 8085). Linear integrated circuits-
Operational amplifier and its applications-Inverting and noninverting amplifier, adder,
integrator, differentiator, waveform generator, comparator and Schmitt trigger, Butterworth
active filter, phase shifter,
Unit IV
Communication Electronics-Basic principle of amplitude frequency and phase
modulation. Simple circuits for amplitude modulation and demodulation, digital
(PCM) modulation and demodulation. Fundamentals of optical communication,
Microwave Oscillators (reflex, klystron, magnetron and Gunn diode), Cavity
resonators. Standing wave detector.
REFERENCE BOOKS
• ELECTRONICS DEVICES AND CURCUITS by Maini and Agrawal
• ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES by David J Bates and Albert Malvino
P-N junction
P-N junction
• A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an
n-type semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode
junction.
• The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes
and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a
semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping.
• The P and N regions are referred to as the anode and cathode, respectively.
• Silicon and Germanium are the most commonly used semiconductor
materials.
• The arrow in symbol is associated with P-region and vertical line with N-
region.
FORMATION of P-N junction
FORMATION of P-N junction
• A semiconductor diode is a polarity sensitive two terminal device.
• It comprises a P-N junction formed between a P-type semiconductor & a N-type
semiconductor material.
• N-type semiconductor is formed by introducing pentavalent dopant impurity
atoms whereas trivalent dopant impurity atoms for P-type semiconductor.
• Electrons are majority charge carriers in N- type semiconductor.
Holes are majority charge carriers in P-type semiconductor.
• The P-N junction is formed by introducing the donor impurities on one side and
acceptor impurities on other side of single crystal of semiconductor.
• The region of uncovered positive and negative ions that is devoid of free
electrons and holes formed near the junction due to the recombination of
electrons and holes from N-region and P-region resp. is called Depletion region.
FORMATION of P-N junction
• The barrier potential or contact potential is an effective potential
developed across the depletion region because of the repulsion between
the majority and minority carriers of the two region.
• The majority carrier flow occurs when electrons from N-region and holes
from P-region have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the contact
potential and be able to pass through the depletion region.
• The minority carrier flow constitutes movement of holes from depletion
region of N-region and electrons from depletion region of P-region.
• Semiconductor diode is said to be in open circuit condition in the absence
of an applied bias voltage when net flow of current in semiconductor diode
is zero.
BIASING CONDITIONS for P-N junction
diode
• There are two operating regions in the p-n junction diode:
• P-type
• N-type
• There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based
on the voltage applied:
• Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to
the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected
to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.
 FORWARD BIAS of P-N junction
1. Here, positive potential is applied to P-region and negative potential to N-region.
2. This causes electrons in N-region and holes in P-region to combine with positive and
negative ions, resp. in depletion region.
3. Therefore, resulting in a reduction of the width of depletion region and a decrease in
potential barrier at the junction.
4. The cut-in voltage or knee voltage or threshold voltage is the minimum voltage of
diode that must be exceeded before there is sufficient conduction of current through
the diode.
5. The Forward current is the current due to majority charge carriers, which rises sharply
after a point when the width of depletion region decreases as the applied bias is
increased in magnitude above cut- in voltage.
6. The current contributed by the minority carriers is referred to as the Reverse Saturation
current or Reverse Leakage current, whose direction is opposite to that of forward
current.
 REVERSE BIAS of P-N junction
1. Here, external potential applied across it is such that the positive terminal is
connected to N-region and negative terminal is connected to P-region.
2. This causes majority charge carriers to drift away from junction due to
polarity of applied voltage.
3. Hence, resulting in widening of the depletion region, reducing the flow of
majority charge carriers to approximately zero.
4. The voltage after which the semiconductor junction breaks down due to its
increment is known as the reverse breakdown voltage or peak inverse
voltage.
5. The reverse saturation current does not significantly change with change in
reverse bias potential.
6. However, when applied reverse bias is increased beyond the breakdown
voltage of diode, there is a sharp increase in reverse current.
 CURRENT FLOW in P-N junction diode
1. The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction
takes place when there is an increase in the voltage.
2. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the
junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage.
3. This results in the concentration gradient between both sides of the
terminals.
4. Due to the formation of the concentration gradient, there will be a flow of
charge carriers from higher concentration regions to lower concentration
regions.
5. The movement of charge carriers inside the p-n junction is the reason
behind the current flow in the circuit.
 DIODE SPECIFICATIONS
1. Forward voltage, VF
2. Forward current IF
3. Reverse voltage VR
4. Reverse current IR
5. Reverse breakdown voltage or Peak Inverse VOLTAGE (VBR, PIV)
6. Power dissipation PD
7. Maximum power dissipation rating PD(max)
8. Maximum junction temperature Tj
9. Maximum average rectified current IF(av)
10. Peak repetitive forward current
11. Peak forward surge current
12. Diode resistance
13. Diode capacitance
14. Forward recovery time (tff)
15. Reverse recovery time (trr)
IDEAL DIODE
• An ideal diode behaves like a switch that conducts current only in one
direction from anode to cathode.
• It acts as a short circuit when forward-biased and an open circuit
when reverse-biased.
• Thus, ideally the resistance of forward-biased diode is zero and
resistance of reverse-biased diode is infinite.
 PRACTICAL DIODE
• Practical diodes do not conduct until a certain value of forward voltage
is applied to them.
• The cut-in voltage is of the order of less than 1V for semiconductor
diodes.
• Also, the ON resistance of practical diode is not zero and varies from
few ohms to few hundred ohms.
• In reverse bias state, the practical diode differs from ideal open switch
as reverse saturation current flows through the diode in reverse biased
practical diode.
V-I characteristics of a diode
• Volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of a pn junction or
semiconductor diode is the curve between voltage across the
junction and the current through the circuit.
• Normally the voltage is taken along the x-axis and current
along y-axis.
The characteristics can be explained under three cases , such as :
1.Zero bias
2.Forward bias
3.Reverse bias
Case 1: ZERO BIAS
• In zero bias condition , no external voltage is applied to the pn-
junction i.e. the circuit is open at K.
• Hence, the potential barrier at the junction does not permit
current flow.
• Therefore, the circuit current is zero at V=0 V, as indicated by
point O in figure below.
 Case 2:FORWARD BIAS

1. In forward biased condition , p-type of the pn-junction is connected to the positive terminal and n-
type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage.
2. This results in reduced potential barrier.
3. At some forward voltage i.e 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge, the potential barrier is almost eliminated and
the current starts flowing in the circuit.
4. Form this instant, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Hence. a curve OB is
obtained with forward bias as shown in figure above.
5. From the forward characteristics, it can be noted that at first i.e. region OA , the current increases very
slowly and the curve is non-linear.
6. It is because in this region the external voltage applied to the pn-junction is used in overcoming the
potential barrier.
7. However, once the external voltage exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the potential barrier is
eliminated and the pn-junction behaves as an ordinary conductor.
8. Hence , the curve AB rises very sharply with the increase in external voltage and the curve is almost
linear.
 Case 3: REVERSE BIAS

1. In reverse bias condition , the p-type of the pn junction is connected to the negative terminal
and n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage.
2. This results in increased potential barrier at the junction.
3. Hence, the junction resistance becomes very high and as a result practically no current flows
through the circuit.
4. However, a very small current of the order of μA , flows through the circuit in practice. This is
knows as reverse saturation current(IS) and it is due to the minority carriers in the junction.
5. As we already know, there are few free electrons in p-type material and few holes in n-type
material. These free electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers .
6. The reverse bias applied to the pn junction acts as forward bias to there minority carriers and
hence, small current flows in the reverse direction.
7. If the applied reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority
carriers may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atom.
8. At this stage breakdown of the junction may occur. This is characterized by a sudden increase of
reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the
junction permanently.
Temperature dependence of V-I characteristics
• The Reverse saturation current, Reverse breakdown voltage, cut-in
voltage and diode’s forward voltage are strong functions of diode
temperature.
• The reverse saturation current and reverse breakdown voltage
increase with increase in temperature.
• Whereas, the cut-in voltage and forward voltage decrease with
increase in temperature.
1. Semiconductor P-N Junction Diode
2. Schottky Diode
• The Schottky diode, also known as Schottky barrier diode or hot-carrier diode, is a
semiconductor diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low forward
voltage drop and a very fast switching action i.e. increased frequency of operation.
• Schottky barrier diodes are majority carrier conduction devices.
• When sufficient forward voltage is applied, a current flows in the forward direction.
• A metal–semiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a semiconductor, creating a Schottky
barrier. Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or tungsten, whereas the
semiconductor would typically be n-type silicon.
• The metal side acts as the anode, and n-type semiconductor acts as the cathode of the diode;
meaning conventional current can flow from the metal side to the semiconductor side, but not in the
opposite direction.
• The choice of the combination of the metal and semiconductor determines the forward voltage of the
diode. Both n- and p-type semiconductors can develop Schottky barriers. However, p-type
semiconductors are employed only rarely.
• Since they are constructed using a metal compound on one side of their junction and doped silicon on
the other side, the Schottky diode therefore has no depletion layer and are classed as unipolar devices
unlike typical pn-junction diodes which are bipolar devices.
• Lower junction barrier results in higher currents at the same applied voltage in both the forward and
reverse biased condition.
• A silicon p–n diode has a typical forward voltage of 600–700 mV, while the Schottky's forward voltage is
150–450 mV. This lower forward voltage requirement allows higher switching speeds and better system
efficiency.
V – I characteristics of Schottky diode
Application of Schottky diodes

• Schottky diodes are used in diode rectifier because of its properties.