MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK BASICS AND

ADMINISTRATION

UNIT 1: NETWORK ADMINISTRATION: SCOPE, GOALS, AND PHILOSOPHY

UNIT 2: NETWORK STRUCTURES

UNIT 3: NETWORK TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 4: NETWORK PROTOCOLS

UNIT 1: NETWORK ADMINISTRATION: SCOPE, GOALS, AND

PHILOSOPHY

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Network and distribution processing systems are of critical and growing importance in business,
government and other organizations. Therefore, networks must be managed for effectiveness
and efficiency. This unit discusses fundamental aspects of network administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be also to:

• Define network administration

• Know the scope of network administration
• State the goals of system administration
• Understand the challenges of system administration
• State the Meta principles of system administration

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is network and system administration?

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Network and system administration is a branch of engineering that concerns the operational
management of human–computer systems. It is about putting together a network of computers
(workstations, PCs and supercomputers), getting them running and then keeping them running
in spite of the activities of users who tend to cause the systems to fail.
A system administrator works for users, so that they can use the system to produce work.
However, a system administrator should not just cater for one or two selfish needs, but also
work for the benefit of a whole community. Today, that community is a global community of
machines and organizations, which spans every niche of human society and culture, thanks to
the Internet. It is often a difficult balancing act to determine the best policy, which accounts for
the different needs of everyone with a stake in a system. Once a computer is attached to the
Internet, we have to consider the consequences of being directly connected to all the other
computers in the world.
In the future, improvements in technology might render system administration a somewhat
easier task – one of pure resource administration – but, today, system administration is not just
an administrative job, it is an extremely demanding engineer’s job. It’s about hardware,
software, user support, diagnosis, repair and prevention. System administrators need to know a
bit of everything: the skills are technical, administrative and socio-psychological.
The terms network administration and system administration exist separately and are used
both variously and inconsistently by industry and by academics.
System administration is the term used traditionally by mainframe and Unix engineers to
describe the management of computers whether they are coupled by a network or not. To this
community, network administration means the management of network infrastructure devices
(routers and switches). The world of personal computers (PCs) has no tradition of managing
individual computers and their subsystems, and thus does not speak of system administration,
per se. To this community, network administration is the management of PCs in a network. In
this material, we shall take the first view, since this is more precise.
Network and system administration are increasingly challenging. The complexity of computer
systems is increasing all the time. Even a single PC today, running Windows NT, and attached to
a network, approaches the level of complexity that mainframe computers had ten years ago.
We are now forced to think systems not just computers.

3.2 Scope of Network administration

The management of a network, usually called network administration, consists of procedures
and services that keep the network running properly. An important part of network
management entails making sure that the network is available (or up and running as IT
professionals say) when employees and managers need it. Other admin activities are:
- Monitoring the network capacity to ensure that all transmission requirements can be met.
- Adding capacity to the network by increasing band width interconnecting additional modes,
or creating and interconnecting additional networks.
- Training people to use the network effectively
- Assisting IT professionals in organizational applications that will make good use of the
network’s capabilities.

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- Backing up the network software and data regularly to protect against the failure of
network or any of its components
- Putting security procedures in place to make certain that only authorized users have access
to the network and ensuring that all security procedures are followed
- Making sure the network personnel can respond quickly and effectively in the event of a
network operational or security failure.
- Diagnosing and troubleshooting problems on the network and determining the best course
of action to take to solve them.

3.3 The goal of Network administration

The goal is to keep the network running properly and configuring and managing services that
are provided over the network.
There are many services that we use regularly. There are some which work in the background
enabling other services to run smoothly.

3.4 The challenges of system administration

System administration is not just about installing operating systems. It is about planning and
designing an efficient community of computers so that real users will be able to get their jobs
done. That means:
• Designing a network which is logical and efficient.
• Deploying large numbers of machines which can be easily upgraded later.
• Deciding what services are needed.
• Planning and implementing adequate security.
• Providing a comfortable environment for users.
• Developing ways of fixing errors and problems which occur.
• Keeping track of and understanding how to use the enormous amount of knowledge
which increases every year.
Some system administrators are responsible for both the hardware of the network and the
computers which it connects, i.e. the cables as well as the computers. Some are only
responsible for the computers. Either way, an understanding of how data flow from machine to
machine is essential as well as an understanding of how each machine affects every other.

3.5 The Meta principles of system administration

Many of the principles in this course material derive from a single overriding issue: they address
the predictability of a system. The term system clearly implies an operation that is systematic,
or predictable – but, unlike simple mechanical systems, like say a clock, computers interact with
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humans in a complex cycle of feedback, where uncertainty can enter at many levels. That
makes human–computer systems difficult to predict, unless we somehow fix the boundaries of
what is allowed, as a matter of policy.

Principle (Policy is the foundation). System administration begins with a policy – a decision
about what we want and what should be, in relation to what we can afford.
Policy speaks of what we wish to accomplish with the system, and what we are willing to
tolerate of behavior within it. It must refer to both the component parts and to the
environment with which the system interacts. If we cannot secure predictability, then we
cannot expect long-term conformance with a policy.

Principle (Predictability). The highest level aim in system administration is to work towards a
predictable system. Predictability has limits. It is the basis of reliability, hence trust and
therefore security.
Policy and predictability are intertwined. What makes system administration difficult is that it
involves a kind of ‘search’ problem. It is the hunt for a stable region in the landscape of all
policies, i.e. those policies that can lead to stable and predictable behavior. In choosing policy,
one might easily promote a regime of cascading failure, of increasing unpredictability that
degenerates into chaos. Avoiding these regimes is what makes system administration difficult.
As networks of computers and people grow, their interactions become increasingly complex
and they become non-deterministic, i.e. not predictable in terms of any manageable number of
variables. We therefore face another challenge that is posed by inevitable growth:

Principle (Scalability). Scalable systems are those that grow in accordance with policy; i.e. they
continue to function predictably, even as they increase in size.
These meta-themes will recur throughout this material. The important point to understand
about predictability is that it has limits. Human–computer systems are too complex and have
too many interactions and dependencies to be deterministic. When we speak of predictability,
it must always be within a margin of error. If this were not the case, system administration
would not be difficult.

3.6 Advice to the students

To study this subject, we need to cultivate a way of thinking which embodies a basic scientific
humility and some core principles:
• Independence or self-sufficiency in learning. We cannot always ask someone for the
right answer to every question.
• Systematic and tidy work practices.
• An altruistic view of the system. Users come first: collectively and only then
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 individually.
• Balancing a fatalistic view (the inevitability of errors) with a determination to gain
firmer control of the system.
Some counter-productive practices could be avoided:
• The belief that there exists a right answer to every problem.
• Getting fraught and upset when things do not work the way we expect.
• Expecting that every problem has a beginning, middle and an end (some problems are
chronic and cannot be solved without impractical restructuring).
We can begin with a checklist:
• Look for answers in manuals and newsgroups.
• Use controlled trial and error to locate problems.
• Consider all the information; listen to people who tell you that there is a problem. It
might be true, even if you can’t see it yourself.
• Write down experiences in an A–Z so that you learn how to solve the same problem
again in the future.
• Take responsibility for your actions. Be prepared for accidents. They are going to
happen and they will be your fault. You will have to fix them.
• Remember tedious jobs like vacuum cleaning the hardware once a year.
• After learning about something new, always pose the question: how does this apply to
me?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1. Is system administration management or engineering?

2. Why does the physical environment play a role in system administration?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Network administration is concerned with establishing and administering overall goals, policies
and procedures of network management. This requires a well rounded skills set and not just
technical skills.

5.0 SUMMARY
Network and system administration is a branch of engineering that concerns the operational
management of human–computer systems. System administration is not just about installing
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operating systems. It is about planning and designing an efficient community of computers so
that real users will be able to get their jobs done. System administration begins with a policy – a
decision about what we want and what should be, in relation to what we can afford. Policy
speaks of what we wish to accomplish with the system, and what we are willing to tolerate of
behavior within it. To study this subject, we need to cultivate a way of thinking which embodies
a basic scientific humility and some core principles:

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. State the top-most principles that guide network and system administrators
2. What kinds of issues does system administration cover?
3. State the meta principles of system administration
4. What are the challenges of system administration?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Burgess, M. (2004). Principles of Network and System Administration. (2nd Ed.). Chichester,
West Sussex , England: Wiley.

2. Forouzan, B.A, & Fegan, S.C. (2007). Data communications and Networking (4th Ed). Mc
Graw Hill.

3. Limoncelli, T. A.,Hogan, C. J. & Chalup, S. R (2007}. The Practice of System and Network
Administration. (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley

4. Stallings, W. (2009). Data and computer communications ( 8th ed.). Upper saddle River, NJ.:
Pearson Education Inc.

UNIT 2: NETWORK STRUCTURE

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit provides a survey of the basic network structures or topologies. Topology can be
considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• To name the four basic network topologies

• To cite advantages and disadvantages of each type
• State the criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus and ring
(see figure 1)

Topology

Mesh Star Bus Ring

Figure 1 Categories of topology

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3.1.1 Mesh

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
(see figure 2)

Station

Station Station

Station Station

Figure 2 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of dedicated
links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic
problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices. Second, a mesh
topology is robust. If one link becomes unavailable it does not incapacitate the entire system.
Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. Whenever message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Finally, point to point links make fault
identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected
problems. This enables the network manger to discover the precise location of the fault and
aids in finding its cause and solution.

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and that of I/O ports
required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available
space (in walls, ceilings or floors) can accommodate. Finally, the hardware required to connect
each link (I/O ports and cables) can be prohibitively expensive. For these reasons, a mesh
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topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting
the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of a telephone regional office in
which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

3.1.2 Star Topology

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. These devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as
an exchange. If one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller,
which then relay the data to the other connected devices (see figure 3)

Hub

Station Station Station Station

Figure 3 A star topology connecting four station

A Star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one
link and one I/O port to connect to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to
install and reconfigure. Far less calling needs to be housed, and additions, moves and deletions
involve only one connection between that device and the hub.

Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other remain
active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the
hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass detective links.

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
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Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub.
For this reason, often more cabling is registered in a star then in some other topologies (such as
ring or bus)

3.1.3 Bus Topology

A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the
network (see figure 4)

Station Station Station

Drop line Drop line Drop line

Cable end Cable end

Figure 4 A bus topology connecting three stations

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a
signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it
becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason, there is a limit on
the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the
most efficient path and then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this
way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be
optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation of quality.
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In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on
the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin,
creating noise in both directions.

Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks

3.4 Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point to point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along (see figure 5).

Station Station

Repeater Repeater Repeater

Station Repeater Station

Repeater Repeater

Station Station

Figure 5 A ring topology connecting six stations

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length
and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is
circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can 11

issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such
as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a
dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Today, the need for higher speed LANS has made this topology less popular

3.5 Hybrid Topology

A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure 6.

Station Station Station

Station Station Station

Hub

Station Station Station

Figure 6 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

a) What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
b) What is network topology? 12
4.0 CONCLUSION

In the context of a communication network, the term topology refers to the very in which the
end points, or stations attached to the network are interconnected. Topologies are the
important part of the network design theory. A better network can be built if you have the
knowledge of these topologies and if you know the difference between each topology.

5.0 SUMMARY

Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network. Devices may be arranged
in a mesh, star, bus or ring topology.

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. The main disadvantages of a
mesh are the number of I/O ports required.

Star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. One big disadvantage of a star topology is
the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.

A bus topology is multipoint unlike mesh and star topologies that are point to point
connections. An advantage of a bus topology is ease of installation. Disadvantages include
difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

Ring topology is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. However, unidirectional traffic can be
a disadvantage.

Hybrid topology is complex which can be built of two or more above networked topologies.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a connection fails.

a) Five devices arranged in a bus topology

b) Five devices arranged in a ring topology
2. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus 13
and star topology?
3. Name the four basic networking topologies and cite on advantage of each type.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Burgess, M. (2004). Principles of Network and System Administration. (2nd Ed.). Chichester,
West Sussex , England: Wiley.

2. Forouzan, B.A, & Fegan, S.C. (2007). Data communications and Networking (4th Ed). Mc
Graw Hill.

3. Limoncelli, T. A.,Hogan, C. J. & Chalup, S. R (2007}. The Practice of System and Network
Administration. (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley

4. Stallings, W. (2009). Data and computer communications ( 8th ed.). Upper saddle River, NJ.:
Pearson Education Inc.

5. Subramanian, M. (2000). Network Management: Principles and Practice, Addison-Wesley

UNIT 3: NETWORK TECHNOLOGY

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit looks at what constitutes a local area network (LAN), then a wide area network (WAN)
and then discusses the differences between the two. We then discuss the technologies for
implementing WAN.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

• Know about the categories of networks.

• State the distinctions between LAN and WAN.
• Understand the technologies used in implementing WAN.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Categories of Networks / Network Technologies

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to two primary categories: local
area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).

The category into which a network falls is determined by its size. A LAN normally covers an area
less than 2 miles; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in between are normally
referred to as metropolitan area networks (MANs) and span tens of miles.

3.1.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

One type of network that becomes ubiquitous is the local area network. Indeed, LAN is to be
found in virtually all medium and large size office buildings. Depending on the needs of an
organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer
in someone’s home office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and video
peripherals. Currently LAN size is limited to a few kilometers. LANs are designed to allow
resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be
shared can include hardware (e.g. a printer), software (e.g. an application program) or data

In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by transmission media
and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most 15
common LAN topologies are bus, ringed star.
Early LANS had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per seconds (mbps) ranges. LANs come in a
parallel of different configurations. The most common is switched LANs and wireless LANs. The
most switched LAN is a switched Ethernet LAN, which may consist of a single switch with a
parallel of attached devices, or parallel of interconnected switches. Today, however, speeds are
normally 100 or 1000 mbps. Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.

3.1.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) provides long distance transmission of data, image, audio, video
information over large geographic area that may comprise a country, a continent or even the
whole world. WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple
as a dial-up line that a home computer to the Internet. We normally refer to the first as a
switched WAN and to the second as a point to point WAN. The switched WAN connects the
end systems which usually comprise a router (internet – working connecting devices) that
connects together LAN or WAN. The point to point WAN is normally a line leased from a
telephone or cable T.V provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet
service provider (ISP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access. Wireless
WANs are become more and more popular. Traditionally, WANs have been implemented using
one of two technologies: Circuit switching and packet switching. More recently, frame relay and
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks have assumed major roles.

Circuit Switching

In a circuit- switching network, a dedicated communications path is established between two

stations through the nodes of the network. That path is a connected sequence of physical links
between nodes. On each link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection. Data generated
by the source station are transmitted along the dedicated path as rapidly as possible. At each
mode, incoming data are routed or switched to the appropriate outgoing channel without
delay. The most common example of circuit switching is the telephone network.

Packet Switching 16
A quite different approach is used in a packet switching network. In this case, it is not necessary
to dedicate transmission capacity along a path through the network. Rather, data are sent out
in a sequence of small chunks, called packets. Each packet is passed through the network from
node to node along some path leading from source to destination. At each node, the entire
packet is received, stored briefly, and then transmitted to the next node. Packet switching
networks are commonly used for terminal to computer communications.

Frame Relay

Packet switching was developed at a time when digital long distance transmission facilities
exhibited a relatively high error rate compared to today’s facilities. As a result, there is a
considerable amount of overhead built into packet switching schemes to compensate for
errors. The overhead includes additional bits added to each packet to introduce redundancy
and additional processing at the end stations and the intermediate switching nodes to detect
and recover from errors.

With modern high-speed communication systems, this overhead is unnecessary and

counterproductive. It is unnecessary because the rate of errors has been dramatically lowered
and any remaining errors can easily be caught in the end systems by logic that operates above
the level of the packet-switching logic. It is counterproductive because the overhead involved
soaks up a significant fraction of the high capacity provided by the network.

Frame relay was developed to take advantage of these high data rates and low error rates
whereas the original packet-switching networks were designed with a data rate to the end user
of about 64 kbps. Frame relay networks are designed to operate efficiently at user data rate of
up to 2mbps. The key to achieving these high data rates is to strip out most of the overhead
involved with errors control.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Sometimes referred to as cell relay is a culmination of developments in circuit switching and

packet switching. ATM can be viewed as an evolution from frame relay. The most obvious
difference between frame relay and ATM is that frame relay uses variable length packets called
18
frames and ATM uses fixed length packets, called cells. As with frame relay, ATM provides little
overhead for error control depending on the inherent reliability of the transmission system and
on higher layers of logic in the end of systems to catch and correct errors. By wiring a fixed
packet length, the processing overhead is reduced even further for ATM compared to frame
relay. The result is that ATM is designed to work in the range of 10s and 100s of mbps and in
the Gbps range. ATM can also be viewed as an evolution from circuit switching; only fixed-data-
rate circuits are available to the end system. ATM allows the definition of multiple virtual
channels with date rate that are dynamically defined at the time the virtual channel is created.
By using small, fixed-size cells, ATM is so efficient that it can offer a contant-data rate channel
even though it is using a packet-switching technique. Thus ATM extends circuit switching to
allow multiple channels with the data rate on each channel dynamically set on demand.

3.1.3 Distinctions between LANs and WANs

There are several key distinctions between LANs and WANs. Among which are:

1. The scope of the LAN is small, typically a single building or a cluster of buildings. This
difference in geographic scope leads to different technical solution.

2. It is usually the case that the LAN is owned by the same organization that owns the
attached devices. For WANs, this is less often the case, or at least a significant fraction of
the network assets is not owned. This has two implications. First, care must be taken in the
choice of LAN, because there may be a substantial capital investment (compared to dial-up
or leased charges of WANs) for both purchase and maintenance. Second, the network
management responsibility for a LAN falls solely on the user.

3. The internal data rates of LANs are typically much greater than those of WANs.

3.1.4 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and WAN. It normally covers the area inside a
town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
Internet and have end points spread over a city or part of a city.
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3.1.5 Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected to one
another. When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork or internet.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

What is an internet?

What is the Internet?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Whereas wide area networks may be public or private, LANs usually are owned by the
organization that is using the network to interconnect equipment. LANs have much greater
capacity than WANS to carry what is generally a greater internal communication load.

5.0 SUMMARY

In general terms, communications networks can be categorized as local area networks (LANs)
and wide area networks (WANs).

A LAN consists of a shared transmission medium and a set of hardware and software for
interfacing devices to the medium and regulating the orderly access of the medium. LAN size is
limited. In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their
transmission media and topology. A WAN provides long-distance transmission over large
geographic areas. WAN is often used to provide Internet access. Traditionally, WANs have been
implemented using one of two technologies: circuit switching and packet switching. Wireless
WANs are becoming more and more popular.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. What are the advantages of packed switching compared to circuit switching?

2. What are some of the factors that determine whether a communication system is LAN or
WAN?
3. Outline the distinctions between LAN and WAN.
4. Discuss circuit-switching network.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Burgess, M. (2004). Principles of Network and System Administration. (2nd Ed.). Chichester,
West Sussex , England: Wiley.

2. Forouzan, B.A, & Fegan, S.C. (2007). Data communications and Networking (4th Ed). Mc
Graw Hill.

3. Limoncelli, T. A.,Hogan, C. J. & Chalup, S. R (2007}. The Practice of System and Network
Administration. (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley

4. Stallings, W. (2009). Data and computer communications ( 8th ed.). Upper saddle River, NJ.:
Pearson Education Inc.

21
UNIT 4: PROTOCOLS, PACKETS AND STANDARDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit discusses packets and protocols which are the fundamental building blocks of data
transmission over the network.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

State why are protocols and standards needed?

State the function of a packet.

State the principal function of protocols in a network.

Understand the layered approach to computer communications.

Discuss some of the different protocols and their uses.

State how protocols work.

State the advantages and disadvantages of standards.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 PROTOCOLS, PACKETS AND STANDARDS

All data that is transmitted across the network is put into packets containing information about
the source and destination of the data. These packets are created using standards or protocols.
Since there are many different network configurations, there are many different protocols. By
having a variety of protocols, you can choose the one that best fulfills the needs of your
network.

3.1.1 Function of packets

The function of a packet is to carry data from one point to another. Protocols require that
packet contain some basic information about their source and their destination and in many
cases, protocols require that the packet include a checksum. A checksum is a number that can
be used to verify that the packet has been transferred across the network without being
corrupted.

3.1.2 Packet Structure 22

The structure of the packet is extremely important. Useless a packet is structured exactly as it is
supposed to be; it is ignored by the receiving party and assumed to be corrupted. Basic packet
structure requires that the packet include a header section, a data section, and in most cases, a
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) section (also called a trailer). Not every protocol requires that a
CRC be attached.

3.1.2.1 Header

The header section of a packet contains the routing information. This information includes the
source and destination of the packet. The header also contains the number of the packet, which
is generated when the packet is created. In addition, the header can contain a protocol version
number, the length of the header, the type of service, the length of the entire packet, the flags,
the time to live, and other information.

3.1.2.2 Data

The data is the actual information that is being transmitted over the network from one
application to another. Each protocol has a predefined maximum data size. If the data is larger
than this maximum data size, the data is broken into smaller pieces and transmitted in multiple
packets.

3.1.2.3 CRC

A CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) is calculated prior to the data being sent and attached to the
bottom of a packet. At the destination, a new CRC is computed and compared to the original to
verify that the packet was not corrupted. A CRC is usually attached to the bottom of a packet,
but some protocols include CRC within the header.

3.1.3 Creating packets

Before data is transmitted across the network, it is broken into smaller, more manageable
pieces called packets. All packets are numbered so they can be put back together when they
reach their destination. The header, which contains the source address, destination address,
and packet number, along with other information, is attached to the beginning of the packet. A
CRC is then calculated and added to the end of the packet.

3.1.4 Encapsulation 23

Encapsulation is the process of encoding data for transmitting it across the network. Once a
packet is created as described previously, in order for the packet to be transmitted to its final
destination, it may need to use a protocol in addition to the one that it is currently using. A
header and CRC are then added to the newly created packet. This packet is an encapsulated
packet. Figure 1 illustrates an encapsulated packet.
 Header CRC

Data

Figure 1 Encapsulated packet

3.2 Protocols

In computer networking, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An

entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot
simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to
occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of nodes that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when
it is communicated. The key elements of protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.

Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to
be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of
the stream to be message itself.

Semantics:

The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to
be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does
the address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?

Timing:

The term timing refers to two characteristics: When data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent. For example, if a sender produces data of 100mbps and the receiver can process data
at only 1 mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

3.2.1 How Protocols Work

When an application first attempts to transfer data across the network, the data is usually too24
large to be sent in a single transmission. To meet the need of networking, the protocol that
governs the transmission of the data first breaks the data into packets. The protocol numbers
each of the packets so can later be put back together when they arrive at their destination and
transmits each of the packets across the network. In addition to this numbering, information on
the source, destination, and the protocol used is added to the header of the packet.
 Protocols are the first software layer to receive data that has been transmitted across the
network. After all packets have been received, they are put back together using the numbers
that were placed in the header at the origin of the packet. Once the data has all been put back
together, it can be used by the application that the data was sent across the network to.

3.2.2 Functions of protocols.

The principal functions of protocols in a network are line access and collision avoidance. Line
access concerns how the sending device gains access the network to send a message. Collision
avoidance refers to managing message transmission so that the messages do not collide with
each other on the network. Other functions of protocols are to identify each device in the
communication path, to secure the attention of the other device, to verify correct receipt of the
transmitted message, to verify that a message requires transmission because it cannot be
correctly interpreted and to perform recovery when errors occur.

3.3 The layered approach to computer communications

In order to enable two or more computers to communicate in a meaningful manner, we must

define with great care all aspects of the communication process (i.e. we must define a
‘communications protocol’). By way of a useful analogy, let us consider the situation in which
the director of a company in the UK wishes to communicate with a person in another company
located in China. The director may ask a secretary to put a call through and will provide
sufficient information for the secretary to identify the person who is to be contacted. Here, the
director will not give the actual phone number- it may be left to the secretary to obtain this
information. From this point, the director has no further involvement until the phone
connection is in place. The secretary will locate and dial the number and this will initiate various
electronic/software activities. Neither the director nor the secretary has any interest in
knowing how the electronic and software systems will route the call. It may be carried by
electronic cables, fiber optic cables, or be routed via a satellite. Additionally, it may use
communications systems that route the call across the Atlantic through the US and then across
the Pacific Ocean, or it may be routed in an easterly direction. These low-level issues are of
little interest to the secretary – a number is dialed and processes occur that result in a phone
ringing in an office somewhere in China. Hopefully, the intended recipient is available and the
secretary notifies the director. Both parties must now adopt/agree on a common language and
25
must exercise a degree of hand-shaking (in this sense we mean that only one person should talk
at any one time). Finally, at the end of the conversation, an acceptable convention is used to
bring the call to a conclusion. All these issues form part of the ‘communications protocol’ that is 25
needed to enable a useful dialogue and it is important to note that the elements that underpin
the communication do not need to have any knowledge of the overall purpose that they will
serve. For example:

The secretary does not necessarily know why the call is to be placed – the information
exchange may be confidential to the company director and the recipient of the phone call.

The keypad via which the secretary enters the phone number converts the key presses into
electrical signals. These signals are dispatched and initiate various routing actions. However,
the keypad is not involved in these actions – it serves a single function.

The director has no knowledge of the path taken by the ‘voice signals’ as they are routed to
China. Perhaps they pass via trans-oceanic cables or are beamed to an orbiting satellite.

Any cables used during the conversation have no ‘knowledge’ of the meaning that will be
placed on the digital signals that they transmit.

The establishment of a communications protocol that enables computers (and other digital
systems) to communicate is, in many ways, similar to the protocols used to support the sort of
phone conversation referred to in the above analogy (although computer communications are
perhaps more complex). To handle the design implementation and maintenance of such
systems, a ‘layered’ approach is adopted. In figure 2, we indicate two computers that need to
communicate. Perhaps, for example, an applications program running on Node A wishes to
send a data file to a similar program running on Node B (just as in the same way the company
director mentioned above wishes to talk to a person in a remote location). In order to transmit
the data a number of tasks must be performed, and these are carried out by layers of software
located on both nodes.

Each layer carries out a number of specific tasks and directly communicates with the
immediately adjacent software layers. However, from a logical point of view each layer
communicates with a corresponding layer on the remote computer – i.e. corresponding
software layers located on the two nodes have similar/equivalent functionality. The lowest
layer on either node is responsible for interfacing with the physical interconnect.

NODE A NODE B

Applications program Applications program 26

--- Software layers

Interconnect
Figure 2: An applications program on Node A wishes to send data to an equivalent program
on Node B

In order for Node A to transmit a data file to Node B, various events must take place.

For example:

Node A must inform the communications network of the identity of the destination system
(Node B)

Node A must ensure that Node B is prepared to receive the data.

The file transfer applications program on Node A must ensure that the file management
program on the destination system is ready to accept and store the file.

If the file formats used on the two systems are incompatible, one or other system must
perform a format translation function.

File transfer must be carried out in an orderly manner and in such a way that the two
communicating machines do not block other network traffic. This will involve splitting the
data file into packets (chunks) and appending various information to each packet.

Node B provides acknowledgement of receipt

Node B reassembles the packet in other to reconstruct the original data file

Node B must attempt to detect any errors in data it has received. In some cases Node B may
be able to correct errors.

In the case that secure transmission is required, the data may be encrypted by Node A prior
to transmission. Node B must then perform the reverse process.

To achieve this high degree of cooperation between computers, the tasks are broken into
subtasks that are implemented individually using a layered approach. These layers form the
data communication protocol architecture. Example of such layer architectures are: the Open
System Interconnection (OSI) model, and the Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). Key advantages of a layered structure include:

The complex communication protocol is divided into subtasks and these are implemented
within a layered structure. Each layer has limited functionality and this ‘divide and conquer’
approach facilitates the design and the implementation of the system.

Higher-level layers need have no knowledge of tasks performed by the lower layers. Thus, 27
for example, a higher-level layer needs no knowledge of the type of interconnect that is in
use. Again, this facilitates the design process.

When changes are made to the communications protocol, only certain relevant layers need
to be modified/replaced. This makes it easier to upgrade software and undertake software
testing.
Structuring software using a layered approach tends to result in larger programs which run
more slowly than if a non-layered approach were to be adopted. However, these two
weaknesses are outweighed by the benefits that are associated with the layered approach -
especially in terms of providing a structured framework within which the complex issues
associated with computer communications may be resolved.

3.4 Standards

Are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today’s market place and in international communication.

Standards play an important role in our everyday lives and facilitate the operation of products
produced by different manufacturers. For example:

Countries adopt a standard type of mains plug and socket. Without such a standard, we
would find that we had to continually rewire mains plugs or employ some form of adaptor.
This provides an example of national standard.

Car manufacturers adopt a standard for the relative placement of the clutch, brake and
accelerator pedals. This provides an example of global standard.

Computers are equipped with standard interface sockets (e.g. serial, parallel and USB) via
which they are able to connect to peripheral devices. This provides an example of global
standard.

Standards may come into being in various ways. For example:

A standard may be established (imposed) by the company that plays the most dominant role
in any particular area. For example, the serial and parallel ports employed by today’s PC
were implemented on the earliest PCs introduced by IBM. They soon became standard for
desktop computing

A standard may gradually evolve

A standard may be developed/defined by a committee of experts.
Although standardization can facilitate our use of technologies and products, standards seldom
reflect an optimal solution. For example, the VHS videotape format became a standard, while 28
other superior and equally cost-effective formats fell by the wayside. Furthermore, in the case
of standards developed by committees, these often reflect many technological compromises
and take long periods to develop. Such standards are often out of date even before they are
released!
From a computer user’s perspective, standards are extremely important because they allow a
combination of products from different manufacturers to be used together. Standards ensure
greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of equipment and
technologies.

In data communications, standards provide guidelines to manufacturers and service providers

to ensure compatibility, connectivity, and interoperability of technologies – an essential
requirement in today’s global market. Key advantages of standards are:

To ensure a large market for hardware or software products – thus encouraging mass
production

To allow products from different vendors to communicate, thus giving customers more
flexibility in the selection and use of equipment.

On the other hand, standards do have limitations:

They tend to slow down technological change. This is due to the fact that, in some cases, by
the time a standard is developed, subjected to scrutiny, reviewed, compromised and
endorsed by all concerned parties – and then disseminated, more efficient technologies
could have developed.

Many standards may exist for the same thing. It is often difficult to decide which standard
will provide better compatibility and remain in place for the greatest amount of time.

Many official computer-related standards are defined by the following organizations:

ANSI (America National Standards Institute)

ITU (International Telecommunication Union)

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)

VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association).

Car drivers generally use agreed signals when turning left or right. Aero plane pilots follow
specific standardized rules for communicating throughout the world. Similarly, for any
29
computer-based systems to communicate successfully, they need to use ‘the same language’.
This means that what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated
must conform to some mutually acceptable conventions agreed between the parties involved.
These conventions are known as a ‘protocol’, which can be defined as a set of rules governing
the exchange of data between two or more devices.

Typical tasks performed by protocols are as follows:


To make sure that the source device activates the data communication line

To inform the transmission system about the destination system.

To make sure that the source device communicates with the destination device before
sending data

To make sure the destination device is ready to accept the data

To make sure that the destination file management system is ready to store incoming files

To ensure compatibility between source and destination, and to perform format translation.

In the 1980s, many companies entered the desktop computing market and this led to a rich
diversity of products. Unfortunately, these systems would often not operate together, nor
could software developed for use on one particular type of machine necessarily be used on
another. In short, although the lack of standards enabled product diversity, it hampered
computer usage. Quickly, standards were developed (and/or evolved) and these impacted on
many areas of computing. For example:

Compatibility improved. By conformance to standards, hardware and software systems

developed by different manufacturers could be used together (although there were often
unforeseen problems)

The diversity of available products decreased

Backwards compatibility became an important issue. For example, a new model of
computer, or a new release of an operating system should support the function of older
products. This has greatly increased hardware and software complexity and retarded the
development of radically new computer products.

3.5 The OSI model

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) and provides a framework for protocol development. By
implementing a communication protocol that adheres to the OSI model, systems developed by
different manufacturers are able to communicate. The tasks that must be performed to enable
machines to communicate in an effective and efficient manner are incorporated within a seven-
layer hierarchy, as indicated in figure 3. Although the protocols detailed within this reference

30
model are seldom used, the model provides us with an excellent conceptual framework for
understanding the tasks performed by the various software layers. Below we briefly summarize
aspects of the functionality of the various layers.

Application layer Application layer

Presentation layer Presentation layer

Session layer Session layer

 Node A Node B

Figure 3: The layers within the OSI reference model

3.5.1 Application layer

This should not be confused with the applications programs that may be running on a
computer. The application layer provides network access to the user and to applications
programs. This layer passes data to (and receives data from) the presentation layer, and
logically communicates directly to the application layer on the remote computer. This is
indicated in figure 3 where the horizontal lines indicate the logical communication of each layer
with its remote counterpart. The application layer needs know nothing of the tasks carried out
by the lower layers – it needs only interface with the user (and applications programs) and with
the presentation layer.

3.5.2 Presentation layers

Different computers may employ different character set formats. A user is not interested in 31
such differences and one of the tasks undertaken by the presentation layer is to translate
between different formats that may be used to represent numbers, characters and other
symbols. Additionally, the presentation layer is also involved in ensuring secure data
transmission (consequently, when data is being transmitted the presentation layer undertakes
encryption, and when data is being received it performs decryption).
3.5.3 Session layer

A user applications program may need to open a ‘session’ with a remote machine. For example,
a user may wish to log on to a remote computer and carry out various tasks and this will involve
the transmission and reception of data over a period of time. This necessitates synchronization
whereby each node knows when it can transmit and when it is to receive data (i.e. when it must
‘listen’). The session layer deals with this synchronization and additionally is involved in error
recovery. Consider the case that a file is being transmitted between two nodes, and during this
process the network fails. Without the support of the session layer it would be necessary to
start the transmission process again from the beginning. However, the session layer inserts
checkpoints into the transmitted data stream and these are used to efficiently recover from
such failures. Following a failure, transmission can be recommenced from the point at which
the last checkpoint was successfully delivered to the destination node. The session layer carries
out various other activities, such as bracketing a set of related and non-independent activities.
For example, there may be a need to carry out a task on a remote machine, which involves the
execution of series of commands. Perhaps if only some of these commands are executed (i.e.
they are not carried out in their entirety) problems will ensue. If the individual commands are
executed as each arrives at the remote machine then, in the case that the network connection
fails, there is the likelihood of incomplete execution. One task performed by the session layer
relates to the buffering of such commands – as each arrives it is temporarily stored and not
passed to higher layers until all commands (and any associated data) have been received. The
series of commands may then execute in full.

3.5.4 Transport layer

This acts as the intermediary between the lower layers (whose implementation is dependent on
the underlying network architecture) and the three upper layers which provide user services
and whose architecture is (at least in principle) independent of the detailed network
characteristics.

The type of transport service that is provided to the session layer is determined by the
transport layer. Suppose a node wished to send an extremely large file to a remote machine via
a shared network (or set of interconnected networks). Without judicious design (in relation to
the type of transport service used), there is the possibility that such a transmission could block 32
the network(s) in such a way that whilst the transmission is in progress no other machines
could communicate. The approach commonly used to prevent such a situation is to split the
data into chunks (‘packets’) which are individually encapsulated within a frame containing all
the necessary data needed to enable a packet delivery to the intended destination. The splitting
of the data into smaller units is carried out by the transport layer. These packets may traverse a
set of networks by different routes and so arrive at their destination out of order. The transport
layer reorders packets and so enables them to be correctly reassembled.

3.5.5 Network Layer

This layer decides on routing issues, determining the path that should be followed by packets
when they traverse networks. In fact, in such a situation the path taken is not defined solely by
the source node but by all the nodes (network devices) through which packets pass on their
way to the destination. Consider the situation illustrated in figure 4

Node A Node C

Node E

Node D Node B

Figure 4: A simple network in which a packet may be sent from Node A to B via different
routes. The circles represent nodes, and the lines network interconnects.

Suppose that a packet is to be sent from Node A to Node B. The packet will have to pass
through at least one intermediate node (network device). These nodes may simply forward the
packet, or may decide on the direction of the next step in its voyage. Thus, for example, Node D
simply performs a forwarding function, whereas Nodes C and E are able to make routing
decisions. The transport layer plays a critical role in determining the time it will take for packets
to reach their destination and in this sense the actions of the transport layer impact on
transmission latency.

3.5.6 The data link layer

This layer is responsible for various low-level network specific tasks and plays a crucial part in 33
the detection and correction of errors that may occur during the transmission process.

Correction may be achieved by means of additional information inserted into messages prior to
their transmission that can be used to modify bits corrupted during the transmission process.

Alternatively, correction may involve requesting re-transmission. Additionally, the data link
layer plays a pivotal role in managing network access and ensuring that network ‘collisions’
(which occur when two or more nodes attempt to transmit onto the same LAN at the same
time) are handled correctly. Devices connected together via networks do not necessarily
demonstrate the same transmission/reception characteristics.

Thus a device able to transmit at high speed (i.e. that has high bit-rate) could readily swamp a
slower recipient. Buffering techniques are used to circumvent this problem and this
necessitates a protocol that ensures that the capacity of the buffer is not exceeded. This is
referred to as flow control.

3.5.7 The physical layer

This layer deals with the transmission of the bit stream through the transmission medium, and
the connection strategy used to enable the transfer of bits from one node to another. Thus the
physical layer defines the signal levels, the type of transmission medium employed (e.g. twisted
pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable), and also the techniques that will be used to permit
the passage of data, such as circuit switching (in which a dedicated path is set up between two
communicating nodes), packet switching, etc.

3.6 The TCP/IP protocol

In the late 1960s, the US Department of Defence’s Advance Research Project Agency (ARPA)
initiated a project that centered upon the interconnection of geographically dispersed
computing systems. Gradually a large-scale network of university and government computing
facilities evolved (this network was named ARPANET), which used packet switching techniques
and initially employed leased phone lines. Early networking protocols were slow and unreliable
and in 1974 a new set of protocols were proposed. These formed the basis for TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) which today underpins the operation
of the Internet.

A protocol such as TCP/IP must support a number of essential requirements such as:

Reliability: in terms of both data integrity and timely delivery

Fault tolerance: the failure of a network segment should not seriously disrupt overall
network operation; it must be possible to route packets along different paths so that they 34
can still reach their destination

Transparent communications: different computer systems and LANs should be able to
communicate transparently.

It is convenient to employ a layered model in order to most readily conceptualize TCP/IP. We

can therefore consider TCP/IP within a four-layer framework (a five–layer model is sometimes
preferred). In figure 5 these layers are depicted, and are placed alongside the layers that
comprise the OSI model. Below we briefly summarize aspects of their role

3.6.1 Application layer

This layer provides communication services to the user and to applications programs. It can be
viewed as corresponding to the application, presentation and session layers found in the OSI
model. The application layer contains all the high-level protocols (such as those that we
commonly encounter when accessing the Internet – such as DNS (Domain Name System) and
HTTP).

3.6.2 Transport layer

Two different protocols are defined in this layer (TCP and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)). These
differ in a number of important respects. For example:

Reliability: in the case of UDP, error correction is not implemented – the onus for this
activity is placed on the applications program. This contrast with TCP in which error
detection and correction form an integral part. Free from error correction overheads, UDP
can (under some circumstances) demonstrate high performance

Flow control: in the case of TCP, flow control is implemented and this prevents a faster
machine from swamping a recipient that operates more slowly.

OSI layers TCP/IP layers

35

Application layer
Application layer
Presentation layer
 Session layer
7
Host-to-host
Transport layer transport
6
Network layer Internet
5
The data link layer Network
4 interface
The physical layer
3

Figure 5: A conceptual model of TCP/IP set alongside the layers that comprise the OSI model

A stream of data that is to be transmitted is fragmented into chunks and the transport layer
appends various information, before passing these to the internet layer. At the receiving node,
the transport layer reassembles these data chunks. In the case of TCP, the transport layer
encapsulates the data chunks into a TCP segment (in the case of UDP, the encapsulated data is
usually referred to as a packet. There are differences between the information contained in the
UDP and TCP headers.) Here the data is provided with a ‘header’ containing various important
information; see Figure 6. It is instructive to consider the purpose of several pieces of
information contained in the header:

Source and Destination ports: many well known (widely used) application protocols are
designated by unique identification numbers provided by the ‘Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority’. For example, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is identified as “port21’, and the Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) as ‘port 25’. TCP inserts this information into the header and
thereby provides information on the source and destination applications protocol associated
with the data to be transferred. The source port and destination port fields are each two bytes
long, and values below 256 are used to reference ‘well-known’ ports.

Source port (2bytes) Window (2 bytes)

Destination port (2bytes) Checksum (2bytes) 36
Urgent pointer (2 bytes)
Src Dst Sequence ACK Options padding
port Port Num Number Ctrl Win CS UP (variable) User data…
4 bytes (4 bytes)
 0 16 31 bits

Source Destination port

Sequence number

TCP header
Acknowledge number
Offset Reserved U A P R S F Window
Checksum Urgent pointer
Options Padding

Data
Data
…

Figure 6: Information contained within a TCP segment

Sequence number: TCP numbers each byte of data that is transmitted between two nodes
during the transfer process. The sequence number references the first byte of data
encapsulated within frame. This is most readily understood by means of an example.
Suppose that a set of frames are transmitted between node A and node B, and that each
contains 256 bytes of data. Then the sequence numbers contained in the first four frames
transmitted by Node A could be 1,257,513, 769 (the process is slightly more complex since
the sequence number of the first frame need not be 1). Node B these sequence numbers to
37
 reconstruct the data chunks and correct for frames being received out of their transmitted
order

Header length: this enables the receiving node to determine the point at which the header
ends and the data starts. It is necessary to specify this length as not of fixed size.

Checksum: this enables the transport layer to perform error detection

Options: various options can be included. For example, one option enables the recipient to
inform the source node about the maximum segment size that it is able to accept. This is
indicated during the establishment of a communication and ensures that the recipient’s
buffer will not be swamped by a high-speed transfer.

Internet layer

At the sending node, the Internet layer takes packets or segments generated by the transport
layer, and further encapsulate these to produce datagrams. The additional information
appended by the Internet layer (the ‘IP header’) is intended to enable the datagrams to be
injected onto any network and travel (via intermediate networks) to the intended destination.
During their transit, intermediate network devices will use this information to determine the
direction they should take. Since the routing of packets is fundamental to the Internet layer, it
may be considered to be equivalent to the network layer used in the OSI model.

Network interface layer

In terms of its functionality, this layer is equivalent to the lowest two layers used in the OSI
model. It further encapsulates a datagram received from the Internet layer producing a ‘frame’.
This layer makes the connection to the transmission medium and employs the appropriate
protocol for launching and receiving frames.

The process of encapsulation referred to above is summarized in figure 7 and in Table 1 an

overview of the functionality of the layers that have been conceptualized in connection with
TCP/IP is presented.

Data to be transmitted

TCP or UDP header Data to be transmitted

IP header TCP or UDP header Data to be transmitted

Figure 7: Theheader
Frame process IP
ofheader
encapsulation TCP
used by TCP/IP
or UDP header .This isData
depicted for the source
to be transmitted
(sending) node. At the receiving node, the process operates in the reverse: bottom up.

38
 Application (4)

Similar to OSI application layer

Serves as communication interface by providing specific application services

Examples include email, virtual terminal, file transfer, WWW

Transport (3)

Defined by two protocols:

User Datagram protocol (UDP)

- a connectionless protocol
- provides unreliable datagram service (no end -to-end error detection or correction)
- does not retransmit any unreceived data
- requires little overhead
- application protocols include Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Network File System (NFS),
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP), and Domain
Name Service (DNS)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

- (the TCP of TCP/IP)

- connection–oriented protocol
- provides reliable data transmission via end-to-end detection and correction
- guarantees data is transferred across a network accurately and in correct order
- retransmits any data not received by destination node
- guarantees against data duplication between sending and receiving nodes
- application protocols include Telnet, FTP, SMTP and POP

Internet (2)

(The IP of TCP/IP)

Transfers user messages from source host to destination host

Connectionless datagram service

Route selection is based on a metric

Uses Internet or IUP addresses to locate a host within the Internet

Relies on routers or switches

Integral part is Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP); this uses an IP datagram to carry
messages about state of communications environment

Network Interface (1)

Connects host to the local network hardware

Makes a connection to the physical medium

Uses a specific protocol for accessing the medium

Places data into frames

Effectively performs all functions of the first two layers of the OSI model

Table 1: A summary of some aspects of the functionally of the conceptualized four-layer

TCP/IP model
39
4.0 CONCLUSION

You have been introduced to the basic concepts of packets, protocols and standards. You are
now in a position to relate these concepts to how communication occurs between entities in
different systems in your environment.

5.0 SUMMARY
Packets and protocols are the fundamental building blocks of data transmission over the
network. A packet is a segment of data that has a header with destination and addressing
information attached to it.

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication; the key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics and timing.

Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can work
together as expected. The ISO, ITU-T, ANSI, IEEE and EIA are some of the organizations involved
in standards creation.

To enable two or more computers to communicate in a meaningful manner, a communication

protocol must be defined.

We briefly summarize aspects of the functionality of the various layers of the OSI model and
layers of the TCP/IP protocol.

TCP/IP today underpins the operation of the Internet.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1 List the major disadvantages with the layered approach to protocols.

2a. Why are protocols needed?

b Why are standards needed?

3. How does the protocol travel through the OSI model?

4. What does OSI stand for and what do we use it for?

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Burgess, M. (2004). Principles of Network and System Administration. (2nd Ed.).

Chichester, West Sussex , England: Wiley.

2. Forouzan, B.A, & Fegan, S.C. (2007). Data communications and Networking (4th Ed). Mc
Graw Hill.

3. Limoncelli, T. A.,Hogan, C. J. & Chalup, S. R (2007}. The Practice of System and

Network Administration. (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley

4. Stallings, W. (2009). Data and computer communications ( 8th ed.). Upper saddle River, NJ.:
Pearson Education Inc.

MODULE 2: SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND MANAGEMENT

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UNIT 1: SYTSTEM COMPONENTS